CET 1:

Stress Analysis & Pressure Vessels

Lent Term 2005

Dr. Clemens Kaminski

Telephone: +44 1223 763135
E-mail: clemens_kaminski@cheng.cam.ac.uk URL: http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/laser/

Synopsis 1 Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes

1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres Compressive failure. Euler buckling. Vacuum vessels Tensile failure. Stress Stress Concentration & Cracking

3-D stress and strain

Elasticity and Strains-Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio Bulk and Shear Moduli Hoop, Longitudinal and Volumetric Strains Strain Energy. Overfilling of Pressure Vessels Coefficient of Thermal Expansion Thermal Effect in cylindrical Pressure Vessels Two-Material Structures

Thermal Effects
3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2 4.3

Torsion.

Shear Stresses in Shafts - /r = T/J = G/L Thin Walled Shafts Thin Walled Pressure Vessel subject to Torque

Two Dimensional Stress Analysis

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2

Nomenclature and Sign Convention for Stresses Mohr's Circle for Stresses Worked Examples Application of Mohr's Circle to Three Dimensional Systems Tresca's Criterion. The Stress Hexagon Von Mises' Failure Criterion. The Stress Ellipse

Bulk Failure Criteria

Two Dimensional Strain Analysis

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4

Direct and Shear Strains Mohr's Circle for Strains Measurement of Strain - Strain Gauges Hookes Law for Shear Stresses

Supporting Materials
There is one Examples paper supporting these lectures. Two good textbooks for further explanation, worked examples and exercises are Mechanics of Materials (1997) Gere & Timoshenko, publ. ITP [ISBN 0-534-93429-3] Mechanics of Solids (1989) Fenner, publ. Blackwell [ISBN 0-632-02018-0] This material was taught in the CET I (Old Regulations) Structures lecture unit and was examined in CET I (OR) Paper IV Section 1. There are consequently a large number of old Tripos questions in existence, which are of the appropriate standard. From 1999 onwards the course was taught in CET1, paper 5. Chapters 7 and 8 in Gere and Timoshenko contain a large number of example problems and questions.

Nomenclature
The following symbols will be used as consistently as possible in the lectures. E G I J R t T

Youngs modulus Shear modulus second moment of area polar moment of area radius thickness

thermal expansivity linear strain shear strain angle Poissons ratio Normal stress Shear stress

A pressure vessel near you!

Ongoing Example
We shall refer back to this example of a typical pressure vessel on several occasions. Distillation column

2m

P = 7 bara carbon steel t = 5 mm 18 m

1. Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes

Pressure vessels are very often spherical (e.g. LPG storage tanks) cylindrical (e.g. liquid storage tanks) cylindrical shells with hemispherical ends (e.g. distillation columns) Such vessels fail when the stress state somewhere in the wall material exceeds some failure criterion. It is thus important to be able to be able to understand and quantify (resolve) stresses in solids. This unit will concentrate on the application of stress analysis to bulk failure in thin walled vessels only, where (i) the vessel self weight can be neglected and (ii) the thickness of the material is much smaller than the dimensions of the vessel (D t).

1.1. Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres

Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel
L

External diameter D

internal gauge pressure P

r L h

wall thickness, t

The hydrostatic pressure causes stresses in three dimensions. 1. Longitudinal stress (axial) L 2. Radial stress r 3. Hoop stress h all are normal stresses. SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM 1

r L h L

a, The longitudinal stress L

P

Force equilibrium

D2 P = D t L 4
if P > 0, then L is tensile L =
b, The hoop stress h
P

PD 4t

Force balance, D L P = 2 h L t h =
SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM 2

PD 2t

c, Radial stress

varies from P on inner surface to 0 on the outer face

r o ( P ) h , L P ( ). 2t
thin walled, so D >> t so h , L >> r so neglect r
Compare terms

d, The spherical pressure vessel

D2 P = h D t 4 PD h = 4t

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

1.2. Compressive Failure: Bulk Yielding & Buckling Vacuum Vessels

Consider an unpressurised cylindrical column subjected to a single load W. Bulk failure will occur when the normal compressive stress exceeds a yield criterion, e.g.

bulk =

W = Y Dt

Compressive stresses can cause failure due to buckling (bending instability). The critical load for the onset of buckling is given by Euler's analysis. A full explanation is given in the texts, and the basic results are summarised in the Structures Tables. A column or strut of length L supported at one end will buckle if

2 EI W= 2 L
Consider a cylindrical column. I = R3t so the compressive stress required to cause buckling is

buckle
or

W 2 ED3t 1 2 ED 2 = = = 2 Dt 8L Dt 8 L2

buckle

2 E = 2 8( L D)
4

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

where L/D is a slenderness ratio. The mode of failure thus depends on the geometry:
stress

Euler buckling locus

Bulk yield

Short L /D ratio

Long

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

Vacuum vessels. Cylindrical pressure vessels subject to external pressure are subject to compressive hoop stresses

PD 2t Consider a length L of vessel , the compressive hoop force is given by, h =

P D L 2 If this force is large enough it will cause buckling. h L t =

length

Treat the vessel as an encastered beam of length D and breadth L

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

Buckling occurs when Force W given by.

