UNIT 2
FERMENTATION PROCESS:
LESSON 8
FERMENTATION PROCESS
Objectives
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After this session you will be able
• To prepare, initiate, observe, and understand fermentation,
out of all the Natural Sciences, modern biology is the most
diversified exhibiting a varied array of subdisciplines. This
diversity can be attributed to the introduction of other
scientific disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and
mathematics. This has resulted in a more profound
description of life at the cellular and nuclear level. The
newly acquired knowledge in the field of biology has
resulted in great contributions to the health and welfare of
man.
• Know many areas of application of biotechnology. The
table below lists the main ones from which all others stem:
1) Fermentation Technology
This is, historically, the most important area in
biotechnology. There has been extensive development in
progress with new products such as medically important
drugs, solvents, protein enhanced foods, etc. This also
includes research on different types of fermentation
designs to optimize the process.
2) Enzyme Engineering
This area is used for the catalysis of extremely specific
chemical reactions, for the immobilization of enzymes, and
to create specific molecular converters (bioreactors).
Products formed include L-amino acids, high fructose
syrup, semi-synthetic penicillins, starch and cellulose
hydrolysis, etc.
3) Waste Technology
This has a long array of historical importance, but now
emphasis is on the coupling of this field with the
conservation and recycling of resources. Examples would
include foods, fertilizers, biological fuels.
4) Environmental Technology
Problems like pollution control, removing toxic wastes,
recovery of metals from mining wastes and low grade ores,
are just some of the categories that fall under this field.
5) Renewable Resources Technology
The use of renewable energy sources, in particular lignocellulose
to generate new sources of chemical raw material and energy -
ethanol, methane, and hydrogen.
Each of these fields utilizes knowledge from Biochemistry,
Genetics, Chemistry, Applied Microbiology, Chemical and
Process Engineering, and Mathematics and Computer Technol-
ogy. Also, these areas of biotechnology attempt to use the best
possible catalysts in optimum environment to carry out various
chemical reactions. In the pages to come, some important areas
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18
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF
FERMENTATION PROCESS
of biotechnology will be considered in order to achieve a broad
overall understanding of basic principles.
Define Fermentation ?
Introduction: Fermentation is a common process in both
natural and man-made environments. In fermentation, yeast
cells metabolize sugars, producing carbon dioxide and alcohol.
Some products which result from fermentation include, among
many others: alcoholic beverages, bread, soy sauce, sauerkraut,
pickles, and kimchee.
Observing fermentation provides an interesting platform from
which to study and understand chemical and biological
processes.
Fermentation is defined as an energy-yielding metabolic
pathway that involves no net change in oxidation state.
Anaerobic glycolysis is a type of fermentation. The lactic acid
fermentation (conversion of glucose to lactate) is important in
the manufacture of cheese. Another important fermentation
involves cleavage of pyruvate to acetaldehyde and CO2, that
follows: with the acetaldehyde then reduced to ethanol by
alcohol dehydrogenase in the reaction
Acetaldehyde + NADH + H+ <-> Ethanol + NAD+
As carried out by yeasts, this fermentation generates the alcohol
in alcoholic beverages. alcoholic fermentation
What is necessary to begin fermentation ?
All that is necessary to begin fermentation is to mix the
activated yeast and the cooled, pH-adjusted mash in the
fermentation tank. Aside from the considerations of pH as
discussed earlier, the most important thing during the fermen-
tation is temperature control. When the fermentation begins,
carbon dioxide gas will be given off. At the height of fermenta-
tion, the mash will literally “boil” from the carbon dioxide
produced. The reaction also produces some heat. The optimum
temperature for the fermentation process is between 70-85 deg
F., and it is desirable not to let the temperature go much above
90-95 deg F. Cooling is readily done with the use of ice bags, as
discussed earlier, or by the use of a cooling coil. A less desirable
method of controlling temperature is to dilute the mash.
The actual time required to ferment a mash varies with the
material being fermented, the pH, temperature, and several
other factors. It can take from one to four days. You will know
that the fermentation is complete when the mash ceases
bubbling and the yeast cake, which forms on top, sinks to the
bottom. At this point, the fermented liquor is known as “beer”
and it is ready to be distilled.
It is advantageous to distill the beer as soon as possible.
Occasionally, if it is allowed to sit, it will turn to vinegar.
Vinegar is alcohol that has been oxidized to acetic acid. Certain
enzymes present after fermentation act as catalysts and allow any
air present in the mash solution to react with the alcohol to
form acetic acid. In fact, if you want to produce vinegar, all you
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have to do to start the reaction is to bubble air through the
fermented mash. Once the vinegar reaction has set in, the mash
is lost. There is no cure. The only prevention is to separate the
beer from the mash sediment and distill it as soon after
fermentation is complete as possible.
