Inquiry Learning

Instructional Design&Learning Theory

Brenda MergelGraduate StudentEducational Communications and TechnologyUniversity of SaskatchewanMay, 1998

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Introduction:

To students of instructional design the introduction andsubsequent "sorting out" of the various learningtheories andassociated instructional design strategies can be somewhat confusing.It was out of this feeling of cognitive dissonance that this site wasborn.Why does it seem so difficult to differentiate between three basictheories of learning? Why do the names of theorists appear connectedto more than one theory? Why do the terms and strategies of eachtheory overlap?The need for answers to these questions sparked my investigationinto the available literature on learningtheories and theirimplications for instructional design. I found many articles andinternet sites that dealt withlearning theory and ID, in fact, itwas difficult to know when and where to draw the line. When I stoppedfinding new information, and the articles were reaffirming what I hadalready read, I began to write.The writing process was a learning experience for me and now thatI have finished, I want to start over andmake it even better,because I know more now than I did when I began. Every time I rereadan article, therewere ideas and lists that I would wish to add to mywriting. Perhaps in further development of this site I willchangeand refine my presentation.Reading about the development of learning theories and theirconnection to instructional design evoked, forme, many parallelswith the development of other theories in sciences. I have includedsome of those thoughtsas asides within the main body of text.Besides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as connoisseurship,semiotics, and contextualism, but I decided that a clear understanding of the basic learning theories would bebest. The main sections of this site are as follows:

What are Theories and Models?The Basics of the Learning Theories

The Basics of BehaviorismThe Basics of CognitivismThe Basics of Constructivism

The History of Learning Theories in Instructional Design

Behaviorism and Instructional DesignCognitivism and Instructional DesignConstructivism and Instructional Design

Comparing The Development of Learning Theories to the Development of the Atomic TheoryLearning Theories and the Practice of Instructional DesignLearning Theories - Some Strengths and WeaknessesIs There One Best Learning Theory for Instructional Design?ConclusionReferences and Bibliography

Whatare Theories and Models?

What is a theory?A theory provides a general explanation for observationsmade over time.A theory explains and predicts behavior.A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.A theory may be modified.Theories seldom have to be thrown out completely ifthoroughly tested but sometimes a theorymay be widely acceptedfor a long time and later disproved.(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)What is a model?A model is a mental picture that helps us understandsomething we cannot see or experiencedirectly.(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism -The Basics

Basedon observable changes in behavior. Behaviorism focuses on a newbehavioral patternbeing repeated until it becomes automatic.

Behaviorism:

Basedon the thought process behind the behavior. Changes in behavior areobserved, and usedas indicators as to what is happening inside thelearner's mind.

Cognitivism:

Based on the premise that we all construct our own perspective ofthe world, throughindividual experiences and schema. Constructivismfocuses on preparing the learner to problem solve inambiguoussituations.(Schuman, 1996)

Constructivism:

TheBasics of Behaviorism

Behaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back toAristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused onassociations being madebetween events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers thatfollowedAristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown(1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885)(Black, 1995).The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overtbehaviors that can be observed and measured(Good & Brophy,1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that responseto stimulus can beobserved quantitatively, totally ignoring thepossibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Some keyplayers in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov,Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Pavlov (1849 - 1936)

For most people, the name "Pavlov" rings a bell (pun intended).The Russian physiologist is best known forhis work in classicalconditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most famousexperiment involved food, adog and a bell.

Pavlov's Experiment

Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response fromthe dog. Placing food in front of the doginitiatedsalivation.During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds beforethe dog was presented with food.After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone producedsalivation(Dembo, 1994).

Stimulus and Response Items of Pavlov'sExperiment

FoodUnconditioned StimulusSalivationUnconditioned Response (natural, notlearned)BellConditioned StimulusSalivationConditioned Response (to bell)

Other Observations Made by Pavlov

Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivateat the sound of the bell, it will salivate atother similarsounds.Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food,salivation will eventually cease in response to thebell.Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can be"recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon