Cover Story

THE RELATIONSHIP OF VIBRATION TO PROBLEMS IN

Centrifugal Pumps
P
ump reliability problems can be responsible for a large amount of the maintenance budget and lost-opportunity cost at chemical process plants. Typical reasons for pump failures can be diagnosed early by applying the right kinds of vibration testing, analysis, and evaluation criteria during pump monitoring or troubleshooting. The most important mechanical and hydraulic issues relevant to reliable pump operation include level of imbalance, level of misalignment, where the pump is operating on its curve [preferably close to best-efficiency point (BEP)], how its net positive-suctionhead required (NPSHR) compares to the worst-case suction head available, the configuration of the piping hydraulics in the suction piping close to the pump, and the manner in which piping suction and discharge nozzle loads are accommodated. Problems with any of these issues show up as symptoms, which include higher than normal vibration at certain key frequencies. Often, a simple plot of vibration-level versus frequency spectrum is sufficient to allow a diagnosis. However, when actions based on such information do not resolve the situation, more detailed vibration testing should be considered, such as operating deflection shape plotting and modalanalysis bump testing. After discussing the reasons for the importance of the listed mechanical and hydraulic issues, we will use several plant examples to describe how to apply various levels of vibration testing in pump evalua-

William D. Marscher, P.E. Mechanical Solutions, Inc.

FIGURE 1. As flow is reduced from a pumps BEP value, vibrations increase significantly, more or less linearly, until the onset of suction-recirculation flow. At lower flows than this, the vibration gets much higher, and becomes erratic and uncertain, as shown by the cross-hatched ared

Vibration analysis, when properly carried out, can help keep your pumps operating troublefree
tion, and in the determination of effective fix options.

specified prior to about 1985, it may be based only on avoidance of flashing and not on recirculation onset, and should be rechecked with the manufacturer.

System design & installation

Suction design. The design of the pump suction has significant mechanical ramifications. Both the mechanical connection of the suction flange and the hydraulic design upstream of the pump impeller are of key importance in this regard. Relative to the mechanical connection, avoid unrestrained expansion joints (piping flexible joints) at large nozzles. The pressure across the crosssection of such nozzles, multiplied by that area, becomes a large thrust, similar to the thrust at the exit of a rocket nozzle. Just because the casing is not free to move does not mean that it is not distorted by the thrust at the unrestrained nozzle; in fact, it makes the casing more likely to distort. This thrust typically does not overstress the nozzle, but the excessive distortion that it causes in the casing or baseplate leads to severe operating alignment problems and possible rubs. The main issue of hydraulic concern is that sufficient suction-static pressure be present to avoid cavitation. Today, it is understood that this means more than merely having sufficient net positive-suction-head available (NPSHA) to satisfy the 3% head drop NPSHR published by the manufacturer. At NPSHA, as much as three times the NPSHR, high-frequency cavitation (sometimes inaudible) can cause serious erosion of the suction side of impeller vanes or wear-ring exits. Even if NPSHA is high enough to avoid cavitation under normal circumstances, this cavitation can still be

Design & selection influences

A pump should be selected that will typically operate close to its BEP. Contrary to intuition, centrifugal pumps do not undergo less vibration as they are throttled back, unless the throttling is accomplished by variable-speed operation. Operation well below the BEP at any given speed, just like operation well above that point, causes a mismatch in flow-incidence angles in the impeller vanes and the diffuser vanes or volute tongues of the various stages. This loads up the vanes, and may even lead to airfoil stalling, with associated formation of strong vortices (miniature tornadoes) that can severely shake the entire rotor system, and can even lead to fatigue of impeller shrouds or diffuser plates or strong-backs. Rotorimpeller, steady-side-loads and shaking that occurs at flows below the onset of suction or discharge recirculation leads to potential rubs, and excessive rotor loads that can damage bearings. Many plants buy equipment that has more capacity than is needed, to allow for future production expansion. But in doing so, they ensure years of unreliable performance of potentially reliable machinery. The typical effect on vibration of this practice is shown in Figure 1. If you must run a pump away from its BEP because of an emergency situation, plant economics, or other operational constraints, at least never run a pump for extended periods at flows below the minimum-continuous flow provided by the manufacturer. Also, if this flow was

