Best SQL PLSQL Material

INTRODUCTION
SQL is divided into the following
1 1 1 1 1
Data Definition Language (DDL) Data Manipulation Language (DML) Data Ret ieval Language (DRL) T ansa!tion Cont ol Language (TCL) Data Cont ol Language (DCL)
DDL "" ! eate# alte # d op# t un!ate# ena$e DML "" inse t# update# delete DRL "" sele!t TCL "" !o$$it# oll%a!&# savepoint DCL "" g ant# evo&e
CR'(T' T()L' S*NT(+
C eate ta%le ,table_name- (col1 datatype1, col2 datatype2 coln datatypen). '/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le student (no nu$%e (1)# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e
(4)).
INS'RT
This will %e used to inse t the e!o ds into ta%le5 6e have two $ethods to inse t5
1 1
a)
)7 value $ethod )7 add ess $ethod
USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD
S7nta/0
inse t into ,table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen).
'/0
SQLSQL-
inse t into student values (2# ;sudha;# 233). inse t into student values (1# ;sað# 133).
To inse t a new e!o d again 7ou have to t7pe enti e inse t !o$$and# if the e a e lot of e!o ds this will %e diffi!ult5 This will %e avoided %7 using add ess $ethod5
%)
USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD
S7nta/0 inse t into ,table_name) values (&col1, &col2, &col3 . &coln). This will p o$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve 7 inse t 7ou have to use fo wa d slash5 '/0
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inse t into student values (<no# =<na$e=# <$a &s).
'nte value fo no0 2 'nte value fo na$e0 >agan 'nte value fo $a &s0 433 old new 20 inse t into student values(<no# =<na$e=# <$a &s) 20 inse t into student values(2# =>agan=# 433)
SQL-
'nte value fo no0 1 'nte value fo na$e0 Na en 'nte value fo $a &s0 @33 old new 20 inse t into student values(<no# =<na$e=# <$a &s) 20 inse t into student values(1# =Na en=# @33)
!)
INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD
S7nta/0 inse t into ,table_name)(col1, col2, col3 Coln) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen). '/0
SQLSQL-
inse t into student (no# na$e) values (4# ;Ra$esh;). inse t into student (no# na$e) values (@# ;Madhu;).
d)
INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD
S7nta/0 inse t into ,table_name)(col1, col2, col3 coln) values (&col1, &col2 .&coln); This will p o$pt 7ou fo the values %ut fo eve 7 inse t 7ou have to use fo wa d slash5 '/0
SQL-
inse t into student (no# na$e) values (<no# =<na$e=).
'nte value fo no0 C 'nte value fo na$e0 9isu old new 20 inse t into student (no# na$e) values(<no# =<na$e=) 20 inse t into student (no# na$e) values(C# =9isu=)
SQL-
'nte value fo no0 D 'nte value fo na$e0 Rattu old new 20 inse t into student (no# na$e) values(<no# =<na$e=) 20 inse t into student (no# na$e) values(D# =Rattu=)
S'L'CTIN8 D(T(
S7nta/0 Sele!t E f o$ ,table_name-. "" he e E indi!ates all !olu$ns
o Sele!t col1, col2, coln f o$ ,table_name-.
'/0
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sele!t E f o$ student. NO N(M' """ """""" 2 1 2 1 4 @ C D Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu M(RFS """""""" 233 133 433 @33
SQL-
sele!t no# na$e# $a &s f o$ student.
NO N(M' """ """""" 2 1 2 1 4 @ C D Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """""""" 233 133 433 @33
SQL-
sele!t no# na$e f o$ student.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha
1 2 1 4 @ C D
Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
CONDITION(L S'L'CTIONS (ND OA'R(TORS

6e have two !lauses used in this
1 1
6he e O de %7
USIN8 6:'R'
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,condition-. the following a e the diffe ent t7pes of ope ato s used in whe e !lause5
1 1 1 1 2
( ith$eti! ope ato s Co$pa ison ope ato s Logi!al ope ato s
( ith$eti! ope ato s G# "# E# ? Co$pa ison ope ato s
"" highest p e!eden!e
H# IH# -# ,# -H# ,H# ,-
2 3
%etween# not %etween in# not in
2 2 2 3 4 3
a)
USIN8
null# not null li&e Logi!al ope ato s (nd O not "" lowest p e!eden!e
H# -# ,# -H# ,H# IH# ,-
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 Sa&eth Na en
M(RFS """"""""" 133 @33
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sele!t E f o$ student whe e no , 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 2 Sudha >agan
M(RFS """""""""" 233 433
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no - 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 4 @ C D Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """"""""""
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no ,H 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 2 1 Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en
M(RFS """""""""" 233 133 433 @33
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no -H 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 4 @ C D Sa&eth Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """"""""" 133 @33
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no IH 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 2 4 @ C D Sudha >agan Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """""""""" 233 433
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no ,- 1.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha
M(RFS """""""""" 233
2 4 @ C D
>agan Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
433
%)
USIN8 (ND
This will gives the output when all the !onditions %e!o$e t ue5 S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,condition1- and ,condition2- and 55 ,conditionn-. '/0
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sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1 and $a &s -H 133.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 Sa&eth Na en
M(RFS """""""" 133 @33
!)
USIN8 OR
This will gives the output when eithe of the !onditions %e!o$e t ue5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,condition1- and ,condition2- o 55 ,conditionn-. '/0

SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1 o $a &s -H 133.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 2 Sa&eth >agan
M(RFS """"""""" 133 433
Na en
@33
d)
USIN8 )'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its lowe %ound# uppe %ound5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- %etween ,lower bound- and ,upper bound-.
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s %etween 133 and @33.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 2 1 Sa&eth >agan Na en
M(RFS """"""""" 133 433 @33
e)
USIN8 NOT )'T6''N
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values a e not in its lowe %ound# uppe %ound5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- not %etween ,lower bound- and ,upper bound-. '/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s not %etween 133 and @33.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha
M(RFS """"""""" 233
f)
USIN8 IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n and its list of values spe!ified5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- in ( value1, value2, value3 valuen).
'/0
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sele!t E f o$ student whe e no in (2# 1# 4).
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 2 1 4 Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh
M(RFS """"""""" 233 133 433 @33
g)
USIN8 NOT IN
This will gives the output %ased on the !olu$n whi!h values a e not in the list of values spe!ified5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- not in ( value1, value2, value3 valuen).
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e no not in (2# 1# 4).
NO N(M' """ """"""" @ C D Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """""""""
h)
USIN8 NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- is null.
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s is null.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 4 @ C D Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """""""""
i)
USIN8 NOT NULL
This will gives the output %ased on the not null values in the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- is not null.
'/0
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sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s is not null.
11
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 2 1 Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en
M(RFS """"""""" 233 133 433 @33
J)
USIN8 LIF'
This will %e used to sea !h th ough the ows of data%ase !olu$n %ased on the patte n 7ou spe!if75
S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- li&e ,pattern-. '/0 i) This will give the ows whose $a &s a e 2335
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s li&e 233.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha
M(RFS """"""""" 233
ii) This will give the ows whose na$e sta t with KS;5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =SL=.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 Sudha Sa&eth
M(RFS """"""""" 233 133
iii) This will give the ows whose na$e ends with Kh;5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =Lh=. NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 4 Sa&eth Ra$esh M(RFS """"""""" 133
i9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette sta t with Ka;5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =MaL=.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 2 1 4 @ D Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh Madhu Rattu
M(RFS """""""" 133 433 @33
9) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thi d lette sta t with Kd;5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =MMdL=.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 @ Sudha Madhu
M(RFS """"""""" 233
9i) This will give the ows whose na$e;s se!ond lette sta t with Kt; f o$ ending5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =LMtL=.
13
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 D Sa&eth Rattu
M(RFS """"""""" 133
9ii) This will give the ows whose na$e;s thi d lette sta t with Ke; f o$ ending5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =LeMML=.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 4 Sa&eth Ra$esh
M(RFS """"""""" 133
9iii) This will give the ows whose na$e !otains 1 a;s5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student whe e na$e li&e =LaL a L=.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 >agan
M(RFS """""""""" 433
E *ou have to spe!if7 the patte ns in li e using unde s!o e ( M )5
USIN8 ORD'R )*
This will %e used to o de ing the !olu$ns data (as!ending o des!ending)5
S7nta/0 Sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- o de %7 ,col- des!.
)7 default o a!le will use as!ending o de 5 If 7ou want output in des!ending o de 7ou have to use de!c &e7wo d afte the !olu$n5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student o de %7 no.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 2 1 1 4 @ C D Sudha >agan Sa&eth Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu
M(RFS """"""""" 233 433 133s @33
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student o de %7 no des!.
NO N(M' """ """"""" D Rattu C 9isu @ Madhu 4 Ra$esh 1 Sa&eth 1 Na en 2 Sudha 2 >agan
M(RFS """""""""
133 @33 233 433
USIN8 DML
USIN8 UAD(T'
15
This !an %e used to $odif7 the ta%le data5
S7nta/0 Update ,table_name- set ,col1- H value2# ,col2- H value1 whe e ,condition-.
'/0
SQL-
update student set $a &s H C33.
If 7ou a e not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will update enti e ta%le5
SQLSQL-
update student set $a &s H C33 whe e no H 1. update student set $a &s H C33# na$e H =9enu= whe e no H 2.
USIN8 D'L'T'
This !an %e used to delete the ta%le data te$po a il75
S7nta/0 Delete ,table_name- whe e ,condition-.
'/0
SQL-
delete student.
If 7ou a e not spe!if7ing an7 !ondition this will delete enti e ta%le5
SQL-
delete student whe e no H 1.
USIN8 DDL
USIN8 (LT'R
This !an %e used to add o datat7pe5
e$ove !olu$ns and to $odif7 the p e!ision of the
a)
(DDIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- add ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student add sdo% date.
%)
R'MO9IN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- d op ,col datatype-.
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student d op !olu$n sdo%.
!)
INCR'(SIN8 OR D'CR'(SIN8 AR'CISION OB ( COLUMN
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- $odif7 ,col datatype-. '/0

SQL-
alte ta%le student $odif7 $a &s nu$%e (C).
E To de! ease p e!ision the !olu$n should %e e$pt75
d)
M(FIN8 COLUMN UNUS'D
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- set unused !olu$n ,col-.
17
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student set unused !olu$n $a &s.
'ven though the !olu$n is unused still it will o!!up7 $e$o 75
d)
DROAAIN8 UNUS'D COLUMNS
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- d op unused !olu$ns.
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student d op unused !olu$ns.
E *ou !an not d op individual unused !olu$ns of a ta%le5
e)
R'N(MIN8 COLUMN
S7nta/0 alte ta%le ,table_name- ena$e !olu$n ,old_col_name- to ,new_col_name-.
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student ena$e !olu$n $a &s to s$a &s.
USIN8 TRUNC(T'
This !an %e used to delete the enti e ta%le data pe $anentl75 S7nta/0 t un!ate ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL-
t un!ate ta%le student.
USIN8 DROA
This will %e used to d op the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0 D op ta%le ,table_name-.
'/0
SQL-
d op ta%le student.
USIN8 R'N(M'
This will %e used to ena$e the data%ase o%Je!t.
S7nta/0 ena$e ,oldMtable_name- to ,new_table_name-.
'/0
SQL-
ena$e student to stud.
USIN8 TCL
USIN8 COMMIT
This will %e used to save the wo &5 Co$$it is of two t7pes5
1 1
a)
IMALICIT
I$pli!it '/pli!it
This will %e issued %7 o a!le inte nall7 in two situations5
6hen an7 DDL ope ation is pe fo $ed5
19
1
%)
6hen 7ou a e e/iting f o$ SQL E ALUS5
'+ALICIT
This will %e issued %7 the use 5
S7nta/0 Co$$it o !o$$it wo &. E 6hen eve 7ou !o$$itted then the t ansa!tion was !o$pleted5
USIN8 ROLL)(CF
This will undo the ope ation5 This will %e applied in two $ethods5
1 1
S7nta/0 Roll o O
Upto p evious !o$$it Upto p evious oll%a!&
oll wo &. oll%a!& wo &.
Roll%a!& o t ansa!tion5 USIN8 S(9'AOINT
E 6hile p o!ess is going on# if suddenl7 powe goes then o a!le will oll%a!& the
*ou !an use savepoints to oll%a!& po tions of 7ou !u ent set of t ansa!tions5
S7nta/0 Savepoint ,!avepoint_name-.
'/0
SQLSQLSQL-
savepoint s2. inse t into student values(2# Ka;# 233). savepoint s1.
SQLSQLSQLSQLSQL-
inse t into student values(1# K%;# 133). savepoint s4. inse t into student values(4# K!;# 433). savepoint s@. inse t into student values(@# Kd;# @33).
)efo e oll%a!&
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student.
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 4 @ a % ! d
M(RFS """""""""" 233 133 433 @33
SQL-
oll%a!& to savepoint s4. O oll%a!& to s4.
SQL-
This will oll%a!& last two e!o ds5

SQL-
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 a %
M(RFS """""""""" 233 133
21
USIN8 DCL
DCL !o$$ands a e used to g anting and evo&ing the pe $issions5 USIN8 8R(NT This is used to g ant the p ivileges to othe use s5
S7nta/0 8 ant ,privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- to ,u!er_name- Nwith g ant optionO.
'/0
SQLSQLSQL-
g ant sele!t on student to sudha. g ant all on student to sudha.
"" 7ou !an give individual p ivilege "" 7ou !an give set of p ivileges "" 7ou !an give all p ivileges
g ant sele!t# inse t on student to sudha.
The sudha use has to use dot $ethod to a!!ess the o%Je!t5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ sa&eth5student.
The sudha use !an not g ant pe $ission on student ta%le to othe use s5 To get this t7pe of option use the following5
SQL-
g ant all on student to sudha with g ant option.
Now sudha use also g ant pe $issions on student ta%le5
USIN8 R'9OF'
This is used to evo&e the p ivileges f o$ the use s to whi!h 7ou g anted the p ivileges5
S7nta/0 Revo&e ,privile"e!- on ,ob#ect_name- f o$ ,u!er_name-.
'/0
SQL-
evo&e sele!t on student fo $ sudha.
"" 7ou !an evo&e individual "" 7ou !an evo&e set of
p ivilege
SQL-
evo&e sele!t# inse t on student f o$ sudha. evo&e all on student f o$ sudha.
p ivileges
SQL-
"" 7ou !an evo&e all p ivileges
USIN8 (LI(S'S
CR'(T' 6IT: S'L'CT 6e !an ! eate a ta%le using e/isting ta%le Nalong with dataO5
S7nta/0 C eate ta%le ,new_table_name- Ncol1, col2, col3 ... colnO as sele!t E f o$ ,old_table_name-. '/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le student2 as sele!t E f o$ student.
C eating ta%le with 7ou own !olu$n na$es5
23
SQL-
! eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a &s) as sele!t E f o$ student.
C eating ta%le with spe!ified !olu$ns5

SQL-
! eate ta%le student4 as sele!t no#na$e f o$ student.
C eating ta%le with out ta%le data5

SQL-
! eate ta%le student1(sno# sna$e# s$a &s) as sele!t E f o$ student whe e
2 H 1. In the a%ove whe e !lause give an7 !ondition whi!h does not satisf75 INS'RT 6IT: S'L'CT
Using this we !an inse t e/isting ta%le data to a anothe ta%le in a single t ip5 )ut the ta%le st u!tu e should %e sa$e5
S7nta/0 Inse t into ,table1- sele!t E f o$ ,table2-.
'/0
SQL-
inse t into student2 sele!t E f o$ student.
Inse ting data into spe!ified !olu$ns

SQL-
inse t into student2(no# na$e) sele!t no# na$e f o$ student.
COLUMN (LI(S'S
S7nta/0 $elect %or"inal_col& %alia!_name& 'rom %tableMna$e-.
'/0
SQL-
sele!t no sno f o$ student. o sele!t no PsnoQ f o$ student.
SQL-
T()L' (LI(S'S
If 7ou a e using ta%le aliases 7ou !an use dot $ethod to the !olu$ns5
S7nta/0 Sele!t ,alia!_name-5,col1-# ,alia!_name-5,col2- R ,alia!_name-5,colnf o$ ,table_name- ,alia!_name-. '/0

SQL-
sele!t s5no# s5na$e f o$ student s.
USIN8 M'R8'
M'R8' *ou !an use $e ge !o$$and to pe fo $ inse t and update in a single !o$$and5 '/0
25
SQL-
Me ge into student2 s2 Using (sele!t EB o$ student1) s1 On(s25noHs15no) 6hen $at!hed then Update set $a &s H s15$a &s 6hen not $at!hed then Inse t (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a &s) 9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15$a &s).
In the a%ove the two ta%les a e with the sa$e st u!tu e %ut we !an $e ge diffe ent st u!tu ed ta%les also %ut the datat7pe of the !olu$ns should $at!h5
(ssu$e that student2 has !olu$ns li&e no#na$e#$a &s and student1 has !olu$ns li&e no# na$e# hno# !it75
SQL-
Me ge into student2 s2 Using (sele!t EB o$ student1) s1 On(s25noHs15no) 6hen $at!hed then Update set $a &s H s15hno 6hen not $at!hed then Inse t (s25no#s25na$e#s25$a &s) 9alues(s15no#s15na$e#s15hno).
MULTIAL' INS'RTS
6e have ta%le !alled D'AT with the following !olu$ns and data
D'ATNO """""""" 23 13 43 @3
DN(M' """""""" a!!ounting esea !h sales ope ations
LOC """" new 7o & dallas Chi!ago %oston
a)
CR'(T' STUD'NT T()L'
SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)#$a &s nu$%e (4)).
%)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: (LL BI'LDS
SQL-
Inse t all Into student values(2#;a;#233) Into student values(1#;%;#133) Into student values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptnoH23.
"" This inse ts 4 ows
!)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: SA'CIBI'D BI'LDS
SQL-
inse t all Into student (no#na$e) values(@#;d;) Into student(na$e#$a &s) values(;e;#@33) Into student values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptnoH23.
d)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: DUALIC(T' RO6S
SQL-
inse t all
27
Into student values(2#;a;#233) Into student values(1#;%;#133) Into student values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptno - 23.
"" This inse ts S ows %e!ause in the sele!t state$ent et ieves 4 e!o ds (4 inse ts fo ea!h ow et ieved)
e)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D
SQL-
Inse t all 6hen deptno - 23 then Into student2 values(2#;a;#233) 6hen dna$e H KS(L'S; then Into student1 values(1#;%;#133) 6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then Into student4 values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptno-23.
"" This !ondition
inse ts @
ows %e!ause the fi st !ondition satisfied 4 ti$es# se!ond
satisfied on!e and the last none5
f)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D (ND 'LS'
SQL-
Inse t all 6hen deptno - 233 then Into student2 values(2#;a;#233) 6hen dna$e H KS; then Into student1 values(1#;%;#133) 6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then Into student4 values(4#;!;#433) 'lse Into student values(@#;d;#@33)
Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptno-23.
"" This inse ts 4 e!o ds %e!ause the else satisfied 4 ti$es
g)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D (ND BIRST
SQL-
Inse t fi st 6hen deptno H 13 then Into student2 values(2#;a;#233) 6hen dna$e H KR'S'(RC:; then Into student1 values(1#;%;#133) 6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then Into student4 values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptnoH13.
"" This inse ts 2 e!o d %e!ause the fi st !lause avoid to !he!& the e$aining !onditions on!e the !ondition is satisfied5
h)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: CONDITIONS )(S'D# BIRST (ND 'LS'
SQL-
Inse t fi st 6hen deptno H 43 then Into student2 values(2#;a;#233) 6hen dna$e H KR; then Into student1 values(1#;%;#133) 6hen lo! H KN'6 *ORF; then Into student4 values(4#;!;#433) 'lse Into student values(@#;d;#@33) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptnoH13.
"" This inse ts 2 e!o d %e!ause the else !lause satisfied on!e
29
i)
MULTI INS'RT 6IT: MULTI)L' T()L'S
SQL-
Inse t all Into student2 values(2#;a;#233) Into student1 values(1#;%;#133) Into student4 values(4#;!;#433) Sele!t Ef o$ dept whe e deptnoH23.
EE *ou !an use $ulti ta%les with spe!ified fields# with dupli!ate !onditions# with fi st and else !lauses5
ows# with
BUNCTIONS
Bun!tions !an %e !atego iTed as follows5
1 1
Single ow fun!tions 8 oup fun!tions
SIN8L' RO6 BUNCTIONS
Single ow fun!tions !an %e !atego iTed into five5 These will %e applied fo ea!h ow and p odu!es individual output fo ea!h ow5
1 1 1 1 1
Nu$e i! fun!tions St ing fun!tions Date fun!tions Mis!ellaneous fun!tions Conve sion fun!tions
NUM'RIC BUNCTIONS
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(%s Sign SU t Mod Nvl Aowe '/p Ln Log Ceil Bloo Round T un& )itand 8 eatest Least
31
1
a)
()S
Coales!e
(%solute value is the $easu e of the $agnitude of value5 (%solute value is alwa7s a positive nu$%e 5
S7nta/0 a%s (value)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t a%s(C)# a%s("C)# a%s(3)# a%s(null) f o$ dual.
()S(C) C
()S("C) C
()S(3) ()S(NULL) """""""""" """"""""""""" 3
"""""""""" """"""""""
%)
SI8N
Sign gives the sign of a value5
S7nta/0 sign (value)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t sign(C)# sign("C)# sign(3)# sign(null) f o$ dual.
SI8N(C) """""""""" 2
SI8N("C) """""""""" "2
SI8N(3) SI8N(NULL) """""""""" """""""""""""" 3
!)
SQRT
This will give the sUua e oot of the given value5
S7nta/0 sU t (value)
"" he e value $ust %e positive5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t sU t(@)# sU t(3)# sU t(null)# sU t(2) f o$ dual. SQRT(@) """""""""" 1 SQRT(3) SQRT(NULL) """""""""" """"""""""""""" 3 SQRT(2) """""""""" 2
d)
MOD
This will give the e$ainde 5
S7nta/0 $od (value, divi!or)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t $od(V#@)# $od(2#C)# $od(null# null )# $od(3#3)# $od("V#@) f o$
dual.
MOD(V#@) """""""""""" 4
MOD(2#C) MOD(NULL#NULL) """""""""" """"""""""""""""""""" 2
MOD(3#3) MOD("V#@) """"""""""" """"""""""""" 3 "4
e)
N9L
This will su%stitutes the spe!ified value in the pla!e of null values5
S7nta/0 nvl (null_col, replacement_value)
'/0
SQL-
"" he e fo 4 d ow $a &s value is null
NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 4 a % !
M(RFS """"""""" 233 133
33
SQL-
sele!t no# na$e# nvl($a &s#433) f o$ student.
NO N(M' N9L(M(RFS#433) """ """"""" """"""""""""""""""""" 2 1 4 a % ! 233 133 433
SQL-
sele!t nvl(2#1)# nvl(1#4)# nvl(@#4)# nvl(C#@) f o$ dual.
N9L(2#1) """""""""" 2
N9L(1#4) """""""""" 1
N9L(@#4) """""""""" @
N9L(C#@) """""""""" C
SQL-
sele!t nvl(3#3)# nvl(2#2)# nvl(null#null)# nvl(@#@) f o$ dual. N9L(3#3) """""""""" 3 N9L(2#2) N9L(null#null) N9L(@#@) """""""""" """"""""""""""""" 2 """""""""" @
f)
AO6'R
Aowe is the a%ilit7 to aise a value to a given e/ponent5
S7nta/0 powe (value, e(ponent)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t powe (1#C)# powe (3#3)# powe (2#2)# powe (null#null)# powe (1#" f o$ dual. AO6'R (1# C) AO6'R (3# 3) AO6'R (2# 2) AO6'R (NULL# NULL)
C)
AO6'R (1#"C)
"""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"" """"""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""" 41 53421C 2 2
g)
'+A
This will aise e value to the give powe 5
S7nta/0 e/p (value) '/0

SQL-
sele!t e/p (2)# e/p (1)# e/p (3)# e/p (null)# e/p ("1) f o$ dual.
'+A(2) """"""""
'+A(1) """""""""
'+A(3) '+A(NULL) """""""" """"""""""""" 2
'+A("1) """""""""" 524C44C1W4
15V2W1W2W4 V54WS3CD2
h)
LN
This is %ased on natu al o %ase e loga ith$5
S7nta/0 ln (value) onl75
"" he e value $ust %e g eate than Te o whi!h is positive
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ln (2)# ln (1)# ln (null) f o$ dual.
LN (2) """"""" 3
LN (1) """"""" 5DS42@V2W2
LN (NULL) """"""""""""
Ln and '/p a e e!ip o!al to ea!h othe 5

'+A LN
(4) H 1353WCC4DS
(1353WCC4DS) H 4
35
i)
LO8
This is %ased on 23 %ased loga ith$5
S7nta/0 log (23# value) "" he e value $ust %e g eate than Te o whi!h is positive onl75
'/0
SQL-
sele!t log(23#233)# log(23#1)# log(23#2)# log(23#null) f o$ dual.
LO8(23#233) LO8(23#1) LO8(23#2) LO8(23#NULL) """"""""""""""" 1 """"""""""" 543231SSSD """""""""""" """"""""""""""""" 3
LN
(value) H
LO8
('+A(2)# value)
SQL-
sele!t ln(4)# log(e/p(2)#4) f o$ dual.
LN (4) """""""
LO8('+A(2)#4) """"""""""""""""" 253SWD211S
253SWD211S
J)
C'IL
This will p odu!e a whole nu$%e that is g eate than o eUual to the spe!ified value5
S7nta/0 !eil (value)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !eil (C)# !eil (C52)# !eil ("C)# !eil ("C52)# !eil (3)# !eil (null) f o$
dual.
C'IL (C) C'IL (C52) """"""""" """"""""""" C &)

BLOOR
C'IL ("C) C'IL ("C52) """""""""" """""""""""" "C "C
C'IL (3) 'IL(NULL) """""""" """""""""""""" 3
This will p odu!e a whole nu$%e that is less than o eUual to the spe!ified value5
S7nta/0 floo (value)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t floo (C)# floo (C52)# floo ("C)# floo ( "C52)# floo (3)# floo (null) dual.
f o$
BLOOR (C) BLOOR (C52) BLOOR ("C) BLOOR ("C52) (NULL) """"""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""" C l)
ROUND
BLOOR (3) BLOOR
"""""""""""" """""""""""""" "C "D
""""""""""" 3
This will ounds nu$%e s to a given nu$%e of digits of p e!ision5
S7nta/0 ound (value, preci!ion)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ound (214514@C)# ound (214514@C# 1)# ound (214514C@)# 1)
f o$ dual.
37
ROUND (214514@C) ROUND (214514@C# 3) ROUND (214514@C# 1) ROUND (214514C@#1) """"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" 214 21451@ 214 214514 """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
SQL-
sele!t ound (214514@C#"2)# ound (214514@C#"1)# ound(214514@C#"4)#
Round (214514@C#"@) f o$ dual. ROUND (214514@C#"2) ROUND (214514@C#"1) ROUND(214514@C#"4) ROUND(214514@C#"@) """""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" 213 3 233 3
SQL-
sele!t ound (214#3)# ound(214#2)# ound(214#1) f o$ dual.
ROUND (214#3) ROUND(214#2) ROUND(214#1) """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 214 214 214
SQL-
sele!t ound ("214#3)# ound("214#2)# ound("214#1) f o$ dual.
ROUND ("214# 3) ROUND ("214# 2) ROUND ("214#1) """""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" "214 "214 """"""""""""""""""" "214
SQL-
sele!t ound(214#"2)# ound(214#"1)# ound(214#"4)# ound("214#"2)# "214#"1)# ound("214#"4) f o$ dual.
ound(
ROUND(214#"2) ROUND(214#"1) ROUND(214#"4) ROUND("214#"2) ROUND(" 214#"1) ROUND("214#"4) """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""" 213 233 3 "213 "233 3
SQL- sele!t ound(null#null)# ound(3#3)# ound(2#2)# ound("2#"2)# ound(" 1#"1) f o$ dual.
ROUND(NULL#NULL) ROUND(3#3) ROUND(2#2) ROUND("2#"2) ROUND("1#"1) """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 3 $) 2 3 3
TRUNC
This will t un!ates o !hops off digits of p e!ision f o$ a nu$%e 5
S7nta/0 t un! (value, preci!ion)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t t un!(214514@C)# t un!(214514@C#1)# t un!(214514C@#1) f o$
dual.
TRUNC(214514@C) TRUNC(214514@C#1) TRUNC(214514C@#1) """"""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" 214 214514 214514
SQL-
sele!t t un!(214514@C#"2)# t un!(214514@C#"1)# t un!(214514@C#"4)# t un!(214514@C#"@) f o$ dual.
39
TRUNC(214514@C#"2) TRUNC(214514@C#"1) TRUNC(214514@C#"4) TRUNC(214514@C#"@) """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" 213 233 3 3 """""""""""""""""""""""
SQL-
sele!t t un!(214#3)# t un!(214#2)# t un!(214#1) f o$ dual.
TRUNC(214#3) TRUNC(214#2) TRUNC(214#1) """""""""""""""" 214 """""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" 214 214
SQL-
sele!t t un!("214#3)# t un!("214#2)# t un!("214#1) f o$ dual.
TRUNC("214#3) TRUNC("214#2) TRUNC("214#1) """"""""""""""""" "214 """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" "214 "214
SQL-
sele!t t un!(214#"2)# t un!(214#"1)# t un!(214#"4)# t un!("214#"2)# "214#1)# t un!("214#"4) f o$ dual.
t un!(
TRUNC(214#"2) TRUNC(214#"1) TRUNC(214#"4) TRUNC("214#"2) TRUNC("214#1) TRUNC(" 214#"4) """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 213 233 3 "213 "214 3
SQL-
sele!t t un!(null#null)# t un!(3#3)# t un!(2#2)# t un!("2#"2)# t un!("1#"1)
f o$
dual.
TRUNC(NULL#NULL) TRUNC(3#3) TRUNC(2#2) TRUNC("2#"2) TRUNC(" 1#"1) """"""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 3 2 3 3
n)
)IT(ND
This will pe fo $ %itwise and ope ation5
S7nta/0 %itand (value1, value2)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t %itand(1#4)# %itand(3#3)# %itand(2#2)# %itand(null#null)# %itand(" f o$ dual. )IT(ND(1#4) )IT(ND(3#3) )IT(ND(2#2) )IT(ND(NULL#NULL)
1#"4)
)IT(ND("1#"4) """""""""""""" """"""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""""" 1 "@ 3 2 """"""""""""""""""""""""
o)
8R'(T'ST
This will give the g eatest nu$%e 5
S7nta/0 g eatest (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t g eatest(2# 1# 4)# g eatest("2# "1# "4) f o$ dual.
41
8R'(T'ST(2#1#4) 8R'(T'ST("2#"1#"4) """""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" 4 "2
1 1 1
p)
L'(ST
If all the values a e Te os then it will displa7 Te o5 If all the pa a$ete s a e nulls then it will displa7 nothing5 If an7 of the pa a$ete s is null it will displa7 nothing5
This will give the least nu$%e 5
S7nta/0 least (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t least(2# 1# 4)# least("2# "1# "4) f o$ dual.
L'(ST(2#1#4) 2
L'(ST("2#"1#"4) "4
"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""
4 4 4
U)
If all the values a e Te os then it will displa7 Te o5 If all the pa a$ete s a e nulls then it will displa7 nothing5 If an7 of the pa a$ete s is null it will displa7 nothing5
CO(L'SC'
This will etu n fi st non"null value5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (value1, value2, value3 valuen)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !oales!e(2#1#4)# !oales!e(null#1#null#C) f o$ dual.
CO(L'SC'(2#1#4) CO(L'SC'(NULL#1#NULL#C)
""""""""""""""""""" 2
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1
STRIN8 BUNCTIONS
18 Init!ap 18 Uppe 18 Lowe 18 Length 18 Rpad 18 Lpad 18 Lt i$ 18 Rt i$ 18 T i$ 18 T anslate 18 Repla!e 18 Sounde/ 18 Con!at ( K XX K Con!atenation ope ato ) 18 (s!ii 18 Ch 18 Su%st 18 Inst 18 De!ode 18 8 eatest 18 Least 18 Coales!e
a)
INITC(A
This will !apitaliTe the initial lette of the st ing5
S7nta/0 init!ap (!trin")
43
'/0
SQL-
sele!t init!ap(=!o$pute =) f o$ dual.
INITC(A """"""""""" Co$pute
%)
UAA'R
This will !onve t the st ing into uppe !ase5
S7nta/0 uppe (!trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t uppe (=!o$pute =) f o$ dual. UAA'R """""""""""

COMAUT'R
!)
LO6'R
This will !onve t the st ing into lowe !ase5
S7nta/0 lowe (!trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t lowe (=COMAUT'R=) f o$ dual.
LO6'R """"""""""" !o$pute
d)
L'N8T:
This will give length of the st ing5
S7nta/0 length (!trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t length(=!o$pute =) f o$ dual.
L'N8T: """"""""""" W
e)
RA(D
This will allows 7ou to pad the ight side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !ha a!te s5
S7nta/0 pad (!trin", len"t) *, paddin"_c)ar+)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t pad(=!o$pute =#2C#=E=)# pad(=!o$pute =#2C#=EY=) f o$ dual.
RA(D(=COMAUT'R= RA(D(=COMAUT'R= """""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""" !o$pute EEEEEEE !o$pute EYEYEYE
"" Default padding !ha a!te was %lan& spa!e5
f)
LA(D
This will allows 7ou to pad the left side of a !olu$n with an7 set of !ha a!te s5 S7nta/0 lpad (!trin", len"t) *, paddin"_c)ar+)
'/0
45
SQL-
sele!t lpad(=!o$pute =#2C#=E=)# lpad(=!o$pute =#2C#=EY=) f o$ dual.
LA(D(=COMAUT'R= LA(D(=COMAUT'R= """"""""""""""""""""" EEEEEEE!o$pute """"""""""""""""""""" EYEYEYE!o$pute
"" Default padding !ha a!te was %lan& spa!e5
g)
LTRIM
This will t i$ off unwanted !ha a!te s f o$ the left end of st ing5
S7nta/0 lt i$ (!trin" *,unwanted_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t lt i$(=!o$pute =#=!o=)# lt i$(=!o$pute =#=!o$=) f o$ dual.
LTRIM( LTRIM """""""" """"""""" $pute pute
SQL-
sele!t lt i$(=!o$pute =#=pute =)# lt i$(=!o$pute =#=o$pute =) f o$ dual.
LTRIM(=C LTRIM(=C """""""""" !o$pute """""""""" !o$pute
"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !ha a!te s it will displa7 enti e st ing5
h)
RTRIM
This will t i$ off unwanted !ha a!te s f o$ the ight end of st ing5 S7nta/0 t i$ (!trin" *, unwanted_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t t i$(=!o$pute =#=e =)# t i$(=!o$pute =#=te =) f o$ dual. RTRIM( RTRIM """""""" """"""""" !o$put !o$pu
SQL-
sele!t t i$(=!o$pute =#=!o$put;)# t i$(=!o$pute =#=!o$pute=) f o$
dual.
RTRIM(=C RTRIM(=C """""""""" !o$pute st ing5 """""""""" !o$pute
"" If 7ou haven;t spe!if7 an7 unwanted !ha a!te s it will displa7 enti e
i)
TRIM
This will t i$ off unwanted !ha a!te s f o$ the %oth sides of st ing5
S7nta/0 t i$ (unwanted_c)ar! f o$ !trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t t i$( =i= f o$ =indiani=) f o$ dual.
TRIM( """"" ndian sele!t t i$( leading=i= f o$ =indiani=) f o$ dual."" this will
SQL-
wo & as
LTRIM
TRIM(L """"""
47
ndiani
SQL-
sele!t t i$( t ailing=i= f o$ =indiani=) f o$ dual.
"" this will wo & as
RTRIM
TRIM(T """""" Indian
J)
TR(NSL(T'
This will epla!e the set of !ha a!te s# !ha a!te %7 !ha a!te 5
S7nta/0 t anslate (!trin", old_c)ar!, new_c)ar!)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t t anslate(=india=#=in=#=/7=) f o$ dual.
TR(NS """""""" /7d/a &)