4 2 EI W= ( D) 2 b t3 L t3 = 12 12 P D L 4 2 EI = 2 ( D )2 p buckle 2E t 3 D
3

I=

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

1.3. Tensile Failure: Stress Concentration & Cracking

Consider the rod in the Figure below subject to a tensile load. The stress distribution across the rod a long distance away from the change in cross section (XX) will be uniform, but near XX the stress distribution is complex.
D

X d W

There is a concentration of stress at the rod surface below XX and this value should thus be considered when we consider failure mechanisms. The ratio of the maximum local stress to the mean (or apparent) stress is described by a stress concentration factor K

K=

max mean

The values of K for many geometries are available in the literature, including that of cracks. The mechanism of fast fracture involves the concentration of tensile stresses at a crack root, and gives the failure criterion for a crack of length a

a = Kc
where Kc is the material fracture toughness. Tensile stresses can thus cause failure due to bulk yielding or due to cracking.
SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM 8

 crack =

Kc 1 a

stress

failure locus

length of crack. a

SAPV LT 2005 CFK, MRM

2.

3-D stress and strain

2.1. Elasticity and Yield

Many materials obey Hooke's law

= E

applied stress (Pa) Young's modulus (Pa) strain (-)

failure

Yield Stress

Elastic Limit

up to a limit, known as the yield stress (stress axis) or the elastic limit (strain axis). Below these limits, deformation is reversible and the material eventually returns to its original shape. Above these limits, the material behaviour depends on its nature. Consider a sample of material subjected to a tensile force F.
2 F F 1 3

An increase in length (axis 1) will be accompanied by a decrease in dimensions 2 and 3. Hooke's Law

1 = (1 F / A ) / E
10

The strain in the perpendicular directions 2,3 are given by

2 =

1
E

;3 =

1
E

where is the Poisson ratio for that material. These effects are additive, so for three mutually perpendicular stresses 1, 2, 3;
2 1 3

Giving

1 =

1
E

2
E +

3
E

2 = 3 =

1 1
E

3
E

2
E

3
E

Values of the material constants in the Data Book give orders of magnitudes of these parameters for different materials;

Material Steel Aluminum alloy Brass

E (x109 N/m2) 210 70 105

0.30 0.33 0.35

11

2.2 Bulk and Shear Moduli

These material properties describe how a material responds to an applied stress (bulk modulus, K) or shear (shear modulus, G). The bulk modulus is defined as

Puniform = K v

i.e. the volumetric strain resulting from the application of a uniform pressure. In the case of a pressure causing expansion

so

1 = 2 = 3 = P
P 1 1 2 3 ] = (1 2 ) [ E E 3 P v = 1 + 2 + 3 = (1 2 ) E E K= 3(1 2 )

1 = 2 = 3 =

For steel, E = 210 kN/mm2, = 0.3, giving K = 175 kN/mm2 For water, K = 2.2 kN/mm2 For a perfect gas, K = P (1 bara, 10-4 kN/mm2) Shear Modulus definition

= G

- shear strain

12

2.3. Hoop, longitudinal and volumetric strains (micro or millistrain)

Fractional increase in dimension: L length h circumference rr wall thickness (a) Cylindrical vessel:

Longitudinal strain

L =

L
E

h
E

r
E

PD L (1 - 2 ) = 4tE L

Hoop strain:

h =

n
E

L
E

R D PD = (2 - ) = R D 4tE

radial strain

r =

t 3PD 1 = r - h - L ] = [ t 4ET E

[fractional increase in wall thickness is negative!]