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FIGURE 3. Typical vibration spectrum and orbit data due to imbalance

FIGURE 2. Illustration of natural-frequency resonance, and the effects of damping

caused in local sectors by skewed or swirling flow in the inlet pipe, as can be the result of an elbow too close to the pump-suction flange, or by too severe a reducer near the suction flange, or by vortices in the inlet sump. If the pump is operated too far away from its BEP, the angle of attack of incoming flow on the rotating impeller vane can be different from that anticipated by the pump designer at that pump speed, and vane stalling can occur at either the suction or discharge, leading to suction or discharge recirculation, respectively. Such internal flow recirculation can cause cavitation on the pressure-side of vanes, and can cause tornado-like eddies that rotate with the impeller, but at a somewhat slower speed, exciting rotor-critical speeds at unexpected frequencies. Beware of VFD resonance. Variable-frequency drives (VFDs) save energy by allowing a pumps flow to be reduced without throttling the discharge. This comes with an unexpected side-effect, however, of increasing the chance that excitations typically strong at 1x the pumps running speed, such as residual imbalance, will excite a natural frequency into resonance, causing unacceptably high vibration levels. The natural frequency is the number of cycles per minute at which the rotor or structure will vibrate if it is rapped, like a tuning fork. Pump rotors and casings have many natural frequencies, some of which are generally in, or close to, the operating speed range. The vibrating patterns which result when a natural frequency is close to the running speed or some other strong forces frequency are known as mode shapes. Each natural frequency has a different mode shape associated with it. Knowing

this shape, for example through detailed vibration testing as discussed below, provides insight as to where maximum leverage can be placed to stiffen the natural frequency out of the range of the resonant excitation. In resonance, the oscillating energy from the last hit of the force comes full cycle, and is then reinforced when the next hit takes place. The vibration in the next cycle will then include movement due to both hits, and will be higher than it would be for one hit alone. The vibration motion keeps being amplified in this way until its considerable motion uses up more energy than the amount of energy that is being supplied by each hit. Unfortunately, the motion at this point is generally large and damaging. Resonance is illustrated in Figure 2. You want the natural frequencies of your rotor and bearing housings to be well separated from the frequencies that resonant dribbling type forces will occur at, which tend to be 1x running speed (typical of imbalance), 2x running speed (typical of misalignment), or at the number of impeller vanes time running speed (so-called vane-pass vibrations from discharge-pressure pulses as the impeller vanes move past the volute or diffuser vane cut-water). Certain types of nonlinear-vibration response have been found common in turbomachinery. They generally fall into the category of parametric resonance, and are beyond the scope of this discussion. They can result in large vibration in spite of relatively low driving force. Typically, such resonances are caused by bearing support looseness or a rub at a bearing, seal or other running clearance. The symptoms are a pulsating orbit, with a large amount of vibration at exact whole fractions of running speed, such as 1/2 or 1/4.

Besides sweeping the excitation frequencies through a large range, and therefore increasing the chance of matching running speed to one of these natural frequencies, many (especially inexpensive or older) VFD controllers provide new excitations at various control-pulse multiples of the motor-running speed, commonly at 6x and 12x, and often at whole-fraction submultiples as well. Balance. Imbalance is the most common cause of excessive vibration in machinery, followed closely by misalignment. Balance is typically thought of as static (involving the center of mass being off-center so that the principalaxis-of-mass distribution is still parallel to the rotational centerline) and dynamic (the principal-mass axis makes an angle with the rotational axis). For axially short components (such as a thrust washer), the difference between these two can be neglected, and only single-plane static balancing is required. For components greater in length than one fourth their diameter, dynamic imbalance should be assumed, and at least two-plane balancing is required. When imbalance occurs, including imbalance caused by shaft bow, its shows up with a frequency of exactly 1x running speed. This is because the heavy side of the rotor is rotating at exactly rotating speed, and so forces vibration movement at exactly this frequency. Typically, this also leads to a circular shaft orbit, although the orbit may be oval if the rotor is highly loaded within a journal bearing. This is shown in Figure 3. Pump and driver alignment. Next to imbalance, misalignment is the most common cause of vibration problems in rotating machinery. Misalignment is usually distinguished by two forms: offset, and angular. Offset is the amount that the two centerlines are offset from each other (that is, the distance between the centerlines when extended sufficiently to be next to each other). Angular misalignment is the differential crossing angle that the two shaft centerlines make when projected into each other, when viewed first from the top, and then in a separate evaluation from the side. In general, misalignment consists of a
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Cover Story
combination of both offset and angular misalignment. Offset misalignment requires either a uniform horizontal shift or a consistent vertical shimming of all feet of either the pump or its driver. Angular misalignment requires a horizontal shift of only one end of one of the machines, or a vertical shimming of just the front or rear set of feet. Combined offset and angular misalignment requires shimming and/or horizontal movement of four of the combined eight feet of the pump and its driver. In principle, shimming and/or horizontal shifting of four feet only should be sufficient to cure a misalignment. Sometimes a rotor must be offset when cold and not running in order to be aligned when running and hot. For example, thermal expansion of the pump or its pedestal versus the driver could change alignment hot versus cold. This situation can be checked with various continuous monitoring tools, such as Dodd Bars or Essinger Balls or Bars, which monitor the offset and angular movement of the pump and driver bearing housings relative to either each other (Dodd Bars) or relative to the foundation as a reference (Essinger Balls). When misalignment is a problem, it typically causes primarily vibrations at 2x running speed, because of the highly elliptical orbit that it forces the shaft to run in on the misaligned side. Sometimes the misalignment load can cause higher harmonics (that is, integral multiples of the rotor speed; especially 3x), and may even decrease vibration, because it loads the rotor unnaturally hard against its bearing shell. Alternately, misalignment may actually cause increased 1x vibration, by lifting the rotor out of its gravityloaded bearing pocket, to result in the bearing running relatively unloaded. This can also cause shaft instability, as discussed later. However, Figure 4 shows a typical orbit and fast-Fourier transform (FFT) spectrum for misalignment, in which 2x running speed is the dominant effect. This is often accompanied by relatively large axial motion, also at 2x, because the coupling experiences a non-linear crimp twice per revolution. Misalignment is best checked by some form of the reverse-dial-indica40

tor method (or its laser-alignment tool equivalent). Rotor dynamics. Dynamics of stationary components, such as casingpedestal assemblies, is a straightforward extension of linear-elastic-static analysis, and is usually performed by using simplified formulas such as those of Blevins [4], or by using a general purpose finite element program. In contrast, rotor dynamics requires a more specialized computer program, which deals with effects such as: Three-dimensional stiffness and damping at bearings, impellers and seals as a function of speed and load Impeller and thrust-balance-device fluid excitation forces (including cross-coupling as described below) Mass added by the pump fluid Gyroscopic effects Lomakin effect (explained below)

The Lomakin effect

Pump wear rings and (in multistage pumps) interstage bushings and balancing devices can develop large forces in their annular-clearance space due to the circumferentially varying Bernoulli pressure drop induced as rotor eccentricity develops. This is known as the Lomakin effect, and can dramatically affect pump rotor dynamics, especially in two ways: By changing the rotor-support stiffness and therefore the rotor natural frequencies, thereby either avoiding or inducing possible resonance between strong forcing frequencies at one and two times the running speed and one of the lower natural frequencies By increasing the rotor-support cross-coupled stiffness or, as the seals wear, decreasing the rotor damping, allowing greater magnification factors during resonance, and, in the extreme, allowing destabilizing forces on the rotor to dominate those associated with stabilizing energy absorption These effects are particularly strong in multistage pumps, because multistage rotors are relatively long and flexible. Since annular seals (such as wear rings) are primarily in the central portion of the rotor, where they exercise considerable leverage on the first bending mode of the rotor, the contribution of seal stiffness to the

rotor support can be comparable to that of the rotor stiffness itself. The Lomakin effect depends directly on leakage and therefore the pressure drop across the seal, which, for constant-system flow, results in a variation of the Lomakin support stiffness with roughly the square of the running speed. However, the more usual case of roughly constant system head results in only a small variation of Lomakin effect with pump speed. The other important parameters are annular sealing cavity length, diameter, and clearance. Fluid properties are of secondary importance. The radial-clearance effect is a strong influence, with Lomakin effect roughly proportional to its reciprocal. The physical reason for the strong influence of clearance is that it gives the opportunity for the circumferential pressure distribution, which is behind the Lomakin effect, to diminish through circumferential flow. Any seal surface which includes grooving has a similar effect as increased clearance. The primary action of the Lomakin effect is beneficial, through increased system direct stiffness and damping tending to increase the rotor natural frequency and decrease the rotor vibration response at that natural frequency. However, over-reliance on Lomakin effect can put the rotor design in the position of being too sensitive to wear of operating clearances, resulting in unexpected rotor failures due to resonance. It is important that modern rotors be designed with stiff enough shafts, so that any natural frequency that starts above running speed with new clearances remains above the running speed with clearances worn to the point that they must be replaced from a performance standpoint.

Testing for difficult diagnoses

Experimental modal analysis is a method of vibration testing in which a known force (constant at all frequencies within the test range) is put into a pump, and the pumps vibration response exclusively due to this force is observed and analyzed. The actual natural frequencies of combined casing, piping, and supporting structure can be accurately determined. Figure 5 shows how the broadband

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM MAY 2004

FIGURE 5. Vibration frequency spectrum dependence of natural frequencies and forces (F)

FIGURE 4. Misalignment example of shaft orbit and FFT spectrum

terrain or peaks and valleys from a modal-impact test can be used to better understand whether the high vibrations are caused by the amplifying effect of a natural frequency, or are just due to an excessive-oscillating force. Knowing this allows you to focus on the root cause, and provide a fundamental fix. The main tools required to do modal testing are a multichannel FFT frequency analyzer, a PC with commercially available software, a set of vibration-response probes (such as accelerometers), and an impact hammer designed to spread its force over a frequency range that covers the test range. The impact hammer has an accelerometer in its head, which is calibrated to indicate the force being applied. During a modal test, the signal from the hammer input force accelerometer is sent to one channel of the spectrum analyzer, and the signal from the vibration response probe is sent to the second channel. Dividing, at each frequency, the second channel by the first channel gives the frequencyresponse function (FRF) of the pump and its attached system. The peaks of the FRF are the non-critically damped natural frequencies, and the width and height of the peaks indicate the damping of each natural frequency, and how sensitive vibration at the test location is to forces which occur in the vicinity of the hammer impact at frequencies near a given natural frequency. Modal tests determine the fundamental source and general nature of a pumping systems vibrations, and predict the effect of system modifications. A useful variation of modal testing has been developed by the author to achieve this within the time and operational constraints of actual field tests.

This technique is known as time-averaged pulse (TAP), as described in the references, and provides the benefit that the pump does not need to be shut down in order to perform the bump test. The TAP method uses statistics on several hundred impacts to filter the data obtained from modal analysis in order to reliably determine structural natural frequencies and mode shapes, resonating force locations and frequencies, and rotor critical speeds while the pump is operating at the problem condition. TAP then uses classical modalanalysis-processing techniques to produce an animated model of each natural frequencys vibration pattern, and to make predictions about the effectiveness of proposed design changes, such as stiffer bearings, new piping supports, or a thicker baseplate. The TAP method may be applied to machines at any operating speed and load. TAP testing can result in a complicated modal-test data base consisting of frequency plots at many locations of vibration response to the calibrated hammer impact. Computer programs are available from various testing software companies that will plot a scaleup of that data to provide animations of the vibration mode shape. In some of these computer programs, this information can be used to automatically predict the best locations for added masses, dampers or stiffeners to solve the vibration problem associated with a given mode. Similar cartoons can also be made of the operational vibration taken at many locations and in many directions, and, the result is known as a operating deflection shape (ODS). The TAP procedure can be used to determine the critical speeds of a pump rotor while the pump is operating at the condition of interest. This approach provides an alternative to

the current practice of basing critical speeds on the peaks of waterfall plots of spectra obtained during pump startups or shutdowns. Waterfall plots may represent pump-rotordynamic performance poorly during steady-state operation due to the strong sensitivity of annular-seal stiffness and damping to operating conditions. The primary reason that pump natural frequencies are sensitive to operating condition is the Lomakin effect. As discussed earlier, the Lomakin effect can significantly change the rotor-support stiffness and damping, depending upon the pumps speed and load, making run-down waterfall plot testing of uncertain value.