R'AL(C'
This will epla!e the set of !ha a!te s# st ing %7 st ing5
S7nta/0 epla!e (!trin", old_c)ar! *, new_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t epla!e(=india=#=in=#=/7=)# epla!e(Kindia;#;in;) f o$ dual.
R'AL(C'
R'AL(C'
""""""""""" """""""""""
+7dia
dia
l)
SOUND'+
This will %e used to find wo ds that sound li&e othe wo ds# e/!lusivel7 used in whe e !lause5 S7nta/0 sounde/ (!trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sounde/(ena$e) H sounde/(=SMIT=).
'MANO 'N(M' """""""" """""""" V4DS SMIT:
>O) """"" CL'RF
M8R :IR'D(T' """"" """""""""""" VS31 2V"D'C"W3
S(L C33
D'ATNO 13
""""""""" """"""""""
$)
CONC(T
This will %e used to !o$%ine two st ings onl75
S7nta/0 !on!at (!trin"1, !trin"2)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !on!at(=!o$pute =#= ope ato =) f o$ dual.
CONC(T(=COMAUT'R= """"""""""""""""""""""""" !o$pute ope ato
If 7ou want to !o$%ine $o e than two st ings 7ou have to use !on!atenation ope ato (XX)5
SQL-
sele!t =how= XX = a e= XX = 7ou= f o$ dual.
49
=:O6=XX=(R' """"""""""""""" how a e 7ou
n)
(SCII
This will etu n the de!i$al ep esentation in the data%ase !ha a!te set of the fi st !ha a!te of the st ing5
S7nta/0 as!ii (!trin")
'/0
SQL-
sele!t as!ii(=a=)# as!ii(=apple=) f o$ dual.
(SCII(=(=) (SCII(=(AAL'=) """""""""""" """""""""""""""""" SV SV
o)
C:R
This will etu n the !ha a!te having the %ina 7 eUuivalent to the st ing in eithe the data%ase !ha a!te set o the national !ha a!te set5
S7nta/0 !h (number)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !h (SV) f o$ dual.
C:R """"" a
p)
SU)STR
This will %e used to e/t a!t su%st ings5
S7nta/0 su%st (!trin", !tart_c)r_count *, no_o'_c)ar!+)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t su%st (=!o$pute =#1)# su%st (=!o$pute =#1#C)# f o$ dual.
su%st (=!o$pute =#4#V)
SU)STR( SU)ST SU)STR """""""""" """"""" """""""" o$pute o$put $pute
1 1 1 1
If no_o'_c)ar! pa a$ete is negative then it will displa7 nothing5 If %oth pa a$ete s e/!ept !trin" a e null o Te os then it will displa7 nothing5 If no_o'_c)ar! pa a$ete is g eate than the length of the st ing then it igno es and !al!ulates %ased on the o ginal st ing length5 If !tart_c)r_count is negative then it will e/t a!t the su%st ing f o$ ight end5 2 C "W 1 O "V 4 M "D @ A "C C U "@ D T "4 V ' "1 W R "2
U)
INSTR
This will allows 7ou fo sea !hing th ough a st ing fo set of !ha a!te s5
S7nta/0 inst (!trin", !earc)_!tr *, !tart_c)r_count *, occurrence+ +)
51
'/0
SQL-
sele!t inst (=info $ation=#=o=#@#2)# inst (=info $ation=#=o=#@#1) f o$ dual.
INSTR(=INBORM(TION=#=O=#@#2) INSTR(=INBORM(TION=#=O=#@#1) """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @ 23
If 7ou a e not spe!if7ing !tart_c)r_count and occurrence then it will sta t sea !h f o$ the %eginning and finds fi st o!!u en!e onl75
If %oth pa a$ete s !tart_c)r_count and occurrence a e null# it will displa7 nothing5
D'COD'
De!ode will a!t as value %7 value su%stitution5 Bo eve 7 value of field# it will !he!&s fo a $at!h in a se ies of if?then tests5
S7nta/0 de!ode (value,,,,,, t)en1, i'2, t)en2, . el!e).
'/0
SQL-
sele!t sal# de!ode(sal#C33#=Low=#C333#=:igh=#=Mediu$=) f o$ e$p.
S(L """"" C33 1C33 1333 4C33 4333 C333 @333 C333
D'COD' """"""""" Low Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$ :igh Mediu$ :igh
2W33 2133 1333 1V33 1133 4133
Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$ Mediu$
SQL-
sele!t de!ode(2#2#4)# de!ode(2#1#4#@#@#D) f o$ dual.
D'COD'(2#2#4) D'COD'(2#1#4#@#@#D) """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""" 4 D
If the nu$%e of pa a$ete s a e odd and diffe ent then de!ode will displa7 nothing5
If the nu$%e of pa a$ete s a e even and diffe ent then de!ode will displa7 last value5
3 3
s)
If all the pa a$ete s a e null then de!ode will displa7 nothing5 If all the pa a$ete s a e Te os then de!ode will displa7 Te o5
8R'(T'ST
This will give the g eatest st ing5
S7nta/0 g eatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t g eatest(=a=# =%=# =!=)# g eatest(=satish=#=s inu=#=sa&eth=) f o$ dual.
8R'(T 8R'(T """"""" """"""" ! s inu
53
7 7
t)
L'(ST
If all the pa a$ete s a e nulls then it will displa7 nothing5 If an7 of the pa a$ete s is null it will displa7 nothing5
This will give the least st ing5
S7nta/0 g eatest (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t least(=a=# =%=# =!=)# least(=satish=#=s inu=#=sa&eth=) f o$ dual.
L'(ST L'(ST """"""" """"""" a sa&eth
9 9
u)
If all the pa a$ete s a e nulls then it will displa7 nothing5 If an7 of the pa a$ete s is null it will displa7 nothing5
CO(L'SC'
This will gives the fi st non"null st ing5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (!trn"1, !trin"2, !trin"3 !trin"n)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !oales!e(=a=#=%=#=!=)# !oales!e(null#=a=#null#=%=) f o$ dual.
CO(L'SC' CO(L'SC' """"""""""" a """"""""""" a
D(T' BUNCTIONS
39 S7sdate 39 Cu entMdate 39 Cu entMti$esta$p 39 S7sti$esta$p 39 Lo!alti$esta$p 39 D%ti$eTone 39 Sessionti$eTone 39 ToM!ha 39 ToMdate 39 (ddM$onths 39 MonthsM%etween 39 Ne/tMda7 39 LastMda7 39 '/t a!t 39 8 eatest 39 Least 39 Round 39 T un! 39 NewMti$e 39 Coales!e
O a!le default date fo $at is !o$$and5
DD"MON"**5
6e !an !hange the default fo $at to ou desi ed fo $at %7 using the following
SQL-
alte session set nlsMdateMfo $at H KDD"MONT:"****;. )ut this will e/pi e on!e the session was !losed5
a)
S*SD(T'
55
This will give the !u ent date and ti$e5 '/0

SQL-
sele!t s7sdate f o$ dual.
S*SD(T' """"""""""" 1@"D'C"3D
%)
CURR'NTMD(T'
This will etu ns the !u ent date in the session;s ti$eTone5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !u entMdate f o$ dual.
CURR'NTMD(T' """""""""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D
!)
CURR'NTMTIM'ST(MA
This will etu ns the !u ent ti$esta$p with the a!tive ti$e Tone info $ation5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !u entMti$esta$p f o$ dual.
CURR'NTMTIM'ST(MA """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D 345@15@254W44DS (M G3C043
d)
S*STIM'ST(MA
This will etu ns the s7ste$ date# in!luding f a!tional se!onds and ti$e Tone of the data%ase5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t s7sti$esta$p f o$ dual. S*STIM'ST(MA """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D 345@S5425W433SS (M G3C043
e)
LOC(LTIM'ST(MA
This will etu ns lo!al ti$esta$p in the a!tive ti$e Tone info $ation# with no ti$e Tone info $ation shown5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t lo!alti$esta$p f o$ dual. LOC(LTIM'ST(MA """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D 345@@52W5C31WV@ (M
f)
D)TIM'ZON'
This will etu ns the !u ent data%ase ti$e Tone in UTC fo $at5 (Coo dinated Unive sal Ti$e)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t d%ti$eTone f o$ dual. D)TIM'ZON' """"""""""""""" "3V033
g)
S'SSIONTIM'ZON'
57
This will etu ns the value of the !u ent session;s ti$e Tone5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t sessionti$eTone f o$ dual.
S'SSIONTIM'ZON' """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" G3C043
h)
TOMC:(R
This will %e used to e/t a!t va ious date fo $ats5 The availa%le date fo $ats as follows5
S7nta/0 toM!ha (date# 'ormat)
D(T' BORM(TS
D DD DDD MM MON MONT: RM D* D(* * ** *** **** S**** I
"" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" ""
No of da7s in wee& No of da7s in $onth No of da7s in 7ea No of $onth Th ee lette a%% eviation of $onth Bull7 spelled out $onth Ro$an nu$e al $onth Th ee lette a%% eviated da7 Bull7 spelled out da7 Last one digit of the 7ea Last two digits of the 7ea Last th ee digits of the 7ea Bull fou digit 7ea Signed 7ea One digit 7ea f o$ ISO standa d
I* I** I*** *# *** *'(R CC Q 6 66 I6 :: MI SS BB (M (5M (D (5D BM
"" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" o o o o
AM A5M )C )5C
Two digit 7ea f o$ ISO standa d Th ee digit 7ea f o$ ISO standa d Bou digit 7ea f o$ ISO standa d *ea with !o$$a Bull7 spelled out 7ea Centu 7 No of Uua te s No of wee&s in $onth No of wee&s in 7ea No of wee&s in 7ea f o$ ISO standa d :ou s Minutes Se!onds B a!tional se!onds Displa7s (M o AM depending upon ti$e of da7 Displa7s (5M o A5M depending upon ti$e of da7 Displa7s (D o )C depending upon the date Displa7s (D o )C depending upon the date A efi/ to $onth o da7# supp esses padding of $onth o Suffi/ to a nu$%e suffi/ to a nu$%e to %e spelled out Suffi/ !o$%ination of T: and SA to %e %oth spelled out sa$e as SAT:
"" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" ""
da7
T: SA SAT: T:SA
'/0
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=dd $onth 7777 hh0$i0ss a$ d7=) f o$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DD MONT: ****::0MI """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de!e$%e 133D 31034014 p$ sun
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=dd $onth 7ea =) f o$ dual.
59
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDMONT:*'(R=) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=dd f$$onth 7ea =) f o$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DD BMMONT: *'(R=) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de!e$%e two thousand si/
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=ddth DDT:=) f o$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S """""""""""" 1@th 1@T:
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=ddspth DDSAT:=) f o$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDSAT:DDSAT: """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" twent7"fou th T6'NT*"BOURT:
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (s7sdate#=ddsp Ddsp DDSA =) f o$ dual.
TOMC:(R(S*SD(T'#=DDSADDSADDSA=) """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" twent7"fou Twent7"Bou T6'NT*"BOUR
i)
TOMD(T'
This will %e used to !onve t the st ing into data fo $at5
S7nta/0 toMdate (date)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (toMdate(=1@?de!?133D=#=dd?$on?7777=)# =dd E $onth E f o$ dual.
da7=)
TOMC:(R(TOMD(T'(=1@?D'C?13 """""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ E de!e$%e E Sunda7
"" If 7ou a e not using toM!ha o a!le will displa7 output in default date fo $at5 J)
(DDMMONT:S
This will add the spe!ified $onths to the given date5
S7nta/0 addM$onths (date, no_o'_mont)!)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t addM$onths(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# C) f o$
dual.
(DDMMONT:S """""""""""""""" 22">UN"S3
SQL-
sele!t addM$onths(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# "C) f o$
dual.
(DDMMONT: """"""""""""""" 22"(U8"WS
If no_o'_mont)! is Te o then it will displa7 the sa$e date5
61
1
&)
If no_o'_mont)! is null then it will displa7 nothing5
MONT:SM)'T6''N
This will give diffe en!e of $onths %etween two dates5
S7nta/0 $onthsM%etween (date1, date2)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t $onthsM%etween(toMdate(=22"aug"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)) f o$ dual.
toMdate(=22"
MONT:SM)'T6''N(TOMD(T'(=22"(U8"2SS3=#=DD"MON" ****=)#TOMD(T'(=22">(N"2SS3=#=DD"MON"****=)) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""" V

SQL-
sele!t $onthsM%etween(toMdate(=22"Jan"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)# aug"2SS3=#=dd"$on"7777=)) f o$ dual.
toMdate(=22"
MONT:SM)'T6''N(TOMD(T'(=22">(N"2SS3=#=DD"MON" ****=)#TOMD(T'(=22"(U8"2SS3=#=DD"MON"****=)) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""" "V
l)
N'+TMD(*
This will p odu!e ne/t da7 of the given da7 f o$ the spe!ified date5
S7nta/0 ne/tMda7 (date, day)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ne/tMda7(toMdate(=1@"de!"133D=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) f o$ dual.
N'+TMD(*( """"""""""""" 42"D'C"3D
"" If the da7 pa a$ete is null then it will displa7 nothing5
$)
L(STMD(*
This will p odu!e last da7 of the given date5
S7nta/0 lastMda7 (date)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t lastMda7(toMdate(=1@"de!"133D=#=dd"$on"7777=)#=sun=) f o$ dual. L(STMD(*( """"""""""""" 42"D'C"3D
n)
'+TR(CT
This is used to e/t a!t a po tion of the date value5
S7nta/0 e/t a!t ((7ea X $onth X da7 X hou X $inute X se!ond)# date)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e/t a!t(7ea f o$ s7sdate) f o$ dual. '+TR(CT(*'(RBROMS*SD(T') """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 133D
63
"" *ou !an e/t a!t onl7 one value at a ti$e5
o)
8R'(T'ST
This will give the g eatest date5
S7nta/0 g eatest (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t g eatest(toMdate(=22"Jan"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)#toMdate(=22"$a " $on"77=)#toMdate(=22"ap "S3=#=dd"$on"77=)) f o$ dual. 8R'(T'ST( """"""""""""" 22"(AR"S3
S3=#=dd"
p)
L'(ST
This will give the least date5 S7nta/0 least (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t least(toMdate(=22"Jan"S3=#=dd"$on"77=)#toMdate(=22"$a "S3=#=dd" 77=)#toMdate(=22"ap "S3=#=dd"$on"77=)) f o$ dual.
$on"
L'(ST( """"""""""""" 22">(N"S3
U)
ROUND
Round will ounds the date to whi!h it was eUual to o g eate than the given date5
S7nta/0 ound (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea ))
If the se!ond pa a$ete was year then ound will !he!&s the $onth of the given date in the following anges5
>(N >UL
"" ""
>UN D'C
If the $onth falls %etween >(N and >UN then it etu ns the fi st da7 of the !u ent 7ea 5 If the $onth falls %etween >UL and D'C then it etu ns the fi st da7 of the ne/t 7ea 5 If the se!ond pa a$ete was mont) then ound will !he!&s the da7 of the given date in the following anges5
2 2D
"" ""
2C 42
If the da7 falls %etween 2 and 2C then it etu ns the fi st da7 of the !u ent $onth5 If the da7 falls %etween 2D and 42 then it etu ns the fi st da7 of the ne/t $onth5 If the se!ond pa a$ete was day then ound will !he!&s the wee& da7 of the given date in the following anges5
SUN T:U
"" ""
6'D SUN
65
If the wee& da7 falls %etween SUN and 6'D then it etu ns the p evious sunda75 If the wee&da7 falls %etween T:U and SUN then it etu ns the ne/t sunda75
1 1 1
If the se!ond pa a$ete was null then it etu ns nothing5 If the 7ou a e not spe!if7ing the se!ond pa a$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the %egining of the !u ent da7 in !ase of use spe!ified date5 If the 7ou a e not spe!if7ing the se!ond pa a$ete then ound will esets the ti$e to the %egining of the ne/t da7 in !ase of s7sdate5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ound(toMdate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea =)# 3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea =) f o$ dual.
ound(toMdate(=22"$a "
ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM """""""""""" 32">(N"3C """"""""""""""" 32">(N"3D
SQL-
sele!t ound(toMdate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)# Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) f o$ dual. ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM """"""""""""" """"""""""""""" 32">(N"3@ 32"B')"3@
ound(toMdate(=2W"
SQL-
sele!t ound(toMdate(=1D"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# 3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) f o$ dual. ROUND(TOM ROUND(TOM """""""""""""" """""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D 42"D'C"3D
ound(toMdate(=1S"de!"
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha ( ound(toMdate(=1@"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss a$=) f o$ dual. TOMC:(R(ROUND(TOMD(T'(= """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de! 133D 21033033 a$
TRUNC
T un! will !hops off the date to whi!h it was eUual to o less than the given date5
S7nta/0 t un! (date, (da7 X $onth X 7ea ))
1 1 1 1 1
If the se!ond pa a$ete was year then it alwa7s etu ns the fi st da7 of the !u ent 7ea 5 If the se!ond pa a$ete was mont) then it alwa7s etu ns the fi st da7 of the !u ent $onth5 If the se!ond pa a$ete was day then it alwa7s etu ns the p evious sunda75 If the se!ond pa a$ete was null then it etu ns nothing5 If the 7ou a e not spe!if7ing the se!ond pa a$ete then t un& will esets the ti$e to the %egining of the !u ent da75
'/0
SQL-
sele!t t un!(toMdate(=1@"de!"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea =)# 3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=7ea =) f o$ dual.
t un!(toMdate(=22"$a "
TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM """"""""""""" """""""""""""" 32">(N"3@ 32">(N"3D
SQL-
sele!t t un!(toMdate(=22"Jan"3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=)#
t un!(toMdate(=2W"Jan"
67
3@=#=dd"$on"77=)#=$onth=) f o$ dual.
TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM """"""""""""" """"""""""""" 32">(N"3@ 32">(N"3@
SQL-
sele!t t un!(toMdate(=1D"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=)# 3D=#=dd"$on"77=)#=da7=) f o$ dual. TRUNC(TOM TRUNC(TOM """"""""""""" """""""""""""" 1@"D'C"3D 1@"D'C"3D
t un!(toMdate(=1S"de!"
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (t un!(toMdate(=1@"de!"3D=#=dd"$on"77=))# =dd $on 7777 a$=) f o$ dual.
hh0$i0ss
TOMC:(R(TRUNC(TOMD(T'(= """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de! 133D 21033033 a$
s)
N'6MTIM'
This will give the desi ed ti$eTone;s date and ti$e5
S7nta/0 newMti$e (date, current_time-one, de!ired_time-one)
(vaila%le ti$eTones a e as follows5
TIM'ZON'S
(ST?(DT )ST?)DT CST?CDT 'ST?'DT
"" "" "" ""
(tlanti! standa d?da7 light ti$e )e ing standa d?da7 light ti$e Cent al standa d?da7 light ti$e 'aste n standa d?da7 light ti$e
8MT :ST?:DT MST?MDT NST AST?ADT *ST?*DT
"" "" "" "" "" ""
8 eenwi!h $ean ti$e (las&a":awaii standa d?da7 light ti$e Mountain standa d?da7 light ti$e Newfoundland standa d ti$e Aa!ifi! standa d?da7 light ti$e *u&on standa d?da7 light ti$e
'/0
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (newMti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=7st=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss dual.
a$=) f o$
TOMC:(R(N'6MTIM'(S*SD(T """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de! 133D 310C2013 p$
SQL-
sele!t toM!ha (newMti$e(s7sdate#=g$t=#=est=)#=dd $on 7777 hh0$i0ss dual.
a$=) f o$
TOMC:(R(N'6MTIM'(S*SD(T """"""""""""""""""""""" 1@ de! 133D 3D0C201D p$
t)
CO(L'SC'
This will give the fi st non"null date5
S7nta/0 !oales!e (date1, date2, date3 daten)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t !oales!e(=21"Jan"S3=#=24"Jan"SS=)# !oales!e(null#=21"Jan"S3=#=14" SW=#null) f o$ dual.
$a "
69
CO(L'SC'( CO(L'SC'( """"""""""""" """""""""""" 21"Jan"S3 21"Jan"S3
MISC'LL(N'OUS BUNCTIONS
59 Uid 59 Use 59 9siTe 59 Ran& 59 DenseM an&

a)
UID
This will etu ns the intege value !o in5
esponding to the use !u entl7 logged
'/0
SQL-
sele!t uid f o$ dual.
UID """""""""" 42S
%)
US'R
This will etu ns the login;s use na$e5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t use f o$ dual.
US'R """""""""""""""" S(F'T:
!)
9SIZ'
This will etu ns the nu$%e of %7tes in the e/p ession5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t vsiTe(214)# vsiTe(=!o$pute =)# vsiTe(=21"Jan"S3=) f o$ dual.
9SIZ'(214) 9SIZ'(=COMAUT'R=) 9SIZ'(=21">(N"S3=) """"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""" 4 d)

R(NF
This will give the non"seUuential an&ing5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ownu$#sal f o$ (sele!t sal f o$ e$p o de %7 sal des!). RO6NUM 2 1 4 @ C D V W S 23 22 21 24 2@ 2C S(L """""""""" """""""""" C333 4333 4333 1SVC 1WC3 1@C3 2D33 2C33 2433 21C3 21C3 2233 2333 SC3 W33
71
SQL-
sele!t an&(1SVC) within g oup(o de %7 sal des!) f o$ e$p.
R(NF(1SVC)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R)*S(LD'SC) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" @
d)
D'NS'MR(NF
This will give the seUuential an&ing5 '/0

SQL-
sele!t denseM an&(1SVC) within g oup(o de %7 sal des!) f o$ e$p.
D'NS'MR(NF(1SVC)6IT:IN8ROUA(ORD'R)*S(LD'SC) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 4
CON9'RSION BUNCTIONS
64 )inMtoMnu$ 64 Cha to owid 64 Rowidto!ha 64 ToMnu$%e 64 ToM!ha 64 ToMdate

a)
)INMTOMNUM
This will !onve t the %ina 7 value to its nu$e i!al eUuivalent5
S7nta/0 %inMtoMnu$( binary_bit!)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t %inMtoMnu$(2#2#3) f o$ dual.
)INMTOMNUM(2#2#3) """""""""""""""""""""""" D
1 1
%)
If all the %its a e Te o then it p odu!es Te o5 If all the %its a e null then it p odu!es an e o 5
C:(RTORO6ID
This will !onve t a !ha a!te st ing to a!t li&e an inte nal o a!le ow identifie o owid5
!)
RO6IDTOC:(R
This will !onve t an inte nal o a!le ow identifie o
owid to !ha a!te st ing5
d)
TOMNUM)'R
This will !onve t a !ha o va !ha to nu$%e 5
e)
TOMC:(R
This will !onve t a nu$%e o date to !ha a!te st ing5
f)
TOMD(T'
This will !onve t a nu$%e # !ha o va !ha to a date5
8ROUA BUNCTIONS
73
70 Su$ 70 (vg 70 Ma/ 70 Min 70 Count

8 oup fun!tions will %e applied on all the ows %ut p odu!es single output5
a)
SUM
This will give the su$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 su$ (column)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t su$(sal) f o$ e$p.
SUM(S(L) """""""""" 4WD33 %)

(98
This will give the ave age of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 avg (column)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t avg(sal) f o$ e$p.
(98(S(L) """"""""""""""" 1VCV52@1WD
!)
M(+
This will give the $a/i$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $a/ (column)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t $a/(sal) f o$ e$p.
M(+(S(L) """""""""" C333
d)
MIN
This will give the $ini$u$ of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 $in (column)
'/0
SQL-
sele!t $in(sal) f o$ e$p.
MIN(S(L) """""""""" C33
e)
COUNT
This will give the !ount of the values of the spe!ified !olu$n5
S7nta/0 !ount (column)
'/0
75
SQL-
sele!t !ount(sal)#!ount(E) f o$ e$p.
COUNT(S(L) """""""""""""" 2@
COUNT(E) """""""""""" 2@
CONSTR(INTS
Const aints a e !atego iTed as follows5
Do$ain integ it7 !onst aints
1 1
Not null Che!&
'ntit7 integ it7 !onst aints
UniUue
A i$a 7 &e7
Refe ential integ it7 !onst aints
Bo eign &e7
Const aints a e alwa7s atta!hed to a !olu$n not a ta%le5 6e !an add !onst aints in th ee wa7s5
2 2 2
Colu$n level Ta%le level (lte level
"" along with the !olu$n definition "" afte the ta%le definition "" using alte !o$$and
6hile adding !onst aints 7ou need not spe!if7 the na$e %ut the t7pe onl7# o a!le will inte nall7 na$e the !onst aint5 If 7ou want to give a na$e to the !onst aint# 7ou have to use the !onst aint !lause5
NOT NULL
This is used to avoid null values5 6e !an add this !onst aint in !olu$n level onl75
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) not null# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)).
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) !onst aint nn not null# na$e $a &s nu$%e (4)).
va !ha (23)#
C:'CF
This is used to inse t the values %ased on spe!ified !ondition5
77
6e !an add this !onst aint in all th ee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4) ($a &s - 433)).
!he!& ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4) !onst aint !h !he!&($a &s - 433)).
SQL-
T()L' L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# ($a &s - 433)).
!he!& ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint !h !he!&($a &s - 433)).
SQL-
(LT'R L'9'L
SQLSQL-
alte ta%le student add !he!&($a &s-433). alte ta%le student add !onst aint !h !he!&($a &s-433).
UNIQU'
This is used to avoid dupli!ates %ut it allow nulls5 6e !an add this !onst aint in all th ee levels5
'/0
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) uniUue# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) !onst aint un uniUue# na$e $a &s nu$%e (4)).
SQL-
va !ha (23)#
T()L' L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# uniUue(no)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint un uniUue(no)).
SQL-
(LT'R L'9'L
SQLSQL-
alte ta%le student add uniUue(no). alte ta%le student add !onst aint un uniUue(no).
ARIM(R* F'*
1 1 1
'/0
This is used to avoid dupli!ates and nulls5 This will wo & as !o$%ination of uniUue and not null5 A i$a 7 &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the pa ent ta%le5 6e !an add this !onst aint in all th ee levels5
COLUMN L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) p i$a 7 &e7# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7# na$e $a &s nu$%e (4)).
SQL-
va !ha (23)#
79
T()L' L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# p i$a 7 &e7(no)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(no)).
SQL-
(LT'R L'9'L
SQLSQL-
alte ta%le student add p i$a 7 &e7(no). alte ta%le student add !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(no).
BOR'I8N F'*
1 1 1
'/0
This is used to efe en!e the pa ent ta%le p i$a 7 &e7 !olu$n whi!h allows dupli!ates5 Bo eign &e7 alwa7s atta!hed to the !hild ta%le5 6e !an add this !onst aint in ta%le and alte levels onl75
T()L' L'9'L
SQL-
! eate ta%le e$p(e$pno nu$%e (1)# ena$e va !ha (23)# deptno
nu$%e (1)# p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno)).

SQL-
nu$%e (1)# !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno)).
(LT'R L'9'L
SQL-
alte ta%le e$p add fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno).
SQL- alte ta%le e$p add !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno).
On!e the p i$a 7 &e7 and fo eign &e7 elationship has %een ! eated then 7ou !an not e$ove an7 pa ent e!o d if the dependent !hilds e/ists5
USIN8 ON D'LT' C(SC(D'
)7 using this !lause 7ou !an e$ove the pa ent e!o d even it !hilds e/ists5 )e!ause when eve 7ou e$ove pa ent e!o d o a!le auto$ati!all7 e$oves all its dependent e!o ds f o$ !hild ta%le# if this !lause is p esent while ! eating fo eign &e7 !onst aint5
'/0
T()L' L'9'L
SQL-
nu$%e (1)# p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade).
SQL-
nu$%e (1)# !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade).
(LT'R L'9'L
SQL-
alte ta%le e$p add fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es dept(deptno) on !as!ade.
delete alte ta%le e$p add !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno) efe en!es
SQL-
81
dept(deptno) on delete !as!ade. COMAOSIT' F'*S
( !o$posite &e7 !an %e defined on a !o$%ination of !olu$ns5 6e !an define !o$posite &e7s on entit7 integ it7 and efe ential integ it7 !onst aints5 Co$posite &e7 !an %e defined in ta%le and alte levels onl75
'/0
UNIQU' (T()L' L'9'L)
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# uniUue(no#na$e)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint un uniUue(no#na$e)).
SQL-
UNIQU' ((LT'R L'9'L)
SQLSQL-
alte ta%le student add uniUue(no#na$e). alte ta%le student add !onst aint un uniUue(no#na$e).
ARIM(R* F'* (T()L' L'9'L)
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# p i$a 7 &e7(no#na$e)). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) # na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(no#na$e)).
SQL-
ARIM(R* F'* ((LT'R L'9'L)
SQLSQL-
alte ta%le student add p i$a 7 &e7(no#an$e). alte ta%le student add !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(no#na$e).
BOR'I8N F'* (T()L' L'9'L)
SQL-
nu$%e (1)# dna$e va !ha (23)# p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# fo eign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efe en!es dept(deptno#dna$e)).
SQL-
nu$%e (1)# dna$e va !ha (23)# !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(e$pno)# !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efe en!es dept(deptno#dna$e)).
BOR'I8N F'* ((LT'R L'9'L)
SQL-
alte ta%le e$p add fo eign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efe en!es alte ta%le e$p add !onst aint f& fo eign &e7(deptno#dna$e) efe en!es dept(deptno#dna$e).
dept(deptno#dna$e).
SQL-
D'B'RR()L' CONSTR(INTS
'a!h !onst aint has two additional att i%utes to suppo t defe ed !he!&ing of !onst aints5
1 1
Defe ed initiall7 i$$ediate Defe ed initiall7 defe ed
Defe ed initiall7 i$$ediate !he!&s fo !onst aint violation at the ti$e of inse t5 Defe ed initiall7 defe ed !he!&s fo !onst aint violation at the ti$e of !o$$it5
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint un uniUue(no) defe ed initiall7 i$$ediate). ! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)# na$e va !ha (23)# $a &s nu$%e (4)# !onst aint un uniUue(no) defe ed initiall7 defe ed). alte ta%le student add !onst aint un uniUue(no) defe a%le initiall7
SQL-
SQL-
defe ed.
83
SQL-
set !onst aints all i$$ediate.
This will ena%le all the !onst aints violations at the ti$e of inse ting5
SQL-
set !onst aints all defe ed.
This will ena%le all the !onst aints violations at the ti$e of !o$$it5
OA'R(TIONS 6IT: CONSTR(INTS
Aossi%le ope ations with !onst aints as follows5
3 3 3 3
'N()L'
'na%le Disa%le 'nfo !e D op
This will ena%le the !onst aint5 )efo e ena%le# the !onst aint will !he!& the e/isting data5
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student ena%le !onst aint un.
DIS()L'
This will disa%le the !onst aint5
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student ena%le !onst aint un.
'NBORC'
This will enfo !e the !onst aint athe than ena%le fo futu e inse ts o updates5
This will not !he!& fo e/isting data while enfo !ing data5
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student enfo !e !onst aint un.
DROA
This will e$ove the !onst aint5
'/0
SQL-
alte ta%le student d op !onst aint un.
On!e the ta%le is d opped# !onst aints auto$ati!all7 will d op5
C(S' (ND D'B(ULT
C(S'
Case is si$ila to de!ode %ut easie to unde stand while going th ough !oding
'/0
85
SQL-
Sele!t sal# Case sal 6hen C33 then Klow; 6hen C333 then Khigh; 'lse K$ediu$; 'nd !ase B o$ e$p.
S(L """"" C33 1C33 1333 4C33 4333 C333 @333 C333 2W33 2133 1333 1V33 1133 4133
C(S' """""""" low $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$ high $ediu$ high $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$ $ediu$
D'B(ULT
.e'ault !an %e !onside ed as a su%stitute %ehavio applied to new ows %eing ente ed into the ta%le5
of not null !onst aint when
6hen 7ou define a !olu$n with the de'ault &e7wo d followed %7 a value# 7ou a e a!tuall7 telling the data%ase that# on inse t if a ow was not assigned a value fo this !olu$n# use the default value that 7ou have spe!ified5 Default is applied onl7 du ing inse tion of new ows5
'/0
SQLSQLSQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1) default 22#na$e va !ha (1)). inse t into student values(2#=a=). inse t into student(na$e) values(=%=). sele!t E f o$ student.
SQL-
NO 2 22
N(M' a %
"""""" """""""""
SQL-
inse t into student values(null# K!;).
SQL-
NO 2 22
N(M' a % C
"""""" """""""""
"" Default !an not ove ide nulls5
()STR(CT D(T( T*A'S
So$e ti$es 7ou $a7 want t7pe whi!h holds all t7pes of data in!luding nu$%e s# !ha s and spe!ial !ha a!te s so$ething li&e this5 *ou !an not a!hieve this using p e"defined t7pes5 *ou !an define !usto$ t7pes whi!h holds 7ou desi ed data5
87
'/0 Suppose in a ta%le we have add ess !olu$n whi!h holds hno and !it7 info $ation5 6e will define a !usto$ t7pe whi!h holds %oth nu$e i! as well as !ha data5
CR'(TIN8 (DT
SQL-
! eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e (4)#!it7 va !ha (23)). ?
CR'(TIN8 T()L' )(S'D ON (DT
SQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)#add ess add ).
INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO (DT T()L'S
SQLSQLSQL-
inse t into student values(2#=a=#add (222#=h7d=)). inse t into student values(1#=%=#add (111#=%ang=)). inse t into student values(4#=!=#add (444#=delhi=)).
S'L'CTIN8 D(T( BROM (DT T()L'S
SQL-
NO N(M' (DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*) """ """"""" """"""""""""""""""""""""" 2 1 4 a % ! (DDR(222# =h7d=) (DDR(111# =%ang=) (DDR(444# =delhi=)
SQL-
sele!t no#na$e#s5add ess5hno#s5add ess5!it7 f o$ student s.
NO N(M' (DDR'SS5:NO (DDR'SS5CIT* """" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""
2 1 4
a % !
222 111 444
h7d %ang delhi
UAD(T' 6IT: (DT T()L'S
SQLSQL-
update student s set s5add ess5!it7 H =%o$%a7= whe e s5add ess5hno H 444. sele!t no#na$e#s5add ess5hno#s5add ess5!it7 f o$ student s.
NO N(M' (DDR'SS5:NO (DDR'SS5CIT* """" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 2 1 4 a % ! 222 111 444 h7d %ang %o$%a7
D'L'T' 6IT: (DT T()L'S
SQLSQL-
delete student s whe e s5add ess5hno H 222. sele!t no#na$e#s5add ess5hno#s5add ess5!it7 f o$ student s.
NO N(M' (DDR'SS5:NO (DDR'SS5CIT* """" """"""" """"""""""""""""" """""""""""""""" 1 4 % ! 111 444 %ang %o$%a7
DROAAIN8 (DT
SQL-
d op t7pe add .
89
O)>'CT 9I'6S (ND M'T:ODS

O)>'CT 9I'6S
If 7ou want to i$ple$ent o%Je!ts with the e/isting ta%le# o%Je!t views !o$e into pi!tu e5 *ou define the o%Je!t and ! eate a view whi!h elates this o%Je!t to the e/isting ta%le nothing %ut ob#ect view5
O%Je!t views a e used to elate the use defined o%Je!ts to the e/isting ta%le5
'/0 2) (ssu$e that the ta%le student has al ead7 %een ! eated with the following !olu$ns
SQL?
1) C eate the following t7pes

SQLSQL-
! eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e (1)#!it7 va !ha (23)).? ! eate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va !ha (23)#add ess add ).? ! eate view studentMov(no#studMinfo) as sele!t
4) Relate the o%Je!ts to the student ta%le %7 ! eating the o%Je!t view
SQL-
no#stud(na$e#add (hno#!it7)) f o$ student. @) Now 7ou !an inse t data into student ta%le in two wa7s a) )7 egula inse t
SQL-
Inse t into student values(2#;sudha;#222#;h7d;). Inse t into studentMov values(2#stud(Ksudha;#add (222#;h7d;))).
%) )7 using o%Je!t view

SQL-
M'T:ODS
*ou !an define $ethods whi!h a e nothing %ut fun!tions in t7pes and appl7 in the ta%les whi!h holds the t7pes.
'/0 2) Defining $ethods in t7pes

SQL-
C eate t7pe stud as o%Je!t(na$e va !ha (23)#$a &s nu$%e (4)# Me$%e fun!tion $a& sMf($a &s in nu$%e ) etu n nu$%e # A ag$a est i!tM efe en!es($a &sMf#wnds# nds#wnps#fnps)).?
1) Defining t7pe %od7

SQL-
C eate t7pe %od7 stud as Me$%e fun!tion $a &sMf($a &s in nu$%e ) etu n nu$%e is )egin Retu n ($a &sG233). 'nd $a &sMf. 'nd.?
4) C eate a ta%le using stud t7pe

SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#info stud). Inse t into student values(2#stud(Ksudha;#233)). Sele!t s5info5$a &sMf(s5info5$a &s) f o$ student s.
@) Inse t so$e data into student ta%le

SQL-
C) Using $ethod in sele!t

SQL-
"" :e e we a e using the p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es to avoid the w ites to the Data%ase5
91
9(RR(*S (ND N'ST'D T()L'S
9(RR(*S ( va 7ing a a7 allows 7ou to sto e epeating att i%utes of a e!o d in a single ow %ut with li$it5
'/0 2) 6e !an ! eate va a7s using o a!le t7pes as well as use defined t7pes5 a) 9a a7 using p e"defined t7pes
SQL-
C eate t7pe va as va a7(C) of va !ha (23).? C eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e (4)#!it7 va !ha (23)).? C eate t7pe va as va a7(C) of add .? a7 in ta%le
%) 9a
a7s using use defined t7pes
SQLSQL-
1) Using va
SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23)#add ess va). Inse t into student values(2#;sudha;#va(add (222#;h7d;))).
SQL-
4) Inse ting values into va a7 ta%le

SQL-
Inse t
into
student
values(1#;Jagan;#va(add (222#;h7d;)#add (111#;%ang;))). @) Sele!ting data f o$ va a7 ta%le

SQL-
Sele!t E f o$ student. Sele!t no#na$e# s5E f o$ student s2# ta%le(s25add ess) s.
"" This will displa7 va a7 !olu$n data along with va a7 and adt.
SQL-
"" This will displa7 in gene al fo $at C) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in va a7
SQL-
Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 f o$ student s2#ta%le(s25add ess) s.
"" Update and delete not possi%le in va a7s5 "" :e e we used ta%le fun!tion whi!h will ta&e the va a7 !olu$n as input fo p odu!ing output e/!luding va a7 and t7pes5
N'ST'D T()L'S ( nested ta%le is# as its na$e i$plies# a ta%le within a ta%le5 In this !ase it is a ta%le that is ep esented as a !olu$n within anothe ta%le5 Nested ta%le has the sa$e effe!t of va a7s %ut has no li$it5
'/0 2) 6e !an ! eate nested ta%les using o a!le t7pes and use defined t7pes whi!h has no li$it5 a) Nested ta%les using p e"defined t7pes
SQL-
C eate t7pe nt as ta%le of va !ha (23).? C eate t7pe add as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e (4)#!it7 va !ha (23)).? C eate t7pe nt as ta%le of add .? C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23)#add ess nt)
%) Nested ta%les using use defined t7pes

SQLSQL-
1) Using nested ta%le in ta%le

SQL-
nested ta%le add ess sto e as studentMte$p. 4) Inse ting values into ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le
SQL-
Inse t into student values (2#;sudha;#nt(add (222#;h7d;))).