It is also advantageous to use a fermentation lock to prevent
alcohol vapors from escaping the fermenter. Otherwise, the
CO2 gas can carry with it a considerable amount of alcohol.
Note that the small, glass fermentation locks available from
wine-making supply houses are suitable, at most) for a 5-gallon
container. Larger containers must have proportionately larger
fermentation locks or a dangerous amount of pressure will
build and the vessel could explode.
It is permissible to open the fermenter to check progress and
take samples for pH analysis, etc. as long as care is taken not to
introduce bacteria that could contaminate the mash.
Fermentation By-products
The principle products of fermentation are alcohol, carbon
dioxide, and fermentation residue. The alcohol is distilled from
the beer and used as fuel . The carbon dioxide gas in large
distilleries is usually compressed or made into dry ice. Another
use for the gas would be to pipe it into a greenhouse. The
plants will then use it in the photosynthesis cycle, removing the
carbon and giving off oxygen. Lacking a use for the carbon
dioxide, it can be simply vented into the air as it is totally non-
polluting and non-toxic.
What will be left is a lot of water and solids. A portion of the
water can be used for backslopping. The remaining solids
contain proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats, and yeast cells. All of
the nutrition value of the original feedstock, except the starch or
sugar that has been turned into alcohol, survives intact. It may
be fed to cattle, or if suitably processed it can be used for
human consumption. However, in the wet state, it will keep for
a maximum of 3-5 days depending on conditions. After this it
will begin to rot. Therefore, for long term storage these residues
(stillage) must be dried. This can be done by straining out the
solids and spreading them in a thin layer to dry in the sun, by
use of rotary grain dryers, or similar equipment.
Note of Caution
Alcohol produced for human consumption is made under
special conditions and purified to a high degree. Ethanol that is
produced according to the procedures in this book will contain
fusel oils (high boiling alcohols), aldehydes, and ketones. None
of these chemicals affect fuel performance but, if ingested,
could cause fatal poisoning at worst or a horrible hangover at
best. In addition, if the distillation equipment used later on is
not tinned copper or stainless steel, many toxic metal oxides can
be introduced to the alcohol. Solder, for example, contains a lot
of lead and can react to form poisonous lead oxides. So besides
being illegal, drinking your fuel could be hazardous to your
health!
What is lactic acid fermentation ?
Lactate Fermentation
Lactate fermentation occurs in anaerobic organisms or in aerobic
cells that are undergoing very high rates of glycolysis. In these
cells, NADH generated in glycolysis cannot be reoxidized to
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NAD+ . When this situation happens, NADH is oxidized to
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NAD+ by reducing pyruvate to lactate. The enzyme catalyzing
this reaction is lactate dehydrogenase. The equilibrium for this
reaction lies far in favor of formation of lactate.
Until recently it was thought that lactate accumulation in skeletal
muscle was largely a consequence of anaerobic metabolism,
which occurs when the need for tissues to generate energy
exceeds their capacity to oxidize the pyruvate produced in
glycolysis. Recent metabolic studies, including 31P NMR analyses
of the levels of phosphorylated intermediates in living muscle
cells during exercise, suggest that lactate is actually an intermedi-
ate and not a metabolic “dead end,” whose only fate is
reconversion to pyruvate. These studies show that even in fully
oxygenated muscle tissue, as much as 50% of the glucose
metabolized is converted to lactate. This may represent a means
for coordinating energy-storing and energy-generating pathways
in different tissues, but the mechanisms involved are not yet
clear.
Lactate dehydrogenase was the first enzyme that established
the structural basis for the existence of isoenzymes (different
forms of an enzyme resulting from variations in amino acid
sequence). Most tissues contain five isoenzymes of lactate
dehydrogenase that can be resolved electrophoretically
YEAST
Yeast is an organism belonging to the vegetable family. The
yeast itself does not take a direct part in the fermentation
process, but it secretes a complex of enzymes that act upon the
sugar and convert it to alcohol and carbon dioxide gas.
The yeast used in alcoholic fermentation is a special strain bred
to be tolerant to variations in pH and resistant to alcohol. In
the past, distilleries bred and propagated their own yeast strains.
The yeast was kept alive in cultures and grown in batches of
ever-increasing size to be used in the fermenters. Keeping yeast
alive and growing cultures is a tricky business that requires
precise control of temperature, nutrients, and the like. However,
a simplified method is described later. Fortunately, special active
dry yeast is available. To use it, you merely add warm water to
reactivate it and then add it to the mash in the fermenter. Two
pounds is sufficient for 1000 gallons of mash. It is available
from Universal Foods Corporation as listed in the appendix.