Recognize and solve problems

Probably 90% of all pump vibration problems can be solved by careful balancing of the rotor assembly, alignment of the coupling when the system is at its rated conditions (especially if it is hot), for example per Dodd, and running the pump within the bounds of its specified head versus capacity curve. Remaining pump-vibration problems are generally due to a resonance of a system natural frequency with one of the excitation forces common to all pumps, such as residual unbalance. During resonance, the rotor vibrations can exceed clearances, or excessive bearing loads can occur, even if unbalance, misalignment, and hydraulic loads are within normally acceptable limits. The following measurements are suggested as a minimum for predictive maintenance or trouble-shooting of any style pump: What the vibration level is on both bearing housings on pump, and on pump-side (that is, inboard) bearing housing on driver in the vertical, horizontal and axial directions How hydraulic performance compares to design. In other words, for a given speed and capacity (that is, flowrate), how close is the temperature-compensated head of the pump to the curve supplied by the manufacturer, especially near the design or BEP? Are the head and capacity steady when the operator tries to hold the pump at a constant speed? Is the motor or steam turbine driver required to provide more power than expected?
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TABLE 1. VIBRATION FREQUENCIES VERSUS TYPICAL CAUSES Multiples of Running Speed:

0.1 to 0.3 X Exactly 1/2 X, 1/3 X, 1/4 X etc. 0.40 X (Approx.) 0.42 to 0.48 X

Other Symptoms:
Vibration response is broad in frequency Vibration may increase dramatically shortly after this appears, except in vertical pumps with four or more lineshaft bearings, where it is common and not harmful Shaft has rolling element bearings Near shaft natural frequency and orbit "pulses," forming an inside loop. Vibration onset is sudden at a speed roughly 2x the excited natural frequency, and "locks" onto the natural frequency in spite of speed increase Smaller peaks at (1-f) X, and at +(1+f) X "sidebands" of the first several multiples of running speed. Often accompanied by rumbling noise and beating. Occurs at part-load capacities, but disappears at very low capacity. Independently depends on speed and flow Increased broadband vibration and noise level below running speed as NPSH decreases, especially at high flows. Often accompanied by decreased vibration and noise above 1 X and increase at f >10KHz 1. Stronger on shaft than on housing. Hydraulic performance and/or suction pressure normal. Axial vibrations within normal limits and vibrations increase with roughly speed squared a. Vibrations highest on drive IB b. Vibrations highest on drive IB housing c. Vibration high on pump IB or OB housing, low on driver d. Natural frequency near 1 X 2. Axial vibrations are over 1/2 of H or V vibrations, or vibrations increase much slower than the square of the speed. Also, bearing oil temperature is high 3. Discharge pressure pulsations are strong at 1 X but not at impeller vane pass in a single volute pump 4. Same as #3, but vane pass also strong, especially flows far above or below the design point

Probable Causes:
Diffuser or return channel stall Light rub, combined with low shaft or bearing support natural frequency Bearing cage defect Rotor dynamic instability due to fluid whirl in close clearances, e.g. bearing "oil whip" Internal flow recirculation probably at suction

f= 0.6 to 0.93 X

Less than 1 X

Cavitation without recirculation Imbalance in rotating assembly Pump coupling imbalance Driver rotor imbalance Pump rotor imbalance Resonance Pump/driver misalignment at the coupling Clogged or damaged impeller passage Volute tongue designed too close to impeller OD, or excessive impeller/volute eccentricity Clogged or damaged impeller passage Volute vanes designed too close to impeller OD, or clogged or damaged volute, or excessive impeller/ volute eccentricity Looseness in bearing support or cracked shaft Torsional excitation Electrical problem with motor Pump/driver misalignment at the coupling Volute too close to impeller OD due to design or excessive rotor eccentricity Piping mechanical resonance at vanepass Acoustic resonance in discharge pipe Acoustic resonance in suction pipe Resonance Internal rub or poorly lubricated gear coupling Jammed, clogged or damaged seal Shaft support looseness, especially in bearing insert or cap retention. Looseness in pump casing, pedestal or foundation. Defect bearing outer race Defect in ball or roller Defect in inner race