SQL-
Inse t
into
student
values
(1#;Jagan;#nt(add (222#;h7d;)#add (111#;%ang;))). @) Sele!ting data f o$ ta%le whi!h has nested ta%le
SQL-
Sele!t E f o$ student.
"" This will displa7 nested ta%le !olu$n data along with nested ta%le and adt.
93
SQL-
Sele!t no#na$e# s5E f o$ student s2# ta%le(s25add ess) s.
"" This will displa7 in gene al fo $at C) Instead of s5E 7ou !an spe!if7 the !olu$ns in nested ta%le
SQL-
Sele!t no#na$e# s5hno#s5!it7 f o$ student s2#ta%le(s25add ess) s. Inse t into ta%le(sele!t add ess f o$ student whe e noH2) values(add (CCC#;!hennai;)).
D) Inse ting nested ta%le data to the e/isting ow

SQL-
V) Update in nested ta%les

SQL-
Update ta%le(sele!t add ess f o$ student whe e noH1) s set whe e s5hno H 111.
s5!it7H;%o$%a7; W) Delete in nested ta%le

SQL-
Delete ta%le(sele!t add ess f o$ student whe e noH4) s whe e
s5hnoH444. D(T( MOD'L
1 1 1 1 1 1
(LLMCOLLMT*A'S (LLMT*A'S D)(MCOLLMT*A'S D)(MT*A'S US'RMCOLLMT*A'S US'RMT*A'S
BL(S:)(CF QU'R*
Used to e!ove 75 et ieve the data whi!h has %een al ead7 !o$$itted with out going fo
Blash%a!&s a e of two t7pes
1 1
'/0
Ti$e %ase flash%a!& SCN %ased flash%a!& (SCN stands fo S7ste$ Change Nu$%e )
2) Using ti$e %ased flash%a!& a) %) !) d)

SQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ student. Delete student. Co$$it. "" this will !o$$it the wo &5 Sele!t Ef o$ student.
"" This will displa7 all the ows

SQLSQLSQL-
"" :e e it will displa7 nothing e) Then e/e!ute the following p o!edu es

SQL-
'/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5ena%leMatMti$e(s7sdate"1?2@@3) Sele!t Ef o$ student.
f)
SQL-
"" :e e it will displa7 the lost data "" The lost data will !o$e %ut the !u ent s7ste$ ti$e was used g)
SQL-
'/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5disa%le
"" :e e we have to disa%le the flash%a!& to ena%le it again
1) Using SCN %ased flash%a!& a) De!la e a va ia%le to sto e SCN

SQL-
9a ia%le s nu$%e
95
%) 8et the SCN

SQL-
'/e! 0s 0H e/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5getMs7ste$M!hangeMnu$%e
!) To see the SCN

SQL-
A int s '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5ena%leMatMs7ste$M!hangeMnu$%e (0s) '/e! d%$sMflash%a!&5disa%le
d) Then e/e!ute the following p o!edu es

SQLSQL-
'+T'RN(L T()L'S
*ou !an use e/te nal ta%le featu e to a!!ess e/te nal files as if the7 a e ta%les inside the data%ase5 6hen 7ou ! eate an e/te nal ta%le# 7ou define its st u!tu e and lo!ation with in o a!le5 6hen 7ou Uue 7 the ta%le# o a!le eads the e/te nal ta%le and etu ns the esults Just as if the data had %een sto ed with in the data%ase5
(CC'SSIN8 '+T'RN(L T()L' D(T(
To a!!ess e/te nal files f o$ within o a!le# 7ou $ust fi st use the ! eate di e!to 7 !o$$and to define a di e!to 7 o%Je!t pointing to the e/te nal file lo!ation Use s who will a!!ess the e/te nal files $ust have the ead and w ite p ivilege on the di e!to 75
'/0
CR'(TIN8 DIR'CTOR* (ND OS L'9'L BIL'
SQLSQLSQLSQLSQLSQLSQL-
SUlplus s7ste$?$anage C eate di e!to 7 sa&ethMdi as K?9isd%?visd%?S5153?e/te nal;. 8 ant all on di e!to 7 sa&ethMdi to sa&eth. Conn sa&eth?sa&eth Spool dept5lst Sele!t deptno XX K#; XX dna$e XX K#; XX lo! f o$ dept. Spool off
CR'(TIN8 '+T'RN(L T()L'
SQL-
C eate ta%le deptMe/t (deptno nu$%e (1)# Dna$e va !ha (2@)# Lo! va !ha (24)) O ganiTation e/te nal ( t7pe o a!leMloade Default di e!to 7 sa&ethMdi (!!ess pa a$ete s ( e!o ds deli$ited %7 newline Bields te $inated %7 P#Q ( deptno nu$%e (1)# Dna$e va !ha (2@)# Lo! va !ha (24))) Lo!ation (K?9isd%?visd%?S5153?dept5lst;)).
S'L'CTIN8 D(T( BROM '+T'RN(L T()L'
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ deptMe/t.
This will ead f o$ dept5lst whi!h is a ope ating s7ste$ level file5
LIMIT(TIONS ON '+T'RN(L T()L'S
a) *ou !an not pe fo $ inse t# update# and delete ope ations b) Inde/ing not possi%le a) Const aints not possi%le
)'N'BITS OB '+T'RN(L T()L'S
a) Que ies of e/te nal ta%les !o$plete ve 7 Uui!&l7 even though a full ta%le
s!an id eUui ed with ea!h a!!ess
a) *ou !an Join e/te nal ta%les to ea!h othe o to standa d ta%les
97
R'B D'R'B 9(LU'

R'B
1 1 1
The ef fun!tion allows efe en!ing of e/isting ow o%Je!ts5 'a!h of the ow o%Je!ts has an o%Je!t id value assigned to it5 The o%Je!t id assigned !an %e seen %7 using ef fun!tion5
D'R'B
1 1
The de ef fun!tion pe fo $s opposite a!tion5 It ta&es a efe en!e value of o%Je!t id and etu ns the value of the ow o%Je!ts5
9(LU'
1 1
'ven though the p i$a 7 ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le# still it displa7s the ows in gene al fo $at5 To displa7 the enti e st u!tu e of the o%Je!t# this will %e used5
'/0 2) ! eate vendotMadt t7pe

SQL-
C eate t7pe vendo Madt as o%Je!t (vendo M!ode nu$%e (1)# va !ha (1)# vendo Madd ess va !ha (23)).?
vendo Mna$e 1) ! eate o%Je!t ta%les vendo s and vendo s2

SQLSQL-
C eate ta%le vendo s of vendo Madt. C eate ta%le vendo s2 of vendo Madt. inse t into vendo s values(2# Ka;# Kh7d;). inse t into vendo s values(1# K%;# K%ang;). inse t into vendo s2 values(4# K!;# Kdelhi;). inse t into vendo s2 values(@# Kd;# K!hennai;). C eate ta%le o de s (o de Mno nu$%e (1)# vendo Minfo ef vendo Madt). O
4) inse t the data into o%Je!t ta%les

SQLSQLSQLSQL-
@) ! eate anothe ta%le o de s whi!h holds the vendo Madt t7pe also5
SQL-
SQL-
C eate ta%le o de s (o de Mno nu$%e (1)# vendo Minfo ef vendo Madt owid).
with C) inse t the data into o de s ta%le The vendo Minfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will sto e o%Je!t id of an7 ta%le whi!h is efe en!ed %7 vendo Madt o%Je!t ( %oth vendo s and vendo s2)5
SQL-
inse t into o de s values(22#(sele!t ef(v) f o$ vendo s v whe e H 2)).
vendo M!ode inse t into o de s values(21#(sele!t ef(v) f o$ vendo s v whe e
SQL-
vendo M!ode H 1)).

SQL-
inse t into o de s values(24#(sele!t ef(v2) f o$ vendo s2 v2 whe e vendo M!ode H 2)). inse t into o de s values(2@#(sele!t ef(v2) f o$ vendo s2 v2 whe e vendo M!ode H 2)).
SQL-
99
D) To see the o%Je!t ids of vendo ta%le

SQL-
Sele!t ef(9) f o$ vendo s v.
V) If 7ou see the vendo Minfo of o de s it will show onl7 the o%Je!t ids not the values# to see the values
SQL-
Sele!t de ef(o5vendo Minfo) f o$ o de s o.
W) 'ven though the vendo s ta%le is o%Je!t ta%le it will not show the adt along with data# to see the data along with the adt
SQL-Sele!t
E f o$ vendo s. value(v) f o$ vendo s v.
This will give the data without adt5

SQL-Sele!t
This will give the !olu$ns data along with the t7pe5
R'B CONSTR(INTS
1 1
Ref !an also a!ts as !onst aint5 'ven though vendo s2 also holding vendo Madt# the o de s ta%le will sto e the o%Je!t ids of vendo s onl7 %e!ause it is !onst ained to that ta%le onl75
The vendo Minfo !olu$n in the following s7nta/es will sto e o%Je!t ids of vendo s onl75
SQL-
C eate ta%le o de s (o de Mno nu$%e (1)# vendo Minfo ef vendo Madt s!ope vendo s). O C eate ta%le o de s (o de Mno nu$%e (1)# vendo Minfo ef vendo Madt efe en!es vendo s).
is
SQL-
!onst aint f&
O)>'CT 9I'6S 6IT: R'B'R'NC'S
To i$ple$ent the o%Je!ts and the ef !onst aints to the e/isting ta%les# what we !an do[ Si$pl7 d op the %oth ta%les and e! eate with o%Je!ts and ef !onst aints5
)ut 7ou !an a!hieve this with out d opping the ta%les and without losing the data %7 ! eating o%Je!t views with efe en!es5
'/0 a) C eate the following ta%les

SQL-
C eate ta%le student2(no nu$%e (1) p i$a 7 &e7#na$e nu$%e (4)).
va !ha (1)#$a &s C eate ta%le student1(no nu$%e (1) p i$a 7 &e7#hno nu$%e (4)#!it7 va !ha (23)#id nu$%e (1)#fo eign Fe7(id) efe en!es student2(no)). %) Inse t the e!o ds into %oth ta%les
SQLSQLSQLSQLSQL-
SQL-
inse t into student2(2#;a;#233). inse t into student2(1#;%;#133). inse t into student1(22#222#;h7d;#2). inse t into student1(21#111#;%ang;#1). inse t into student1(24#444#;%o$%a7;#2). epla!e t7pe stud as o%Je!t(no nu$%e (1)#na$e
!) C eate the t7pe

SQL-
! eate o
va !ha (1)#$a &s nu$%e (4)).? d) 8ene ating OIDs

SQL-
C eate o
epla!e view student2Mov of stud with o%Je!t identifie (o id)
(no) as Sele!t E f o$ Student2. e) 8ene ating efe en!es

SQL-
C eate o
epla!e view student1Mov as sele!t no#hno#!it7#
$a&eM ef(student2Mov#id) id f o$ Student1. d) Que 7 the following

SQLSQLSQLSQ-
sele!t Ef o$ student2Mov. sele!t ef(s) f o$ student2Mov s. sele!t values(s) f o$ student2Mov.
sele!t Ef o$ student1Mov.
101
SQL-
sele!t de ef(s5id) f o$ student1Mov s.
A(RTITIONS
( single logi!al ta%le !an %e split into a nu$%e ( non"pa titioned ta%le !an not %e pa titioned late 5 of ph7si!all7 sepa ate pie!es
%ased on anges of &e7 values5 'a!h of the pa ts of the ta%le is !alled a pa tition5
T*A'S
1 1 1 1
Range pa titions List pa titions :ash pa titions Su% pa titions
(D9(NT(8'S
Redu!ing downti$e fo s!heduled $aintenan!e# whi!h allows $aintenan!e ope ations to %e !a ied out on sele!ted pa titions while othe pa titions a e availa%le to use s5
1 1
Redu!ing downti$e due to data failu e# failu e of a pa ti!ula pa tition will no wa7 affe!t othe pa titions5 Aa tition independen!e allows fo fo va ious pu poses5 !on!u ent use of the va ious pa titions
(D9(NT(8'S OB A(RTITIONS )* STORIN8 T:'M IN DIBB'R'NT T()L'SA(C'S
1 1
Redu!es the possi%ilit7 of data !o uption in $ultiple pa titions5 )a!& up and e!ove 7 of ea!h pa tition !an %e done independentl75
DIS(D9(NT(8'S
?Aa titioned ta%les !annot !ontain an7 !olu$ns with long o datat7pes# LO) t7pes o o%Je!t t7pes5
long
aw
R(N8' A(RTITIONS
a) C eating ange pa titioned ta%le

SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)) pa tition %7 (pa tition p2 values less than(23)# pa tition p1 values less than(13)#
ange(no) pa tition p4 values less than(43)#pa tition p@ values less than($a/value)).
EE if 7ou a e using $a/value fo the last pa tition# 7ou !an not add a pa tition5 %) Inse ting e!o ds into ange pa titioned ta%le
SQLSQLSQLSQL-
Inse t into student values(2#;a;). Inse t into student values(22#;%;). Inse t into student values(12#;!;). Inse t into student values(42#;d;). Sele!t Ef o$ student. Sele!t Ef o$ student pa tition(p2).
"" this will go to p2 "" this will go to p1 "" this will go to p4 "" this will go to p@
!) Ret ieving e!o ds f o$ ange pa titioned ta%le

SQLSQL-
d) Aossi%le ope ations with ange pa titions
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
SQL-
(dd D op T un!ate Rena$e Split Move '/!hange
e) (dding a pa tition (lte ta%le student add pa tition pC values less than(@3). f) D opping a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student d op pa tition p@.
g) Rena$ing a pa tition
103
SQL-
(lte ta%le student ena$e pa tition p4 to pD. (lte ta%le student t un!ate pa tition pD. (lte ta%le student split pa tition p1 at(2C) into (pa tition p12#pa tition
h) T un!ate a pa tition
SQL-
i) Splitting a pa tition
SQL-
p11).
J) '/!hanging a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student e/!hange pa tition p2 with ta%le student1. (lte ta%le student $ove pa tition p12 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
&) Moving a pa tition

SQL-
LIST A(RTITIONS
a) C eating list pa titioned ta%le

SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)) pa tition %7 list(no) (pa tition p2 values(2#1#4#@#C)# pa tition p1 values(D#V#W#S#23)#pa tition p4 values(22#21#24#2@#2C)# pa tition p@ values(2D#2V#2W#2S#13)).
%) Inse ting e!o ds into list pa titioned ta%le

SQLSQLSQLSQL-
Inse t into student values(2#;a;). Inse t into student values(D#;%;). Inse t into student values(22#;!;). Inse t into student values(2D#;d;).
"" this will go to p2 "" this will go to p1 "" this will go to p4 "" this will go to p@
!) Ret ieving e!o ds f o$ list pa titioned ta%le

SQLSQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ student. Sele!t Ef o$ student pa tition(p2).
d) Aossi%le ope ations with list pa titions
8 8 8 8 8 8
(dd D op T un!ate Rena$e Move '/!hange
e) (dding a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student add pa tition pC values(12#11#14#1@#1C). (lte ta%le student d op pa tition p@. (lte ta%le student ena$e pa tition p4 to pD. (lte ta%le student t un!ate pa tition pD.
f) D opping a pa tition
SQL-
SQL-
SQL-
i) '/!hanging a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student e/!hange pa tition p2 with ta%le student1. (lte ta%le student $ove pa tition p1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
J) Moving a pa tition
SQL-
:(S: A(RTITIONS
a) C eating hash pa titioned ta%le

SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)) pa tition %7
hash(no) pa titions C. :e e o a!le auto$ati!all7 gives pa tition na$es li&e S*SMA2 S*SMA1 S*SMA4 S*SMA@ S*SMAC %) Inse ting e!o ds into hash pa titioned ta%le it will inse t the pa tition &e7
SQLSQLSQLSQL-
e!o ds %ased on hash fun!tion !al!ulated %7 ta&ing the
Inse t into student values(2#;a;). Inse t into student values(D#;%;). Inse t into student values(22#;!;). Inse t into student values(2D#;d;). Sele!t Ef o$ student. Sele!t Ef o$ student pa tition(s7sMp2).
!) Ret ieving e!o ds f o$ hash pa titioned ta%le

SQLSQL-
105
d) Aossi%le ope ations with hash pa titions
14 (dd 14 T un!ate 14 Rena$e 14 Move 14 '/!hange

SQL-
(lte ta%le student add pa tition pD .
f) Rena$ing a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student ena$e pa tition pD to pV. (lte ta%le student t un!ate pa tition pV. (lte ta%le student e/!hange pa tition s7sMp2 with ta%le student1.
g) T un!ate a pa tition
SQL-
h) '/!hanging a pa tition
SQL-
i) Moving a pa tition
SQL-
(lte ta%le student $ove pa tition s7sMp1 ta%lespa!e sa&ethMts.
SU)"A(RTITIONS 6IT: R(N8' (ND :(S:
Su%pa titions !lause is used %7 hash onl75 6e !an not ! eate su%pa titions with list and hash pa titions5
a) C eating su%pa titioned ta%le

SQL-
C eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (1)#$a &s nu$%e (4)) Aa tition %7 ange(no) su%pa tition %7 hash(na$e) su%pa titions 4 (Aa tition p2 values less than(23)#pa tition p1 values less than(13)).
This will ! eate two pa titions p2 and p1 with th ee su%pa titions fo pa tition A2 \ S*SMSU)A2 S*SMSU)A1 S*SMSU)A4 A1 \ S*SMSU)A@ S*SMSU)AC S*SMSU)AD
ea!h
EE if 7ou a e using $a/value fo the last pa tition# 7ou !an not add a pa tition5 %) Inse ting e!o ds into su%pa titioned ta%le
SQLSQL-
Inse t into student values(2#;a;). Inse t into student values(22#;%;). Sele!t Ef o$ student. Sele!t Ef o$ student pa tition(p2).
"" this will go to p2 "" this will go to p1
!) Ret ieving e!o ds f o$ su%pa titioned ta%le

SQLSQLSQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ student su%pa tition(s7sMsu%p2).
d) Aossi%le ope ations with su%pa titions
19 (dd 19 D op 19 T un!ate 19 Rena$e 19 Split

SQL-
(lte ta%le student add pa tition p4 values less than(43). (lte ta%le student d op pa tition p4. (lte ta%le student ena$e pa tition p1 to p4. (lte ta%le student t un!ate pa tition p2. (lte ta%le student split pa tition p4 at(2C) into (pa tition p42#pa tition
f) D opping a pa tition
SQL-
SQL-
SQL-
i) Splitting a pa tition
SQL-
p41).
D(T( MOD'L
2 2 2 2 2 2
(LLMINDMA(RTITIONS (LLMINDMSU)A(RTITIONS (LLMT()MA(RTITIONS (LLMT()MSU)A(RTITIONS D)(MINDMA(RTITIONS D)(MINDMSU)A(RTITIONS
107
2 2 2 2 2 2
D)(MT()MA(RTITIONS D)(MT()MSU)A(RTITIONS US'RMINDMA(RTITIONS US'RMINDMSU)A(RTITIONS US'RMT()MA(RTITIONS US'RMT()MSU)A(RTITIONS
8ROUA )* (ND :(9IN8
8ROUA )*
Using g oup %7# we !an ! eate g oups of elated info $ation5 Colu$ns used in sele!t $ust %e used with g oup %7# othe wise it was not a g oup %7 e/p ession5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t deptno# su$(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno.
D'ATNO 23 13 43
SUM(S(L) WVC3 23WVC S@33
"""""""""" """"""""""
SQL-
sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno#Jo%.
D'ATNO >O) """""""""" """"""""" 23 23 23 13 13 13 43 43 43 CL'RF
SUM(S(L) """""""""" 2433 1@C3 C333 D333 2S33 1SVC SC3 1WC3 CD33
M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT (N(L*ST CL'RF M(N(8'R CL'RF M(N(8'R S(L'SM(N
:(9IN8
This will wo & as whe e !lause whi!h !an %e used onl7 with g oup %7 %e!ause of a%sen!e of whe e !lause in g oup %75 '/0
SQL-
sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno#Jo% having
su$(sal) 4333.
D'ATNO 23 13 43
>O)
TS(L """""""""" C333 D333 CD33
"""""""""" """"""""" AR'SID'NT (N(L*ST S(L'SM(N
SQL-
sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) tsal f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno#Jo% having 4333 o de %7 Jo%. D'ATNO >O) TS(L
su$(sal) -
109
"""""""""" """"""""" 13 23 43 (N(L*ST
"""""""""" D333 C333 CD33
AR'SID'NT S(L'SM(N
ORD'R OB '+'CUTION
1 1 1 1
8 oup the ows togethe %ased on g oup %7 !lause5 Cal!ulate the g oup fun!tions fo ea!h g oup5 Choose and eli$inate the g oups %ased on the having !lause5 O de the g oups %ased on the spe!ified !olu$n5
ROLLUA 8ROUAIN8 CU)'
These a e the enhan!e$ents to the g oup %7 featu e5
USIN8 ROLLUA
This will give the sala ies in ea!h depa t$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego 7 along wih the total sala 7 fo individual depa t$ents and the total sala 7 of all the depa t$ents5
SQL-
Sele!t deptno#Jo%#su$(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).
D'ATNO 23 23 23 23 13 13 13 13 43 43 43 43
>O) CL'RF
SUM(S(L) """""""""" 2433 1@C3 C333 WVC3 D333 2S33 1SVC 23WVC SC3 1WC3 CD33 S@33 1S31C
"""""""""" """""""""
M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT (N(L*ST CL'RF M(N(8'R CL'RF M(N(8'R S(L'SM(N
USIN8 8ROUAIN8
In the a%ove Uue 7 it will give the total sala 7 of the individual depa t$ents %ut with a %lan& in the Jo% !olu$n and gives the total sala 7 of all the depa t$ents with %lan&s in deptno and Jo% !olu$ns5 To epla!e these %lan&s with 7ou desi ed st ing g ouping will %e used
SQL-
sele!t
de!ode(g ouping(deptno)#2#=(ll
Depts=#deptno)#de!ode(g ouping(Jo%)#2#=(ll Jo%s=#Jo%)#su$(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 ollup(deptno#Jo%).
D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=(LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 23 23 23 CL'RF M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT
SUM(S(L) """""""""""""" 2433 1@C3 C333
111
23 13 13 13 13 43 43 43 43 (ll Depts
(ll Jo%s (N(L*ST CL'RF M(N(8'R (ll Jo%s CL'RF M(N(8'R S(L'SM(N (ll Jo%s (ll Jo%s
WVC3 D333 2S33 1SVC 23WVC SC3 1WC3 CD33 S@33 1S31C
8 ouping will etu n 2 if the !olu$n whi!h is spe!ified in the g ouping fun!tion has %een used in ollup5 8 ouping will %e used in asso!iation with de!ode5
USIN8 CU)'
This will give the sala ies in ea!h depa t$ent in ea!h Jo% !atego 7# the total sala 7 fo individual depa t$ents# the total sala 7 of all the depa t$ents and the sala ies in ea!h Jo% !atego 75 sele!t de!ode(g ouping(deptno)#2#;(ll
SQL-
Depts;#deptno)#de!ode(g ouping(Jo%)#2#;(ll >o%s;#Jo%)#su$(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 !u%e(deptno#Jo%).
D'COD'(8ROUAIN8(D'ATNO)#2#=(LLD'ATS=#D'A D'COD'(8R 23 23 23 CL'RF M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT
SUM(S(L) 2433 1@C3 C333
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""
23 13 13 13 13 43 43 43 43 (ll Depts (ll Depts (ll Depts (ll Depts (ll Depts (ll Depts
(ll >o%s (N(L*ST CL'RF M(N(8'R (ll >o%s CL'RF M(N(8'R S(L'SM(N (ll >o%s (N(L*ST CL'RF M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT S(L'SM(N (ll >o%s
WVC3 D333 2S33 1SVC 23WVC SC3 1WC3 CD33 S@33 D333 @2C3 W1VC C333 CD33 1S31C
S'T OA'R(TORS
T*A'S
113
1 1 1 1
UNION
Union Union all Inte se!t Minus
This will !o$%ine the e!o ds of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e st u!tu e5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student2 union sele!t E f o$ student1.
UNION (LL
This will !o$%ine the e!o ds of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e st u!tu e %ut in!luding dupli!ates5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student2 union all sele!t E f o$ student1.
INT'RS'CT
This will give the !o$$on e!o ds of $ultiple ta%les having the sa$e st u!tu e5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student2 inte se!t sele!t E f o$ student1.
MINUS
This will give the e!o ds of a ta%le whose e!o ds a e not in othe ta%les having the sa$e st u!tu e5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student2 $inus sele!t E f o$ student1.
115
9I'6S
( view is a data%ase o%Je!t that is a logi!al sa$e $anne as a ta%le5 ep esentation of a ta%le5 It is
delive ed f o$ a ta%le %ut has no sto age of its own and often $a7 %e used in the
( view ta&es the output of the Uue 7 and t eats it as a ta%le# the efo e a view !an %e thought of as a sto ed Uue 7 o a vi tual ta%le5
T*A'S
1 1
Si$ple view Co$ple/ view
Si$ple view !an %e ! eated f o$ one ta%le whe e as !o$ple/ view !an %e ! eated f o$ $ultiple ta%les5
6:* 9I'6S[
1 1 1
A ovides additional level of se!u it7 %7 est i!ting a!!ess to a p edete $ined set of ows and?o !olu$ns of a ta%le5 :ide the data !o$ple/it75 Si$plif7 !o$$ands fo the use 5
9I'6S 6IT:OUT DML
1 1 1 1
Read onl7 view 9iew with g oup %7 9iew with agg egate fun!tions 9iew with ownu$
1 1
'/0
SQL-
Aa tition view 9iew with distin!t
C eate view deptMv as sele!t Ef o$ dept with ead onl7. C eate view deptMv as sele!t deptno# su$(sal) tMsal f o$ e$p g oup %7
SQL-
deptno.
SQLSQLSQL-
C eate view stud as sele!t ownu$ no# na$e# $a &s f o$ student. C eate view student as sele!t Ef o$ student2 union sele!t Ef o$ student1. C eate view stud as sele!t distin!t no#na$e f o$ student.
9I'6S 6IT: DML
9iew with not null !olu$n "" inse t with out not null !olu$n not possi%le "" update not null !olu$n to null is not possi%le "" delete possi%le
9iew with out not null !olu$n whi!h was in %ase ta%le "" inse t not possi%le "" update# delete
possi%le
3 4 5 5 5
9iew with e/p ession "" inse t # update not possi%le "" delete possi%le 9iew with fun!tions (e/!ept agg egate) "" inse t# update not possi%le "" delete possi%le 9iew was ! eated %ut the unde l7ing ta%le was d opped then we will get the $essage li&e P view has e o s Q5 9iew was ! eated %ut the %ase ta%le has %een alte ed %ut still the view was with the initial definition# we have to epla!e the view to affe!t the !hanges5 Co$ple/ view (view with $o e than one ta%le) "" inse t not possi%le "" update# delete possi%le (not
alwa7s)
CR'(TIN8 9I'6 6IT:OUT :(9IN8 T:' )(S' T()L'
SQL-
C eate fo !e view stud as sele!t EB o$ student.
117
"" On!e the %ase ta%le was ! eated then the view is validated5
9I'6 6IT: C:'CF OATION CONSTR(INT
SQL-
C eate view stud as sele!t Ef o$ student whe e $a &s H C33 with !he!& !onst aint C&.
option " Inse t possi%le with $a &s value as C33 " Update possi%le e/!luding $a &s !olu$n " Delete possi%le
DROAAIN8 9I'6S
SQL-
d op view deptMv.
D(T( MOD'L
(LLM9I'6 D)(M9I'6 US'RM9I'6S
S*NON*M (ND S'QU'NC'

S*NON*M
( s7non7$ is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h is used as an alias fo seUuen!e5
a ta%le# view o
T*A'S
3 3
A ivate Au%li!
A ivate s7non7$ is availa%le to the pa ti!ula use who ! eates5 Au%li! s7non7$ is ! eated %7 D)( whi!h is availa%le to all the use s5
(D9(NT(8'S
1 1
:ide the na$e and owne of the o%Je!t5 A ovides lo!ation t anspa en!7 fo e$ote o%Je!ts of a dist i%uted data%ase5
CR'(T' (ND DROA
119
SQLSQLSQL-
! eate s7non7$ s2 fo e$p. ! eate pu%li! s7non7$ s1 fo e$p. d op s7non7$ s2.
S'QU'NC'
( seUuen!e is a data%ase o%Je!t# whi!h !an gene ate uniUue# seUuential intege values5 It !an %e used to auto$ati!all7 gene ate p i$a 7 &e7 o uniUue &e7 values5 ( seUuen!e !an %e eithe in an as!ending o des!ending o de 5
S7nta/0 C eate seUuen!e ,!e/_name- Nin! e$ent %t7 nO Nsta t with nO N$a/value nO N$invalue nO N!7!le?no!7!leO N!a!he?no!a!heO.
)7 defalult the seUuen!e sta ts with 2# in! e$ents %7 2 with $invalue of 2 and with no!7!le# no!a!he5 Ca!he option p e"alloo!ates a set of seUuen!e nu$%e s and $e$o 7 fo faste a!!ess5 etains the$ in
'/0
SQL-
! eate seUuen!e s. ! eate seUuen!e s in! e$ent %7 23 sta t with 233 $invalue C $a/value
SQL-
133 !7!le !a!he 13.
USIN8 S'QU'NC'
SQLSQL-
! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23)). inse t into student values(s5ne/tval# Ksað).
1 1
Initiall7 !u val is not defined and ne/tval is sta ting value5 (fte that ne/tval and !u val a e alwa7s eUual5
CR'(TIN8 (LA:("NUM'RIC S'QU'NC'
SQLSQL-
! eate seUuen!e s sta t with 22214@. Inse t into student values (s5ne/tval XX t anslate (s5ne/tval#;214@CDVWS3;#;a%!defghiJ;)).
(LT'RIN8 S'QU'NC'
6e !an alte the seUuen!e to pe fo $ the following5
1 1 1
'/0
Set o eli$inate $invalue o $a/value5 Change the in! e$ent value5 Change the nu$%e of !a!hed seUuen!e nu$%e s5
SQLSQLSQL-
alte seUuen!e s $invalue C. alte seUuen!e s in! e$ent %7 1. alte seUuen!e s !a!he 23.
DROAAIN8 S'QU'NC'
SQL-
d op seUuen!e s.
>OINS
1 1 1
The pu pose of a Join is to !o$%ine the data a! oss ta%les5 ( Join is a!tuall7 pe fo $ed %7 the whe e !lause whi!h !o$%ines the spe!ified ows of ta%les5 If a Join involves in $o e than two ta%les then o a!le Joins fi st two ta%les %ased on the Joins !ondition and then !o$pa es the ta%le and so on5 esult with the ne/t
T*A'S
'Uui Join
121
1 1 1 1 1
Non"eUui Join Self Join Natu al Join C oss Join Oute Join Left oute Right oute Bull oute
1 1 1
Inne Join Using !lause On !lause
(ssu$e that we have the following ta%les5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO DN(M' 23 13 43 $&t fin h
LOC h7d %ang %o$%a7
"""""" """""""""" """"""""""
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p.
'MANO 222 111 444
'N(M' sa&eth sudha Jagan
>O) anal7st !le & $anage
M8R
D'ATNO @@@ 444 222 23 13 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
@@@
$adhu
enginee
111
@3
'QUI >OIN
( Join whi!h !ontains an KH; ope ato in the Joins !ondition5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e#dept d whe e
e5deptnoHd5deptno.
'MANO 222 444 111
'N(M' sa&eth Jagan sudha
>O) anal7st
DN(M' $&t $&t fin
LOC h7d h7d %ang
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" $anage !le &
USIN8 CL(US'
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo% #dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e Join dept d using(deptno).
'MANO 222 444 111
>O) anal7st
DN(M' $&t $&t fin
LOC h7d h7d %ang
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" $anage !le &
ON CL(US'
SQL-
sele!t
e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! 'MANO 222 444 'N(M' sa&eth Jagan >O) anal7st $anage
f o$
e$p LOC h7d h7d
Join
dept
on(e5deptnoHd5deptno). DN(M' $&t $&t """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
123
111
sudha
!le &
fin
%ang
NON"'QUI >OIN
( Join whi!h !ontains an ope ato othe than KH; in the Joins !ondition5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e#dept d whe e e5deptno H d5deptno.
'MANO 111 @@@ @@@ @@@
'N(M' sudha $adhu $adhu $adhu
>O) !le &
DN(M' $&t $&t fin h
LOC h7d h7d %ang %o$%a7
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" enginee enginee enginee
S'LB >OIN
>oining the ta%le itself is !alled self Join5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e25e$pno#e15ena$e#e25Jo%#e15deptno f o$ e$p e2#e$p e1 whe e e25e$pnoHe15$g .
'MANO 222 111 444 @@@ N(TUR(L >OIN
'N(M' Jagan $adhu sudha sa&eth
>O) anal7st !le &
D'ATNO 23 @3 13 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
$anage enginee
Natu al Join !o$pa es all the !o$$on !olu$ns5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p natu al Join dept.
'MANO 222 444 111
>O) anal7st $anage !le &
DN(M' $&t $&t fin
LOC h7d h7d %ang
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
CROSS >OIN
This will gives the ! oss p odu!t5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p ! oss Join dept.
'MANO 'N(M' 222 111 444 @@@ 222 111 444 @@@ 222 111 444 @@@ sa&eth sudha Jagan $adhu sa&eth sudha Jagan $adhu sa&eth sudha Jagan $adhu
>O) anal7st !le &
DN(M' $&t $&t $&t $&t fin fin fin fin h h h h
LOC h7d h7d h7d h7d %ang %ang %ang %ang %o$%a7 %o$%a7 %o$%a7 %o$%a7
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
$anage enginee anal7st !le & $anage enginee anal7st !le & $anage enginee
OUT'R >OIN
125
Oute Join gives the non"$at!hing e!o ds along with $at!hing e!o ds5
L'BT OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!o ds and the e!o ds whi!h a e in left hand side ta%le those that a e not in ight hand side ta%le5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e left oute Join dept d on(e5deptnoHd5deptno). O sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e#dept d whe e e5deptnoHd5deptno(G).
SQL-
'MANO 222 444 111 @@@
'N(M' sa&eth Jagan sudha $adhu
>O) anal7st $anage !le & enginee
DN(M' $&t $&t fin
LOC h7d h7d %ang
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
RI8:T OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!o ds and the e!o ds whi!h a e in ight hand side ta%le those that a e not in left hand side ta%le5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e ight oute Join dept d on(e5deptnoHd5deptno). O sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e#dept d whe e e5deptno(G) d5deptno.
SQL-
'MANO 222 444 111
>O) anal7st
DN(M' $&t $&t fin h
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" $anage !le &
BULL OUT'R >OIN
This will displa7 the all $at!hing e!o ds and the non"$at!hing e!o ds f o$ %oth ta%les5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo! f o$ e$p e full oute Join dept d on(e5deptnoHd5deptno).
'MANO 444 222 111 @@@
'N(M' Jagan sa&eth sudha $adhu
>O) $anage anal7st !le & enginee
DN(M' $&t $&t fin h
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
INN'R >OIN
This will displa7 all the e!o ds that have $at!hed5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t
e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo!
f o$
e$p
inne
Join
dept
using(deptno).
'MANO
'N(M'
>O)
DN(M'
LOC
127
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" """""""""" 222 444 111 sa&eth Jagan sudha anal7st $anage !le & $&t $&t fin h7d h7d %ang
SU)QU'RI'S (ND '+ISTS

SU)QU'RI'S
1 1 1
Nesting of Uue ies# one within the othe is te $ed as a su%Uue 75 ( state$ent !ontaining a su%Uue 7 is !alled a pa ent Uue 75 Su%Uue ies a e used to et ieve data f o$ ta%les that depend on the values in the ta%le itself5
T*A'S
1 1 1 1
Single ow su%Uue ies Multi ow su%Uue ies Multiple su%Uue ies Co elated su%Uue ies
SIN8L' RO6 SU)QU'RI'S
In single ow su%Uue 7# it will etu n one value5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sal - (sele!t sal f o$ e$p whe e e$pno H VCDD).
'MANO VVWW VW4S
'N(M' SCOTT FIN8
>O) (N(L*ST
M8R VCDD
:IR'D(T' 2S"(AR"WV
S(L
COMM
D'ATNO 13 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """""""""" 4333 AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 C333
VS31
BORD
(N(L*ST
VCDD
34"D'C"W2
4333
13
MULTI RO6 SU)QU'RI'S
In $ulti ow su%Uue 7# it will etu n $o e than one value5 In su!h !ases we should in!lude ope ato s li&e an7# all# in o not in %etween the !o$pa ision ope ato and the su%Uue 75
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sal - an7 (sele!t sal f o$ e$p whe e sal and @333).
%etween 1C33
'MANO VCDD VVWW VW4S VS31
'N(M' >ON'S SCOTT FIN8 BORD
>O)
M8R
:IR'D(T'
S(L
COMM
D'ATNO 13 13 23 13
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""" M(N(8'R (N(L*ST AR'SID'NT (N(L*ST VCDD 2S"(AR"WV
"""""""" """""""""" """""""""" 1SVC 4333 C333 4333
VW4S 31"(AR"W2 2V"NO9"W2 VCDD 34"D'C"W2
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sal - all (sele!t sal f o$ e$p whe e sal %etween and @333).
1C33
'MANO VW4S
'N(M' FIN8
>O)
M8R
:IR'D(T'
S(L
COMM D'ATNO 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """"""""""""" """""" """""""""" """""""""" AR'SID'NT 2V"NO9"W2 C333
MULTIAL' SU)QU'RI'S
The e is no li$it on the nu$%e of su%Uue ies in!luded in a whe e !lause5 It allows nesting of a Uue 7 within a su%Uue 75
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sal H (sele!t $a/(sal) f o$ e$p whe e sal ,
129
(sele!t $a/(sal) f o$ e$p)).
'MANO VVWW VS31
'N(M' SCOTT BORD
>O)
M8R
:IR'D(T' 2S"(AR"WV 34"D'C"W2
S(L 4333
COMM
D'ATNO 13 13
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""" """""""""" """""""""""" """"""" """""""""" """""""""" (N(L*ST VCDD (N(L*ST VCDD 4333
CORR'L(T'D SU)QU'RI'S
( su%Uue 7 is evaluated on!e fo state$ent5 '/0

SQL-
the enti e pa ent state$ent whe e as a eve 7 ow p o!essed %7 the pa ent
!o elated su%Uue 7 is evaluated on!e fo
sele!t distin!t deptno f o$ e$p e whe e C ,H (sele!t !ount(ena$e) f o$ whe e e5deptno H deptno).
e$p
D'ATNO """""""""" 13 43
'+ISTS
'/ists fun!tion is a test fo e/isten!e5 This is a logi!al test fo the etu n of ows f o$ a Uue 75
'/0 Suppose we want to displa7 the depa t$ent nu$%e s whi!h has $o e than @ e$plo7ees5
SQL-
sele!t deptno#!ount(E) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno having !ount(E) - @.
D'ATNO """"""""" 13 43
COUNT(E) """""""""" C D
B o$ the a%ove Uue 7 !an 7ou want to displa7 the na$es of e$plo7ees[
SQL-
sele!t deptno#ena$e# !ount(E) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno#ena$e having - @.
!ount(E)
no ows sele!ted
The a%ove Uue 7 etu ns nothing %e!ause !o$%ination of deptno and ena$e neve etu n $o e than one !ount5
The solution is to use e/ists whi!h follows5

SQL-
sele!t deptno#ena$e f o$ e$p e2 whe e e/ists (sele!t E f o$ e$p e1 whe e e25deptnoHe15deptno g oup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e)
- @) o de %7 deptno#ena$e.
D'ATNO 13 13 13 13 13 43 43 43 43 43
'N(M' (D(MS BORD >ON'S SCOTT SMIT: (LL'N )L(F' >(M'S M(RTIN TURN'R
"""""""""" """"""""""
131
43
6(RD
NOT '+ISTS
SQL-
sele!t deptno#ena$e f o$ e$p e2 whe e not e/ists (sele!t E f o$ e$p e1 whe e e25deptnoHe15deptno g oup %7 e15deptno having !ount(e15ena$e) -
@) o de %7 deptno#ena$e.
D'ATNO 'N(M' """"""""" """""""""" 23 23 23 CL(RF FIN8 MILL'R
6(LFUA TR''S (ND INLIN' 9I'6