This yeast should be rehydrated for 15 minutes prior to use at a
temperature of 100-105 deg Fahrenheit, or it can be added dry
to the fermentation tank prior to filling.
In a pinch, it is possible to use ordinary baker’s yeast from your
grocer’s shelf. However, this yeast is not bred for alcohol
tolerance, and you will probably not get the yields associated
with the distiller’s yeast.
Yeast Propagation
It is possible to grow and propagate your own yeast cultures if
you observe certain precautions. Above all, the conditions must
be absolutely sterile. Ordinary boiling water does not kill all of
the bacteria present. It is necessary to use a pressure cooker.
Make a solution of (proportionately) one cup sugar, one cup
flour and two quarts water. Place the solution in a pressure
cooker and boil at elevated pressure for at least 45 minutes.
Without opening the pressure cooker, cool the solution to
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 about room temperature. Then open the container and add a b) Metric scale
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cake of baker’s or distiller’s yeast. Close the container and keep it c) Fish scale
in the refrigerator. The yeast will slowly grow. Some carbon
d) Brix scale
dioxide will be given off, so be sure to leave the vent open. If
desired, the yeast slurry can be transferred to jars. Just be sure 6. The color of wines made from red grapes can be
they are sterile and remember to poke a small hole in the lid to a) red, white, and rosé
let the carbon dioxide escape. b) red only
To use the yeast culture, merely remove a teaspoon or so, place it c) red or rosé only
in another (sterile) container, feed it some sugar and warm it to
d) white only
room temperature. When it becomes active, it is ready for the
fermenter. If at any time your refrigerated culture goes bad (due 7. The process of adding sugar to grape juice before or
to bacterial contamination) it must be thrown out and the during fermentation to achieve higher alcohol levels is
procedure started again. Also, yeast cultures should not be called
frozen. a) Consternation
Yeast convert pyruvate to acetaldehyde in a reaction catalyzed by b) Pasteurization
the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase. This is followed by c) Fining
reduction of acetaldehyde to ethanol catalyzed by alcohol d) Chaptalization
dehydrogenase. The reaction uses NADH and releases NAD+,
which is subsequently used in glycolysis. 8. A full-bodied white wine with deep yellow color and
complex aromas and flavors would most likely have
Yeasts used in baking also carry out the alcoholic fermentation; been produced by
the CO2 produced by pyruvate decarboxylation causes bread to
rise, and the ethanol produced evaporates during baking. a) fermentation and aging in small wooden barrels
Among the dozens of other useful fermentations are those b) fermentation and aging in large, cool stainless steel
leading to acetic acid (manufacture of vinegar) and propionic tanks
acid (manufacture of Swiss cheese). c) carbonic maceration
Quiz Questions d) adding red grapes to the process
1. Alcoholic fermentation is caused by the interaction of 9. The color of red wines comes from
a) sugar and carbon dioxide a) wooden barrels
b) sugar and acid b) adding caramel
c) sugar and yeasts c) the pigments in red grape skins
d) yeast and pectin d) using beet sugar
2. The products of the alcoholic fermentation are 10. Tannins are extracted from
a) alcohol, carbon dioxide, and heat a) grape skins
b) carbon monoxide and sugar b) wooden barrels
c) tannin and sugar c) grape stems
d) sugar and higher pH d) all of the above
3. As the sugar content of the grapes increases during the 11. A wine labelled as Zinfandel will be
growing season, the acids a) white
a) stay the same b) red
b) fall c) rosé
c) rise d) clear
d) change to sugar 12. The term “dry” indicates that a wine is
4. Grapes grown in cooler climates generally produce a) not sweet
wine with
b) low in alcohol
a) high alcohol and low acids
c) astringent
b) high alcohol and high acids
d) in powder form
c) low to moderate alcohol and low acids
13. The bubbles in sparkling wines are
d) low to moderate alcohol and high acids
a) oxygen that permeates the cork and settles in the wine
5. The scale used to measure sugar in grape juice in the
b) carbon monoxide produced by a second fermentation
U.S. is the
in the bottle
a) Richter scale

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 c) carbon dioxide produced by a second fermentation in

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the bottle
d) the skins of dead yeast cells
14. The year “1996” printed on a label indicates that the
wine
a) was bottled in 1996
b) was made from grapes harvested in 1996
c) was ready to drink in 1996
d) was made from grapes grown on vines planted in
1996

Notes:

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