1X

2X

1. Axial vibrations are low a. Both shaft and housing vibrations are strong, and discharge pressure pulsations are strong but impeller vane pass vibrations are low in a twin volute pump b. Same as (a) but combined with unusually high vane pass vibrations and discharge pressure pulsations

c. Shaft vibrations much stronger than housing vibrations, and approach or exceed bearing clearance. Decrease in shaft first bending natural frequency. Other multiples of running speed may be stronger than usual. d. Shaft vibrations stronger than housing and driver torque pulses e. In motor-driven pumps, with speed equal to electrical line frequency, and highest vibration at motor IB housing 2. Axial vibrations are over 1/2 of horizontal vibrations and 1 X vibrations are also high and bearing oil temperature is high Number of impeller vanes times running speed 1. Discharge pressure pulsations reasonably low and both shaft and housing vibrations high 2. Same as (1) but housing vibrations much higher than shaft vibrations 3. Discharge pressure pulsations high at vane pass frequency high but suction pressure pulsations reasonably low 4. Suction pressure pulsations high 5. Pump rotor or casing natural frequency close to vane pass Several multiples of running speed, including 1X, 2X, 3X, 4X and possibly higher 1. Orbit shows sharp angles or shows evidence of "ringing", and/or spectrum shows evidence of exactly 1/2 or 1/3 X response. Grinding noises and speed changes may be evident 2. Orbit is "fuzzy" but does not pulse or "ring". Seal coolant flow is unexpectedly high or low, and may exhibit high temperature. Spectrum may also exhibit 1/3 or 1/2 running speed 3. Orbit pulses, usually in one direction much more than the other and shaft vibrates more than housing 4. Shaft and orbit fairly steady, and housing vibrates more than shaft. Often combined with vibration response over a broad range of frequencies below running speed. Number of bearing rolling elements (Nb) times about 1/2 the rotor speed (N) Freq f =0.4 Nb*N/2 approx Freq f= 0.5 Nb*N/2 approx Freq f= 0.6 Nb*N/2 approx

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FIGURE 6. Horizontal pump symptoms of typical hydraulic or mechanical problems, and some typical vibrations associated with pump-failure modes

Whether or not the suction pressure is well above NPSH requirements What the bearing-shell or lubricantexit or sump temperatures are, at least approximately In deciding what action to take on the basis of the above measurements, a troubleshooting table can serve as a guide on how to interpret symptoms. In Table 1, such a list is provided. It is not meant to be all-inclusive, and is in the order of the frequency value observed, not in order of likelihood or importance to reliability. In addition, persistent pump-vibration problems are usually due to an unexpected combination of factors, like mechanical or acoustical-piping resonances, or hot running misalignment of the pump-driver due to thermal distortions of the piping or baseplate. Definitions useful in reading this list are: Runout: False vibrations picked up by a proximity probe, actually reflecting shaft scratches, gouges, undulations, and so on, or static-shaft bends or misalignment (mechanical runout), or eddy-current-sensitivity variations along the shaft surface or instrumentation noise (electrical runout). This can be determined by observing the apparent shaft orbit when the shaft is slowly turned. Inboard: The coupling side of the pump or driver. Outboard: The end of the pump or driver opposite to the coupling. Narrowband: Vibration response which is at a single frequency. Broadband: Vibration response which covers a band of frequency on a spectrum plot. Information that is typically obtained prior to using such a list is pro-

vided in Figure 4 for the example case of misalignment. If imbalance were the problem, the orbit would be circular instead, and the FFT spectrum would have a high narrow peak predominantly at 1x running speed. Figure 6 shows typical failure modes and associated frequencies in a representative multistage pump. The point of this figure is not to be all inclusive of pump problems, but to show major issues as discussed in Table 1, and how the problem relates to the resulting vibration.

Some examples
Multistage pump changed from baseload to cycling service. A plant had experienced chronic boiler-feedpump failures for eight years, since the unit involved had been switched from base load to modulated load. The longest that the turbine-driven pump had been able to last between major rotor-element overhauls was five months. The worst wear was seen to occur on the inboard side of the pump. The turbine was not being damaged. The pump vendor had decided on the basis of detailed vibration-signature testing and subsequent hydraulic analysis that the internals of the pump were not well enough matched to partload operation, and proposed replacement of the rotor element with a new custom-engineered design, at a very substantial cost. Although the problem showed some characteristics of a critical speed, both the vendor and the plant were sure that this could not be problem, because a standard rotor-dynamics analysis showed that the factor