6(LFUA TR''S
Using hie a !hi!al Uue ies# 7ou !an et ieve data %ased on a natu al hie a !hi!al elationship %etween ows in a ta%le5 :oweve # whe e a hie a !hi!al elationship e/ists %etween the ows of a ta%le# a p o!ess !alled t ee wal&ing ena%les the hie a !h7 to %e !onst u!ted5
'/0
SQL-
sele!t ena$e XX =HH-= XX p io ena$e# level f o$ e$p sta t with ena$e H !onne!t %7 p io e$pnoH$g . 'N(M'XX=HH-=XXARIOR'N(M L'9'L
=FIN8=
"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" FIN8HH>ON'SHH-FIN8 SCOTTHH->ON'S (D(MSHH-SCOTT BORDHH->ON'S SMIT:HH-BORD )L(F'HH-FIN8 (LL'NHH-)L(F' 6(RDHH-)L(F' M(RTINHH-)L(F' TURN'RHH-)L(F' >(M'SHH-)L(F' CL(RFHH-FIN8 MILL'RHH-CL(RF
"""""""" 2 1 4 @ 4 @ 1 4 4 4 4 4 1 4
In the a%ove Sta t with !lause spe!ifies the oot ow of the ta%le5 Level pseudo !olu$n gives the 2 fo oot# 1 fo !hild and so on5 Conne!t %7 p io !lause spe!ifies the !olu$ns whi!h has pa ent"!hild elationship5
INLIN' 9I'6 OR TOA"N (N(L*SIS
In the sele!t state$ent instead of ta%le na$e# epla!ing the sele!t state$ent is &nown as inline view5
'/0
SQL-
Sele!t ena$e# sal# ownu$ an& f o$ (sele!t Ef o$ e$p o de %7 sal).
'N(M' SMIT: >(M'S (D(MS 6(RD
S(L W33 SC3 2233 21C3
R(NF 2 1 4 @
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""
133
M(RTIN MILL'R TURN'R (LL'N CL(RF )L(F' >ON'S SCOTT BORD FIN8
21C3 2433 2C33 2D33 1@C3 1WC3 1SVC 4333 4333 C333
C D V W S 23 22 21 24 2@
LOCFS
Lo!&s a e the $e!hanis$s used to p event dest u!tive inte a!tion %etween use s a!!essing sa$e !on!u en!75 esou !e si$ultaneousl75 Lo!&s p ovides high deg ee of data
T*A'S
1 1
Row level lo!&s Ta%le level lo!&s
RO6 L'9'L LOCFS
In the ow level lo!& a ow is lo!&ed e/!lusivel7 so that othe !annot $odif7 the ow until the t ansa!tion holding the lo!& is !o$$itted o done %7 using sele!t55fo update !lause5 olled %a!&5 This !an %e
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e sal - 4333 fo update of !o$$5.
T()L' L'9'L LOCFS
( ta%le level lo!& will p ote!t ta%le data the e%7 gua anteeing data integ it7 when data is %eing a!!essed !on!u entl7 %7 $ultiple use s5 ( ta%le lo!& !an %e held in seve al $odes5
1 1 1
S:(R' LOCF
Sha e lo!& Sha e update lo!& '/!lusive lo!&
( sha e lo!& lo!&s the ta%le allowing othe esou !e at the sa$e ti$e5
use s to onl7 Uue 7 %ut not inse t#
update o delete ows in a ta%le5 Multiple use s !an pla!e sha e lo!&s on the sa$e
'/0
SQL-
lo!& ta%le e$p in sha e $ode.
S:(R' UAD(T' LOCF
It lo!&s
ows that a e to %e updated in a ta%le5 It pe $its othe
use s to
!on!u entl7 Uue 7# inse t # update o even lo!& othe
ows in the sa$e ta%le5 It
p events the othe use s f o$ updating the ow that has %een lo!&ed5
'/0
SQL-
lo!& ta%le e$p in sha e update $ode.
'+CLUSI9' LOCF
'/!lusive lo!& is the $ost est i!tive of ta%les lo!&s5 6hen issued %7 an7 use # it allows the othe use to onl7 Uue 75 It is si$ila to sha e lo!& %ut onl7 one use !an pla!e e/!lusive lo!& on a ta%le at a ti$e5
'/0
135
SQL-
lo!& ta%le e$p in sha e e/!lusive $ode.
NO6(IT
If one use lo!&ed the ta%le without nowait then anothe use t 7ing to lo!& the sa$e ta%le then he has to wait until the use issues a !o$$it o nowait !lause in the lo!& ta%le !o$$and5 who has initiall7 lo!&ed the ta%le oll%a!& state$ent5 This dela7 !ould %e avoided %7 appending a
'/0
SQL-
lo!& ta%le e$p in e/!lusive $ode nowait5
D'(DLOCF
( deadlo!& o!!u s when two use s have a lo!& ea!h on sepa ate o%Je!t# and the7 want to a!Uui e a lo!& on the ea!h othe ;s o%Je!t5 6hen this happens# the fi st use has to wait fo the se!ond use to elease the lo!&# %ut the se!ond use will not elease it until the lo!& on the fi st use ;s o%Je!t is f eed5 In su!h a !ase# o a!le dete!ts the deadlo!& auto$ati!all7 and solves the p o%le$ %7 a%o ting one of the two t ansa!tions5
IND'+'S
Inde/ is t7pi!all7 a listing of &e7wo ds a!!o$panied %7 the lo!ation of info $ation on a su%Je!t5 6e !an ! eate inde/es e/pli!itl7 to speed up SQL state$ent e/e!ution on a ta%le5 The inde/ points di e!tl7 to the lo!ation of the !ontaining the value5 ows
6:* IND'+'S[
Inde/es a e $ost useful on la ge ta%les# on !olu$ns that a e li&el7 to appea in whe e !lauses as si$ple eUualit75
T*A'S
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
UniUue inde/ Non"uniUue inde/ )t ee inde/ )it$ap inde/ Co$posite inde/ Reve se &e7 inde/ Bun!tion"%ased inde/ Des!ending inde/ Do$ain inde/ O%Je!t inde/ Cluste inde/ Te/t inde/ Inde/ o ganiTed ta%le Aa tition inde/ v Lo!al inde/ Lo!al p efi/ed Lo!al non"p efi/ed 8lo%al inde/ 8lo%al p efi/ed 8lo%al non"p efi/ed
UNIQU' IND'+
UniUue inde/es gua antee that no two ows of a ta%le have dupli!ate values in the !olu$ns that define the inde/5 UniUue inde/ is auto$ati!all7 ! eated when p i$a 7 &e7 o uniUue !onst aint is ! eated5
'/0
SQL-
! eate uniUue inde/ studMind on student(sno).
NON"UNIQU' IND'+
137
Non"UniUue inde/es do not i$pose the a%ove est i!tion on the !olu$n values5
'/0
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMind on student(sno).
)TR'' IND'+ o (SC'NDIN8 IND'+
The default t7pe of inde/ used in an o a!le data%ase is the %t ee inde/5 ( %t ee inde/ is designed to p ovide %oth apid a!!ess to individual ows and Uui!& a!!ess to g oups of ows within a ange5 The %t ee inde/ does this %7 pe fo $ing a su!!ession of value !o$pa isons5 'a!h !o$pa ison eli$inates $an7 of the ows5
'/0
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMind on student(sno).
)ITM(A IND'+
This !an %e used fo low !a dinalit7 !olu$ns0 that is !olu$ns in whi!h the nu$%e of distin!t values is s$all when !o$pa ed to the nu$%e of the ows in the ta%le5
'/0
SQL-
! eate %it$ap inde/ studMind on student(se/).
COMAOSIT' IND'+
( !o$posite inde/ also !alled a !on!atenated inde/ is an inde/ ! eated on $ultiple !olu$ns of a ta%le5 Colu$ns in a !o$posite inde/ !an appea need not %e adJa!ent !olu$ns of the ta%le5 in an7 o de and
'/0
SQL-
! eate %it$ap inde/ studMind on student(sno# sna$e).
R'9'RS' F'* IND'+
( eve se &e7 inde/ when !o$pa ed to standa d inde/# eve ses ea!h %7te of the !olu$n %eing inde/ed while &eeping the !olu$n o de 5 6hen the !olu$n is inde/ed in eve se $ode then the !olu$n values will %e sto ed in an inde/ in diffe ent %lo!&s as the sta ting value diffe s5 Su!h an a ange$ent !an help avoid pe fo $an!e deg adations in inde/es whe e $odifi!ations to the inde/ a e !on!ent ated on a s$all set of %lo!&s5
'/0
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMind on student(sno# eve se).
6e !an &e7wo d5
e%uild a
eve se &e7 inde/ into no $al inde/ using the no eve se
'/0
SQL-
alte inde/ studMind e%uild no eve se.
BUNCTION )(S'D IND'+
This will use esult of the fun!tion as &e7 instead of using !olu$n as the value fo the &e75
'/0
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMind on student(uppe (sna$e)).
D'SC'NDIN8 IND'+
The o de used %7 )"t ee inde/es has %een as!ending o de 5 *ou !an !atego iTe data in )"t ee inde/ in des!ending o de as well5 This featu e !an %e useful in appli!ations whe e so ting ope ations a e eUui ed5
139
'/0
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMind on student(sno des!).
T'+T IND'+
Que 7ing te/t is diffe ent f o$ Uue 7ing data %e!ause wo ds have shades of $eaning# elationships to othe wo ds# and opposites5 *ou $a7 want to sea !h fo wo ds that a e nea ea!h othe # o wo ds that a e elated to the s5 These Uue ies would %e e/t e$el7 diffi!ult if all 7ou had availa%le was the standa d ope ato s5 )7 e/tending
SQL
elational
to in!lude te/t inde/es# o a!le te/t pe $its 7ou to as&
ve 7 !o$ple/ Uuestions a%out the te/t5
To use o a!le te/t# 7ou need to ! eate a te(t inde( on the !olu$n in whi!h the te/t is sto ed5 Te/t inde/ is a of ta%les and inde/es that sto e info $ation a%out the te/t sto ed in the !olu$n5
T*A'S
The e a e seve al diffe ent t7pes of inde/es availa%le in o a!le Si5 The fi st#
CONT'+T
is suppo ted in o a!le Wi as well as o a!le Si5 (s of o a!le Si# 7ou !an use te/t inde/ fo fu the enhan!e 7ou te/t inde/ $anage$ent and Uue 7
the
CT+C(T
!apa%ilities5
1 1 1
The
CT+C(T
CONT'+T CT+C(T CT+RUL'
inde/ t7pe suppo ts the t ansa!tional s7n!h oniTation of data %etween

CONT'+T
the %ase ta%le and its te/t inde/5 6ith
inde/es# 7ou need to $anuall7 tell data !hanges in %ase ta%le5
o a!le to update the values in the te/t inde/ afte

CT+C(T
inde/ t7pes do not gene ate s!o e values du ing the te/t Uue ies5
:O6 TO CR'(T' T'+T IND'+[
*ou !an ! eate a te/t inde/ via a spe!ial ve sion of the ! eate inde/ !o$$an5 Bo !onte/t inde/# spe!if7 the !t/s7s5!onte/t inde/ t7pe and fo !t/!at inde/# spe!if7 the !t/s7s5!t/!at inde/ t7pe5
'/0 Suppose 7ou have a ta%le !alled )OOFS with the following !olu$ns Title# (utho # Info5
SQLSQL-
! eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!onte/t. ! eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at.
T'+T QU'RI'S
On!e a te/t inde/ is ! eated on the info !olu$n of !apa%ilities in! ease d7na$i!all75
)OOFS
ta%le# te/t"sea !hing
CONT(INS < C(TS'(RC:
CONT(INS
fun!tion ta&es two pa a$ete s \ the !olu$n na$e and the sea !h st ing5
S7nta/0 Contains(inde(ed_column, !earc)_!tr).
If 7ou ! eate a
C(TS'(RC:
CT+C(T
inde/# use the
C(TS'(RC:
fun!tion in pla!e of
CONT(INS5
ta&es th ee pa a$ete s \ the !olu$n na$e# the sea !h st ing and the
inde/ set5
S7nta/0 Contains(inde(ed_column, !earc)_!tr, inde(_!et).
:O6 ( T'+T Q'UR* 6ORFS[
6hen a fun!tion su!h as
CONT(INS
C(TS'(RC:
is used in Uue 7# the te/t po tion of
141
the Uue 7 is p o!essed %7 o a!le te/t5 The e$ainde of the Uue 7 is p o!essed Just li&e a egula Uue 7 within the data%ase5 The esult of the te/t Uue 7 p o!essing and the egula Uue 7 p o!essing a e $e ged to etu n a single set of e!o ds to the use 5
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB ( 6ORD
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo a wo d !alled Kp pe t7; whose s!o e is g eate than Te o5
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kp ope t7;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kp ope t7;# null) - 3.
Suppose if 7ou want to &now the s!o e of the Kp ope t7; in ea!h %oo&# if s!o e values fo individual sea !hes ange f o$ 3 to 23 fo ea!h o!!u en!e of the st ing within the te/t then use the s!o e fun!tion5
SQL-
sele!t title# s!o e(23) f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kp ope t7;# 23) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB MULTIAL' 6ORDS
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo two wo ds5
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kp ope t7
(ND
ha vests;) - 3. ha vests;# null) - 3.
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kp ope t7
(ND
Instead of using na$e5
(ND
7ou !ould have used an a$pe sand(<)5 )efo e using this will not %e seen as pa t of a va ia%le
$ethod# set define off so the < !ha a!te
SQLSQLSQL-
set define off sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kp ope t7 < ha vests;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kp ope t7 ha vests;# null) - 3.
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo $o e than two wo ds5
SQL-
(ND
ha vests
(ND
wo &e s;) - 3.
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kp ope t7 ha vests wo &e s;# null)
- 3.
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo eithe of the two wo ds5
SQL-
OR
ha vests;) - 3.
Instead of
OR
7ou !an use a ve ti!al line (X)5
SQLSQL-
ha vests;) - 3.
X
ha vests;# null) - 3.
In the following Uue ies the value5
(CCUM(a!!u$ulate)
ope ato adds togethe the s!o es
of the individual sea !hes and !o$pa es the a!!u$ulated s!o e to the th eshold
SQLSQL-
(CCUM
ha vests;) - 3. ha vests;# null) -
(CCUM
3.
Instead of
OR
7ou !an use a !o$$a(#)5
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kp ope t7 # ha vests;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kp ope t7 # ha vests;# null) - 3.
In the following Uue ies the
MINUS
ope ato
su%t a!ts the s!o e of the se!ond
te $;s sea !h f o$ the s!o e of the fi st te $;s sea !h5
SQLSQL-
MINUS NOT
ha vests;) - 3.
143
Instead of
MINUS
7ou !an use \ and instead of
NOT
7ou !an use ]5
SQLSQL-
"
ha vests;) - 3.
]
S'(RC:IN8 BOR (N '+(CT M(TC: OB ( A:R(S'
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo the ph ase5 If the sea !h ph ase in!ludes a ese ved wo d within o a!le te/t# the 7ou $ust use !u l7 % a!es (^_) to en!lose te/t5
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kt ansa!tions ând_ finan!es;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# Kt ansa!tions ând_ finan!es;# null)
- 3.
*ou !an en!lose the enti e ph ase within !u l7 % a!es# in whi!h !ase an7 ese ved wo ds within the ph ase will %e t eated as pa t of the sea !h ! ite ia5
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# K^t ansa!tions and finan!es_;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !atsea !h(info# K^t ansa!tions and finan!es_;# null)
- 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T (R' N'(R '(C: OT:'R
The following Uue ies will sea !h fo te $s5
the wo ds that a e in %etween the sea !h
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kwo &e s
N'(R
ha vests;) - 3.
Instead of
N'(R
7ou !an use .5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kwo &e s . ha vests;) - 3.
In
CONT'+T
inde/ Uue ies# 7ou !an spe!if7 the $a/i$u$ nu$%e of wo ds %etween
the sea !h te $s5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# KN'(R((wo &e s# ha vests)#23); - 3.
USIN8 6ILDC(RDS DURIN8 S'(RC:'S
*ou !an use wild!a ds to e/pand the list of valid sea !h te $s used du ing 7ou Uue 75 >ust as in availa%le5 egula te/t"st ing wild!a d p o!essing# two wild!a ds a e
L M
" "
pe !ent sign. $ultiple"!ha a!te wild!a d unde s!o e. single"!ha a!te wild!a d
SQLSQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kwo &e L;) - 3. sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kwo &MMM;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T S:(R' T:' S(M' ST'M
Rathe than using wild!a ds# 7ou !an use ste$"e/pansion !apa%ilities to e/pand the list of te/t st ings5 8iven the Kste$; of a wo d# o a!le will e/pand the list of wo ds to sea !h fo to in!lude all wo ds having the sa$e ste$5 Sa$ple e/pansions a e show he e5 Ala7 " pla7s pla7ing pla7ed pla7ful
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# K`$anage;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR BUZZ* M(TC:'S
( fuTT7 $at!h e/pands the spe!ified sea !h te $ to in!lude wo ds that a e spelled si$ila l7 %ut that do not ne!essa il7 have the sa$e wo d ste$5 BuTT7 $at!hes a e $ost helpful when the te/t !ontains $isspellings5 The $isspellings !an %e eithe in the sea !hed te/t o in the sea !h st ing spe!ified %7 the use du ing the Uue 75
The following Uue ies will not etu n an7thing %e!ause its sea !h does not !ontain the wo d Kha dest;5
145
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# Kha dest;) - 3.
It does# howeve # !ontains the wo d Kha vest;5 ( fuTT7 $at!h will etu n the %oo&s !ontaining the wo d Kha vest; even though Kha vest; has a diffe ent wo d ste$ thant the wo d used as the sea !h te $5
To use a fuTT7 $at!h# p e!ede the sea !h te $ with a Uuestion $a &# with no spa!e %etween the Uuestion $a & and the %eginning of the sea !h te $5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# K[ha dest;) - 3.
S'(RC:IN8 BOR 6ORDS T:(T SOUND LIF' OT:'R 6ORDS
SOUND'+# e/pands sea !h te $s %ased on how the wo d sounds5 The SOUND'+ e/pansion $ethod uses the sa$e te/t"$at!hing logi! availa%le via the SOUND'+ fun!tion in SQL5
To use the SOUND'+ option# 7ou $ust p e!ede the sea !h te $ with an e/!la$ation $a &(I)5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ %oo&s whe e !ontains(info# KIg ate;) - 3.
IND'+ S*NC:RONIZ(TION
6hen using
CONT'+T
inde/es# 7ou need to $anage the te/t inde/ !ontents. the te/t
inde/es a e not updated when the %ase ta%le is updated5 6hen the ta%le was updated# its te/t inde/ is out of s7n! with the %ase ta%le5 To s7n! of the inde/# e/e!ute the
S*NCMIND'+
p o!edu e of the
CT+MDDL
pa!&age5
SQL-
e/e!
CT+MDDL5S*NCMIND'+(K%oo&Minde/;).
IND'+ S'TS
:isto i!all7# p o%le$s with Uue ies of te/t inde/es have o!!u ed when othe ! ite ia a e used alongside te/t sea !hes as pa t of the whe e !lause5 To i$p ove the $i/ed Uue 7 !apa%ilit7# o a!le featu es inde/ sets5 The inde/es within the inde/ set $a7 %e st u!tu ed elational !olu$ns o on te/t !olu$ns5
To ! eate an inde/ set# use the %elongs to5
CT+MDDL
pa!&age to ! eate the inde/ set and add
inde/es to it5 6hen 7ou ! eate a te/t inde/# 7ou !an then spe!if7 the inde/ set it
SQL-
e/e! CT+MDDL5CR'(T'MIND'+MS'T(K%oo&sMinde/Mset;).
The add non"te/t inde/es5
SQL-
e/e!
CT+MDDL5(DDMIND'+(K%oo&sMinde/Mset;#
KtitleMinde/;).
Now ! eate a
CT+C(T
te/t inde/5 Spe!if7 !t/s7s5!t/!at as the inde/ t7pe# and list the
inde/ set in the pa a$ete s !lause5
SQL-
! eate inde/ %oo&Minde/ on %oo&s(info) inde/t7pe is !t/s7s5!t/!at pa a$ete s(Kinde/ set %oo&sMinde/Mset;).
IND'+"OR8(NIZ'D T()L'
(n inde/"o ganiTed ta%le &eeps its data so ted a!!o ding to the p i$a 7 &e7 !olu$n values fo the ta%le5 Inde/"o ganiTed ta%les sto e thei data as if the enti e ta%le was sto ed in an inde/5 (n inde/"o ganiTed ta%le allows 7ou to sto e the enti e ta%le;s data in an inde/5 '/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le student (sno nu$%e (1)#sna$e va !ha (23)#s$a &s
nu$%e (4) !onst aint p& p i$a 7 &e7(sno) o ganiTation inde/.
A(RTITION IND'+
147
Si$ila to pa titioning ta%les# o a!le allows 7ou to pa tition inde/es too5 Li&e ta%le pa titions# inde/ pa titions !ould %e in diffe ent ta%lespa!es5
LOC(L IND'+'S
1 1
Lo!al &e7wo d tells o a!le to ! eate a sepa te inde/ fo ea!h pa tition5 In the lo!al p efi/ed inde/ the pa tition &e7 is spe!ified on the left p efi/5 6hen the unde l7ing ta%le is pa titioned %aes on# sa7 two !olu$ns then the inde/ !an %e p efi/ed on the fi st !olu$n spe!ified5
1 1
'/0
Lo!al p efi/ed inde/es !an %e uniUue o non uniUue5 Lo!al inde/es $a7 %e easie to $anage than glo%al inde/es5
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMinde/ on student(sno) lo!al.
8LO)(L IND'+'S
1 1 1 1 1
'/0
( glo%al inde/ $a7 !ontain values f o$ $ultiple pa titions5 (n inde/ is glo%al p efi/ed if it is pa titioned on the left p efi/ of the inde/ !olu$ns5 The glo%al !lause allows 7ou to ! eate a non"pa titioned inde/5 8lo%al inde/es $a7 pe fo $ uniUueness !he!&s faste than lo!al
(pa titioned) inde/es5 *ou !annot ! eate glo%al inde/es fo hash pa titions o su%pa titions5
SQL-
! eate inde/ studMinde/ on student(sno) glo%al.
Si$ila to ta%le pa titions# it is possi%le to $ove the$ f o$ one devi!e to anothe 5 )ut unli&e ta%le pa titions# $ove$ent of inde/ pa titions eUui es individual e!onst u!tion of the inde/ o ea!h pa tition (onl7 in the !ase of glo%al inde/)5
'/0
SQL-
alte inde/ studMind e%uild pa tition p1
1 1
Inde/ pa titions !annot %e d opped $anuall75 The7 a e d opped i$pli!itl7 when the data the7 efe to is d opped f o$ the pa titioned ta%le5
MONITORIN8 US' OB IND'+'S On!e 7ou tu ned on the $onito ing the use of inde/es# then we !an !he!& whethe the ta%le is hitting the inde/ o not5
To $onito the use of inde/ use the follwing s7nta/5
S7nta/0 alte inde/ inde(_name $onito ing usage.
then !he!& fo the details in 9Ò)>'CTMUS(8' view5
If 7ou want to stop $onito ing use the following5
S7nta/0 alte inde/ inde(_name no$onito ing usage.
D(T( MOD'L
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(LLMIND'+'S D)(MIND'+'S US'RMIND'+'S (LLMIND"COLUMNS D)("INDMCOLUMNS US'RMINDMCOLUMNS (LLMA(RTMIND'+'S D)(MA(RTMIND'+'S
149
1 1
US'RMA(RTMIND'+'S 9Ò)>'CTMUS(8'
SQLEALUS COMMN(NDS
These !o$$ands does not eUui e state$ent te $inato and appli!a%le to the sessions # those will %e auto$ati!all7 !lea ed when session was !losed5
)R'(F
This will %e used to % ea&up the data depending on the g ouping5
S7nta/0 ) ea& o % e Non ,!olu$n_name- on epo tO COMAUT'
This will %e used to pe fo $ g oup fun!tions on the data5
S7nta/0 Co$pute o !o$p Ng oupMfun!tion of column_name on brea in"_column_name o epo tO
TTITL'
This will give the top title fo 7ou
epo t5 *ou !an on o off the ttitle5
S7nta/0 Ttitle o ttit Nleft X !ente X ightO title_name s&ip n ot)er_c)aracter! Ttitle o ttit Non o offO
)TITL'
This will give the %otto$ title fo 7ou
epo t5 *ou !an on o off the %title5
S7nta/0 )title o %tit Nleft X !ente X ightO title_name s&ip n ot)er_c)aracter! )title o %tit Non o offO '/0
SQLSQLSQLSQLSQL-
% e on deptno s&ip 2 on epo t !o$p su$ of sal on deptno !o$p su$ of sal on epo t ttitle !ente ='MALO*'' D'T(ILS= s&ip2 !ente =""""""""""""""""= %title !ente =EE T:(NFQ EE=
151
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p o de %7 deptno.
Output0
'MALO*'' D'T(ILS """""""""""""""""""""""
'MANO VVW1 VW4S VS4@
'N(M' CL(RF FIN8
>O) M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT
M8R VW4S VVW1
:IR'D(T' 3S">UN"W2 2V"NO9"W2 14">(N"W1
S(L 1@C3 C333 2433
COMM
D'ATNO 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""
""""""" """""""""""""" """""""" """""""""" """"""""""
MILL'R CL'RF
"""""""""" WVC3
EEEEEEEEEE su$
V4DS VWVD VS31 VVWW VCDD EEEEEEEEEE
SMIT: BORD
CL'RF (N(L*ST
VS31 VVWW VCDD VCDD VW4S
2V"D'C"W3 14"M(*"WV 34"D'C"W2 2S"(AR"WV 31"(AR"W2
W33 2233 4333 4333 1SVC """""""""" 23WVC
13
(D(MS CL'RF SCOTT (N(L*ST >ON'S M(N(8'R
su$
V@SS VDSW VDC@ VS33 VW@@ VC12
(LL'N )L(F' >(M'S 6(RD
S(L'SM(N M(N(8'R CL'RF S(L'SM(N
VDSW VW4S VDSW VDSW VDSW VDSW
13"B')"W2 32"M(*"W2 1W"S'A"W2 34"D'C"W2 3W"S'A"W2 11"B')"W2
2D33 1WC3 21C3 SC3 2C33 21C3 """""""""" S@33 """"""""""
433 2@33 3 C33
43
M(RTIN S(L'SM(N TURN'R S(L'SM(N
EEEEEEEEEE su$
su$
1S31C
EE T:(NFQ EE
CL'(R
This will !lea the e/isting %uffe s o % ea& o !o$putations o !olu$ns fo $atting5
S7nta/0 Clea o !le %uffe X % e X !o$p X !ol.
'/0
SQL-
!lea %uffe )uffe !lea ed !lea % e ) ea&s !lea ed !lea !o$p Co$putes !lea ed !lea !ol Colu$ns !lea ed
SQL-
SQL-
SQL-
C:(N8'
This will %e used to epla!e an7 st ings in
SQL
state$ents5
S7nta/0 Change o !?old_!trin"?new_!trin"
If the old_!trin" epeats $an7 ti$es then new_!trin" epla!es the fi st st ing onl75
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ det. E
sele!t E f o$ det
153
'RROR at line 20 OR("33S@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist
SQL-
!?det?dept ?
2E sele!t E f o$ dept
SQL-
D'ATNO DN(M' 23 13 43 @3
LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """"""""""" (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS (LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON
COLUMN
This will %e used to in! ease o de! ease the width of the ta%le !olu$ns5
S7nta/0 Colu$n o !ol ,column_name- fo $at ,num_'ormatXte(t_'ormat-
'/0
SQLSQL-
!ol deptno fo $at SSS !ol dna$e fo $at a23
S(9'
This will %e used to save 7ou !u ent SQL state$ent as SQL S! ipt file5
S7nta/0 Save o sav ,'ile_name-5Ne/tensionO epla!e o ep
If 7ou want to save the filena$e with e/isting filena$e the 7ou have to use epla!e option5
)7 default it will ta&e !/l as the e/tension5
'/0
SQL-
save ss C eated file ss5sUl save ss epla!e 6 ote file ss5sUl
SQL-
'+'CUT'
This will %e used to e/e!ute sto ed su%p og a$s o pa!&aged su%p og a$s5
S7nta/0 '/e!ute o e/e! ,!ubpro"ram_name-
'/0
SQL-
e/e! sa$pleMp o!
SAOOL
This will e!o d the data when 7ou spool on# upto when 7ou sa7 spool off5 )7 default it will give l!t as e/tension5
S7nta/0 Spool on X off X out X ,'ile_name-5N'/tensionO
'/0
SQLSQL-
spool on sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO DN(M' """"""""" """""""""""""" 23 13 R'S'(RC:
LOC """""""""" D(LL(S
(CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF
155
43 @3
S(L'S OA'R(TIONS
C:IC(8O )OSTON
SQLSQL-
spool off ed on5lst
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO DN(M' """"""""" """""""""""""" 23 13 43 @3 R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS
LOC """""""""" D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON
(CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF
SQL-
spool off
LIST
This will give the !u ent
SQL
state$ent5
S7nta/0 List o li N!tart_line_numberO Nend_line_numberO
'/0
SQL-
sele!t
1 E 4 f o$ @ dept.
SQL-
list
2 sele!t 1 E 4 f o$ @E dept
SQL-
list 2 list 4
2E sele!t
SQL-
4E f o$
SQL-
list 2 4
2 sele!t 1 E 4E f o$ INAUT
This will inse t the new line to the !u ent
SQL
state$ent5
S7nta/0 Input o in ,!trin"-
'/0
SQLSQL-
sele!t E list input f o$ dept list
2E sele!t E
SQLSQL-
2 sele!t E 1E f o$ dept
(AA'ND
This will adds a new st ing to the e/isting st ing in the spa!e5
SQL
state$ent without an7
S7nta/0 (ppend o app ,!trin"-
157
'/0
SQLSQL-
sele!t E list append f o$ dept list
2E sele!t E
SQL-
SQL-
D'L'T'
This will delete the !u ent
SQL
state$ent lines5
S7nta/0 Delete o del ,!tart_line_number- N,end_line_number-O
'/0
SQL-
sele!t
1 E 4 f o$ @ dept C whe e D deptno V -23.

SQL-
list
2 sele!t 1 E 4 f o$ @ dept C whe e D deptno VE -23

SQLSQL-
del 2 list
2 E
1 f o$ 4 dept @ whe e C deptno DE -23

SQLSQL-
del 1 list
2 E 1 dept 4 whe e @ deptno CE -23

SQLSQL-
del 1 @ list
2 E 1E -23
SQLSQL-
del list
2 E
9(RI()L'
This will %e used to de!la e a va ia%le5
S7nta/0 9a ia%le o va ,variable_name- ,variable_type-
'/0
SQLSQL-
va
deptMna$e va !ha (2C)
sele!t dna$e into deptMna$e f o$ dept whe e deptno H 23.
ARINT
This will %e used to p int the output of the va ia%les that will %e de!la ed at level5
SQL
159
S7nta/0 A int ,variable_name-
'/0
SQL-
p int deptMna$e
D'ATMN(M' """""""""""""" (CCOUNTIN8
ST(RT
This will %e used to e/e!ute
SQL
s! ipts5
S7nta/0 sta t ,filena$e_name-5sUl
'/0
SQLSQL-
sta t ss5sUl ass5sUl "" this will e/e!ute sUl s! ipt files onl75
:OST
This will %e used to inte a!t with the
OS
level f o$
SQL5
S7nta/0 :ost NoperationO
'/0
SQLSQL-
host host di
S:O6
Using this# 7ou !an see seve al !o$$ands that use the set !o$$and and status5
S7nta/0 Show all X ,!et_command-
'/0
SQL-
show all
appinfo is OBB and set to bSQLEAlusb a a7siTe 2C auto!o$$it OBB autop int OBB auto e!ove 7 OBB autot a!e OBB %lo!&te $inato b5b (he/ 1e) %title OBB and is the fi st few !ha a!te s of the ne/t S'L'CT state$ent !$dsep OBB !olsep b b !o$pati%ilit7 ve sion N(TI9' !on!at b5b (he/ 1e) !op7!o$$it 3 COA*T*A'C:'CF is ON define b<b (he/ 1D) des! i%e D'AT: 2 LIN'NUM OBB IND'NT ON e!ho OBB editfile bafiedt5%ufb e$%edded OBB es!ape OBB B''D)(CF ON fo D o $o e ows flagge OBB flush ON
SQL-
sho ve if7
ve if7 OBB
161
RUN
This will uns the !o$$and in the %uffe 5
S7nta/0 Run X ?
'/0
SQLSQL-
un ?
STOR'
This will save all the set !o$$and statuses in a file5
S7nta/0 Sto e set ,filena$e-5Ne/tensionO N! eateO X N epla!eO X NappendO
'/0
SQL-
sto e set $7Msettings5s!$d sto e set $7Msettings5!$d epla!e sto e set $7Msettings5!$d append
C eated file $7Msettings5s!$d

SQL-
6 ote file $7Msettings5!$d

SQL-
(ppended file to $7Msettings5!$d
BOLDM(BT'R
This will fold the !olu$ns one afte the othe 5
S7nta/0 Colu$n ,column_name- foldMafte Nno_o'_line!O
'/0
SQL-
!ol deptno foldMafte 2
SQLSQLSQLSQL-
!ol dna$e foldMafte 2 !ol lo! foldMafte 2 set heading off sele!t E f o$ dept.
23 (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF
13 R'S'(RC: D(LL(S 43 S(L'S C:IC(8O
@3 OA'R(TIONS )OSTON
BOLDM)'BOR'
This will fold the !olu$ns one %efo e the othe 5
S7nta/0 Colu$n ,column_name- foldM%efo e Nno_o'_line!O
D'BIN'
This will give the list of all the va ia%les !u entl7 defined5
S7nta/0 Define Nva ia%leMna$eO
163
'/0
SQL-
define H b2D"M(*"3Vb (C:(R) H bSCOTTb (C:(R) H bb (C:(R) H bNotepadb (C:(R) H bO a!le Data%ase 23g 'nte p ise 'dition Release 2352535153 \ A odu!tion 6ith the Aa titioning#
D'BIN' MD(T' D'BIN' MUS'R D'BIN' MARI9IL'8' D'BIN' M'DITOR
D'BIN' MCONN'CTMID'NTIBI'R H bo a!leb (C:(R)
D'BIN' MSQLALUSMR'L'(S' H b2332333133b (C:(R) D'BIN' MOM9'RSION OL(A and Data Mining optionsb (C:(R) D'BIN' MOMR'L'(S' H b2332333133b (C:(R)
S'T COMM(NDS
These !o$$ands does not eUui e state$ent te $inato and appli!a%le to the sessions # those will %e auto$ati!all7 !lea ed when session was !losed5
LIN'SIZ'
This will %e used to set the linesiTe5 Default linesiTe is W35
S7nta/0 Set linesiTe ,value-
'/0
SQL-
set linesiTe 233
A(8'SIZ'
This will %e used to set the pagesiTe5 Default pagesiTe is 2@5
S7nta/0
Set pagesiTe ,value-
'/0
SQL-
set pagesiTe 43
D'SCRI)'
This will %e used to see the o%Je!t;s st u!tu e5
S7nta/0 Des! i%e o des! ,ob#ect_name-
'/0
SQL-
des! dept Null[ T7pe
Na$e D'ATNO DN(M' LOC
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""" NOT NULL NUM)'R(1) 9(RC:(R1(2@) 9(RC:(R1(24)
A(US'
6hen the displa7ed data !ontains hund eds o thousands of lines# when 7ou sele!t it then it will auto$ati!all7 s! olls and displa7s the last page data5 To p event this 7ou !an use this pause option5 )7 using this it will displa7 the data !o espoinding to the pagesiTe with a % ea& whi!h will !ontinue %7 hitting the default this will %e off5 etu n &e75 )7
S7nta/0 Set pause on X off
'/0
SQL-
set pause on
165
B''D)(CF
This will give the info $ation ega ding how$an7 ows 7ou sele!ted the o%Je!t5 )7 default the feed%a!& $essage will %e displa7ed# onl7 when the o%Je!t !ontains $o e than C ows5
S7nta/0 Set feed%a!& ,value-
'/0
SQLSQL-
set feed%a!& @ sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO 23 13 43 @3
DN(M' (CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS
LOC N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
@ ows sele!ted5
:'(DIN8
If 7ou want to displa7 data without headings# then 7ou !an a!hieve with this5 )7 default heading is on5
S7nta/0 Set heading on X off
'/0
SQLSQL-
set heading off sele!t E f o$ dept.
23 13 43 @3
(CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS
N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON
S'R9'ROUTAUT
This will %e used to displa7 the output of the AL?SQL p og a$s5 )7 default this will %e off5
S7nta/0 Set se ve output on X off
'/0
SQL-
set se ve output on
TIM'
This will %e used to displa7 the ti$e5 )7 default this will %e off5
S7nta/0 Set ti$e on X off
'/0
SQL-
set ti$e on
SQL-
2S0CD044
TIMIN8
This will give the ti$e ta&en to e/e!ute the !u ent will %e off5
SQL
state$ent5 )7 default this
167
S7nta/0 Set ti$ing on X off
'/0
SQLSQL-
set ti$ing on sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO 23 13 43 @3
DN(M' (CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS
LOC N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
'lapsed0 3303303353D
SQLAROMAT
This will %e used to !hange the S7nta/0 Set sUlp o$pt ,prompt-
SQL
p o$pt5
'/0
SQL-
set sUlp o$pt =OR(CL'-=
OR(CL'-
SQLC(S'
This will %e used to !hange the !ase of the $i/ed5
SQL
state$ents5 )7 default the !ase is
S7nta/0 Set sUl!ase uppe X $i/ed X lowe
'/0
SQL-
set sUl!ase uppe
SQLT'RMIN(TOR
This will %e used to !hange the te $inato of the te $inato is .5
SQL
state$ents5 )7 default the
S7nta/0 Set sUlte $inato ,termination_c)aracter-
'/0
SQLSQL-
set sUlte $inato 0 sele!t E f o$ dept0
D'BIN'
)7 default if the < !ha a!te finds then it will t eat as %ind va ia%le and as& fo the input5 Suppose 7ou want to t eat it as a no $al !ha a!te while inse ting data# then 7ou !an p event this %7 using the define option5 )7 default this will %e on
S7nta/0 Set define on X off
'/0
SQL-inse
t into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=).
'nte value fo d0 old new 20 inse t into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=) 20 INS'RT INTO D'AT 9(LU'S(C3#=R=#=:*D=)
SQL-
set define off t into dept values(C3#=R<D=#=:*D=). "" he e it won;t as& fo
SQL-inse
169
value
N'6A(8'
This will shows how $an7 %lan& lines will %e left %efo e the epo t5 )7 default it will leave one %lan& line5
S7nta/0 Set newpage ,value-
'/0
SQL-
set newpage 23
The Te o value fo newpage does not p odu!e Te o %lan& lines instead it swit!hes to a spe!ial p ope t7 whi!h p odu!es a top"of"fo $ !ha a!te (he/ 24) Just %efo e the date on ea!h page5 Most $ode n p inte s espond to this %7 $oving i$$ediatel7 to the top of the ne/t page# whe e the p iting of the epo t will %egin5
:'(DS'A
This allow 7ou to indi!ate whe e 7ou want to % ea& a page title o a !olu$n heading that uns longe than one line5 The default heading sepa ato is ve ti!al %a (X)5
S7nta/0 Set headsep ,!eparation_c)ar'/0

SQL-
sele!t E f o$ dept.
D'ATNO 23 13 43
DN(M' (CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S
LOC N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """""""""""""
@3
OA'R(TIONS
)OSTON
SQLSQLSQL-
set headsetp I !ol dna$e heading =D'A(RTM'NT I N(M'= ?
D'A(RTM'NT D'ATNO 23 N(M' (CCOUNTIN8 LOC """""""""" N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON """""""""" """"""""""""""""" 13 R'S'(RC: 43 S(L'S @3 OA'R(TIONS 'C:O
6hen using a %ind va ia%le# the this is off5
SQL
state$ent is $aintained %7 e!ho5 )7 default
S7nta/0 Set e!ho on X off
9'RIB*
6hen using a %ind va ia%le# the old and new state$ents will %e $aintained %7 ve if75 )7 default this is on5
S7nta/0 Set ve if7 on X off
'/0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno H <dno. 20 sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno H <dno
'nte value fo dno0 23 old
171
new
20 sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno H 23
D'ATNO 23
DN(M'
LOC
"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """"""""""" (CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF
SQLSQL-
set ve if7 off sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno H <dno.
'nte value fo dno0 13
D'ATNO DN(M' 13 R'S'(RC:
LOC D(LL(S
"""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""
ANO
This will give displa7s the page nu$%e s5 )7 default the value would %e Te o5
'/0
SQLSQLSQL-
!ol hi edate newMvalue /toda7 nop int fo $at a2 t un! ttitle left /toda7 ight =page= sUl5pno sele!t E f o$ e$p whe e deptno H 23.
3S">UN"W2
page
'MANO
'N(M'
>O) M(N(8'R AR'SID'NT CL'RF
M8R VW4S VVW1
S(L COMM 1@C3 C333 2433
D'ATNO 23 23 23
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""""" """"""""" """"" """""""""" """""""""" VVW1 CL(RF VW4S FIN8 VS4@ MILL'R
In the a%ove nop int tells esults of the

SQL
SQLALUS
not to displa7 this !olu$n when it p ints the

TOMC:(R
state$ent5 Dates that have %een efo $atted %7
get a
default width of a%out 233 !ha a!te s5 )7 !hanging the fo $at to a2 t un!# 7ou
$ini$iTe this effe!t5 N'6M9(LU' inse ts !ontents of the !olu$n et ieved %7 the SQL state$ent into a va ia%le !alled /toda75
SA'CI(L BIL'S
LO8IN5sUl
If 7ou would li&e alwa7s loo&s fo
SQLALUS
to define 7ou
own envi on$ental settings# put all the

SQLALUS
eUui ed !o$$ands in a file na$ed login5sUl5 This is a spe!ial filena$e that wheneve
it sta ts up5 If it finds login5sUl# it e/e!utes an7

SQLALUS#
!o$$ands in it as if 7ou had ente ed then %7 hand5 *ou !an put an7 !o$$and in login5sUl that 7ou !an use in in!luding
SQLALUS
!o$$ands and
SQL-
SQL
state$ents5 (ll ot the$ e/e!uted %efo e
SQLALUS
gives 7ou the
p o$pt5
173
8LO8IN5sUl
This is used in the sa$e wa7s as fo all use s of a data%ase5
LO8IN5sUl
%ut to esta%lish default
SQLALUS
settings
IMAORT(NT QU'RI'S
1) To find the nth ow of a ta%le
SQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e owid H (sele!t $a/( owid) f o$ e$p whe e ,H @). O Sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e ownu$ ,H @ $inus sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e ,H 4.
ownu$
SQL-
ownu$
2) To find dupli!ate ows
SQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e owid in (sele!t $a/( owid) f o$ e$p g oup %7 e$pno# ena$e# $g # Jo%# hi edate# !o$$# deptno# sal). O Sele!t e$pno#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hi edate#!o$$ # !ount(E) f o$ e$p g oup e$pno#ena$e#sal#Jo%#hi edate#!o$$ having !ount(E) -H2.
SQL-
%7
3) To delete dupli!ate ows

SQL-
Delete e$p whe e owid in (sele!t $a/( owid) f o$ e$p g oup %7 e$pno#ena$e#$g #Jo%#hi edate#sal#!o$$#deptno).
4) To find the !ount of dupli!ate ows

SQL-
Sele!t ena$e# !ount(E) f o$ e$p g oup %7 ena$e having !ount(E) -H
2.
5) :ow to displa7 alte native ows in a ta%le[

SQL-
sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e ( owid#3) in (sele!t owid#$od( ownu$#1) f o$
e$p).
6) 8etting e$plo7ee details of ea!h depa t$ent who is d awing $a/i$u$ sal[
SQL-
sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e (deptno#sal) in ( sele!t deptno#$a/(sal) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno).
7) :ow to get nu$%e of e$plo7ees in ea!h depa t$ent # in whi!h depa t$ent
is having $o e than 1C33 e$plo7ees[
SQL-
Sele!t deptno#!ount(E) f o$ e$p g oup %7 deptno having !ount(E)
-1C33.
175
8) To eset the ti$e to the %eginning of the da7

SQL-
Sele!t toM!ha (t un!(s7sdate)#;dd"$on"7777 hh0$i0ss a$;) f o$ dual.
9) To find nth $a/i$u$ sal

SQL-
Sele!t Ef o$ e$p whe e sal in (sele!t $a/(sal) f o$ (sele!t Ef o$ e$p %7 sal) whe e ownu$ ,H C).
o de
INTRODUCTION
C:(R(CT'RSTICS
1 1 1 1
:ighl7 st u!tu ed# eada%le and a!!essi%le language5 Standa d and A ota%le language5 '$%edded language5 I$p oved e/e!ution autho it75
23g B'(TUR'S
1
.
0ptimi-ed compiler
To !hange the opti$iTe settings fo the enti e data%ase# set the data%ase pa a$ete 3 2 1 " " "
ALSQLMOATIMIZ'ML'9'L5
9alid settings a e as follows
No opti$iTation Mode ate opti$iTation (gg essive opti$iTation
These settings a e also $odifia%le fo the !u ent session5

SQL-
alte session set plsUlMopti$TeMlevelH1.
O a!le
etains opti$iTe
settings on a $odule"%7"$odule %asis5 6hen 7ou $odule with nondefault settings# the settings will
R'US' S'TTIN8S5
e!o$pile a pa ti!ula
sti!& allowing 7ou to e!o$pile late on using
SQLSQL-
(lte p o!edu e p o! !o$pile plsUlMopti$iTeMlevelH2. (lte p o!edu e p o! !o$pile euse settings.
Compile1time warnin"!.
Sta ting with o a!le data%ase 23g !o$pile !an dete!t potential
elease 2 7ou !an ena%le additional p og a$s $o e o%ust5 The !ode# su!h as
!o$pile"ti$e wa nings to help $a&e 7ou
unti$e p o%le$s with 7ou
177
identif7ing lines of !ode that will neve %e un5 This p o!ess# also &nown as lint c)ec in"5 To ena%le these wa nings fo the enti e data%ase# set the data%ase pa a$ete
ALSQLM6(RNIN8S5
These settings a e also $odifia%le fo
the
!u ent session5
SQL-
alte session set plsUlMwa nings H Kena%le0all;.