13

[ONGOING EXAMPLE]:

L =
= =

1 ( L - n ) E

1 60 x 10 6 - (0.3)120 x 10 6 9 210 x 10
1.14 x 10-4 - 0.114 millistrain

h = 0.486 millistrain r = -0.257 millistrain Thus: pressurise the vessel to 6 bar: L and D increase: t decreases Volume expansion

Cylindrical volume:

D 2 Vo = o Lo 4
V =

(original)
2

New volume

(Do 4
2

+ D) (Lo + L)

L Do 2 1 + h ] [1 + L ] = o [ 4
V Define volumetric strain v = V V - Vo 2 v = = (1 + h ) ( 1 + L) - 1 Vo
2 = 1 + 2 h + h (1 + L ) - 1
2 2 v = 2h + L + h + 2 h L + L n

Magnitude inspection:
14

 max (steel) =

y E

190 x 10 3 = small 9 = 0.905 x 10 210 x 10

v = 2 h + L

Ignoring second order terms, (b)

Spherical volume:

h =
so

1 [ h - L - r ] = PD (1 - ) 4Et E

3 (Do + D )3 - Do v = 6 D 3 o 6

= (1 + h)3 1 3h + 0(2) (c) General result

v = 1 + 2 + 3 ii are the strains in any three mutually perpendicular directions. {Continued example} cylinder L = 0.114 mstrain n = 0.486 mstrain rr = -0.257 mstrain v = 2n + L new volume = Vo (1 + v) Increase in volume =

D2 L
4

v = 56.55 x 1.086 x 10-3

= 61 Litres

Volume of steelo = DLt = 0.377 m3 v for steel = L + h + rr = 0.343 mstrains increase in volume of steel
= 0.129 L Strain energy measure of work done

Consider an elastic material for which F = k x

15

Work done in expanding x dW = Fx

work done

A=area

L 0 x

Work done in extending to x1

2 kx1 1 x1 x1 w = o Fdx = o k x dx = = Fx 2 2 1 1

Sample subject to stress increased from 0 to 1: Extension Force:

x1 = Lo 1 AL o 11 W = F1 = A 1 2

(no direction here)

ALo 1 1 2(ALo )

Strain energy, U = work done per unit volume of material, U =

U = Al o 1 2 Al o 1 1

U =

1 1
2

12
2E

1 [11 + 22 + 33] 2 3 2 etc Now 1 = 1 E E E

In a 3-D system, U =

So U =

1 12 + 2 2 + 32 - 2 ( 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1) 2E
2
2

Consider a uniform pressure applied: 1 = 2 = 3 = P

3P P U = (1 - 2 ) = 2E 2K

energy stored in system (per unit vol.

16

For a given P, U stored is proportional to 1/K so pressure test using liquids rather than gases. {Ongoing Example} P 6 barg
.

V = 61 x 10-3 m3

increase in volume of pressure vessel

Increasing the pressure compresses the contents normally test with water.

6 x 10 P = - 0.273 mstrains = V water? v (water ) = K 2.2 x 109

decrease in volume of water = -Vo (0.273) = -15.4 x 10 3 m3 Thus we can add more water: Extra space = 61 + 15.4 (L) = 76.4 L water
extra space

p=0

p=6

17

3. Thermal Effects 3.1. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Definition: coefficient of thermal expansion = LT Linear Volume

Coefficient of thermal volume expansion v = T Steel: L = 11 x 10-6 K-1 reactor T = 10oC T = 500oC L = 11 10-5

L = 5.5 millistrains (!)

Consider a steel bar mounted between rigid supports which exert stress

Heat

= T -

E
so = ET (i.e., non buckling)

If rigid: = 0 steel:

= 210 x 109 x 11 x 10-6 T = 2.3 x 106 T y = 190 MPa: failure if T > 82.6 K

18

{Example}: steam main, installed at 10oC, to contain 6 bar steam (140oC) if ends are rigid, = 300 MPa failure. must install expansion bends.

3.2. Temperature effects in cylindrical pressure vessels

. steel construction L = 3 m . full of water t = 3 mm D=1m Initially un pressurised full of water: increase temp. by T: pressure rises to Vessel P.

The Vessel

Wall stresses (tensile)

L =

PD = 83.3 P 4t

n = 2L = 166.7 P
19

Strain (volume)

L =

L h + l T E E

0.3

= 210 x 10 = 11 x 10 6

L = 1.585 x 10-10 P + 11 x 10-6 T

Similarly h = 6.75 x 10-10 P + 11 10 6 T v = L + 2n = 15.08 x 10-10 P + 33 x 10-6 T = vessel vol. Strain vessel expands due to temp and pressure change.
The Contents, (water)

Expands Contracts

due to T due to P

increase increase:

v, H2O = vT P/K

H2O = v = 60 x 10-6 K-1

v = 60 x 10-6 T 4.55 x 10-10 P

Since vessel remains full on increasing T: v (H20) = v (vessel) Equating P = 13750 T per 10C increase in temp. n = 166.7 P = 2.29 x 106 T n = 22.9 Mpa per 10C rise in Temperature
20

pressure, rise of 1.37 bar Now

Failure does not need a large temperature increase. Very large stress changes due to temperature fluctuations.