of safety between running speed and the predicted rotor critical speeds was over a factor of two. However, the financial risk associated with having blind faith in the hydraulics and rotor-dynamic analyses was considerable. In terms of vendor compensation for the design, and the plant maintenance and operational costs associated with new design installation, the combined financial exposure of the vendor and the plant was about $350,000. Impact-vibration testing using the TAP cumulative time-averaging impact-test procedure quickly determined that one of the rotor-critical speeds was far from where it was predicted to be over the speed range of interest, as shown in Figure 7, and in fact had dropped into the running speed range. Further testing indicated that this critical speed appeared to be the sole cause of the pumps reliability problems. What-if iterations using a rotor dynamic computer model showed that the particular rotor natural frequency value and rotor mode deflection shape could best be explained by improper operation of the driven-end bearing. The bearing was removed and thoroughly inspected, and was found to have a critical clearance far from the intended value, because of a drafting mistake on the bearings OEM drawing, which was carried over each time the bearing was repaired or replaced. Installation of the correctly constructed bearing resulted in the problem rotor critical speed shifting to close to its expected value, well out of the operating speed range. The pump has since run for years without need for overhaul. Single-stage, double-suction pump with nozzle load-induced misalignment. A large double-suction, single-stage pump, with an impeller diameter of 4 ft (over 1 m) and a running speed of 600 rpm, was designed with close impeller-vane/volute43

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FIGURE 8. Shape of hollow-drive shaft mode near the gear mesh frequency

FIGURE 7. Variation of rotor-critical speeds with IB bearing stiffness

tongue clearance to reach an aggressive efficiency level in a petrochemical facility where energy was at a premium. During installation, it was found that vibration amplitudes rose to as high as the operating clearances in the wearing rings (25 mils, or 0.6 mm, diametral), with the primary component at running speed. There was no possibility of a resonance in this pump since both the shaft and the bearing housing natural frequencies were above the 1x and 2x excitations. The vane pass frequency of 4,200 cycles/min was far removed from the shaft first and second non-critically damped natural frequencies of 2,850 and 19,000 cycles/min, respectively. The reason for the high vibration was found to be 35 mils of misalignment at the coupling due to the hydraulic loads on the pump discharge flange being far in excess of API 610 recommended levels. The 48 in. discharge had a piping-expan-

sion joint at the flange, with no tiebars in place across the flange to carry the resulting thrust. After removal of the piping forces through a grounded bulkhead bolted to the discharge flange, the pumps large 1x and 2x vibration levels were reduced to acceptable values per API-610. Vertical pump with hollow drive shaft/gear-box drive. A major U.S. petroleum refinery had a serious problem of gear box failure, coupled with a severe, high-pitched noise in violation of OSHA standards, in some service water pumps. These pumps were driven at variable speeds by a steam turbine though a right-angle, 1:1 gear box and hollow-drive shafting. Many experts from the pump, turbine, and gear manufacturers, and from independent consulting firms, had tried unsuccessfully to use vibration signature testing, and sometimes finite element analysis (FEA), to understand and cure the problem over the several years since installation. Replacement of the gear boxes with ones carefully built to more stringent tolerances had no effect. It was suspected that the problem involved a torsional critical speed, excited by gear-meshing frequency. However, torsional testing performed by the author found that all rotor-system torsional natural frequencies were close to their predicted values,
brations of Vertical Turbine Pumps, Proc. IMechE, Radial Loads and Axial Thrusts on Pumps, Feb. 5, 1986. Marscher, W.D., Determination of Pump Rotor Critical Speeds During Operation through Use of Modal Analysis, Proc ASME 1986 WAM Symposium on Troubleshooting Methods and Technology, Anaheim Calif., Dec. 1986. Marscher, W., The Relationship Between Pump Rotor System Tribology and Appropriate Vibration Specifications for Centrifugal Pumps, Proc IMechE 3rd European Congress on Fluid Machinery for the Oil and Petrochemical Industries, The Hague, Netherlands, May 1987. Marscher, W., Analysis and Test of Multistage Pump Wet Critical Speeds, ASLE/ASME Joint Tribology Conf., Ft. Lauderdale, Oct. 1989. Marscher, W., The Effect of Variable Frequency Drives on Vibration Problems in Vertical Pumps, Proc. Water & Wastewater Conference, Barcelona, Spain, April 1990. Marscher, W., The Determination of Rotor Critical Speeds While Machinery Remains Operating through Use of Impact Testing, IMAC Conf. Orlando Fla., SEM, Feb. 1999. Marscher, W., Avoiding Failures in Centrifugal Pumps, Tutorial in Proc. TAMU International Pump Symposium, Houston Tex., Feb. 2002. Rathbone, T. Vibration Tolerance. Power Plant Engineering, Vol.43, Nov. 1939.