D)MSM6(RNIN85
The a%ove !an %e a!hieved using the %uilt"in pa!&age
Conditional compilation.
Conditional !o$pilation allows the !o$pile
to allow to !o$pile sele!ted
pa ts of a p og a$ %ased on !onditions 7ou p ovide with the ÌB di e!tive5
4 4 6
$upport 'or non1!e/uential collection! in 6mproved datatype !upport.
203455.
7ac trace an e(ception to it! line number.
6hen handling an e o # how !an 7ou find the line nu$%e e o was o iginall7 aised[
on whi!h the
In ea lie
elease# the onl7 wa7 to do this was allow 7ou e/!eption to go
unhandled and then view the full e o t a!e sta!&5
Now 7ou !an !all
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORM)(CFTR(C'
fun!tion to o%tain
that sta!& and $anipulate it p og a$$ati!all7 within 7ou p og a$5
7 8
$et operator! 'or ne!ted table!.
$upport 'or re"ular e(pre!!ion!.
O a!le data%ase 23g suppo ts the use of egula e/p essions inside
AL?SQL
!ode via fou new %uilt"in fun!tions5
R'8'+AMLIF' R'8'+AMINSTR R'8'+AMSU)STR R'8'+AMR'AL(C'
8ro"rammer1de'ined /uotin" mec)ani!m.
Sta ting with o a!le data%ase 23g
elease 2# 7ou !an define 7ou

SQL
own
Uuoting $e!hanis$ fo st ing lite als in %oth
and
AL?SQL5
Use the !ha a!te s U;(U followed %7 a single Uuote) to note the p og a$$e " defined delie$ete fo 7ou st ing lite al5
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va !ha (23) 0H =!o$pute =.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(U=Ev H E= XX v). d%$sMoutput5putMline(U=`v H `= XX v).

'ND.
Output0 v H !o$pute v H !o$pute
10 9any new built1in pac a"e!.

D)MSMSC:'DUL'R Rep esents a $aJo p o!edu es5 update to
D)MSM>O)5 D)MSMSC:'DUL'R
p ovides $u!h
i$p oved fun!tionalit7 fo s!heduling and e/e!uting Jo%s defined via sto ed
D)MSMCR*ATO Offe s the a%ilit7 to en! 7pt and de! 7pt !o$$on o a!le datat7pe# in!luding
179
R(6s# )LO)s#
and
CLO)s5
It also p ovides glo%aliTation suppo t fo en! 7pting
data a! oss diffe ent !ha a!te sets5
D)MSMMONITOR A ovides an sessions5

(AI
to !ont ol additional t a!ing and statisti!s gathe ing of
D)MSM6(RNIN8 A ovides an
(AI
into the
AL?SQL
!o$pile wa nings $odule# allowing 7ou to
ead and !hange settings that !ont ol whi!h wa nings a e supp essed# displa7ed# o t eated as e o s5
ST(ND(RD A(CF(8'
O a!le has defined in this spe!ial pa!&age5 O a!le defines Uuite a few identifie s in this pa!&age# in!luding %uilt"in e/!eptions# fun!tions and su%t7pes5 *ou !an efe en!e the %uilt"in fo $ %7 p efi/ing it with
ST(ND(RD5
The %asi! unit in an7
AL?SQL
p og a$ is %lo!&5 (ll
AL?SQL
p og a$s a e !o$posed of
%lo!&s whi!h !an o!!u seUuentiall7 o nested5
)LOCF STRUCTUR'
De!la e "" de!la ative se!tion )egin "" e/e!uta%le se!tion '/!eption "" e/!eption se!tion 'nd.
In the a%ove# de!la ative and e/!eption se!tions a e optional5
)LOCF T*A'S
1 1
(non7$ous %lo!&s Na$ed %lo!&s La%eled %lo!&s Su%p og a$s T igge s
(NON*MOUS )LOCFS
(non7$ous %lo!&s i$plies %asi! %lo!& st u!tu e5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(KM7 fi st p og a$;)0
'ND.
L()'L'D )LOCFS
La%eled %lo!&s a e anon7$ous %lo!&s with a la%el whi!h gives a na$e to the %lo!&5
'/0 ,,$7M%loo!&-)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(KM7 fi st p og a$;)0
'ND.
SU)ARO8R(MS
Su%p og a$s a e p o!edu es and fun!tions5 The7 !an %e sto ed in the data%ase as
181
stand"alone o%Je!ts# as pa t of pa!&age o as $ethods of an o%Je!t t7pe5
TRI88'RS
T igge s !onsists of a the data%ase5
AL?SQL
%lo!& that is asso!iated with an event that o!!u in
N'ST'D )LOCFS
( %lo!& !an %e nested within the e/e!uta%le o e/!eption se!tion of an oute %lo!&5
ID'NTIBI'RS
Identifie s a e used to na$e
AL?SQL
o%Je!ts# su!h as va ia%les# !u so s# t7pes and signs# unde s!o es# and pound
su%p og a$s5 Identifie s !onsists of a lette # optionall7 followed %7 an7 seUuen!e of !ha a!te s# in!luding lette s# nu$%e s# dolla signs onl75 The $a/i$u$ length fo an identifie is 43 !ha a!te s5
QUOT'D ID'NTIBI'RS
If 7ou want to $a&e an identifie !ase sensitive# in!lude !ha a!te s su!h as spa!es o use a ese ved wo d# 7ou !an en!lose the identifie in dou%le Uuotation $a &s5
'/0
D'CL(R'
bab nu$%e 0H C. b(b nu$%e 0H D.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=( H = XX ().

'ND.
Output0 aHD (HD
COMM'NTS
Co$$ents i$p ove availa%le5
eada%ilit7 and $a&e 7ou

AL?SQL
p og a$ $o e unde standa%le5
The7 a e igno ed %7 the
!o$pile 5 The e a e two t7pes of !o$$ents
1 1
Single line !o$$ents Multiline !o$$ents
SIN8L' LIN' COMM'NTS
( single"line !o$$ent !an sta t an7 point on a line with two dashes and !ontinues until the end of the line5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(Khello;).
'ND. MULTILIN' COMM'NTS
"" sa$ple p og a$
Multiline !o$$ents sta t with the ?E deli$ite and ends with E? deli$ite 5
'/0
)'8IN
D%$sMoutput5putMline(Khello;).
'ND.
?E sa$ple p og a$ E?
9(RI()L' D'CL'R(TIONS
9a ia%les !an %e de!la ed in de!la ative se!tion of the %lo!&.
'/0
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e . % nu$%e 0H C.
183
! nu$%e default D.
CONST(NT D'CL'R(TIONS
To de!la e a !onstant# 7ou in!lude the default value5
CONST(NT
&e7wo d# and 7ou $ust suppl7 a
'/0
D'CL(R'
% !onstant nu$%e 0H C. ! !onstant nu$%e default D.
NOT NULL CL(US'
*ou !an also spe!if7 that the va ia%le $ust %e not null5
'/0
D'CL(R'
% !onstant nu$%e not null0H C. ! nu$%e not null default D. (NC:OR'D D'CL'R(TIONS
AL?SQL
offe s two &inds of an!ho ing5
1 1
S!ala an!ho ing Re!o d an!ho ing
SC(L(R (NC:ORIN8
Use the LT*A' att i%ute to define 7ou va ia%le %ased on ta%le;s !olu$n of so$e othe
AL?SQL
s!ala va ia%le5
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno dept5deptnoLt7pe. Su%t7pe tMnu$%e is nu$%e .
a tMnu$%e . Su%t7pe tMsno is student5snoLt7pe. 9Msno tMsno.
R'CORD (NC:ORIN8
Use the LRO6T*A' att i%ute to define 7ou
e!o d st u!tu e %ased on a ta%le5
'/0 cD'CL(R' 9Mdept deptL owt7pe.
)'N'BITS OB (NC:OR'D D'CL(R(TIONS
1 1
S7n!h oniTation with data%ase !olu$ns5 No $aliTation of lo!al va ia%les5
ARO8R(MM'R"D'BIN'D T*A'S
6ith the SU)T*A' state$ent#
AL?SQL
allows 7ou to define 7ou
own su%t7pes o
aliases of p edefined datat7pes# so$eti$es efe ed to as a%st a!t datat7pes5 The e a e two &inds of su%t7pes5
1 1
Const ained Un!onst ained
CONSTR(IN'D SU)T*A'
( su%t7pe that est i!ts o !onst ains the values no $all7 allowd %7 the datat7pe itself5
'/0 Su%t7pe positive is %ina 7Mintege ange 25512@V@W4D@V.
In the a%ove de!la ation a va ia%le that is de!la ed as positive !an sto e onl7
185
ingege
g eate
than
Te o
even
though
%ina 7Mintege
anges
f o$
"12@V@W4D@V55G12@V@W4D@V5
UNCONSTR(IN'D SU)T*A'
( su%t7pe that does not de!la ed with the su%t7pe5
est i!t the values of the o iginal datat7pe in va ia%les
'/0 Su%t7pe float is nu$%e . D(T(T*A' CON9'RSIONS
AL?SQL
!an handle !onve sions %etween diffe ent fa$ilies a$ong the datat7pes5
Conve sion !an %e done in two wa7s5
1 1
'/pli!it !onve sion I$pli!it !onve sion
'+ALICIT CON9'RSION
This !an %e done using the %uilt"in fun!tions availa%le5
IMALICIT CON9'RSION
AL?SQL will auto$ati!all7 !onve t %etween datat7pe fa$ilies when possi%le5 '/0
D'CL(R'
a va !ha (23).
)'8IN
sele!t deptno into a f o$ dept whe e dna$eH=(CCOUNTIN8=.

'ND.
In the a%ove va ia%le a is !ha
t7pe and deptno is nu$%e
t7pe even though#
o a!le will auto$ati!all7 !onve ts the nu$e i! data into !ha t7pe assigns to the
va ia%le5
AL?SQL
!an auto$ati!all7 !onve t %etween
1 1
Cha a!te s and nu$%e s Cha a!te s and dates
9(RI()L' SCOA' (ND 9ISI)ILIT*
The s!ope of a va ia%le is the po tion of the p og a$ in whi!h the va ia%le !an %e a!!essed5 Bo
AL?SQL
va ia%les# this is f o$ the va ia%le de!la ation until the end of

AL?SQL
the %lo!&5 6hen a va ia%le goes out of s!ope# the $e$o 7 used to sto e the va ia%le5
engine will f ee the
The visi%ilit7 of a va ia%le is the po tion of the p og a$ whe e the va ia%le !an %e a!!essed without having to Uualif7 the efe en!e5 The visi%ilit7 is alwa7s within the s!ope5 If it is out of s!ope# it is not visi%le5
'/20
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e .
)'8IN """""""" D'CL(R'
"" s!ope of a
% nu$%e .
)'8IN
"" s!ope of %
"""""
'ND.
""""""
'ND.
'/10
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e . % nu$%e .
)'8IN
"" a # % availa%le he e
D'CL(R'
187
% !ha (23).
)'8IN
"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le he e

'ND.
"""""
'ND.
'/40 ,,$7M%lo!&-D'CL(R'
a nu$%e . % nu$%e .
)'8IN
"" a # % availa%le he e
D'CL(R'
% !ha (23).
)'8IN
"" a and !ha t7pe % is availa%le he e "" nu$%e t7pe % is availa%le using ,,$7M%lo!&--5%
'ND.
""""""
'ND.
AL?SQL CONTROL STRUCTUR'S
AL?SQL
has a va iet7 of !ont ol st u!tu es that allow 7ou to !ont ol the %ehaviou of
the %lo!& as it uns5 These st u!tu es in!lude !onditional state$ents and loops5
1 1
If"then"else Case Case with no else La%eled !ase Sea !hed !ase
1 1 1
Si$ple loop 6hile loop Bo loop
8oto and La%els
IB"T:'N"'LS'
S7nta/0 If ,condition1- then $e/uence o' !tatement!; 'lsif ,condition1- then $e/uence o' !tatement!; RR 'lse $e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd if.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e (1).

)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno f o$ dept whe e dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=. if dno H 23 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is elsif dno H 13 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is elsif dno H 43 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is end if.
'ND. )OSTON=). C:IC(8O=). D(LL(S=). N'6 *ORF=).
Output0 Lo!ation is
N'6 *ORF
C(S'
189
S7nta/0 Case te!t1variable 6hen value1 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 6hen value2 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; RR 6hen valuen then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 'lse !e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e (1).

)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno f o$ dept whe e dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=. !ase dno when 23 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 13 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 43 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is end !ase.
Output0 Lo!ation is
N'6 *ORF
C(S' 6IT:OUT 'LS'
S7nta/0
Case te!t1variable 6hen value1 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 6hen value2 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; RR 6hen valuen then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e (1).

)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno f o$ dept whe e dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=. !ase dno when 23 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 13 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 43 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when @3 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is end !ase.
Output0 Lo!ation is
N'6 *ORF
L()'L'D C(S'
S7nta/0 ,,label-Case te!t1variable 6hen value1 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 6hen value2 then !e/uence o' !tatement!; RR
191
6hen valuen then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e (1).

)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno f o$ dept whe e dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=. ,,$7M!ase-!ase dno when 23 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 13 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when 43 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when @3 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is end !ase $7M!ase.
Output0 Lo!ation is
N'6 *ORF
S'(RC:'D C(S'
S7nta/0 Case 6hen ,condition1- then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 6hen ,condition2- then !e/uence o' !tatement!; RR 6hen ,conditionn- then !e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd !ase.
'/0
D'CL(R'
dno nu$%e (1).

)'8IN
sele!t deptno into dno f o$ dept whe e dna$e H =(CCOUNTIN8=. !ase dno when dno H 23 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when dno H 13 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when dno H 43 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is when dno H @3 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!ation is end !ase.
Output0 Lo!ation is
N'6 *ORF
SIMAL' LOOA
S7nta/0 Loop $e/uence o' !tatement!; '/it when ,condition-. 'nd loop.
In the s7nta/ e/it when ,condition- is eUuivalent to If ,condition- then '/it. 'nd if.
'/0
D'CL(R'
i nu$%e 0H 2.
193
)'8IN
loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i). i 0H i G 2. e/it when i - C. end loop.

'ND.
Output0 iH2 iH1 iH4 iH@ iHC
6:IL' LOOA
S7nta/0 6hile ,!ondition- loop $e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
i nu$%e 0H 2.
)'8IN
6hile i ,H C loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i). i 0H i G 2. end loop.

'ND.
Output0 iH2 iH1 iH4
iH@ iHC
BOR LOOA
S7nta/0 Bo ,loop_counter_variable- in low_bound55)i")_bound loop $e/uence o' !tatement!; 'nd loop.
'/20
)'8IN
Bo i in 255C loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i). end loop.

'ND.
Output0 iH2 iH1 iH4 iH@ iHC
'/10
)'8IN
Bo i in eve se 255C loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i). end loop.

'ND.
Output0 iHC iH@ iH4 iH1 iH2
195
NULL ST(T'M'NT
Usuall7 when 7ou w ite a state$ent in a p og a$# 7ou want it to do so$ething5 The e a e !ases# howeve # when 7ou want to tell and that is whe e the
NULL AL?SQL
to do a%solutel7 nothing#
!o$es5
The
NULL
state$ent deos nothing e/!ept pass !ont ol to the ne/t e/e!uta%le state$ent in the following situations5
state$ent5 *ou !an use

NULL
I$p oving p og a$ eada%ilit75 So$eti$es# it is helpful to avoid an7 a$%iguit7 inhe ent in an 7ou do not have to in!lude an !lause5
IB
state$ent that
doesn;t !ove all possi%le !ases5 Bo e/a$ple# when 7ou w ite an IB state$ent#
'LS'
Nullif7ing a aised e/!eption5 6hen 7ou don;t want to w ite an7 spe!ial !ode to handle an e/!eption# 7ou !an use the NULL state$ent to $a&e su e that a aised e/!eption halts e/e!ution of the !u ent %lo!&s5
AL?SQL
%lo!& %ut does not p opagate an7 e/!eptions to en!losing
Using null afte a la%el5 In so$e !ases# 7ou !an pai

NULL
with
8OTO 8OTO
to avoid having to e/e!ute state$ent to Uui!&l7 $ove to
additional state$ents5 Bo e/a$ple# I use a
the end of $7 p og a$ if the state of $7 data indi!ates that no fu the p o!essing is eUui ed5 )e!ause I do not have to do an7thing at the te $ination of the p og a$# I pla!e a e/e!uta%le state$ent is
NULL
state$ent afte the la%el %e!ause at least one

NULL
eUui ed the e5 'ven though
deos nothing# it is
still an e/e!uta%le state$ent5
8OTO (ND L()'LS
S7nta/0 8oto label.
6he e label is a la%el defined in the
AL?SQL
%lo!&5 La%els a e en!losed in dou%le
angle % a!&ets5 6hen a goto state$ent is evaluated# !ont ol i$$ediatel7 passes to the state$ent identified %7 the la%el5 '/0
)'8IN
Bo i in 255C loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i H = XX i). if i H @ then goto e/itMloop. end if. end loop. ,,e/itMloop-Null.
'ND.
Output0 iH2 iH1 iH4 iH@
R'STRICTIONS ON 8OTO
1 1 1 1 1
It is illegal to % an!h into an inne %lo!&# loop5 (t least one e/e!uta%le state$ent $ust follow5 It is illegal to % an!h into an if state$ent5 It is illegal to % an!h f o$ one if state$ent to anothe if state$ent5 It is illegal to % an!h f o$ e/!eption %lo!& to the !u ent %lo!&5
AR(8M(S
A ag$as a e !o$pile di e!tives5 The7 se ve as inst u!tions to the
AL?SQL
!o$pile 5
The !o$pile will a!t on the p ag$a du ing the !o$pilation of the %lo!&5
197
S7nta/0
AR8(M(
in!truction_to_compiler5
AL?SQL
offe s seve al p ag$as0
1 1 1 1
(UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTION '+C'ATIONMINIT R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S S'RI(LL*MR'US()L'
SU)ARO8R(MS
AROC'DUR'S
( p o!edu e is a $odule that pe fo $s one o $o e a!tions5
S7nta/0 A o!edu e Ns!he$a5Oname N(parameter1 N#parameter2 RO)O Nauthid define X !u entMuse O is "" Nde!la ationsO )egin "" e/e!uta%le state$ents N'/!eption "" e/!eption handle sO 'nd Nna$eO.
In the a%ove aut)id !lause defines whethe the p o!edu e will e/e!ute unde the autho it7 of the define of the p o!edu e o unde the autho it7 of the !u ent use 5
BUNCTIONS
( fun!tion is a $odule that etu ns a value5
S7nta/0 Bun!tion Ns!he$a5Oname N(parameter1 N#parameter2 RO)O Retu n etu nMdatat7pe Nauthid define X !u entMuse O Ndete $inisti!O Npa allelMena%leO is "" Nde!la ationsO )egin
199
"" e/e!uta%le state$ents N'/!eption "" e/!eption handle sO 'nd Nna$eO. In the a%ove aut)id !lause defines whethe the p o!edu e will e/e!ute unde the autho it7 of the define of the p o!edu e o unde the autho it7 of the !u ent use 5
.etermini!tic !lause defines# an opti$iTation hint that lets the s7ste$ use a saved !op7 of the fun!tion;s etu n esult# if availa%le5 The Uuet7 opti$iTe !an !hoose whethe to use the saved !op7 o e"!all the fun!tion5
8arallel_enable !lause defines# an opti$iTation hint that ena%les the fun!tion to %e e/e!uted in pa allel when !alled f o$ within
S'L'CT
state$ent5
A(R(M'T'R MOD'S
1 1 1
IN
In (Default) Out In out
In pa a$ete will a!t as pl:!/l con!tant5
OUT
1 1 1 1
Out pa a$ete will a!t as unintiali-ed variable5 *ou !annot p ovide a default value to an out pa a$ete 5 (n7 assign$ents $ade to out pa a$ete a e olled %a!& when an e/!eption is aised in the p og a$5 (n a!tual pa a$ete !o esponding to an out fo $al pa a$ete $ust %e a va ia%le5
IN OUT
5 5
In out pa a$ete will a!t as initiali-ed variable5 (n a!tual pa a$ete !o esponding to an in out fo $al pa a$ete $ust %e a va ia%le5
D'B(ULT A(R(M'T'RS
Default Aa a$ete s will not allow in the be"innin" and middle5 0ut and 6n 0ut pa a$ete s !an not have default values5
'/0 p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e default C# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e default V) \ valid p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e # % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e # % in nu$%e # ! in nu$%e default V) \ valild p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e # % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e ) \ invalild p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e invalild p o!edu e p(a in nu$%e default C# % in nu$%e # ! in nu$%e ) \ invalild default C# % in nu$%e default D# ! in nu$%e ) \
NOT(TIONS
Notations a e of two t7pes5
Aositional notation Na$e notation
6e !an !o$%ine positional and na$e notation %ut positional notation !an not %e followed %7 the na$e notation5
'/0
201
Suppose we have a p o!edu e p o!(a nu$%e #% nu$%e #! nu$%e ) and we have one anon7$ous %lo!& whi!h !ontains v2#v1# and v4.
SQLSQL-
e/e! p o! (v2#v1#v4) e/e! p o! (aH-v2#%H-v1#!H-v4)
"" Aositional notation "" Na$ed notation
BORM(L (ND (CTU(L A(R(M'T'RS
1 1 1
Aa a$etes whi!h a e in !alling su%p og a$ a e actual parameter!5 Aa a$etes whi!h a e in !alled su%p og a$ a e 'ormal parameter!5 If an7 su%p og a$ was !alled# on!e the !all was !o$pleted then the values of fo $al pa a$ete s a e !opied to the a!tual pa a$ete s5
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' S(MAL'(a
in nu$%e #% out nu$%e #! in out
nu$%e ) is
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !). % 0H 23. ! 0H 13. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte assign$ent=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX= % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !).
'ND S(MAL'.
D'CL(R'
v2 nu$%e 0H @. v1 nu$%e 0H C. v4 nu$%e 0H D.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efo e !all=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX v4).
sa$ple(v2#v1#v4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !o$pletion of !all=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX v4).

'ND.
Output0 )efo e !all v2 H @ v1 H C v4 H D (fte !all aH@%H !HD (fte assign$ent a H @ % H 23 ! H 13 (fte !o$pletion of !all v2 H @ v1 H 23 v4 H 13 '/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' BUN(a
in nu$%e #% out nu$%e #! in out nu$%e )
etu n nu$%e
)'8IN IS
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efo e assigne$ent Result H = XX (aEnvl(%#2)E!)). % 0H C. ! 0H V. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte assign$ent=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX % XX = ! H = XX !). etu n (aE%E!).
'ND BUN.
D'CL(R'
v2 nu$%e 0H 2. v1 nu$%e 0H 1. v4 nu$%e 0H 4. v nu$%e .
203
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=)efo e !all=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX v4). v 0H fun(v2#v1#v4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte !all !o$pleted=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v2 H = XX v2 XX = v1 H = XX v1 XX = v4 H = XX v4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Result H = XX v).
'ND.
Output0 )efo e !all v2 H 2 v1 H 1 v4 H 4 (fte !all aH2%H !H4 )efo e assigne$ent Result H 4 (fte assign$ent aH2%HC!HV (fte !all !o$pleted v2 H 2 v1 H C v4 H V Result H 4C
R'STRICTIONS ON BORM(L A(R(M'T'RS
1 1
)7 de!la ing with spe!ified siTe in a!tual pa a$ete s5 )7 de!la ing fo $al pa a$ete s with Lt7pe spe!ifie 5
USIN8 NOCOA*
1 1 1
;ocopy is a hint# not a !o$$and5 This $eans that the !o$pile silentl7 de!ide that it !an;t fulfill 7ou eUuest fo a nocopy pa a$ete 5
$ight
The !op7ing f o$ fo $al to a!tual !an %e Uualifie 5
est i!ted %7 issuing nocopy
To pass the out and in out pa a$ete s %7 efe en!e use no!op7 Uualifie 5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' AROC(a )'8IN """" 'ND AROC.
in out no!op7 nu$%e ) IS
C(LL (ND '+'C
Call is a
SQL
state$ent# whi!h !an %e used to e/e!ute su%p og a$s li&e e/e!5
S7nta/0 Call !ubpro"ram_name(Nar"ument_li!tO) Ninto )o!t_variableO.
7 7 7 7 7 7
The pa antheses a e alwa7s a gu$ents5
eUui ed# even if the su%p og a$ ta&es no
6e !an not use !all with out and in out pa a$ete s5 Call is a The
SQL
state$ent# it is not valid inside a
AL?SQL
%lo!&.
INTO
!lause is used fo the output va ia%les of fun!tions onl75
6e !an not use Ke/e!; with out o in out pa a$ete s5 '/e! is not valid inside a
AL?SQL
%lo!&.
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=hello wo ld=).
'ND AROC.
Output0
SQL-
!all p o!(). hello wo ld
'/10
205
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC(a )'8IN
in nu$%e #% in nu$%e )
IS
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX a XX = % H = XX %).
'ND AROC.
Output0
SQL-
!all p o!(C#D). aHC%HD
'/40
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' BUNCTION BUN R'TURN 9(RC:(R IS )'8IN
etu n =hello wo ld=.

'ND BUN.
Output0
SQLSQLSQL-
va ia%le v va !ha (13) !all fun() into 0v. p int v hello wo ld
C(LL )* R'B'R'NC' (ND C(LL )* 9(LU'
4 4 4 4
In pa a$ete s %7 default call by re'erence whe e as out and in out call by value5 6hen pa a$ete passed %7 efe en!e# a pointe to the a!tual pa a$ete is passed to the !o esponding fo $al pa a$ete 5 6hen pa a$ete passed %7 value it !opies the value of the a!tual pa a$ete to the fo $al pa a$ete 5 Call %7 !op7ing5 efe en!e is faste than the !all %7 value %e!ause it avoids the
SU)ARO8R(MS O9'RLO(DIN8
Aossi%le with diffe ent nu$%e of pa a$ete s5
1 1 1 1
'/0
Aossi%le with diffe ent t7pes of data5 Aossi%le with sa$e t7pe with o%Je!ts5 Can not %e possi%le with diffe ent t7pes of $odes5 6e !an ove load lo!al su%p og a$s also5
SQLSQL-
! eate o ! eate o
epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e ).? epla!e t7pe t2 as o%Je!t(a nu$%e ).?
D'CL(R'
i t2 0H t2(C). J t1 0H t1(C).
AROC'DUR' A($ t2) IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=a H = XX $5a).
'ND A. AROC'DUR' A(n t1) IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=% H = XX n5%).
'ND A. AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e #% nu$%e ) IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A odu!t of a#% H = XX a E %).

'ND ARODUCT. AROC'DUR' ARODUCT(a nu$%e #% nu$%e #! nu$%e ) IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A odu!t of a#% H = XX a E % E !).

'ND ARODUCT. )'8IN
p(i). p(J). p odu!t(@#C). p odu!t(@#C#D).

'ND.
Output0 aHC
207
%HC A odu!t of a#% H 13 A odu!t of a#% H 213
)'N'BITS OB O9'RLO(DIN8
Suppo ting $an7 data !o$%inations Bitting the p og a$ to the use 5
R'STRICTIONS ON O9'RLO(DIN8
1 1 1 1
Ove loaded p og a$s with pa a$ete lists that diffe onl7 %7 na$e $ust %e !alled using na$ed notation5 The pa a$ete list of ove loaded p og a$s $ust diffe %7 $o e than
pa a$ete $ode5 (ll of the ove loaded p og a$s $ust %e defined within the sa$e s!ope o %lo!&5 Ove loaded fun!tions $ust diffe %7 $o e than thei etu n t7pe5
AL?SQL
IMAORT(NT AOINTS ()OUT SU)ARO8R(MS
8 8 8
6hen a sto ed su%p og a$ is ! eated# it is sto ed in the data dictionary5 The su%p og a$ is sto ed in !o$pile fo $ whi!h is &nown as p1code in addition to the sou !e te/t5 The p"!ode has all of the efe en!es in the su%p og a$ evaluated# and the sou !e !ode is t anslated into a fo $ that is easil7 engine5 eada%le %7
AL?SQL
8 8
6hen the su%p og a$ is !alled# the p"!ode is ne!essa 7# and e/e!uted5
ead f o$ the dis&# if
On!e it eads f o$ the dis&# the p"!ode is sto ed in the sha ed pool po tion of the s7ste$ glo%al a ea as needed5
(S8()#
whe e it !an %e a!!essed %7 $ultiple use s
Li&e all of the !ontents of the sha ed pool# p"!ode is aged out of the sha ed pool a!!o ding to a least e!entl7 used
(LRU)
algo ith$5
8 8 8 8 8 8
Su%p og a$s !an %e local5 Lo!al su%p og a$s $ust %e de!la ed in the de!la ative se!tion of %lo!& and !alled f o$ the e/e!uta%le se!tion5 Su%p og a$s !an not have the de!la ative se!tion sepa atel75 Sto ed su%p og a$s !an have lo!al su%p og a$s. Lo!al su%p og a$s also !an have lo!al su%p og a$s5 If the su%p og a$ !ontains a va ia%le with the sa$e na$e as the !olu$n na$e of the ta%le then use the dot $ethod to diffe entiate (!ubpro"ram_name5sal)5
AL?SQL
Su%p og a$s !an %e invalidated5
AROC'DUR'S 9 BUNCTIONS
13 A o!edu es $a7
etu n th ough out and in out pa a$ete s whe e as
fun!tion $ust etu n5
13 A o!edu es !an not have etu n !lause whe e as fun!tions $ust5 13 6e !an use !all state$ent di e!tl7 fo e/e!uting p o!edu e whe e as we
need to de!la e a va ia%le in !ase of fun!tions5
13 Bun!tions !an use in sele!t state$ents whe e as p o!edu es !an not5 13 Bun!tions !an !all f o$ epo ts envi on$ent whe e as p o!edu es !an not5 13 6e !an use e/e! fo e/e!uting p o!edu es whe e as fun!tions !an not5 13 Bun!tion !an %e used in d%$sMoutput whe e as p o!edu e !an not5 13 A o!edu e !all is a standalone e/e!uta%le state$ent whe e as fun!tion !all
is a pa t of an e/e!uta%le state$ent5
STOR'D 9 LOC(L SU)ARO8R(MS
The sto ed su%p og a$ is sto ed in !o$piled p"!ode in the data%ase# when the p o!edu e is !alled it does not have to %e !o$piled5 The lo!al su%p og a$ is !o$piled as pa t of its !ontaining %lo!&5 If the
!ontaining %lo!& is anon7$ous and is un $ultiple ti$es# the su%p og a$ has to %e !o$piled
209
ea!h ti$e5
Sto ed su%p og a$s !an %e !alled f o$ an7 %lo!& su%$itted %7 a use who has e/e!ute p ivileges on the su%p og a$5 Lo!al su%p og a$s !an %e !alled onl7 f o$ the %lo!& !ontaining the
su%p og a$5
)7 &eeping the sto ed su%p og a$ !ode sepa ate f o$ the !alling %lo!&# the !alling %lo!& is sho te and easie to unde stand5 The lo!al su%p og a$ and the !alling %lo!& a e one and the sa$e# whi!h !an
lead to pa t !onfusion5 If a !hange to the !alling %lo!& is $ade# the su%p og a$ will %e e!o$piled as of the e!o$pilation of the !ontaining %lo!&5
The !o$piled p"!ode !an %e
pinned
in
the
sha ed
pool using the
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL Aa!&age5 This !an i$p ove pe fo $an!e5 Lo!al su%p og a$s !annot %e pinned in the sha ed pool %7 the$selves5
4 4
Stand alone sto ed su%p og a$s !an not %e ove loaded# %ut pa!&aged su%p og a$s !an %e ove loaded within the sa$e pa!&age5 Lo!al su%p og a$s !an %e ove loaded within the sa$e %lo!&5
'/20
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sto ed su%p og a$=).

'ND.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! p
Sto ed su%p og a$
'/10
D'CL(R' AROC'DUR' A IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo!al su%p og a$=).

'ND.
)'8IN
p.
'ND.
Output0 Lo!al su%p og a$ COMAILIN8 SU)ARO8R(MS
6 6
SQLSQL-
(lte p o!edu e A2 !o$pile. (lte fun!tion B2 !o$pile.
SU)ARO8R(MS D'A'ND'CI'S
8 8 8 8
( sto ed su%p og a$ is $a &ed as invalid in the data di!tiona 7 if it has !o$pile e o s5 ( sto ed su%p og a$ !an also %e!o$e invalid if a DDL ope ation is pe fo $ed on one of its dependent o%Je!ts5 If a su%p og a$ is invalidated# the
AL?SQL
engine will auto$ati!all7 atte$pt
to e!o$pile in the ne/t ti$e it is !alled5 If we have two p o!edu es li&e A2 and A1 in whi!h A2 depends on A15 If we !o$pile A1 then A2 is invalidated5
SU)ARO8R(MS D'A'ND'NCI'S IN R'MOT' D(T()(S'S
1 1
6e will !all e$ote su%p og a$ using !onne!t st ing li&e A2aOR(CL'. If we have two p o!edu es li&e A2 and A1 in whi!h A2 depends on A1 %ut A1 was in e$ote data%ase5 If we !o$pile A1 it will not invalidate A2 %e!ause the data di!tiona 7 does not t a!& e$ote i$$ediatel7 dependen!ies5
1 1
Instead the validit7 of
e$ote o%Je!ts is !he!&ed at
unti$e5 6hen A2 is
!alled# the e$ote data di!tiona 7 is Uue ied to dete $ine the status of A15 A2 and A1 a e !o$pa ed to see it A2 needs to %e e!o$piled# the e a e two diffe ent $ethods of !o$pa ision Ti$esta$p Model
211
Signatu e Model
TIM'ST(MA MOD'L
This is the default $odel used %7 o a!le5 6ith this $odel# the ti$esta$ps of the last $odifi!ations of the two o%Je!ts a e !o$pa ed5 The la!t_ddl_time field of u!er_ob#ect! !ontains the ti$esta$p5 If the %ase o%Je!t has a newe ti$esta$p than the dependent o%Je!t# the dependent o%Je!t will %e e!o$piled5
ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L
1 1
If the o%Je!ts a e in diffe ent ti$e Tones# the !o$pa ison is invalid5 6hen A2 is in a !lient side $a7 not possi%le to in!luded with the fo $s5
AL?SQL
engine su!h as o a!le fo $s# in this !ase it it $a7 not %e
e!o$pile A2# %e!ause the sou !e fo
SI8N(TUR' MOD'L
1 1 1 1
6hen a p o!edu e is ! eated# a signatu e is sto ed in the data di!tiona 7 in addition to the p"!ode5 The signatu e en!odes the t7pes and o de of the pa a$etes5 6hen A2 is !o$piled the fi st ti$e# the signatu e of A1 is in!luded5 Thus# A2 onl7 needs to e!o$piled when the signatu e of A1 !hanges5 In o de to use the signatu e $odel# the pa a$ete in
R'MOT'MD'A'ND'NCI'SMMOD'
$ust %e set to
SI8N(TUR'5
This is a pa a$ete
the data%ase initialiTation file5
T:R'' 6(*S OB S'TTIN8 T:IS MOD'
(dd
the
line
R'MOT'MD'A'ND'NCI'SMMOD'HSI8N(TUR'
to
the
data%ase
initialiTation file5 The ne/t ti$e the data%ase is sta ted# the $ode will %e set
to
SI8N(TUR'
fo all sessions5
(lte s7ste$ set e$oteMdependen!iesM$ode H signatu e. This will affe!t the enti e data%ase (all sessions) f o$ the ti$e the
state$ent is issued5 *ou $ust have the

(LT'R S*ST'M
p ivilege to issue this !o$$and5
(lte session set e$oteMdependen!iesM$ode H signatu e. This will onl7 affe!t 7ou session
ISSU'S 6IT: T:IS MOD'L
Signatu es don;t get $odified if the default values of fo $al pa a$ete s a e !hanged5
Suppose A1 has a default value fo one of its pa a$ete s# and A2 is using this default value5 If the default in the spe!ifi!ation fo A1 is !hanged# A2 will
not %e e!o$piled %7 default5 The old value fo the default pa a$ete will still %e used until A2 is $anuall7 e!o$piled5
If A2 is !alling a pa!&aged p o!edu e A1# and a new ove loaded ve sion of A1 is added to the $anuall75 e$ote pa!&age# the signatu e is not !hanged5 A2 will still use the old ve sion(not the new ove loaded one) until A2 is e!o$piled
BOR6(RD D'CL'R(TION
)efo e going to use the p o!edu e in an7 othe su%p og a$ o othe %lo!& # 7ou $ust de!la e the p otot7pe of the p o!edu e in de!la ative se!tion5
'/20
D'CL(R' AROC'DUR' A2 IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=B o$ p o!edu e p2=).
213
p1.
'ND A2. AROC'DUR' A1 IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=B o$ p o!edu e p1=). p4.


'ND A4. )'8IN
p2.
'ND.
Output0 p1. E 'RROR at line C0 OR("3DCC30 line C# !olu$n 20 ALS"334240 =A1= not de!la ed in this s!ope OR("3DCC30 line C# !olu$n 20 AL?SQL0 State$ent igno ed OR("3DCC30 line 23# !olu$n 20 ALS"334240 =A4= not de!la ed in this s!ope OR("3DCC30 line 23# !olu$n 20 AL?SQL0 State$ent igno ed
'/10
D'CL(R' AROC'DUR' A1. AROC'DUR' A4. AROC'DUR' A2 IS )'8IN
"" fo wa d de!la ation

'ND A2. AROC'DUR' A1 IS
)'8IN


'ND A4. )'8IN
p2.
'ND.
Output0 B o$ p o!edu e p2 B o$ p o!edu e p1 B o$ p o!edu e p4
ARI9IL'8'S (ND STOR'D SU)ARO8R(MS
'+'CUT' AR'9IL'8'
4 4
Bo sto ed su%p og a$s and pa!&ages the elevant p ivilege is
'+'CUT'5
If use ( had the p o!edu e !alled e$pMp o! then use ( g ants e/e!ute p ivilege on p o!edu e to use ) with the following !o$$and5
SQL-
8 ant e/e!ute on e$pMp o! to use )5
Then use ) !an un the p o!edu e %7 issuing

SQL-
'/e! use (5e$pMp o!
use ( ! eated the following p o!edu e
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A IS
!u so ! is sele!t Ef o$ student2.
)'8IN
215
fo v in ! loop inse t into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a &s). end loop.

'ND A.
use ( g anted e/e!ute p ivilege to use ) using

SQL-
g ant e/e!ute on p to use )
Then use ) e/e!uted the p o!edu e

SQL-
'/e! use (5p
If suppose use ) also having student1 ta%le then whi!h ta%le will populate whethe use (;s o use );s5
The answe is use (;s student1 ta%le onl7 %e!ause %7 default the p o!edu e will e/e!ute unde the p ivlige set of its owne 5 The a%ove p o!edu e is &nown as define ;s p o!edu e5
:O6 TO AOAUL(T' US'R );s T()L'
7 7 7
O a!le int odu!es 6nvo er<! and .e'iner<! ri")t!. )7 default it will use the define ;s ights5 (n invo&e ;s ights outine !an %e ! eated %7 using populate the use );s ta%le5
(UT:ID
!lause to
10 It is valid fo stand"alone su%p og a$s# pa!&age spe!ifi!ations# and o%Je!t

t7pe spe!ifi!ations onl75
use ( ! eated the following p o!edu e
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A (UT:ID CURR'NTMUS'R IS
!u so is sele!t Ef o$ student2.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop inse t into student1 values(v5no#v5na$e#v5$a &s). end loop.

'ND A.
Then g ant e/e!ute p ivilege on p to use )5 '/e!uting the p o!edu e %7 use )# whi!h populates use );s ta%le5
The a%ove p o!edu e is !alled invo&e ;s p o!edu e5 Instead of !u entMuse of authid !lause# if 7ou use define then it will %e !alled define ; p o!edu e5
STOR'D SU)ARO8R(MS (ND ROL'S
we have two use s sa&eth and sudha in whi!h sa&eth has student ta%le and sudha does not5 Sudha is going to ! eate a p o!edu e %ased on student ta%le owned %7 sa&eth5 )efo e doing this sa&eth $ust g ant the pe $issions on this ta%le to sudha5
SQLSQL-
!onn sa&eth?sa&eth g ant all on student to sudha. !onn sudha?sudha
then sudha !an ! eate p o!edu e

SQL-
!u so ! is sele!t Ef o$ sa&eth5student.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(KNo H K XX v5no). end loop.

'ND A.
he e p o!edu e will %e ! eated5
If the sa$e p ivilege was g anted th ough a ole it wont ! eate the p o!edu e5
217
'/a$ine the following !ode
SQLSQLSQLSQL-
!onn sa&eth?sa&eth ! eate ole sa&ethM ole. g ant all on student to sa&ethM ole. g ant sa&ethM ole to sudha.
then !onn sudha?sudha
!u so ! is sele!t Ef o$ sa&eth5student.
)'8IN
fo v in ! loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(KNo H K XX v5no). end loop.

'ND A.
The a%ove !ode will aise e o instead of ! eating p o!edu e 5 This is %e!ause of ea l7 %inding whi!h i$$ediatel75
AL?SQL
uses %7 default in whi!h efe en!es ole this will affe!t
a e evaluated in !o$pile ti$e %ut when 7ou a e using a
ISSU'S 6IT: IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS
1 1
In an invo&e ;s ights outine# e/te nal efe en!es in esolved using the !alle ;s p ivilege set5 )ut efe en!es in
AL?SQL
SQL
state$ents will %e
state$ents a e still
esolved unde
the owne ;s
p ivilege set5
TRI88'RS# 9I'6S (ND IN9OF'R;S RI8:TS
( data%ase t igge e/e!ute unde ta%le5
will alwa7s %e e/e!uted with define ;s
ights and will
the p ivilege set of the s!he$a that owns the t igge ing
This is also t ue fo
AL?SQL
fun!tion that is !alled f o$ a view5 In this !ase#
the fun!tion will e/e!ute unde the p ivilege set of the view;s owne 5
A(CF(8'S
( pac a"e is a !ontaine fo elated o%Je!ts5 It has spe!ifi!ation and %od75 'a!h
of the$ is sto ed sepa atel7 in data di!tiona 75
A(CF(8' S*NT(+
C eate o glo%al o
epla!e pa!&age ,pac a"e_name- is
"" pa!&age spe!ifi!ation in!ludes su%p og a$s signatu es# !u so s and pu%li! va ia%les5
219
'nd ,pac a"e_name-.
C eate o p ivate
epla!e pa!&age %od7 ,pac a"e_name- is
"" pa!&age %od7 in!ludes %od7 fo all the su%p og a$s de!la ed in the spe!# 9a ia%les and !u so s5 )egin "" initialiTation se!tion '/!eption "" '/!eption handling se!iton 'nd ,pac a"e_name-.
IMAORT(NT AOIN8S ()OUT A(CF(8'S
1 1
The fi st ti$e a pa!&aged su%p og a$ is !alled o
an7
efe en!e to a
pa!&aged va ia%le o t7pe is $ade# the pa!&age is instantiated5 'a!h session will have its own !op7 of pa!&aged va ia%les# ensu ing that two sessions e/e!uting su%p og a$s in the sa$e pa!&age use diffe ent $e$o 7 lo!ations5
In $an7 !ases initialiTation needs to %e
un the fi st ti$e the pa!&age is
instantiated within a session5 This !an %e done %7 adding initialiTation se!tion to the pa!&age %od7 afte all the o%Je!ts5
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Aa!&ages a e sto ed in the data di!tiona 7 and !an not %e lo!al5 Aa!&aged su%p og a$s has an advantage ove stand alone su%p og a$5 6hen eve an7 efe en!e to pa!&age# the whole pa!&age p"!ode was sto ed in sha ed pool of
S8(5
Aa!&age $a7 have lo!al su%p og a$s5 *ou !an in!lude authid !lause inside the pa!&age spe! not in the %od75 The e/e!ution se!tion of a pa!&age is &now as initialiTation se!tion5 *ou !an have an e/!eption se!tion at the %otto$ of a pa!&age %od75 Aa!&ages su%p og a$s a e not invalidated5
COMAILIN8 A(CF(8'S
1 1 1
SQLSQLSQL-
(lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile. (lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile spe!ifi!ation. (lte pa!&age AF8 !o$pile %od7.
A(CF(8' D'A'ND'NCI'S
1 1 1
The pa!&age %od7 depends on the so$e o%Je!ts and the pa!&age heade 5 The pa!&age heade does not depend on the pa!&age %od7# whi!h is an
advantage of pa!&ages5 6e !an !hange the pa!&age %od7 with out !hanging the heade 5
A(CF(8' RUNTIM' ST(T'
Aa!&age unti$e state is diffe fo the following pa!&ages5
1 1
Se iall7 eusa%le pa!&ages Non se iall7 eusa%le pa!&ages
S'RI(LL* R'US()L' A(CF(8'S
To fo !e the o a!le to use se iall7

S'RI(LL*MR'US()L'
eusa%le ve sion then in!lude
AR(8M(
in %oth pa!&age spe! and %od7# '/a$ine the following pa!&age5
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' )OD* AF8 IS
p ag$a se iall7M eusa%le. !u so ! is sele!t ena$e f o$ e$p.

AROC'DUR' 'MAMAROC IS
vMena$e e$p5ena$eLt7pe. vMflag %oolean 0H t ue. vMnu$ ows nu$%e 0H 3.

)'8IN
if not !Lisopen then open !.
221
end if. while vMflag loop fet!h ! into vMena$e. vMnu$ ows 0H vMnu$ ows G 2. if vMnu$ ows H C then vMflag 0H false. end if. d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMena$e). end loop.
'ND 'MAMAROC. 'ND AF8.
SQL-
e/e! p&g5e$pMp o! 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H

SMIT: (LL'N 6(RD
'na$e H >ON'S
M(RTIN
SQL-
e/e! p&g5e$pMp o! 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H

SMIT: (LL'N 6(RD >ON'S M(RTIN
1 1
The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the sa$e output fo though the !u so is not !losed5 )e!ause the se iall7 ti$e it was !alled5 eusa%le ve sion
ea!h e/e!ution even
esets the state of the !u so
ea!h
NON S'RI(LL * R'US()L' A(CF(8'S
This is the default ve sion used %7 the o a!le# e/a$ine the following pa!&age5
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' AF8 IS
p o!edu e e$pMp o!.

'ND AF8.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' )OD* AF8 IS
!u so ! is sele!t ena$e f o$ e$p.

AROC'DUR' 'MAMAROC IS
vMena$e e$p5ena$eLt7pe. vMflag %oolean 0H t ue. vMnu$ ows nu$%e 0H 3.

)'8IN
if not !Lisopen then open !. end if. while vMflag loop fet!h ! into vMena$e. vMnu$ ows 0H vMnu$ ows G 2. if vMnu$ ows H C then vMflag 0H false. end if. d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMena$e). end loop.
'ND 'MAMAROC. 'ND AF8.
SQL-
e/e! p&g5e$pMp o! 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H

SMIT: (LL'N 6(RD >ON'S M(RTIN
SQL-
e/e! p&g5e$pMp o!
'na$e H
)L(F'
223
'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H
CL(RF SCOTT FIN8 TURN'R
1 1
The a%ove pa!&age displa7s the diffe ent output fo though the !u so is not !losed5 )e!ause the non"se iall7 ove data%ase !alls5 eusa%le ve sion
ea!h e/e!ution even
e$ains the state of the !u so
D'A'ND'NCI'S OB A(CF(8' RUNTIM' ST(T'
Dependen!ies !an e/ists %etween pa!&age state and anon7$ous %lo!&s5 '/a$ine the following p og a$
C eate this pa!&age in fi st session

v nu$%e 0H C. p o!edu e p.
'ND AF8.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' )OD* AF8 IS AROC'DUR' A IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v H = XX v). v 0H 23. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=v H = XX v).

'ND A. 'ND AF8.
Conne!t to se!ond session# un the following !ode5
)'8IN
p&g5p.
'ND.
The a%ove !ode wil wo &5
8o %a!& to fi st session and e! eate the pa!&age using ! eate5 Then !onne!t to se!ond session and un the following !ode again5
)'8IN
p&g5p.
'ND.
This a%ove !ode will not wo & %e!ause of the following5
1 1 1 1 1
The anon7$ous %lo!& depends on p&g5 This is !o$pile ti$e dependen!75 The e is also a unti$e dependen!7 on the pa!&aged va ia%les# sin!e ea!h session has its own !op7 of pa!&aged va ia%les5 Thus when p&g is e!o$piled the unti$e dependen!7 is followed# whi!h
invalidates the %lo!& and aises the o a!le e o 5 Runti$e dependen!ies e/ist onl7 on pa!&age state5 This in!ludes va ia%les and !u so s de!la ed in a pa!&age5 If the pa!&age had no glo%al va ia%les# the se!ond e/e!ution of the anon7$ous %lo!& would have su!!eeded5
AURIT* L'9'LS
In gene al# !alls to su%p og a$s a e p o!edu al# the7 !annot %e !alled f o$ state$ents5 :oweve # if a stand"alone o est i!tions# it !an %e !alled du ing e/e!ution of a SQL state$ent5
SQL
pa!&aged fun!tion $eets !e tain
Use "defined fun!tions a e !alled the sa$e wa7 as %uilt"in fun!tions %ut it $ust $eet diffe ent est i!tions5 These est i!tions a e defined in te $s of pu it7 levels5
The e a e fou t7pes of pu it7 levels5

6NDS RNDS 6NAS
"" "" ""
6 ites No Data%ase State Reads No Data%ase State 6 ites No Aa!&age State
225
RNAS
""
Reads No Aa!&age State
In addition to the p e!eding est i!tions# a use "defined fun!tion $ust also $eet the following eUui e$ents to %e !alled f o$ a
SQL
state$ent5
The fun!tion has to %e sto ed in the data%ase# eithe stand"alone o as pa t of a pa!&age5 The fun!tion !an ta&e onl7 in pa a$etes5 The fo $al pa a$ete s $ust use onl7 data%ase t7pes# not as %oolean o e!o d5 oll%a!&# The etu n t7pe of the fun!tion $ust also %e a data%ase t7pe5 The fun!tion $ust not end the !u ent t ansa!tion with !o$$it o o oll%a!& to a savepoint p io to the fun!tion e/e!ution5 It also $ust not issue an7 alte session o alte s7ste$ !o$$ands5
AL?SQL
t7pes su!h
R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
Bo
pa!&aged fun!tions# howeve # the
R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
p ag$a is
eUui ed to
spe!if7 the pu it7 level of a given fun!tion5
S7nta/0
AR(8M( N#6NASO N#RNDSO N#RNASO) . R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S(!ubpro"ram_name
or
pac a"e_name#
6NDS
'/0
fun!tion fun2 etu n va !ha . p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es(fun2#wnds). fun!tion fun1 etu n va !ha . p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es(fun1#wnds).
'ND AF8.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(CF(8' )OD* AF8 IS BUNCTION BUN2 )'8IN
etu n va !ha
IS
update dept set deptno H 22. etu n =hello=.

'ND BUN2. BUNCTION BUN1 )'8IN
etu n va !ha
IS
update dept set dna$e H=aa=. etu n =hello=.

'ND BUN1. 'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not ! eated# it will give the following e os5
ALS"33@C10 Su%p og a$ =BUN2= violates its asso!iated p ag$a ALS"33@C10 Su%p og a$ =BUN1= violates its asso!iated p ag$a
etu n va !ha
IS
etu n =hello=.
etu n va !ha
IS
etu n =hello=.
'ND BUN1. 'ND AF8.
Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e ! eated5
D'B(ULT
If the e is no
R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
p ag$a asso!iated with a given pa!&aged &e7wo d is used instead of the
fun!tion# it will not have an7 pu it7 level asse ted5 :oweve # 7ou !an !hange the default pu it7 level fo a pa!&age5 The
D'B(ULT
su%p og a$ na$e in the p ag$a5
227
'/0
p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es(default#wnds). fun!tion fun2 etu n va !ha . fun!tion fun1 etu n va !ha .
'ND AF8.
etu n va !ha
IS

etu n va !ha
IS

'ND BUN1. 'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age %od7 will not ! eated# it will give the following e os %e!ause the p ag$a will appl7 to all the fun!tions5
ALS"33@C10 Su%p og a$ =BUN2= violates its asso!iated p ag$a ALS"33@C10 Su%p og a$ =BUN1= violates its asso!iated p ag$a
etu n va !ha
IS
etu n =hello=.
etu n va !ha
IS
etu n =hello=.
'ND BUN1. 'ND AF8.
Now the pa!&age %od7 will %e ! eated5
TRUST
If the
TRUST
&e7wo d is p esent# the
est i!tions listed in the p ag$a a e not
enfo !ed5 Rathe # the7 a e t usted to %e t ue5
'/0
fun!tion fun2 etu n va !ha . p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es(fun2#wnds#t ust). fun!tion fun1 etu n va !ha . p ag$a est i!tM efe en!es(fun1#wnds#t ust).
'ND AF8.
etu n va !ha
IS

etu n va !ha
IS

'ND BUN1. 'ND AF8.
The a%ove pa!&age will %e ! eated su!!essfull75
IMAORT(NT AOINTS ()OUT R'STRICTMR'B'R'NC'S
229
This p ag$a !an appea fun!tion de!la ation5
an7whe e in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation# afte
the
It !an appl7 to onl7 one fun!tion definition5 Bo ove load fun!tions# the p ag$a applies to the nea est definition p io to the A ag$a5 This p ag$a is fun!tions5 The A ag$a !an %e de!la ed onl7 inside the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5 The p ag$a is !he!&ed at !o$pile ti$e# not unti$e5 It is possi%le to spe!if7 without an7 pu it7 levels when t ust o !o$%ination of default and t ust &e7wo ds a e p esent5 eUui ed onl7 fo pa!&ages fun!tions not fo stand"alone
AINNIN8 IN T:' S:(R'D AOOL
The !)ared pool is the po tion of the S8S that !ontains# a$ong othe things# the p" !ode of !o$piled su%p og a$s as the7 a e o%Je!t is no longe un5 The fi st ti$e a sto ed a sto e su%p og a$ is !alled# the p"!ode is loaded f o$ dis& into the sha ed pool5 On!e the efe en!ed# it is f ee to %e aged out5 O%Je!ts a e aged out of the
LRU(Least
sha ed pool using an
Re!entl7 Used) algo ith$5
The
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL
pa!&age allows 7ou to pin o%Je!ts in the sha ed pool5 6hen how often the o%Je!t is a!!essed5 This !an i$p ove
an o%Je!t is pinned# it will neve %e aged out until 7ou eUuest it# no $atte how full the pool gets o pe fo $an!e# as it ta&es ti$e to eload a pa!&age f o$ dis&5
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL
has fou p o!edu es
1 1 1 1
F''A UNF''A SIZ'S ()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD
F''A
The
D)MSMS:(R'DMAOOL5F''A
p o!edu e is used to pin o%Je!ts in the pool5
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' F''A(ob#ect_name
va !ha 1#'la" !ha default KA;).
:e e the flag o%Je!ts5
ep esents diffe ent t7pes of flag values fo
diffe ent t7pes of
A Q R C T >S >C >R >D
"" "" "" "" "" "" "" "" ""
Aa!&age# fun!tion o p o!edu e SeUuen!e T igge SQL Cu so O%Je!t t7pe >ava sou !e >ava !lass >ava esou !e >ava sha ed data
UNF''A
UNF''A
is the onl7 wa7 to
e$ove a &ept o%Je!t f o$ the sha ed pool# without
esta ting the data%ase5 Fept o%Je!ts a e neve aged out auto$ati!all75
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' UNF''A(ob#ect_name
va !ha 1# 'la" !ha default KA;).
SIZ'S
SIZ'S
will e!ho the !ontents of the sha ed pool to the s! een5
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' SIZ'S(min!i-e
nu$%e ).
231
O%Je!ts with g eate than the min!i-e will %e etu ned5 etu n the data5
SIZ'S
uses
D)MSMOUTAUT
to
()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD
6hen the data%ase dete $ines that the e is not enough $e$o 7 in the sha ed pool to satisf7 a given eUuest# it will %egin aging o%Je!ts out until the e is enough $e$o 75 It enough o%Je!ts a e aged out# this !an have a pe fo $an!e i$pa!t on othe this5 data%ase sessions5 The
()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD
!an %e used to
e$ed7
S7nta/0
AROC'DUR' ()ORT'DMR'QU'STMT:R'S:OLD(t)re!)old_!i-e
nu$%e ).
On!e this p o!edu e is !alled# o a!le will not sta t aging o%Je!ts f o$ the pool unless at least t)re!)old_!i-e %7tes is needed5 D(T( MOD'L BOR SU)ARO8R(MS (ND A(CF(8'S
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
US'RMO)>'CTS US'RMSOURC' US'RM'RRORS D)(MO)>'CTS D)(MSOURC' D)(M'RRORS (LLMO)>'CTS (LLMSOURC' (LLM'RRORS
CURSORS
Cur!or is a pointe to $e$o 7 lo!ation whi!h is !alled as conte(t area whi!h to the pa sed ep esentation of the
!ontains the info $ation ne!essa 7 fo p o!essing# in!luding the nu$%e of ows p o!essed %7 the state$ent# a pointe state$ent# and the active !et whi!h is the set of ows etu ned %7 the Uue 75
Cu so !ontains two pa ts
:eade )od7
:eade in!ludes !u so na$e# an7 pa a$ete s and the t7pe of data %eing loaded5 )od7 in!ludes the sele!t state$ent5
'/0 Cu so !(dno in nu$%e ) etu n deptL owt7pe is sele!t Ef o$ dept. In the a%ove :eade \ !u so !(dno in nu$%e ) etu n deptL owt7pe )od7 \ sele!t Ef o$ dept
233
CURSOR T*A'S
1 1
I$pli!it (SQL) '/pli!it Aa a$ete iTed !u so s R'B !u so s
CURSOR ST(8'S
1 1 1
Open Bet!h Close
CURSOR (TTRI)UT'S
1 1 1 1 1 1
Lfound Lnotfound L ow!ount Lisopen L%ul&M ow!ount L%ul&Me/!eptions
CURSOR D'CL'R(TION
S7nta/0 Cu so ,cur!or_name- is !elect !tatement.
'/0 Cu so ! is sele!t Ef o$ dept.
CURSOR LOOAS
1 1 1
SIMAL' LOOA
Si$ple loop 6hile loop Bo loop
S7nta/0 Loop Bet!h ,cur!or_name- into ,record_variable-. '/it when ,cur!or_name- L notfound. ,!tatement!-. 'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
!u so ! is sele!t E f o$ student. vMstud studentL owt7pe.

)'8IN
open !. loop fet!h ! into vMstud. e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud5na$e). end loop. !lose !.
'ND.
Output0 Na$e H sa&eth Na$e H s inu Na$e H satish Na$e H sudha
6:IL' LOOA
235
S7nta/0 6hile ,cur!or_name- L found loop Bet!h ,cur!or_name- nto ,record_variable-. ,!tatement!-. 'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
!u so ! is sele!t E f o$ student. vMstud studentL owt7pe.

)'8IN
open !. fet!h ! into vMstud. while !Lfound loop fet!h ! into vMstud. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud5na$e). end loop. !lose !.
'ND.
Output0
Na$e H sa&eth Na$e H s inu Na$e H satish Na$e H sudha
BOR LOOA
S7nta/0 fo ,record_variable- in ,cur!or_name- loop ,!tatement!-. 'nd loop.
'/0
D'CL(R'
!u so ! is sele!t E f o$ student.
)'8IN
fo vMstud in ! loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud5na$e). end loop. 'ND.
Output0
A(R(M'T(RIZ'D CURSORS
1 1 1 1
'/0
This was used when 7ou a e going to use the !u so in $o e than one pla!e with diffe ent values fo the sa$e whe e !lause5 Cu so pa a$ete s $ust %e in $ode5 Cu so pa a$ete s $a7 have default values5 The s!ope of !u so pa a$ete is within the sele!t state$ent5
D'CL(R'
!u so !(dno in nu$%e ) is sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno H dno. vMdept deptL owt7pe.
)'8IN
open !(13). loop fet!h ! into vMdept. e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX vMdept5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX vMdept5lo!). end loop. !lose !.
237
'ND.
Output0
Dna$e H
R'S'(RC:
Lo! H
D(LL(S
A(CF(8'D CURSORS 6IT: :'(D'R IN SA'C (ND )OD* IN A(CF(8' )OD*
1 1 1 1 1
'/20
!u so s de!la ed in pa!&ages will not !lose auto$ati!all75 In pa!&aged !u so s 7ou !an $odif7 the sele!t state$ent without $a&ing an7 !hanges to the !u so heade in the pa!&age spe!ifi!ation5 Aa!&aged !u so s with $ust %e defined in the pa!&age %od7 itself# and then use it as glo%al fo the pa!&age5 *ou !an not define the pa!&aged !u so in an7 su%p og a$s5 Cu so de!la ation in pa!&age with out %od7 needs the etu n !lause5
!u so ! etu n deptL owt7pe is sele!t E f o$ dept. p o!edu e p o! is

'ND AF8.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(FC(8' )OD* AF8 IS
!u so ! etu n deptL owt7pe is sele!t E f o$ dept.

AROC'DUR' AROC IS )'8IN
fo v in ! loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!). end loop.

'ND AROC. 'ND AF8.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! p&g5p o!
Deptno H 23 Dna$e H Deptno H 13 Dna$e H Deptno H 43 Dna$e H Deptno H @3 Dna$e H
(CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S
Lo! H
N'6 *ORF
Lo! H
D(LL(S
Lo! H
C:IC(8O )OSTON
OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' A(FC(8' )OD* AF8 IS
!u so ! etu n deptL owt7pe is sele!t E f o$ dept whe e deptno - 13.

AROC'DUR' AROC IS )'8IN
fo v in ! loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX v5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX v5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX v5lo!). end loop.

'ND AROC. 'ND AF8.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! p&g5p o! Deptno H 43 Dna$e H Deptno H @3 Dna$e H

S(L'S
Lo! H
C:IC(8O )OSTON
OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H
R'B CURSORS (ND CURSOR 9(RI()L'S
1 1 1 1 1 1
This is un!onst ained !u so whi!h will etu n diffe ent t7pes depends upon the use input5 Ref !u so s !an not %e !losed i$pli!itl75 Ref !u so with etu n t7pe is !alled !tron" cur!or5 Ref !u so with out etu n t7pe is !alled wea cur!or5
*ou !an de!la e ef !u so t7pe in pa!&age spe! as well as %od75 *ou !an de!la e ef !u so t7pes in lo!al su%p og a$s o anon7$ous %lo!&s5
239
1 1
Cu so va ia%les !an %e assigned f o$ one to anothe 5 *ou !an de!la e a !u so va ia%le in one s!ope and assign anothe !u so
va ia%le with diffe ent s!ope# then 7ou !an use the !u so though the assigned !u so va ia%le goes out of s!ope5
va ia%le even
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
'/0
Cu so va ia%les !an %e passed as a pa a$ete s to the su%p og a$s5 Cu so va ia%les $odes a e in o out o in out5 Cu so va ia%les !an not %e de!la ed in pa!&age spe! and pa!&age %od7
(e/!luding su%p og a$s)5 *ou !an not use se ve to anothe 5 Cu so va ia%les !an not use fo update !lause5 *ou !an not assign nulls to !u so va ia%les5 *ou !an not !o$pa e !u so va ia%les fo eUualit7# ineUualit7 and nullit75 e$ote p o!edu e !alls to pass !u so va ia%les f o$ one
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' R'BMCURSOR(T()L'MN(M' IN 9(RC:(R) IS
t7pe t is ef !u so . ! t. vMdept deptL owt7pe. t7pe Lt7pe). vMe$p . vMstud student5na$eLt7pe.

)'8IN
is e!o d(ena$e e$p5ena$eLt7pe#Jo% e$p5Jo%Lt7pe#sal e$p5sal
if ta%leMna$e H
=D'AT=
then then then
open ! fo sele!t E f o$ dept. elsif ta%leMna$e H elsif ta%leMna$e H end if. loop if ta%leMna$e H
=D'AT= ='MA=
open ! fo sele!t ena$e#Jo%#sal f o$ e$p.

=STUD'NT=
open ! fo sele!t na$e f o$ student.
then
fet!h ! into vMdept.
e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Deptno H = XX vMdept5deptno XX = Dna$e H = XX vMdept5dna$e elsif ta%leMna$e H

='MA=
XX = Lo! H = XX vMdept5lo!).
then
fet!h ! into vMe$p. e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX vMe$p5ena$e XX = >o% H = XX vMe$p5Jo% XX = Sal H = XX vMe$p5sal). elsif ta%leMna$e H
=STUD'NT=
then
fet!h ! into vMstud. e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Na$e H = XX vMstud). end if. end loop. !lose !.
'ND.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! efM!u so (=D'AT=)
Deptno H 23 Dna$e H Deptno H 13 Dna$e H Deptno H 43 Dna$e H Deptno H @3 Dna$e H
Lo! H
N'6 *ORF
Lo! H
D(LL(S
Lo! H
C:IC(8O
OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H
)OSTON
SQL-
e/e! efM!u so (='MA=)
'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H
SMIT: (LL'N 6(RD >ON'S
>o% H >o% H >o% H >o% H >o% H >o% H
CL'RF
Sal H W33 Sal H 2D33 Sal H 21C3 Sal H 1SVC Sal H 21C3 Sal H 1WC3 Sal H 1@C3
S(L'SM(N S(L'SM(N M(N(8'R
M(RTIN )L(F' CL(RF
>o% H
S(L'SM(N
M(N(8'R M(N(8'R
241
'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H 'na$e H
SCOTT FIN8
>o% H
(N(L*ST
Sal H 4333 Sal H C333 Sal H 2C33
>o% H
AR'SID'NT
TURN'R (D(MS >(M'S BORD
>o% H
S(L'SM(N
>o% H >o% H
CL'RF CL'RF
Sal H 2233 Sal H SC3 Sal H 4333 Sal H 2433
>o% H
(N(L*ST CL'RF
MILL'R
>o% H
SQL-
e/e! efM!u so (=STUD'NT=)
CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS
1 1 1 1 1
*ou !an use !u so e/p essions in e/pli!it !u so s5 *ou !an use !u so e/p essions in d7na$i! SQL5 *ou !an use !u so e/p essions in R'B !u so de!la ations and va ia%les5 *ou !an not use !u so e/p essions in i$pli!it !u so s5 O a!le opens the nested !u so defined %7 a !u so e/p ession i$pli!itl7 as soon as it fet!hes the data !ontaining the !u so e/p ession f o$ the pa ent o oute !u so 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
Nested !u so !loses if 7ou !lose e/pli!itl75 Nested !u so !loses wheneve the oute o pa ent !u so is e/e!uted again o !losed o !an!eled5 Nested !u so !loses wheneve an e/!eption is aised while fet!hing data
f o$ a pa ent !u so 5 Cu so e/p essions !an not %e used when de!la ing a view5 Cu so e/p essions !an %e used as an a gu$ent to ta%le fun!tion5 *ou !an not pe fo $ %ind and e/e!ute ope ations on !u so when using the !u so e/p essions in d7na$i! SQL5 e/p essions
USIN8 N'ST'D CURSORS OR CURSOR '+AR'SSIONS
'/0
D'CL(R'
!u so ! is sele!t ena$e#!u so (sele!t dna$e f o$ dept d whe e e5e$pno H d5deptno) f o$ e$p e. t7pe t is ef !u so . !2 t. !1 t. v2 e$p5ena$eLt7pe. v1 dept5dna$eLt7pe.
)'8IN
open !. loop fet!h !2 into v2. e/it when !2Lnotfound. fet!h !1 into v1. e/it when !1Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(='na$e H = XX v2 XX = Dna$e H = XX v1). end loop. end loop. !lose !.
'ND.
CURSOR CL(US'S
1 1 1 1
Retu n Bo update 6he e !u ent of )ul& !olle!t
243
R'TURN
Cu so ! etu n deptL owt7pe is sele!t Ef o$ dept. O Cu so !2 is sele!t Ef o$ dept. Cu so ! etu n !2L owt7pe is sele!t Ef o$ dept. O T7pe t is e!o d(deptno dept5deptnoLt7pe# dna$e dept5dna$eLt7pe). Cu so ! etu n t is sele!t deptno# dna$e f o$ dept.
BOR UAD(T' (ND 6:'R' CURR'NT OB
No $all7# a sele!t ope ation will not ta&e an7 lo!&s on the ows %eing a!!essed5 This will allow othe sessions !onne!ted to the data%ase to !hange the data %eing sele!ted5 The esult set is still !onsistent5 (t open ti$e# when the a!tive set is to this point a e efle!ted in the a!tive set5 (n7 !hanges $ade dete $ined# o a!le ta&es a snapshot of the ta%le5 (n7 !hanges that have %een !o$$itted p io afte this point# even if the7 a e !o$$itted# a e not efle!ted unless the !u so is eopened# whi!h will evaluate the a!tive set again5
:oweve # if the
BOR UAD(T'
!aluse is pesent# e/!lusive ow lo!&s a e ta&en on the
ows in the a!tive set %efo e the open etu ns5 These lo!&s p event othe sessions f o$ !hanging the then ows in the a!tive set until the t ansa!tion is !o$$itted o session al ead7 has lo!&s on the ows in the a!tive set# ope ation will wait fo these lo!&s to %e eleased %7 the
S'L'CTRBOR UAD(T'
olled %a!&5 If anothe

S'L'CT R BOR UAD(T'
othe session5 The e is no ti$e"out fo this waiting pe iod5 The will hang until the othe
NO6(IT
session
eleases the lo!&5 To handle this situation# the
!lause is availa%le5
S7nta/0 Sele!t Rf o$ R fo update of !olu$nMna$e Nwait nO.
If the !u so
is de!la ed with the
BOR UAD(T'
!lause# the
6:'R' CURR'NT OB
!lause !an %e used in an update o delete state$ent5
S7nta/0 6he e !u ent of !u so .
'/0
D'CL(R'
!u so ! is sele!t E f o$ dept fo update of dna$e.

)'8IN
fo v in ! loop update dept set dna$e H =aa= whe e !u ent of !. !o$$it. end loop.
'ND.
)ULF COLL'CT
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
This is used fo a a7 fet!hes 6ith this 7ou !an et ieve $ultiple ows of data with a single oundt ip5 This edu!es the nu$%e of !onte/t swit!hes %etween the pl?sUl and sUl
engines5 Redu!es the ove head of et ieving data5 *ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in %oth d7na$i! and stati! sUl5 *ou !an use %ul& !olle!t in sele!t# fet!h into and etu ning into !lauses5 SQL engine auto$ati!all7 initialiTes and e/tends the !olle!tions 7ou efe en!e in the %ul& !olle!t !lause5 )ul& !olle!t ope ation e$pties the !olle!tion %efo e e/e!uting the Uue 75 *ou !an use the li$it !lause of %ul& !olle!t to et ieved5 *ou !an fet!h into $ulti%le !olle!tions with one !olu$n ea!h5 Using the etu ning !lause we !an etu n data to the anothe !olle!tion5 est i!t the no of ows efe en!ed in the into !lause
)ULF COLL'CT IN B'TC:
'/0
D'CL(R'
245
T7pe t is ta%le of deptL owt7pe. nt t. Cu so ! is sele!t Ef o$ dept.

)'8IN
Open !. Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt. Close !. Bo i in nt5fi st55nt5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX nt(i)5lo!). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H

Lo! H
N'6 *ORF
Lo! H
D(LL(S
Lo! H
C:IC(8O
OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H
)OSTON
)ULF COLL'CT IN S'L'CT
'/0
D'CL(R'
T7pe t is ta%le of deptL owt7pe. Nt t.

)'8IN
Sele!t E %ul& !olle!t into nt f o$ dept. fo i in nt5fi st55nt5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX nt(i)5lo!). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H Dna$e H

(CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC:
Lo! H
N'6 *ORF
Lo! H
D(LL(S
Dna$e H Dna$e H
S(L'S
Lo! H
C:IC(8O
OA'R(TIONS
Lo! H
)OSTON
LIMIT IN )ULF COLL'CT
*ou !an use this to li$it the nu$%e of ows to %e fet!hed5
'/0
D'CL(R'
T7pe t is ta%le of deptL owt7pe. nt t. Cu so ! is sele!t Ef o$ dept.

)'8IN
Open !. Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt li$it 1. Close !. Bo i in nt5fi st55nt5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)5dna$e XX = Lo! H = XX nt(i)5lo!). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H Dna$e H

(CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC:
Lo! H
N'6 *ORF
Lo! H
D(LL(S
MULTIAL' B'TC:'S IN INTO CL(US'
'/20
D'CL(R'
T7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$eLt7pe. nt t. T7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!Lt7pe. nt2 t.
247
Cu so ! is sele!t dna$e#lo! f o$ dept.

)'8IN
Open !. Bet!h ! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2. Close !. Bo i in nt5fi st55nt5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)). end loop. Bo i in nt25fi st55nt25last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H Lo! H Lo! H Lo! H Lo! H

'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of dept5dna$eLt7pe. t7pe t2 is ta%le of dept5lo!Lt7pe. nt t. nt2 t2.