and were not near the gear mesh of the units single-operating speed. Impact-modal testing was performed on all exposed stationary as well as rotating components, using the cumulative time-averaging method discussed above. None of the results indicated the presence of any natural frequencies close to the excited gear meshing frequency, until the 4-ft-long, hollow drive shaft was impact tested while operating. The surprising test results showed that this shaft, when under torque, had a bellmode almost exactly at the gear meshing frequency. The mode shape of the excited natural frequency (Figure 8) was such that the hollow shaft ovalized with very little damping, causing the shaft length to oscillate as the cross-section cyclically ovalized. Subsequent analysis showed that the unexpected axial movement was through the Poisson effect, which states that as you strain a component in one direction, it automatically deflects at the same time in the perpendicular direction. The driving force was shown by further testing to be the combined torsional and axial load from the bull/pinion gear meshing. The drive shaft was filled with grease to damp out this unusual vibration. The gearbox noise immediately fell a factor of ten, and all gear box problems ceased. n Edited by Gerald Ondrey

References
1. API 610, 9th Ed., Amer. Pet. Inst., Washington D.C., 2002. 2. Black, H.F., Effects of Fluid-Filled Clearance Spaces on Centrifugal Pump Vibrations. 8th Turbomachinery Symposium, Texas A&M Univ., 1979. 3. Blevins, R.D., Formulas for Natural Frequency and Mode Shape, Robert Krieger Publishing Co., Malabar, Fla., 1984. 4. Bowman, D., others, Pump Rotor Critical Speeds: Diagnosis and Solutions, Proc. International Pump Symposium, Texas A&M University, April 1990. 5. Childs, D., Finite Length Solutions for Rotordynamic Coefficients of Turbulent Annular Seals, ASME/ASLE Lubrication Conf., ASME Paper 82-LUB-42, Oct. 1982. 6. Dodd, V.R., Total Alignment, The Petroleum Publishing Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1974. 7. Ewins, D.J., Modal Testing: Theory and Practice, Research Studies Press, Wiley NY, 1984. 8. Fraser, W.H., Centrifugal Pump Hydraulic Performance and Diagnostics, Pump Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985. 9. Jen,C.-W., and Marscher, W. Experimental Modal Analysis of Turbomachinery Rotors Using TimeAveraging, Proc. International Modal Analysis Conference, Orlando Florida, Jan. 26, 1990. 10. Marscher, W.D., The Effect of Fluid Forces at Various Operation Conditions on the Vi11.

Author
William D. Marscher is technical director of the rotating-machinery consulting and troubleshooting firm Mechanical Solutions, Inc. (1719 Route 10 East, Suite 305, Parsippany, N.J. 07054-4507; Phone: 973-362-9920; Fax: 973-362-9919; email: bill.marscher@mechsol.com). His 34-year career has included design, analysis, and vibration testing for GE, Honeywell, Pratt & Whitney, and Worthington/Dresser. He was 1999 STLE president, is an STLE Fellow, is associate editor of Tribology Transactions, and chairs the STLE Seals Technical Committee and ASME Predictive Maintenance Committee. He organized the 1993 ASME Rotating Machinery Conference and 1995 ASME International Tribology Conference. He has written 65 papers and 7 handbook chapters, is coauthor of Centrifugal Pump Design & Performance, and is on the board of Pumps & Systems. He is a voting member of two ASTM committees and the ISO machinery noise and vibration standards committee. He received a NASA fellowship, ASLEs Hodson Award and the Dresser Engineering Medal. A registered professional engineer, he is on the Texas A&M Pump Symposium Advisory Committee, and the TAMU Dubai Pump & Turbo Symposium Advisory Committee. He holds engineering degrees from Cornell and RPI.

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