)'8IN
Sele!t dna$e#lo! %ul& !olle!t into nt#nt2 f o$ dept. fo i in nt5fi st55nt5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H = XX nt(i)). end loop. fo i in nt25fi st55nt25last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX nt2(i)).
end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H Dna$e H Lo! H Lo! H Lo! H Lo! H

R'TURNIN8 CL(US' IN )ULF COLL'CT
*ou !an use this to va ia%les5
etu n the p o!essed data to the ouput va ia%les o
t7ped
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of nu$%e (1). nt t 0H t(2#1#4#@). t7pe t2 is ta%le of va !ha (1). nt2 t2. t7pe t1 is ta%le of studentL owt7pe. nt1 t1.
)'8IN
sele!t na$e %ul& !olle!t into nt2 f o$ student. fo all v in nt25fi st55nt25last update student set no H nt(v) whe e na$e H nt2(v) etu ning no#na$e#$a &s %ul& !olle!t into nt1. fo v in nt15fi st55nt15last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ma &s H = XX nt1(v)). end loop.
'ND.
249
Output0 Ma &s H 233 Ma &s H 133 Ma &s H 433 Ma &s H @33
AOINTS TO R'M'M)'R
1 1 1 1 1
Cu so na$e !an %e up to 43 !ha a!te s in length5 Cu so s de!la ed in anon7$ous %lo!&s o su%p og a$s !loses auto$ati!all7 when that %lo!& te $inates e/e!ution5 L%ul&M ow!ount and L%ul&Me/!eptions !an %e used onl7 with fo all !onst u!t5 Cu so de!la ations $a7 have e/p essions with !olu$n aliases5 These e/p essions a e !alled vi tual !olu$ns o !al!ulated !olu$ns5
SQL IN AL?SQL
The onl7 state$ents allowed di e!tl7 in pl?sUl a e
DML
and
TCL5
)INDIN8
)inding a va ia%le is the p o!ess of identif7ing the sto age lo!ation asso!iated with an identifie in the p og a$5
T7pes of %inding
1 1 3 3
'a l7 %inding Late %inding
)inding du ing the !o$piled phase is ea l7 %inding5 )inding du ing the unti$e phase is late %inding5
251
In ea l7 %inding !o$pile phase will ta&e longe %e!ause of %inding wo & %ut the '/e!ution is faste 5
6 6 6
In late %inding it will sho ten the !o$pile phase %ut lengthens the e/e!ution ti$e5
AL?SQL
%7 default uses ea l7 %inding5 pe $issions to a!!ess the
)inding also involves !he!&ing the data%ase fo o%Je!t Refe en!ed5
D*N(MIC SQL
1 1 1
If 7ou use
DDL
in pl?sUl it validates the pe $issions and e/isten!e if
eUui es du ing !o$pile ti$e whi!h $a&es invalid5 6e !an avoid this %7 using D7na$i!
SQL5
D7na$i! SQL allows 7ou to ! eate a SQL state$ent d7na$i!all7 at unti$e5
Two te!hniUues a e availa%le fo D7na$i!
SQL5
1 1
Native D7na$i! SQL D)MSMSQL pa!&age
USIN8 N(TI9' D*N(MIC SQL
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T'
'/0
)'8IN
'/e!ute i$$ediate K! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23));. o '/e!ute i$$ediate (K! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23));).
'ND.
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T' 6IT: AL?SQL 9(RI()L'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va !ha (233).
)'8IN
v 0H =! eate ta%le student(no nu$%e (1)#na$e va !ha (23))=. e/e!ute i$$ediate v.

'ND.
USIN8 '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T' 6IT: )IND 9(RI()L'S (ND USIN8 CL(US'
'/0
D'CL(R'
v va !ha (233).
)'8IN
v 0H =inse t into student values(0v2#0v1#0v4)=. e/e!ute i$$ediate v using D#=f=#D33.

'ND.
'+'CUTIN8 QU'RI'S 6IT: OA'N BOR (ND USIN8 CL(US'
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A(s$a
&s in nu$%e )
IS
s va !ha (233) 0H =sele!t Ef o$ student whe e $a &s - 0$=. t7pe t is ef !u so . ! t. v studentL owt7pe.
)'8IN
open ! fo s using s$a &s. loop fet!h ! into v. e/it when !Lnotfound. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Student Ma &s H = XX v5$a &s). end loop.
253
!lose !.
'ND.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! p(233)
Student Ma &s H 133 Student Ma &s H 433 Student Ma &s H @33
QU'RI'S 6IT: '+'CUT' IMM'DI(T'
'/0
D'CL(R'
dMna$e dept5dna$eLt7pe. l! dept5lo!Lt7pe. v va !ha (233).

)'8IN
v 0H =sele!t dna$e f o$ dept whe e deptno H 23=. e/e!ute i$$ediate v into dMna$e. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Dna$e H =XX dMna$e). v 0H =sele!t lo! f o$ dept whe e dna$e H 0dn=. e/e!ute i$$ediate v into l! using dMna$e. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Lo! H = XX l!).
'ND.
Output0 Dna$e H (CCOUNTIN8 Lo! H N'6 *ORF

9(RI()L' N(M'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
Ma &s nu$%e (4) 0H 233.

)'8IN
Delete student whe e $a &s H $a &s.
"" this will delete all the ows in
the "" student ta%le

'ND.
This !an %e avoided %7 using the la%eled %lo!&s5
,,$7M%lo!&-D'CL(R'
Ma &s nu$%e (4) 0H 233.

)'8IN
Delete student whe e $a &s H $7M%lo!&5$a &s. has
"" delete ows whi!h "" a $a &s of 233
'ND.
8'TTIN8 D(T( INTO AL?SQL 9(RI()L'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
92 nu$%e . 91 va !ha (1).

)'8IN
Sele!t no#na$e into v2#v1 f o$ student whe e $a &s H 233.

'ND.
DML (ND R'CORDS
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A(s )'8IN
ow in studentL owt7pe)
IS
inse t into student values s ow.

'ND A.
D'CL(R'
s studentL owt7pe.
)'8IN
s5no 0H 22.
255
s5na$e 0H =aa=. s5$a &s 0H 233. p(s).

'ND.
R'CORD )(S'D INS'RTS
'/0
D'CL(R'
s ow studentL owt7pe.
)'8IN
s ow5no 0H V. s ow5na$e 0H =!!=. s ow5$a &s 0H C33. inse t into student values s ow.
'ND.
R'CORD )(S'D UAD(T'S
'/0
D'CL(R'
s ow studentL owt7pe.
)'8IN
s ow5no 0H D. s ow5na$e 0H =!!=. s ow5$a &s 0H C33. update student set owHs ow whe e no H s ow5no.
'ND.
USIN8 R'CORDS 6IT: R'TURNIN8 CL(US'
'/0
D'CL(R'
s ow studentL owt7pe. s etu n studentL owt7pe.

)'8IN
s ow5no 0H W.
s ow5na$e 0H =dd=. s ow5$a &s 0H C33. inse t into student values s ow etu ning no#na$e#$a &s into s etu n. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX s etu n5no). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX s etu n5na$e). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No H = XX s etu n5$a &s).
'ND.
Output0 No H W No H dd No H C33
USIN8 D)MSMSQL A(CF(8'
D)MSMSQL is used to e/e!ute d7na$i! SQL f o$ with in AL?SQL5 Unli&e native d7na$i! SQL# it is not %uilt di e!tl7 into the language# and thus is less effi!ient5 The D)MSMSQL pa!&age allows 7ou to di e!tl7 !ont ol the p o!essing of a state$ent within a !u so # with ope ations su!h as opening and !losing a !u so # pa sing a state$ent# %inding input va ia%le# and defining output va ia%les5
'/20
D'CL(R'
!u so Mid nu$%e . flag nu$%e . vMst$t va !ha (C3).

)'8IN
!u so Mid 0H d%$sMsUl5openM!u so . vMst$t 0H =! eate ta%le stud(sno nu$%e (1)#sna$e va !ha (23))=. d%$sMsUl5pa se(!u so Mid#vMst$t#d%$sMsUl5native). flag 0H d%$sMsUl5e/e!ute(!u so Mid). d%$sMsUl5!loseM!u so (!u so Mid). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ta%le ! eated=).
'ND.
257
Output0
Ta%le ! eated
SQL- des! stud Na$e SNO SN(M' Null[ T7pe NUM)'R(1) 9(RC:(R1(23) """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" """""""" """"""""
'/10
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' D)MSMSQLMAROC(v2
student5noLt7pe#
v1 student5$a &sLt7pe) is !u so Mid nu$%e . flag nu$%e . vMupdate va !ha (C3).

)'8IN
!u so Mid 0H d%$sMsUl5openM!u so . vMupdate 0H =update student set $a &s H 0s$a &s whe e no H 0sno=. d%$sMsUl5pa se(!u so Mid#vMupdate#d%$sMsUl5native). d%$sMsUl5%indMva ia%le(!u so Mid#=0sno=#v2). d%$sMsUl5%indMva ia%le(!u so Mid#=0s$a &s=#v1). flag 0H d%$sMsUl5e/e!ute(!u so Mid). d%$sMsUl5!loseM!u so (!u so Mid).
'ND D)MSMSQLMAROC.
Output0
SQL-
"" %efo e e/e!ution
NO 2
N( a
M(RFS 233
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
1 4
% !
133 433
SQL-
e/e! d%$sMsUlMp o!(1#111)
SQL-
"" afte e/e!ution
NO 2 1 4
N( a % !
M(RFS 233 111 433
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
BOR(LL ST(T'M'NT
This
!an %e used to get the data f o$ the data%ase at on!e %7
edu!ting the
AL?SQL
nu$%e of !onte/t swit!hes whi!h is a t ansfe of !ont ol %etween engine5
and
SQL
S7nta/0 Bo all inde/Mva in N 5ower_bound55upper_bound X Indi!es of inde(in"_collection X 9alues of inde(in"_collection O SQL state$ent.
BOR(LL 6IT: NON"S'QU'NTI(L (RR(*S
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5noLt7pe inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t t.

)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2. i%t(23) 0H 1.
259
fo all i in i%t5fi st55i%t5last update student set $a &s H S33 whe e no H i%t(i).
'ND.
The a%ove p og a$ will give e o li&e Kele$ent at inde/ N1O does not e/ists5 *ou !an e!tif7 it in one of the two following wa7s5
US8(8' OB INDIC'S OB TO (9OID T:' ()O9' )':(9IOUR
This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion whose defined ows spe!if7 whi!h ows in the %inding a a7 7ou would li&e to p o!essed5
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5noLt7pe inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t t. t7pe t2 is ta%le of %oolean inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t2 t2.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2. i%t(23) 0H 1. i%t(233) 0H 4. i%t2(2) 0H t ue. i%t2(23) 0H t ue. i%t2(233) 0H t ue. fo all i in indi!es of i%t2 update student set $a &s H S33 whe e no H i%t(i).
'ND.
Ouput0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student "" %efo e e/e!ution
NO
N(
M(RFS
"""""""""" """"""""""""
2 1 4
SQL-
a % !
233 133 433
sele!t E f o$ student "" afte e/e!ution
NO 2 1 4
N( a % !
M(RFS S33 S33 S33
"""""""""" """"""""""""
US8(8' OB 9(LU'S OB TO (9OID T:' ()O9' )':(9IOUR
This will %e used when 7ou have a !olle!tion of intege s whose !ontent identifies the position in the %inding a a7 that 7ou want to %e p o!essed %7 the state$ent5
BOR(LL
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5noLt7pe inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t t. t7pe t2 is ta%le of plsMintege inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t2 t2.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H 2. i%t(23) 0H 1. i%t(233) 0H 4. i%t2(22) 0H 2. i%t2(2C) 0H 23. i%t2(2W) 0H 233. fo all i in values of i%t2 update student set $a &s H CDV whe e no H i%t(i).
'ND.
Ouput0
261
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student "" %efo e e/e!ution
NO 2 1 4
N( a % !
M(RFS 233 133 433
"""""""""" """"""""""""
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ student "" afte e/e!ution
NO 2 1 4
N( a % !
M(RFS S33 S33 S33
"""""""""" """"""""""""
AOINTS ()OUT )ULF )INDS
1 1 1
Aassing the enti e %ul& %ind5
AL?SQL
ta%le to the
SQL
engine in one step is &nown as
)ul& %inds a e done using the fo all state$ent5 If the e is an e o p o!essing one of the ows in %ul& DML ope ation# onl7 that ow is olled %a!&5
AOINTS ()OUT R'TURIN8 CL(US'
1 1
This will %e used onl7 with va ia%les5
DML
state$ents to
etu n data into
AL?SQL
This will %e useful in situations li&e # when pe fo $ing inse t o update o delete if 7ou want to &now the data of the ta%le whi!h has %een effe!ted %7 the
DML5
6ith out going fo
anothe
S'L'CT RD)MS
using
R'TURNIN8
!lause we will get the
data whi!h will avoid a !all to
&e nel5
COLL'CTIONS
Colle!tions a e also !o$posite t7pes# in that the7 allow 7ou to t eat seve al va ia%les as a unit5 ( !olle!tion !o$%ines va ia%les of the sa$e t7pe5
T*A'S
1 1 1
9(RR(*S
9a
a7s
Nested ta%les Inde/ " %7 ta%les ((sso!iate a a7s)
( va a7 is datat7pe ve 7 si$ila to an a a75 ( va a7 has a fi/ed li$it on its siTe# spe!ified as pa t of the de!la ation5 'le$ents a e inse ted into va a7 sta ting at inde/ 2# up to $a/i$u$ lenth de!la ed in the va a7 t7pe5 The $a/i$u$ siTe of the va a7 is 1 giga %7tes5
S7nta/0 T7pe ,type_name& is va a7 X va 7ing a a7 (,limit&) of ,element_type&.
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(23) of va !ha (1). va t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=). flag %oolean.
263
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st Inde/ H = XX va5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX va5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A evious Inde/ H = XX va5p io (4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* fo i in va5fi st55va5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)). end loop. flag 0H va5e/ists(4). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(4)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 does not e/ists=). end if. va5e/tend. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount). flag 0H va5e/ists(C). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(C)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C does not e/ists=). end if. flag 0H va5e/ists(D). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D e/ists with an ele$ent = XX va(D)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D does not e/ists=). end if. va5e/tend(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* fo i in va5fi st55va5last loop
'L'M'NTS=). 'L'M'NTS=).
e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)). end loop. va(C) 0H =e=. va(D) 0H =f=. va(V) 0H =g=. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS#
9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=).
fo i in va5fi st55va5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)). end loop. va5e/tend(4#1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in va5fi st55va5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)). end loop. va5t i$. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount). va5t i$(4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte t i$ of th ee inde/s# Count H = XX va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R TRIM# 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in va5fi st55va5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =O H = XX va(i)). end loop. va5delete. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount).
'ND.
e/tend of th ee inde/es# Count H = XX
delete of enti e va a7# Count H = XX
Output0 Li$it H 23 Count H @ Bi st Inde/ H 2 Last Inde/ H @
265
Ne/t Inde/ H 4 A evious Inde/ H 1 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2O H a vaN1O H % vaN4O H ! vaN@O H d Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent ! (fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H C Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent Inde/ D does not e/ists (fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2O H a vaN1O H % vaN4O H ! vaN@O H d vaNCO H vaNDO H vaNVO H (BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2O H a vaN1O H % vaN4O H ! vaN@O H d vaNCO H e vaNDO H f vaNVO H g (fte e/tend of th ee inde/es# Count H 23 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2O H a vaN1O H % vaN4O H ! vaN@O H d
vaNCO H e vaNDO H f vaNVO H g vaNWO H % vaNSO H % vaN23O H % (fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H S (fte t i$ of th ee inde/s# Count H D (BT'R TRIM# 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2O H a vaN1O H % vaN4O H ! vaN@O H d vaNCO H e vaNDO H f (fte delete of enti e va a7# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(@) of studentL owt7pe. va t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255va5!ount loop sele!t E into va(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sno H = XX va(i)5sno XX = Sna$e H = XX va(i)5sna$e). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Sno H 2 Sna$e H sa&eth Sno H 1 Sna$e H s inu Sno H 4 Sna$e H div7a Sno H @ Sna$e H $anogni
'/40
267
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(@) of student5s$a &sLt7pe. va t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255va5!ount loop sele!t s$a &s into va(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=S$a &s H = XX va(i)). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 S$a &s H 233 S$a &s H 133 S$a &s H 433 S$a &s H @33
'/@0
D'CL(R'
t7pe
is e!o d(!2 student5sna$eLt7pe#!1 student5s$a &sLt7pe).
t7pe t is va a7(@) of . va t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255va5!ount loop sele!t sna$e#s$a &s into va(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sna$e H = XX va(i)5!2 XX = S$a &s H = XX va(i)5!1). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Sna$e H sa&eth S$a &s H 233 Sna$e H s inu S$a &s H 133 Sna$e H div7a S$a &s H 433 Sna$e H $anogni S$a &s H @33
'/C0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(2) of add . va t 0H t(null). !u so ! is sele!t E f o$ e$plo7. i nu$%e 0H 2.

)'8IN
fo v in ! loop sele!t add ess into va(i) f o$ e$plo7 whe e ena$e H v5ena$e. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:no H = XX va(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX va(i)5!it7). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 :no H 22 Cit7 H h7d :no H 11 Cit7 H %ang :no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi
'/D0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(C) of va !ha (1). va2 t. va1 t 0H t().

)'8IN
if va2 is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va2 is null=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va2 is not null=). end if. if va1 is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va1 is null=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=va1 is not null=). end if.
'ND.
269
Output0 va2 is null va1 is not null
N'ST'D T()L'S
( nested ta%le is thought of a data%ase ta%le whi!h has no li$it on its siTe5 'le$ents a e inse ted into nested ta%le sta ting at inde/ 25 The $a/i$u$ siTe of the va a7 is 1 giga %7tes5
S7nta/0 T7pe ,type_name& is ta%le of ,table_type&.
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va !ha (1). nt t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=#=d=). flag %oolean.

)'8IN
if nt5li$it is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it). end if. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st Inde/ H = XX nt5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX nt5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A evious Inde/ H = XX nt5p io (4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop.
flag 0H nt5e/ists(4). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(4)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 does not e/ists=). end if. nt5e/tend. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). flag 0H nt5e/ists(C). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(C)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C does not e/ists=). end if. flag 0H nt5e/ists(D). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D e/ists with an ele$ent = XX nt(D)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ D does not e/ists=). end if. nt5e/tend(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. nt(C) 0H =e=. nt(D) 0H =f=. nt(V) 0H =g=. d%$sMoutput5putMline( =(BT'R
N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS#
e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX
e/tend of two inde/es# Count H = XX
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)).
271
end loop. nt5e/tend(C#1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. nt5t i$. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H = XX nt5!ount). nt5t i$(4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. nt5delete(2). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 155nt5!ountG2 loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. nt5delete(@). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 1554 loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. fo i in C55nt5!ountG1 loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =O H = XX nt(i)). end loop. nt5delete. delete of fou th inde/# Count H = XX delete of fi st inde/# Count H = XX t i$ of th ee inde/s# Count H = XX e/tend of five inde/es# Count H = XX
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of enti e nested ta%le# Count H = XX nt5!ount).

'ND.
Output0 No li$it to Nested Ta%les Count H @ Bi st Inde/ H 2 Last Inde/ H @ Ne/t Inde/ H 4 A evious Inde/ H 1 N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2O H a ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d Inde/ 4 e/ists with an ele$ent ! (fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H C Inde/ C e/ists with an ele$ent Inde/ D does not e/ists (fte e/tend of two inde/es# Count H V N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2O H a ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d ntNCO H ntNDO H ntNVO H (BT'R (SSIN8NIN8 9(LU'S TO '+T'ND'D 'L'M'NTS# N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2O H a ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d
273
ntNCO H e ntNDO H f ntNVO H g (fte e/tend of five inde/es# Count H 21 N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2O H a ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d ntNCO H e ntNDO H f ntNVO H g ntNWO H % ntNSO H % ntN23O H % ntN22O H % ntN21O H % (fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H 22 (fte t i$ of th ee inde/s# Count H W (BT'R TRIM# N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2O H a ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d ntNCO H e ntNDO H f ntNVO H g ntNWO H % (fte delete of fi st inde/# Count H V N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntN@O H d ntNCO H e ntNDO H f
ntNVO H g ntNWO H % (fte delete of fou th inde/# Count H D N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN1O H % ntN4O H ! ntNCO H e ntNDO H f ntNVO H g ntNWO H % (fte delete of enti e nested ta%le# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of studentL owt7pe. nt t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop sele!t E into nt(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sno H = XX nt(i)5sno XX = Sna$e H = XX nt(i)5sna$e). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Sno H 2 Sna$e H sa&eth Sno H 1 Sna$e H s inu Sno H 4 Sna$e H div7a Sno H @ Sna$e H $anogni
'/40
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of student5s$a &sLt7pe. nt t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop
275
sele!t s$a &s into nt(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=S$a &s H = XX nt(i)). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 S$a &s H 233 S$a &s H 133 S$a &s H 433 S$a &s H @33
'/@0
D'CL(R'
t7pe
is e!o d(!2 student5sna$eLt7pe#!1 student5s$a &sLt7pe).
t7pe t is ta%le of . nt t 0H t(null#null#null#null).

)'8IN
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop sele!t sna$e#s$a &s into nt(i) f o$ student whe e sno H i. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Sna$e H = XX nt(i)5!2 XX = S$a &s H = XX nt(i)5!1). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Sna$e H sa&eth S$a &s H 233 Sna$e H s inu S$a &s H 133 Sna$e H div7a S$a &s H 433 Sna$e H $anogni S$a &s H @33
'/C0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of add . nt t 0H t(null).
!u so ! is sele!t E f o$ e$plo7. i nu$%e 0H 2.

)'8IN
fo v in ! loop sele!t add ess into nt(i) f o$ e$plo7 whe e ena$e H v5ena$e. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:no H = XX nt(i)5hno XX = Cit7 H = XX nt(i)5!it7). end loop.
'ND.
Output0 :no H 22 Cit7 H h7d :no H 11 Cit7 H %ang :no H 44 Cit7 H &o!hi
'/D0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is va a7(C) of va !ha (1). nt2 t. nt1 t 0H t().

)'8IN
if nt2 is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt2 is null=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt2 is not null=). end if. if nt1 is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt1 is null=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=nt1 is not null=). end if.
'ND.
Output0 nt2 is null nt1 is not null
277
S'T OA'R(TIONS IN N'ST'D T()L'S
*ou !an pe fo $ set ope ations in the nested ta%les5 *ou !an also pe fo $ eUualit7 !o$pa isions %etween nested ta%les5
Aossi%le ope ations a e
1 1 1 1
'/0
UNION UNION DISTINCT INT'RS'CT '+C'AT (
a!t li&e MINUS)
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va !ha (1). nt2 t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=!=). nt1 t 0H t(=!=#=%=#=a=). nt4 t 0H t(=%=#=!=#=a=#=!=). nt@ t 0H t(=a=#=%=#=d=). ntC t.
)'8IN
ntC 0H set(nt2). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H set(nt4). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt@. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union nt4. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset union distin!t nt4. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H nt2 $ultiset e/!ept nt@. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop. ntC 0H nt@ $ultiset e/!ept nt2. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in ntC5fi st55ntC5last loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntCN = XX i XX = O H = XX ntC(i)). end loop.
'ND.
Output0
N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H a ntCN 1 O H % ntCN 4 O H ! N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H % ntCN 1 O H ! ntCN 4 O H a N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS
279
ntCN 2 O H a ntCN 1 O H % ntCN 4 O H ! ntCN @ O H a ntCN C O H % ntCN D O H d N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H a ntCN 1 O H % ntCN 4 O H ! ntCN @ O H % ntCN C O H ! ntCN D O H a ntCN V O H ! N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H a ntCN 1 O H % ntCN 4 O H ! N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H ! N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntCN 2 O H d
IND'+")* T()L'S
(n inde/"%7 ta%le has no li$it on its siTe5 'le$ents a e inse ted into inde/"%7 ta%le whose inde/ $a7 sta t non"seUuentiall7 in!luding negative intege s5
S7nta/0 T7pe ,type_name& is ta%le of ,table_type& inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege .
'/0
D'CL(R'
t7pe t is ta%le of va !ha (1) inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . i%t t.
flag %oolean.
)'8IN
i%t(2) 0H =a=. i%t("13) 0H =%=. i%t(43) 0H =!=. i%t(233) 0H =d=. if i%t5li$it is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it). end if. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX i%t5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st Inde/ H = XX i%t5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A evious Inde/ H = XX i%t5p io (4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN"13O H = XX i%t("13)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN2O H = XX i%t(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN43O H = XX i%t(43)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN233O H = XX i%t(233)). flag 0H i%t5e/ists(43). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 43 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 43 does not e/ists=). end if. flag 0H i%t5e/ists(C3). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C3 e/ists with an ele$ent = XX i%t(43)). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ C3 does not e/ists=). end if. i%t5delete(2). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte i%t5!ount). delete of fi st inde/# Count H = XX
281
i%t5delete(43). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte i%t5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN"13O H = XX i%t("13)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN233O H = XX i%t(233)). i%t5delete. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of enti e inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).
'ND.
delete of inde/ thi t7# Count H = XX
Output0
No li$it to Inde/ %7 Ta%les Count H @ Bi st Inde/ H "13 Last Inde/ H 233 Ne/t Inde/ H 43 A evious Inde/ H 2 IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS i%tN"13O H % i%tN2O H a i%tN43O H ! i%tN233O H d Inde/ 43 e/ists with an ele$ent ! Inde/ C3 does not e/ists (fte delete of fi st inde/# Count H 4 (fte delete of inde/ thi t7# Count H 1 IND'+ )* T()L' 'L'M'NTS i%tN"13O H % i%tN233O H d (fte delete of enti e inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3
DIBB'R'NC'S (MON8 COLL'CTIONS
1 1 1 1 1 1
9a 9a
a7s has li$it# nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les has no li$it5 a7s and nested ta%les $ust %e initialiTed %efo e assign$ent of
ele$ents# in inde/"%7 ta%les we !an di e!tl7 assign ele$ents5 9a a7s and nested ta%les sto ed in data%ase# %ut inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5
AL?SQL
Nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les a e
ta%les# %ut va a7s !an not5
Fe7s $ust %e positive in !ase of nested ta%les and va a7s# in !ase of inde/" %7 ta%les &e7s !an %e positive o negative5 Refe en!ing none/istent ele$ents aises5 aises
SU)SCRIATM)'*ONDMCOUNT
in %oth
nested ta%les and va a7s# %ut in !ase of inde/"%7 ta%les
NOMD(T(MBOUND
1 1 1 1
Fe7s a e seUuential in %oth nested ta%les and va a7s# non"seUuential in inde/"%7 ta%les5 Individual inde/es !an %e deleted in %oth nested ta%les and inde/"%7 ta%les# %ut in va a7s !an not5 Individual inde/es !an %e t i$$ed in %oth nested ta%les and va a7s# %ut in inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5 Individual inde/es !an %e e/tended in %oth nested ta%les and va a7s# %ut in inde/"%7 ta%les !an not5
MULTIL'9'L COLL'CTIONS
Colle!tions of $o e than one di$ension whi!h is a !olle!tion of !olle!tions# &nown as $ultilevel !olle!tions5
S7nta/0 T7pe ,type_name1& is ta%le of ,table_type& inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . T7pe ,type_name2& is va a7(,limit-) X ta%le X of ,type_name1& = inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege .
'/20
D'CL(R'
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va !ha (1) inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege .
283
t7pe t1 is va a7(C) of t2. va t1 0H t1(). ! nu$%e 0H SV. flag %oolean.

)'8IN
va5e/tend(@). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX va5li$it). fo i in 255va5!ount loop fo J in 255va5!ount loop va(i)(J) 0H !h (!). ! 0H ! G 2. end loop. end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255va5!ount loop fo J in 255va5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX va(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st inde/ H = XX va5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last inde/ H = XX va5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX va5ne/t(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A evious inde/ H = XX va5p io (4)). flag 0H va5e/ists(1). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=). end if. va5e/tend. va(2)(C) 0H =U=. va(1)(C) 0H = =. va(4)(C) 0H =s=. va(@)(C) 0H =t=. va(C)(2) 0H =u=.
va(C)(1) 0H =v=. va(C)(4) 0H =w=. va(C)(@) 0H =/=. va(C)(C) 0H =7=. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255va5!ount loop fo J in 255va5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX va(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. va5t i$. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H = XX va5!ount). va5t i$(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255va5!ount loop fo J in 255va5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=vaN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX va(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. va5delete. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte va5!ount).
'ND.
e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX
t i$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX
delete of enti e va a7# Count H = XX
Output0
Count H @ Li$it H C 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2ON2O H a vaN2ON1O H %
285
vaN2ON4O H ! vaN2ON@O H d vaN1ON2O H e vaN1ON1O H f vaN1ON4O H g vaN1ON@O H h vaN4ON2O H i vaN4ON1O H J vaN4ON4O H & vaN4ON@O H l vaN@ON2O H $ vaN@ON1O H n vaN@ON4O H o vaN@ON@O H p Bi st inde/ H 2 Last inde/ H @ Ne/t inde/ H 4 A evious inde/ H 1 Inde/ 1 e/ists (fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H C 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2ON2O H a vaN2ON1O H % vaN2ON4O H ! vaN2ON@O H d vaN2ONCO H U vaN1ON2O H e vaN1ON1O H f vaN1ON4O H g vaN1ON@O H h vaN1ONCO H vaN4ON2O H i vaN4ON1O H J vaN4ON4O H & vaN4ON@O H l
vaN4ONCO H s vaN@ON2O H $ vaN@ON1O H n vaN@ON4O H o vaN@ON@O H p vaN@ONCO H t vaNCON2O H u vaNCON1O H v vaNCON4O H w vaNCON@O H / vaNCONCO H 7 (fte t i$ of one inde/# Count H @ (fte t i$ of two inde/es# Count H 1 9(RR(* 'L'M'NTS vaN2ON2O H a vaN2ON1O H % vaN1ON2O H e vaN1ON1O H f (fte delete of enti e va a7# Count H 3
'/10
D'CL(R'
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va !ha (1) inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2. nt t1 0H t1(). ! nu$%e 0H DC. v nu$%e 0H 2. flag %oolean.
)'8IN
nt5e/tend(@). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX nt5!ount). if nt5li$it is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Nested Ta%les=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX nt5li$it). end if.
287
fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop nt(i)(J) 0H !h (!). ! 0H ! G 2. if ! H S2 then ! 0H SV. end if. end loop. end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st inde/ H = XX nt5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last inde/ H = XX nt5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t inde/ H = XX nt5ne/t(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A evious inde/ H = XX nt5p io (4)). flag 0H nt5e/ists(1). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 1 e/ists=). end if. nt5e/tend(1). nt(2)(C) 0H =Q=. nt(2)(D) 0H =R=. nt(1)(C) 0H =S=. nt(1)(D) 0H =T=. nt(4)(C) 0H =U=. nt(4)(D) 0H =9=. nt(@)(C) 0H =6=. nt(@)(D) 0H =+=. nt(C)(2) 0H =*=.
nt(C)(1) 0H =Z=. nt(C)(4) 0H =a=. nt(C)(@) 0H =%=. nt(C)(C) 0H =!=. nt(C)(D) 0H =d=. nt(D)(2) 0H =e=. nt(D)(1) 0H =f=. nt(D)(4) 0H =g=. nt(D)(@) 0H =h=. nt(D)(C) 0H =i=. nt(D)(D) 0H =J=. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. nt5t i$. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte t i$ of one inde/e# Count H = XX nt5!ount). nt5t i$(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(i)(J)). end loop. end loop. nt5delete(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte nt5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). loop delete of se!ond inde/# Count H = XX t i$ of two inde/es# Count H = XX e/tend of one inde/# Count H = XX
289
e/it when v H @. fo J in 255nt5!ountG2 loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX v XX =ON= XX J XX =O H = XX nt(v)(J)). end loop. v 0H v G 2. if vH 1 then v 0H 4. end if. end loop. nt5delete. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of enti e nested ta%le# Count H = XX nt5!ount).
'ND.
Output0 Count H @ No li$it to Nested Ta%les N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2ON2O H ( ntN2ON1O H ) ntN2ON4O H C ntN2ON@O H D ntN1ON2O H ' ntN1ON1O H B ntN1ON4O H 8 ntN1ON@O H : ntN4ON2O H I ntN4ON1O H > ntN4ON4O H F ntN4ON@O H L ntN@ON2O H M ntN@ON1O H N ntN@ON4O H O
ntN@ON@O H A Bi st inde/ H 2 Last inde/ H @ Ne/t inde/ H 4 A evious inde/ H 1 Inde/ 1 e/ists (fte e/tend of one inde/# Count H D N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2ON2O H ( ntN2ON1O H ) ntN2ON4O H C ntN2ON@O H D ntN2ONCO H Q ntN2ONDO H R ntN1ON2O H ' ntN1ON1O H B ntN1ON4O H 8 ntN1ON@O H : ntN1ONCO H S ntN1ONDO H T ntN4ON2O H I ntN4ON1O H > ntN4ON4O H F ntN4ON@O H L ntN4ONCO H U ntN4ONDO H 9 ntN@ON2O H M ntN@ON1O H N ntN@ON4O H O ntN@ON@O H A ntN@ONCO H 6 ntN@ONDO H + ntNCON2O H * ntNCON1O H Z ntNCON4O H a
291
ntNCON@O H % ntNCONCO H ! ntNCONDO H d ntNDON2O H e ntNDON1O H f ntNDON4O H g ntNDON@O H h ntNDONCO H i ntNDONDO H J (fte t i$ of one inde/e# Count H C (fte t i$ of two inde/es# Count H 4 N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2ON2O H ( ntN2ON1O H ) ntN2ON4O H C ntN1ON2O H ' ntN1ON1O H B ntN1ON4O H 8 ntN4ON2O H I ntN4ON1O H > ntN4ON4O H F (fte delete of se!ond inde/# Count H 1 N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2ON2O H ( ntN2ON1O H ) ntN2ON4O H C ntN4ON2O H I ntN4ON1O H > ntN4ON4O H F (fte delete of enti e nested ta%le# Count H 3
'/40
D'CL(R'
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va !ha (1) inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege .
i%t t1. flag %oolean.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX i%t5!ount). if i%t5li$it is null then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Li$it H = XX i%t5li$it). end if. i%t(2)(2) 0H =a=. i%t(@)(C) 0H =%=. i%t(C)(2) 0H =!=. i%t(D)(1) 0H =d=. i%t(W)(4) 0H =e=. i%t(4)(@) 0H =f=. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N2ON2O H = XX i%t(2)(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N@ONCO H = XX i%t(@)(C)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NCON2O H = XX i%t(C)(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NDON1O H = XX i%t(D)(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NWON4O H = XX i%t(W)(4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N4ON@O H = XX i%t(4)(@)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Bi st Inde/ H = XX i%t5fi st). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Last Inde/ H = XX i%t5last). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Ne/t Inde/ H = XX i%t5ne/t(4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=A io Inde/ H = XX i%t5p io (W)). i%t(2)(1) 0H =g=. i%t(2)(4) 0H =h=. i%t(2)(@) 0H =i=. i%t(2)(C) 0H =&=. i%t(2)(D) 0H =l=. i%t(2)(V) 0H =$=. i%t(2)(W) 0H =n=. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX i%t5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255W loop
293
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%tN2ON= XX i XX =O H = XX i%t(2)(i)). end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N@ONCO H = XX i%t(@)(C)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NCON2O H = XX i%t(C)(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NDON1O H = XX i%t(D)(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NWON4O H = XX i%t(W)(4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N4ON@O H = XX i%t(4)(@)). flag 0H i%t5e/ists(4). if flag H t ue then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists=). else d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ 4 e/ists=). end if. i%t5delete(2). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte i%t5!ount). i%t5delete(@). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte i%t5!ount). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NCON2O H = XX i%t(C)(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NDON1O H = XX i%t(D)(1)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(NWON4O H = XX i%t(W)(4)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=i%t(N4ON@O H = XX i%t(4)(@)). i%t5delete. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=(fte delete of enti e inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H = XX i%t5!ount).
'ND.
delete of fi st inde/# Count H = XX
delete of fou th inde/# Count H = XX
Output0 Count H 3 No li$it to Inde/"%7 Ta%les IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS i%t(N2ON2O H a
i%t(N@ONCO H % i%t(NCON2O H ! i%t(NDON1O H d i%t(NWON4O H e i%t(N4ON@O H f Bi st Inde/ H 2 Last Inde/ H W Ne/t Inde/ H @ A io Inde/ H D Count H D IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS i%tN2ON2O H a i%tN2ON1O H g i%tN2ON4O H h i%tN2ON@O H i i%tN2ONCO H & i%tN2ONDO H l i%tN2ONVO H $ i%tN2ONWO H n i%t(N@ONCO H % i%t(NCON2O H ! i%t(NDON1O H d i%t(NWON4O H e i%t(N4ON@O H f Inde/ 4 e/ists (fte delete of fi st inde/# Count H C (fte delete of fou th inde/# Count H @ IND'+")* T()L' 'L'M'NTS i%t(NCON2O H ! i%t(NDON1O H d i%t(NWON4O H e i%t(N4ON@O H f (fte delete of enti e inde/"%7 ta%le# Count H 3
'/@0
295
D'CL(R'
t7pe t2 is ta%le of va !ha (1) inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . t7pe t1 is ta%le of t2 inde/ %7 %ina 7Mintege . t7pe t4 is ta%le of t1. nt t4 0H t4(). ! nu$%e 0H DC.
)'8IN
nt5e/tend(1). d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Count H = XX nt5!ount). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop fo & in 255nt5!ount loop nt(i)(J)(&) 0H !h (!). ! 0H ! G 2. end loop. end loop. end loop. d%$sMoutput5putMline(=N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS=). fo i in 255nt5!ount loop fo J in 255nt5!ount loop fo & in 255nt5!ount loop d%$sMoutput5putMline(=ntN= XX i XX =ON= XX J XX =ON= XX & XX =O H = XX nt(i)(J)(&)). end loop. end loop. end loop.
'ND.
Output0 Count H 1 N'ST'D T()L' 'L'M'NTS ntN2ON2ON2O H ( ntN2ON2ON1O H ) ntN2ON1ON2O H C ntN2ON1ON1O H D
ntN1ON2ON2O H ' ntN1ON2ON1O H B ntN1ON1ON2O H 8 ntN1ON1ON1O H :
O)>'CTS US'D IN T:' '+(MAL'S
SQL-
SNO 2 1 4 @
SN(M' sa&eth s inu div7a $anogni
SM(RFS 233 133 433 @33
"""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""
SQL-
! eate o
epla!e t7pe add
as o%Je!t(hno nu$%e (1)#!it7
va !ha (23)).?
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$plo7.
'N(M' RanJit Satish S inu
>O) !le & $anage enginee
(DDR'SS(:NO# CIT*) (DDR(22# =h7d=) (DDR(11# =%ang=) (DDR(44# =&o!hi=)
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""
297
'RROR :(NDLIN8
AL?SQL i$ple$ents e o handling with e/!eptions and e/!eption handle s5 with 7ou own use "defined AL?SQL
'/!eptions !an %e asso!iated with o a!le e o s o p og a$s
e o s5 )7 using e/!eptions and e/!eption handle s# 7ou !an $a&e 7ou du ing e/e!ution5
o%ust and a%le to deal with %oth une/pe!ted and e/pe!ted e o s
'RROR T*A'S
1 1
Co$pile"ti$e e o s Runti$e e o s
' o s that o!!u du ing the !o$pilation phase a e dete!ted %7 the AL?SQL engine and epo ted %a!& to the use # we have to !o e!t the$5
Runti$e
e o s
a e
dete!ted
%7
the
AL?SQL
unti$e athe
engine
whi!h
!an
p og a$$ati!all7 aise and !aught %7 e/!eption handle s5 '/!eptions a e designed fo e o handling5 un"ti$e e o handling# than !o$pile"ti$e
:(NDLIN8 '+C'ATIONS
6hen e/!eption is aised# !ont ol passes to the e/!eption se!tion of the %lo!&5 The e/!eption se!tion !onsists of handle s fo e/!eption handle so$e o all of the e/!eptions5 (n asso!iated !ontains the !ode that is e/e!uted when the e o
with the e/!eption o!!u s# and the e/!eption is aised5
S7nta/0
'+C'ATION
6hen e/!eptionMna$e then SeUuen!eMofMstate$ents. 6hen e/!eptionMna$e then SeUuen!eMofMstate$ents. 6hen othe s then SeUuen!eMofMstate$ents.
'ND.
'+C'ATION T*A'S
3 3
A edefined e/!eptions Use "defined e/!eptions
AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS
299
O a!le has p edefined seve al e/!eptions that !o esponds to the $ost !o$$on o a!le e o s5 Li&e the p edefined t7pes# the identifie s of these e/!eptions a e defined in the
ST(ND(RD
pa!&age5 )e!ause of this# the7 a e al ead7 availa%le to the
p og a$# it is not ne!essa 7 to de!la e the$ in the de!la ative se!ion5
'/20
D'CL(R'
a nu$%e . % va !ha (1). vM$a &s nu$%e . !u so ! is sele!t E f o$ student. t7pe t is va a7(4) of va !ha (1). va t 0H t(=a=#=%=). va2 t.
)'8IN "" NOMD(T(MBOUND )'8IN
sele!t s$a &s into vM$a &s f o$ student whe e sno H C3.
'+C'ATION
when noMdataMfound then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid student nu$%e =).

'ND. "" CURSORM(LR'(D*MOA'N )'8IN
open !. open !.
'+C'ATION
when !u so Mal ead7Mopen then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Cu so is al ead7 opened=).

'ND.
"" IN9(LIDMCURSOR )'8IN
!lose !. open !. !lose !. !lose !.

'+C'ATION
when invalidM!u so then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Cu so is al ead7 !losed=).

'ND. "" TOOMM(N*MRO6S )'8IN
sele!t s$a &s into vM$a &s f o$ student whe e sno - 2.

'+C'ATION
when tooM$an7M ows then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Too $an7 values a e !o$ing to $a &s va ia%le=).
'ND. "" Z'ROMDI9ID' )'8IN
a 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when Te oMdivide then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Divided %7 Te o " invalid ope ation=).

'ND. "" 9(LU'M'RROR )'8IN
% 0H =sa&eth=.
'+C'ATION
when valueMe o then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid st ing length=).

'ND. "" IN9(LIDMNUM)'R )'8IN
inse t into student values(=a=#=s inu=#233).

'+C'ATION
when invalidMnu$%e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid nu$%e =).

'ND.
"" SU)SCRIATMOUTSID'MLIMIT )'8IN
va(@) 0H =!=.
'+C'ATION
when su%s! iptMoutsideMli$it then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ is g eate than the li$it=).
301
'ND. "" SU)SCRIATM)'*ONDMCOUNT )'8IN
va(4) 0H =!=.
'+C'ATION
when su%s! iptM%e7ondM!ount then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Inde/ is g eate than the !ount=).

'ND. "" COLL'CTIONMISMNULL )'8IN
va2(2) 0H =a=.
'+C'ATION
when !olle!tionMisMnull then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Colle!tion is e$pt7=).

'ND.
""
'ND.
Output0 Invalid student nu$%e Cu so is al ead7 opened Cu so is al ead7 !losed Too $an7 values a e !o$ing to $a &s va ia%le Divided %7 Te o " invalid ope ation Invalid st ing length Invalid nu$%e Inde/ is g eate than the li$it Inde/ is g eate than the !ount Colle!tion is e$pt7
'/10
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e .
)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when Te oMdivide then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid Ope ation=). when othe s then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=B o$ OT:'RS handle 0 Invalid Ope ation=).
'ND.
Output0 Invalid Ope ation
US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATIONS
( use "defined e/!eption is an e o li&e va ia%les# e/eptions have a t7pe
that is defined %7 the p og a$$e 5 Use " and s!ope5
defined e/!eptions a e de!la ed in the de!la ative se!ion of a AL?SQL %lo!&5 >ust
'+C'ATION
R(ISIN8 '+C'ATIONS
Use "defined e/!eptions a e aised e/pli!itl7 via the R(IS' state$ent5
'/0
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e is aised=).

'ND.
Output0 e is aised )ULIT"IN 'RROR BUNCTIONS
SQLCOD' (ND SQL'RRM
303
1 1 1
SQLCOD'
etu ns the !u ent e o
!ode# and
SQL'RRM
etu ns the !u ent
e o $essage te/t. Bo use "defined e/!eption

SQLCOD'
etu ns 2 and
SQL'RRM
etu ns Puse "
deifned e/!eptionQ5 SQL'RRM wiil ta&e onl7 negative value e/!ept 2335 If an7 positive value othe than 233 etu ns non"o a!le e/!eption5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption. vMdna$e va !ha (23).

)'8IN "" US'R"D'BIN'D '+C'ATION )'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX

'ND. SQL'RRM).
"" AR'D'BIN'D '+C'ATION )'8IN
sele!t dna$e into vMdna$e f o$ dept whe e deptno H C3.

'+C'ATION
when noMdataMfound then d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQLCOD' XX = = XX

'ND. 'ND. SQL'RRM).
Output0 2 Use "Defined '/!eption 233 OR("32@340 no data found
'/10
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM(233)).
d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM(3)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM(2)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("233)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("C33)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM(133)). d%$sMoutput5putMline(SQL'RRM("S33)).

'ND.
Output0 OR("32@340 no data found OR("33330 no $al# su!!essful !o$pletion Use "Defined '/!eption OR("332330 no data found OR("33C330 Message C33 not found. p odu!tHRD)MS. fa!ilit7HOR( "1330 non"OR(CL' e/!eption OR("33S330 invalid SQL state$ent
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORMST(CF
1 1 1 1
The %uilt"in fun!tion# li&e !u ent e o 5 It diffe s f o$

SQL'RRM
SQL'RRM#
etu ns the $essage asso!iated with the
in two wa7s0
Its length is not est i!ted. it will etu n the full e o $essage st ing5 *ou !an not pass an e o !ode nu$%e to this fun!tion. it !annot %e used to etu n the $essage fo a ando$ e o !ode5
'/0
D'CL(R'
v nu$%e 0H =a%=.
)'8IN
null.
'+C'ATION
when othe s then d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo $atMe o Msta!&).

'ND.
Output0 de!la e
305
E 'RROR at line 20 OR("3DC310 AL?SQL0 nu$e i! o !onve sion e o OR("3DC210 at line 1 value e o 0 !ha a!te to nu$%e
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TMC(LLMST(CF
This fun!tion 7ou

AL?SQL
etu ns a fo $atted st ing showing the e/e!ution !all sta!& inside
appli!ation5 Its usefulness is not est i!ted to e o $anage$ent. 7ou
will also find its hand7 fo t a!ing the e/e!tution of 7ou !ode5 *ou $a7 not use this fun!tion in e/!eption %lo!&5
'/0
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo $atM!allMsta!&).
'ND.
Output0 """"" AL?SQL Call Sta!& """"" O%Je!tMhandle DSVD3@VW lineMnu$%e 1 o%Je!tMna$e anon7$ous %lo!&
D)MSMUTILIT*5BORM(TM'RRORM)(CFTR(C'
It displa7s the e/e!ution sta!& at the point whe e an e/!eption was aised5 Thus # 7ou !an !all this fun!tion with an e/!eption se!tion at the top level of 7ou sta!& and still find out whe e the e o was aised deep within the !all sta!&5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A2 IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=f o$ p o!edu e 2=). aise valueMe o .

'ND A2. CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A1 IS
)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=f o$ p o!edu e 1=). p2.

'ND A1.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' AROC'DUR' A4 IS )'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=f o$ p o!edu e 4=). p1.

'+C'ATION
when othe s then d%$sMoutput5putMline(d%$sMutilit75fo $atMe o M%a!&t a!e ).

'ND A4.
Output0
SQL-
e/e! p4
f o$ p o!edu e 4 f o$ p o!edu e 1 f o$ p o!edu e 2 OR("3DC210 at bS(F'T:5A2b# line @ OR("3DC210 at bS(F'T:5A1b# line @ OR("3DC210 at bS(F'T:5A4b# line @
'+C'ATIONMINIT AR(8M(
Using this 7ou !an asso!iate a na$ed e/!eption with a pa ti!ula o a!le e o 5 This gives 7ou the a%ilit7 to t ap this e o handle 5 spe!ifi!all7# athe than via an
OT:'RS
S7nta/0
AR(8M( '+C'ATIONMINIT(e(ception_name#
oracle_error_number).
'/0
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
307
p ag$a e/!eptionMinit(e#"2@VD). ! nu$%e .

)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid Ope ation=).

'ND.
Output0 Invalid Ope ation
R(IS'M(AALIC(TIONM'RROR
*ou !an use this %uilt"in fun!tion to ! eate 7ou own e o $essages# whi!h !an %e $o e des! iptive than na$ed e/!eptions5
S7nta/0
R(IS'M(AALIC(TIONM'RROR(error_number#
error_me!!a"e##
N eep_error!_'la"O).
The )oolean pa a$ete
eep_error!_'la" is optional5 If it is
B(LS'#
TRU'#
the new e o is
added to the list of e o s al ead7 aised5 If it is e o will epla!e the !u ent list of e o s5
whi!h is default# the new
'/0
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e .
)'8IN
! 0H C?3.
'+C'ATION
when Te oMdivide then aiseMappli!ationMe o ("13111#=Invalid Ope ation=).

'ND.
Output0
D'CL(R'
E
'RROR
at line 20
OR("131110 Invalid Ope ation OR("3DC210 at line V
'+C'ATION AROA(8(TION
'/!eptions !an o!!u in the de!la ative# the e/e!uta%le# o the e/!eption se!tion of a AL?SQL %lo!&5
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' '+'CU(T()L' S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in e/e!uata%le se!tion !an %e handled in !u ent %lo!& o oute %lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN )'8IN
aise e.
'ND. '+C'ATION
when e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e is aised=).

'ND.
Output0 e is aised
'/10
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN )'8IN
309
aise e.
'ND. 'ND.
Output0
'RROR
at line 20
OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use "defined e/!eption OR("3DC210 at line C
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' D'CL(R(TI9' S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in the de!la ative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
! nu$%e (4) 0H =a%!d=.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:ello=).
'+C'ATION
when othe s then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid st ing length=).

'ND.
Output0
'RROR
at line 20 value e o 0 !ha a!te to nu$%e
OR("3DC310 AL?SQL0 nu$e i! o !onve sion e o OR("3DC210 at line 1
'/10
)'8IN D'CL(R'
! nu$%e (4) 0H =a%!d=.

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=:ello=).
'+C'ATION
when othe s then
d%$sMoutput5putMline(=Invalid st ing length=).

'ND. '+C'ATION
when othe s then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=B o$ oute length=).

'ND.
%lo!&0 Invalid st ing
Output0 B o$ oute %lo!&0 Invalid st ing length
'+C'ATION R(IS'D IN T:' '+C'ATION S'CTION
'/!eptions aised in the de!la ative se!ion $ust %e handled in the oute %lo!&5
'/20
D'CL(R'
e2 e/!eption. e1 e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e2.
'+C'ATION
when e2 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e2 is aised=). aise e1. when e1 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e1 is aised=).
'ND.
Output0 e2 is aised D'CL(R' E 'RROR at line 20 OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use "defined e/!eption OR("3DC210 at line S
311
OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use "defined e/!eption
'/10
D'CL(R'
e2 e/!eption. e1 e/!eption.
)'8IN )'8IN
aise e2.
'+C'ATION
when e2 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e2 is aised=). aise e1. when e1 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e1 is aised=).
'ND. '+C'ATION
when e1 then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=B o$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised=).

'ND.
Output0 e2 is aised B o$ oute %lo!&0 e1 is aised
'/40
D'CL(R'
e e/!eption.
)'8IN
aise e.
'+C'ATION
when e then d%$sMoutput5putMline(=e is aised=). aise e.

'ND.
Output0
e is aised D'CL(R' E 'RROR at line 20 OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use "defined e/!eption OR("3DC210 at line W OR("3DC230 AL?SQL0 unhandled use "defined e/!eption
R'STRICTIONS
*ou !an not pass e/!eption as an a gu$ent to a su%p og a$5
313
D(T()(S' TRI88'RS
T igge s a e si$ila to p o!edu es o fun!tions in that the7 a e na$ed AL?SQL
%lo!&s with de!la ative# e/e!uta%le# and e/!eption handling se!tions5 ( t igge is e/e!uted i$pli!itl7 wheneve the t igge ing event happens5 The a!t of e/e!uting a t igge is &nown as fi ing the t igge 5
R'STRICTIONS ON TRI88'R'S
1 1
Li&e pa!&ages# t igge s $ust %e sto ed as stand"alone o%Je!ts in the data%ase and !annot %e lo!al to a %lo!& o pa!&age5 ( t igge does not a!!ept a gu$ents5
US' OB TRI88'RS
1 1 1
Maintaining !o$ple/ integ it7 !onst aints not possi%le th ough de!la ative !onst aints ena%le at ta%le ! eation5 (uditing info $ation in a ta%le %7 $ade the$5 (uto$ati!all7 signaling othe p og a$s that a!tion needs to ta&e pla!e e!o ding the !hanges $ade and who
when !hanges a e $ade to a ta%le5
1 1
Ae fo $ validation on !hanges %eing $ade to ta%les5 (uto$ate $aintenan!e of the data%ase5
T*A'S OB S
1 1 1 1 1
DML T igge s Instead of T igge s DDL T igge s S7ste$ T igge s Suspend T igge s
C(T'8ORI'S
Ti$ing Level
"" ""
)efo e o (fte Row o State$ent
Row level t igge
fi es on!e fo
ea!h
ow affe!ted %7 the t igge ing state$ent5 !lause5
Row level t igge is identified %7 the
BOR '(C: RO6
State$ent level t igge fi es on!e eithe %efo e o afte the state$ent5
DML TRI88'R S*NT(+
C eate o
epla!e t igge ,tri""er name-
^)efo e X afte _ Înse t o update o delete_ on ,table nameNBo ea!h owO N6hen (R)O NDe!la eO "" De!la ation
315
)egin "" T igge %od7 N'/!eptionO "" '/!eption se!tion 'nd ,tri""er name-.
DML TRI88'RS
DML
t igge is fi ed on an
INS'RT# UAD(T'#
D'L'T'S
ope ation on a data%ase ta%le5
It !an %e fi ed eithe %efo e o afte the state$ent e/e!utes# and !an %e fi ed on!e pe affe!ted ow# o on!e pe state$ent5
The !o$%ination of these fa!to s dete $ines the t7pes of the t igge s5 These a e a total of 21 possi%le t7pes (4 state$ents E 1 ti$ing E 1 levels)5
ST(T'M'NT L'9'L
State$ent level t igge fi es onl7 on!e5 '/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le state$ent level (!ount va !ha (C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R ST(T'M'NTML'9'LMTRI88'R
(fte update on student

)'8IN
Inse t into state$ent level values(=State$ent level fi ed=).

'ND ST(T'M'NTML'9'LMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
update student set s$a &sHC33.
4 ows updated5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ state$entMlevel.
COUNT """""""""""""""""""""""""""" State$ent level fi ed
RO6 L'9'L
Row level t igge fi es on!e fo ea!h ow affe!ted %7 the t igge ing state$ent5
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le owMlevel(!ount va !ha (C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R RO6ML'9'LMTRI88'R
(fte update on student

)'8IN
Inse t into owMlevel values (=Row level fi ed=).

'ND RO6ML'9'LMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
update student set s$a &sHC33.
4 ows updated5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ state$entMlevel.
COUNT """""""""""""""""""""""""""" Row level fi ed Row level fi ed Row level fi ed
ORD'R OB DML TRI88'R BIRIN8
317
1 1 1 1
'/0
)efo e state$ent level )efo e ow level (fte ow level
(fte state$ent level
Suppose we have a follwing ta%le5
SQL-
NO N(M' 2 1 4 @ a % ! d
M(RFS 233 133 433 @33
""""" """"""" """"""""""
SQL-
! eate ta%le fi ingMo de (o de va !ha (C3)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R )'BOR'MST(T'M'NT
%efo e inse t on student

)'8IN
inse t into fi ingMo de values(=)efo e State$ent Level=).

'ND )'BOR'MST(T'M'NT.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R )'BOR'MRO6
%efo e inse t on student fo ea!h ow

)'8IN
inse t into fi ingMo de values(=)efo e Row Level=).

'ND )'BOR'MRO6.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMST(T'M'NT
afte inse t on student
)'8IN
inse t into fi ingMo de values(=(fte State$ent Level=).

'ND (BT'RMST(T'M'NT.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMRO6
afte inse t on student fo ea!h ow

)'8IN
inse t into fi ingMo de values(=(fte Row Level=).

'ND (BT'RMRO6.
Output0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ fi ingMo de .
no ows sele!ted
SQL-
inse t into student values(C#=e=#C33).
2 ow ! eated5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ fi ingMo de .
ORD'R """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" )efo e State$ent Level )efo e Row Level (fte Row Level (fte State$ent Level
SQL-
NO N(M'
M(RFS
"""" """""""" """"""""""
319
2 1 4 @ C
a % ! d e
233 133 433 @33 C33
CORR'L(TION ID'NTIBI'RS IN RO6"L'9'L TRI88'RS
Inside the t igge # 7ou !an a!!ess the data in the 0new5
ow that is !u entl7 %eing
p o!essed5 This is a!!o$plished th ough two !o elation identifie s " 0old and
( correlation identi'ier is a spe!ial &ind of in e$%edded

AL?SQL AL?SQL#
AL?SQL
%ind va ia%le5 The !olon in f ont va ia%les5 The
of ea!h indi!ates that the7 a e %ind va ia%les# in the sense of host va ia%les used and indi!ates that the7 a e not egula
AL?SQL
!o$pile will t eat the$ as e!o ds of t7pe
T igge ingMta%leLRO6T*A'5
(lthough s7nta!ti!all7 the7 a e t eated as
e!o ds# in
ealit7 the7 a e not5 0old
and 0new a e also &nown as p!eudorecord!# fo this eason5
TRI88'RIN8 ST(T'M'NT """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
0OLD
0N'6 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""
""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" INS'RT
all fields a e
NULL5
values that will %e inse ted 6hen the state$ent is
!o$pleted5
UAD(T'
o iginal values fo the ow %efo e the
new values that will %e when the state$ent is
updated !o$pleted5 update5

D'L'T'
o iginal values %efo e the ow is deleted5
all fields a e
NULL5
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le $a &s(no nu$%e (1) oldM$a &s nu$%e (4)#newM$a &s nu$%e (4)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R OLDMN'6
%efo e inse t o update o delete on student fo ea!h ow

)'8IN
inse t into $a &s values(0old5no#0old5$a &s#0new5$a &s).

'ND OLDMN'6.
Output0
SQL-
NO N(M' M(RFS """"" """"""" """""""""" 2 1 4 @ C a % ! d e 233 133 433 @33 C33
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ $a &s.
no ows sele!ted
SQL-
inse t into student values(D#=f=#D33).
2 ow ! eated5
SQL-
NO N(M'
M(RFS
"""" """""""" """"""""""
321
2 1 4 @ C D
a % ! d e f
233 133 433 @33 C33 D33
SQL-
NO OLDMM(RFS N'6MM(RFS """" """"""""""""""" """"""""""""""" D33
SQL-
update student set $a &sHCCC whe e noHC.
2 ow updated5
SQL-
NO N(M' M(RFS """"" """"""" """""""""" 2 1 4 @ C D a % ! d e f 233 133 433 @33 CCC D33
SQL-
NO
OLDMM(RFS
N'6MM(RFS
"""""" """""""""""""""" """"""""""""""" D33 C C33 CCC
SQL-
2 ow deleted5
SQL-
NO N(M' 2 4 @ C D a ! d e f
M(RFS 233 433 @33 CCC D33
"""" """""""" """"""""""
SQL-
NO OLDMM(RFS N'6MM(RFS """"" """""""""""""" """""""""""""""" D33 C 1 C33 133 CCC
R'B'R'NCIN8 CL(US'
If desi ed# 7ou !an use the
R'B'R'NCIN8
!lause to spe!if7 a diffe ent na$e fo 0old

6:'N
ane 0new5 This !lause is found afte the t igge ing event# %efo e the
!lause5
S7nta/0
R'B'R'NCIN8
Nold as oldMna$eO Nnew as newMna$eO
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R R'B'R'NC'MTRI88'R
323
%efo e inse t o update o delete on student efe en!ing old as oldMstudent new as newMstudent fo ea!h ow
)'8IN
inse t into $a &s values(0oldMstudent5no#0oldMstudent5$a &s#0newMstudent5$a &s).

'ND R'B'R'NC'MTRI88'R.
6:'N CL(US'
6:'N
!lause is valid fo
ow"level t igge s onl75 If p esent# the t igge %od7 will %e

6:'N
e/e!uted onl7 fo those ows that $eet the !ondition spe!ified %7 the
!lause5
S7nta/0
6:'N
tri""er_condition.
6he e tri""er_condition is a )oolean e/p ession5 It will %e evaluated fo %ut li&e

R'B'R'NCIN8#
ea!h
ow5 The >new and >old e!o ds !an %e efe en!ed inside tri""er_condition as well# the !olon is not used the e5 The !olon is onl7 valid in the t igge %od75
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R 6:'NMTRI88'R
%efo e inse t o update o delete on student efe en!ing old as oldMstudent new as newMstudent fo ea!h ow when (newMstudent5$a &s - C33)
)'8IN
inse t into $a &s values(0oldMstudent5no#0oldMstudent5$a &s#0newMstudent5$a &s).

'ND 6:'NMTRI88'R.
TRI88'R AR'DIC(T'S
The e a e th ee )oolean fun!tions that 7ou !an use to dete $ine what the ope ation is5 The p edi!ates a e
1 1 1
'/0
INS'RTIN8 UAD(TIN8 D'L'TIN8
SQL-
! eate ta%le p edi!ates(ope ation va !ha (13)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R AR'DIC(T'MTRI88'R
%efo e inse t o update o delete on student

)'8IN
if inse ting then inse t into p edi!ates values(=Inse t=). elsif updating then inse t into p edi!ates values(=Update=). elsif deleting then inse t into p edi!ates values(=Delete=). end if.
'ND AR'DIC(T'MTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
delete student whe e noH2.
2 ow deleted5
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ p edi!ates.
MS8 """"""""""""""" Delete
325
SQL-
inse t into student values(V#=g=#V33).
2 ow ! eated5
SQL-
MS8 """"""""""""""" Delete Inse t
SQL-
update student set $a &s H VVV whe e noHV.
2 ow updated5
SQL-
MS8 """"""""""""""" Delete Inse t Update
INST'(D"OB TRI88'RS
Instead"of t igge s fi e instead of a
DML
ope ation5 (lso# instead"of t igge s !an %e
defined onl7 on views5 Instead"of t igge s a e used in two !ases0
1 1
'/0
To allow a view that would othe wise not %e $odifia%le to %e $odified5 To $odif7 the !olu$ns of a nested ta%le !olu$n in a view5
SQL-
! eate view e$pMdept as sele!t e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#dna$e#lo!#sal#e5deptno
f o$ e$p e# dept d whe e e5deptno H d5deptno.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R INST'(DMOBMTRI88'R
instead of inse t on e$pMdept

)'8IN
inse t into dept2 values(C3#= d=#=%ang=). inse t into e$p2(e$pno#ena$e#Jo%#sal#deptno)values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to =#W333#C3).

'ND INST'(DMOBMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQLSQL-
inse t into e$pMdept values(1111#=sa&eth=#=do!to =#W333#= d=#=%ang=#C3). sele!t E f o$ e$pMdept.
'MANO V4DS V@SS VC12 VCDD VDC@ VDSW VVW1 VVWW VW4S VW@@ VWVD VS33 VS31 VS4@ 1111
'N(M' SMIT: (LL'N 6(RD >ON'S )L(F' CL(RF SCOTT FIN8 (D(MS >(M'S BORD MILL'R sa&eth
>O) CL'RF S(L'SM(N S(L'SM(N M(N(8'R M(N(8'R M(N(8'R (N(L*ST AR'SID'NT CL'RF CL'RF (N(L*ST CL'RF do!to
S(L """"""""""" W33 2D33 21C3 1SVC 21C3 1WC3 1@C3 4333 C333 2C33 2233 SC3 4333 2433 W333
DN(M' R'S'(RC: S(L'S S(L'S R'S'(RC: S(L'S S(L'S R'S'(RC: (CCOUNTIN8 S(L'S R'S'(RC: S(L'S R'S'(RC: (CCOUNTIN8 d
LOC D(LL(S C:IC(8O C:IC(8O D(LL(S C:IC(8O C:IC(8O D(LL(S
D'ATNO """""""""" 13 43 43 13 43 43 23 13 23 43 13 43 13 23 C3
"""""""""" """""""""" """"""""""""
""""""""""""" """""""""""""
M(RTIN S(L'SM(N
(CCOUNTIN8 N'6 *ORF N'6 *ORF C:IC(8O D(LL(S C:IC(8O D(LL(S N'6 *ORF %ang
TURN'R S(L'SM(N
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ dept.
327
D'ATNO """""""""" 23 13 43 @3 C3
DN(M' """""""""""""""" (CCOUNTIN8 R'S'(RC: S(L'S OA'R(TIONS d
LOC """"""""""" N'6 *ORF D(LL(S C:IC(8O )OSTON %ang
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ e$p.
'MANO D'ATNO
'N(M'
>O)
M8R
:IR'D(T'
S(L """""""""
COMM """"""""" W33 433 C33 1SVC 2@33 1WC3 1@C3 4333 C333
"""""""""" """""""""" """""""""" V4DS 13 V@SS 43 VC12 43 VCDD 13 VDC@ 43 VDSW 43 VVW1 23 VVWW 13 VW4S FIN8 M(RTIN 6(RD (LL'N
""""""""""""""" """""""" """""""""""""" CL'RF S(L'SM(N S(L'SM(N VDSW VDSW VS31
SMIT:
2 V"D'C"W3 2D33 21C3
13"B')"W2 11"B')"W2 VW4S
>ON'S
M(N(8'R S(L'SM(N VDSW
31"(AR"W2 21C3
1W"S'A"W2 VW4S VW4S VCDD
)L(F' CL(RF SCOTT
M(N(8'R M(N(8'R (N(L*ST AR'SID'NT
32"M(*"W2 3S">UN"W2 2S"(AR"WV 2V"NO9"W2
23 VW@@ 43 VWVD 13 VS33 43 VS31 13 VS4@ 23 1111 C3 sa&eth do!to W333 MILL'R CL'RF VVW1 14">(N"W1 2433 BORD (N(L*ST VCDD 34"D'C"W2 4333 >(M'S CL'RF VDSW 34"D'C"W2 SC3 (D(MS CL'RF VVWW 14"M(*"WV 2233 TURN'R S(L'SM(N VDSW 3W"S'A"W2 2C33 3
DDL TRI88'RS
O a!le allows 7ou to define t igge s that will fi e when Data Definition Language state$ents a e e/e!uted5
S7nta/0
C eate o
epla!e t igge ,tri""er_name-
^)efo e X afte _ ^DDL event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_ N6hen (R)O NDe!la eO "" de!la ation )egin "" t igge %od7 N'/!eptionO "" e/!eption se!tion 'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL-
! eate
ta%le
$7Mo%Je!ts(o%JMna$e
va !ha (23)#o%JMt7pe
329
va !ha (23)#o%JMowne va !ha (23)#o%JMti$e date).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R CR'(T'MTRI88'R
afte ! eate on data%ase

)'8IN
inse t
into
$7Mo%Je!ts
values(s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMna$e#s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMt7pe# s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMowne # s7sdate).

'ND CR'(T'MTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ $7Mo%Je!ts.
no ows sele!ted
SQL-
! eate ta%le stud2(no nu$%e (1)).
SQL-
O)>MN(M' STUD2
O)>MT*A' T()L'
O)>MO6N'R O)>MTIM' """""""""""" 12">UL"3V S*S
""""""""""""" """""""""""""" """"""""""""""
SQL-
! eate seUuen!e ss.
SQL-
! eate view studMview as sele!t E f o$ stud2.
SQL-
O)>MN(M'
O)>MT*A'
O)>MO6N'R
O)>MTIM'
"""""""""""""" """"""""""""" """""""""""""""" """""""""""""
STUD2 SS STUDM9I'6
T()L' S'QU'NC' 9I'6
S*S S*S S*S
12">UL"3V 12">UL"3V 12">UL"3V
6:'N CL(US'
If
6:'N
p esent# the t igge
%od7 will %e e/e!uted onl7 fo !lause5
those that $eet the
!ondition spe!ified %7 the
6:'N
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R CR'(T'MTRI88'R
afte ! eate on data%ase when (s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMt7pe H KT()L';)

)'8IN
inse t
into
$7Mo%Je!ts
values(s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMna$e#s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMt7pe# s7s5di!tiona 7Mo%JMowne # s7sdate).

'ND CR'(T'MTRI88'R.
S*ST'M TRI88'RS
S7ste$ t igge s will fi e wheneve data%ase"wide event o!!u s5 The following a e the data%ase event t igge s5 To ! eate s7ste$ t igge
D(T()(S' TRI88'R
7ou need
(DMINIST'R
p ivilege5
1 1 1 1 1
S7nta/0
ST(RTUA S:UTDO6N LO8ON LO8OBB S'R9'R'RROR
C eate o
331
^)efo e X afte _ ^Data%ase event_ on ^data%ase X s!he$a_ N6hen (R)O NDe!la eO "" de!la ation se!tion )egin "" t igge %od7 N'/!eptionO "" e/!eption se!tion 'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%le use Mlogs(uMna$e va !ha (23)#logMti$e ti$esta$p).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (BT'RMLO8ON
afte logon on data%ase

)'8IN
inse t into use Mlogs values(use #!u entMti$esta$p).

'ND (BT'RMLO8ON.
Output0
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ use Mlogs.
no ows sele!ted
SQLSQL-
!onn sa&eth?sa&eth sele!t E f o$ use Mlogs.
UMN(M' S(F'T:
LO8MTIM' 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M
"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
SQLSQL-
!onn s7ste$?o a!le sele!t E f o$ use Mlogs.
UMN(M' S(F'T: S*ST'M
LO8MTIM' 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 (M
"""""""""" """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
SQLSQL-
!onn s!ott?tige sele!t E f o$ use Mlogs.
UMN(M' S(F'T: S*ST'M SCOTT
LO8MTIM' 11">UL"3V 2153V52452@3333 (M 11">UL"3V 2153V54@512W333 (M 11">UL"3V 2153W5@453S4333 (M
"""""""""" """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
S'R9'R'RROR
The e o '/0
S'R9'R'RROR
event !an %e used to t a!& e o s that o!!u in the data%ase5 The th ough the
S'R9'RM'RROR
!ode is availa%le inside the t igge
att i%ute
fun!tion5
SQL-
! eate ta%le $7Me o s(e o M$sg va !ha (133)).
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R
afte se ve e o on data%ase
)'8IN
inse t into $7Me o s values(d%$sMutilit75fo $atMe o Msta!&).

'ND S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
! eate ta%le ss (no)).
333
! eate ta%le ss (no)) E 'RROR at line 20 OR("33S110 $issing o invalid option
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ $7Me o s.
'RRORMMS8 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" OR("33S110 $issing o invalid option
SQL-
inse t into student values(2#1#4). E
inse t into student values(2#1#4) 'RROR at line 20 OR("33S@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist
SQL-
sele!t E f o$ $7Me o s.
'RRORMMS8 """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" OR("33S110 $issing o invalid option OR("33S@10 ta%le o view does not e/ist
S'R9'RM'RROR (TTRI)UT' BUNCTION
It ta&es a single nu$%e t7pe of a gu$ent and etu ns the e o at the position on the e o sta!& indi!ated %7 the a gu$ent5 The position 2 is the top of the sta!&5
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R
afte se ve e o on data%ase
)'8IN
inse t into $7Me o s values(se ve Me o (2)).

'ND S'R9'RM'RRORMTRI88'R.
SUSA'ND TRI88'RS
This will fi e wheneve a state$ent is suspended5 This $ight o!!u as the esult of a spa!e issue su!h as e/!eeding an allo!ated ta%lepa!e Uuota5 This fun!tionalit7 !an %e used to add ess the p o%le$ and allow the ope atin to !ontinue5
S7nta/0
C eate o afte
suspend on ^data%ase X s!he$a_
N6hen (R)O NDe!la eO "" de!la ation se!tion )egin "" t igge %od7 N'/!eptionO "" e/!eption se!tion 'nd ,tri""er_name-.
'/0
SQL-
! eate ta%lespa!e $7Mspa!e datafile =f0d$7Mfile5d%f= siTe 1$. ! eate ta%le student(sno nu$%e (1)#sna$e va !ha (23)) ta%lespa!e
SQL-
$7Mspa!e.
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R SUSA'NDMTRI88'R
afte suspend on data%ase

)'8IN
d%$sMoutput5putMline(K No oo$ to inse t in 7ou ta%lespa!e=).

'ND SUSA'NDMTRI88'R.
Output0
335
Inse t $o e ows in student ta%le then # 7ou will get
No oo$ to inse t in 7ou ta%lespa!e
(UTONOMOUS TR(NS(CTION
A io
to O a!leWi# the e was no wa7 in whi!h so$e SQL ope ations within a this# howeve # &nown as th ough pa ent autonomou! t ansa!tion# tran!action!5 %ut is (n autonomou! of it5 The
t ansa!tion !ould %e !o$$itted independent of the est of the ope ations5 O a!le allows tran!action is a t ansa!tion that is sta ted within the !onte/t of anothe t ansa!tion# independent autono$ous t ansa!tion !an %e !o$$itted o the pa ent t ansa!tion5 olled %a!& ega dless ot the state of
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R (UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTIONMTRI88'R
afte inse t on student

D'CL(R'
p ag$a autono$ousMt ansa!tion.

)'8IN
update student set $a &s H CCC. !o$$it.

'ND (UTONOMOUSMTR(NS(CTIONMTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
NO N( 2 1 4 a % !
M(RFS 222 111 433
""""" """"" "" """"""""""
SQL-
inse t into student values(@#=d=#@@@).
SQL-
NO N( 2 1 4 @ a % ! d
M(RFS CCC CCC CCC @@@
"""" """""" "" """"""""""
R'STRICTIONS ON (UTONOMOUS TR(NS(CTION
1 1
If an autono$ous t ansa!tion atte$pts to a!!ess a $ain t ansa!tion# a deadlo!& !an o!!u in 7ou p og a$5
esou !e held %7 the
*ou !annot $a & all p og a$s in a pa!&age as autono$ous with a single

AR(8M(
de!la ation5 *ou $ust indi!ate autono$ous t ansa!tions e/pli!it7 in
ea!h p og a$5
To e/it without e o s f o$ an autono$ous t ansa!tion p og a$ that has e/e!uted at least one e/pli!it !o$$it o
INS'RT
UAD(T'
D'L'T'#
7ou $ust pe fo $ an
oll%a!&5 state$ents end the a!tive autono$ous t ansa!tion# state$ents inside 7ou autono$ous
The
COMMIT
and
ROLL)(CF
%ut the7 do not fo !e the te $ination of the autono$ous outine5 *ou !an have $ultiple %lo!&5
COMMIT
and?o
ROLL)(CF
1 1
*ou !an not oll%a!& to a savepoint set in the $ain t ansa!tion5 The
TR(NS(CTIONS
pa a$ete
in the o a!le initialiTation file spe!ifies the
$a/i$u$ nu$%e
of t ansa!tions allowed !on!u entl7 in a session5 The
default value is VC fo this# %ut 7ou !an in! ease the li$it5
MUT(TIN8 T()L'S
The e a e est i!tions on the ta%les and !olu$ns that a t igge %od7 $a7 a!!ess5
337
In o de to define these est i!tions# it is ne!essa 7 to unde stand $utating and !onst aining ta%les5
( $utating ta%le is ta%le that is !u entlt7 %eing $odified %7 a DML state$ent and the t igge event also DML state$ent5 ( $utating ta%le e o o!!u s when a ow" level t igge t ies to e/a$ine o !hange a ta%le that is al ead7 unde going !hange5
( !onst aining ta%le is a ta%le that $ight need to %e ead f o$ fo integ it7 !onst aint5
efe ential
'/0
CR'(T' OR R'AL(C' TRI88'R MUT(TIN8MTRI88'R
%efo e delete on student fo ea!h ow
D'CL(R'
!t nu$%e .
)'8IN
sele!t !ount(E) into !t f o$ student whe e no H 0old5no.

'ND MUT(TIN8MTRI88'R.
Output0
SQL-
delete student whe e no H 2 E 'RROR at line 20 OR("3@3S20 ta%le SCOTT5STUD'NT is $utating# t igge ?fun!tion $a7 not see it OR("3DC210 at bSCOTT5Tb# line @ OR("3@3WW0 e o du ing e/e!ution of t igge =SCOTT5T=
:O6 TO (9OID MUT(TIN8 T()L' 'RROR [
1 1
)7 using autono$ous t ansa!tion )7 using state$ent level t igge
339

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INTRODUCTION

SQL is divided into the following

CR'(T' T()L' S*NT(+

)7 value $ethod )7 add ess $ethod

USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD

inse t into ,table_name) values (value1, value2, value3 . Valuen).

USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD

inse t into student values (<no# =<na$e=# <$a &s).

INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 9(LU' M'T:OD

INS'RTIN8 D(T( INTO SA'CIBI'D COLUMNS USIN8 (DDR'SS M'T:OD

inse t into student (no# na$e) values (<no# =<na$e=).

S7nta/0 Sele!t E f o$ ,table_name-. "" he e E indi!ates all !olu$ns

o Sele!t col1, col2, coln f o$ ,table_name-.

sele!t no# na$e# $a &s f o$ student.

M(RFS """""""" 233 133 433 @33

sele!t no# na$e f o$ student.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha

Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu

CONDITION(L S'L'CTIONS (ND OA'R(TORS

( ith$eti! ope ato s G# "# E# ? Co$pa ison ope ato s

"" highest p e!eden!e

H# IH# -# ,# -H# ,H# ,-

%etween# not %etween in# not in

H# -# ,# -H# ,H# IH# ,-

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 Sa&eth Na en

M(RFS """"""""" 133 @33

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no , 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 2 Sudha >agan

M(RFS """""""""" 233 433

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no - 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 4 @ C D Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no ,H 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 2 1 Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en

M(RFS """""""""" 233 133 433 @33

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no -H 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 4 @ C D Sa&eth Na en Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu

M(RFS """"""""" 133 @33

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no IH 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 2 4 @ C D Sudha >agan Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu

M(RFS """""""""" 233 433

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no ,- 1.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha

M(RFS """""""""" 233

>agan Ra$esh Madhu 9isu Rattu

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1 and $a &s -H 133.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 1 Sa&eth Na en

M(RFS """""""" 133 @33

S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,condition1- and ,condition2- o 55 ,conditionn-. '/0

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no H 1 o $a &s -H 133.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 2 Sa&eth >agan

M(RFS """"""""" 133 433

sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s %etween 133 and @33.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 1 2 1 Sa&eth >agan Na en

M(RFS """"""""" 133 433 @33

USIN8 NOT )'T6''N

sele!t E f o$ student whe e $a &s not %etween 133 and @33.

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 Sudha

M(RFS """"""""" 233

S7nta/0 sele!t E f o$ ,table_name- whe e ,col- in ( value1, value2, value3 valuen).

sele!t E f o$ student whe e no in (2# 1# 4).

NO N(M' """ """"""" 2 1 2 1 4 Sudha Sa&eth >agan Na en Ra$esh

M(RFS """"""""" 233 133 433 @33