MORAL: Always leave a space in a liquid vessel.

(v, gas = vT P/K)

21

3.3. Two material structures

Beware, different materials with different thermal expansivities can cause difficulties.
{Example} Where there is benefit. The Bimetallic strip controllers a= 4 mm (2 + 2 mm) b= 10 mm temperature

a
d

Cu Fe L = 100mm b

Heat by T:

Cu expands more than Fe so the strip will bend: it will

bend in an arc as all sections are identical.

22

Cu Fe

The different thermal expansions, set up shearing forces in the strip, which create a bending moment. If we apply a sagging bending moment of equal [: opposite] magnitude, we will obtain a straight beam and

Cu Fe

F F

can then calculate the shearing forces [and hence the BM]. Shearing force F compressive in Cu Tensile in Fe

Equating strains:

cu T -

F F = Fe T + bdE cu bdE Fe

So

1 F 1 + = ( cu - Fe ) T bd E cu E Fe
23

bd = 2 x 10-5 m2 Ecu = 109 GPa EFe = 210 GPa

cu 17 x 10-6 k-1 Fe = 11 x 10-6 K-1 T = 30C

F = 387 N (significant force)

F acts through the centroid of each section so BM = F./(d/2) = 0.774 Nm

Use data book to work out deflection.

ML2 = 2 EI

This is the principle of the bimetallic strip.

24

Consider a steel rod mounted in a upper tube spacer Analysis relevant to Heat Exchangers
Cu

Fe

assembled at room temperature

.

increase T : copper expands more than steel, so will generate a TENSILE stress in the steel and a compressive stress in the copper.

Data: cu > Fe

Balance forces: Tensile force in steel Stress in steel copper

|FFe| = |Fcu| = F

= F/AFe = Fe = F/Acu = cu
FE = Fe T + Fe/EFe

Steel strain:

(no transvere forces)

= FeT + F/EFeAFe copper strain

cu = cuT F/EcuAcu

25

Strains EQUAL:

1 1 F + = AFe E Fe Acu Ecu 144 4 2444 3

sum of strengths

( cu - Fe ) T
d

So you can work out stresses and strains in a system.

26

4. Torsion Twisting Shear stresses

4.1. Shear stresses in shafts /r = T/J = G /L

Consider a rod subject to twisting: Definition : shear strain change in angle that was originally /2 Consider three points that define a right angle and more then: Shear strain
A

= 1 + 2

[RADIANS]

2 C

Hookes Law

=G

G shear modulus =

E 2(1 + )

27

Now consider a rod subject to an applied torque, T.

2r

Hold one end and rotate other by angle

.

B B

Plane ABO was originally to the X-X axis Plane ABO is now inclined at angle to the axis: tan = Shear stress involved = G =

r L

Gr L

28

Torque required to cause twisting:

r dr

.T = 2 r.r r
T = 2 r 2 dr
A

or
2

r.dA
A

Gr = L

= =

G L

dA
so

G {J} L

T G = = J L r

cf

M E = = I R y

DEFN: J polar second moment of area

29

Consider a rod of circular section:

J = 2 .r r 2 dr =
o R

R4

y r x

J=
Now r2 = x2 + y2 It can be shown that J = Ixx + Iyy

D 4
32

[perpendicular axis than] see Fenner

this gives an easy way to evaluate Ixx or Iyy in symmetrical geometrics:

Ixx = Iyy = D4/64 (rod)

30

Rectangular rod:

I xx

I yy

bd 3 = 12 3 db = 12

J=

bd 2 b +d2 12

31

Example: steel rod as a drive shaft

D = 25 mm L = 1.5 m Failure when = y = 95 MPa G = 81 GPa

max
rmax
Now

J=

D 4
32

T 95 x 10 6 = = J 0.0125 so T = 291 Nm = 383 x 10 8 m 4

G T 81 x 109 9 = 7.6 x 10 = From L J 1.5

= 0.141 rad = 8.1

Say shaft rotates at 1450 rpm: power

= = =

291 x

2 x 1450 60

45 kW

32

4.2. Thin walled shafts

(same Eqns apply) Consider a bracket joining two Ex. Shafts:
T = 291 Nm
D min

0.025m

What is the minimum value of D for connector? rmax = D/2 J = (/32){D4 0.0254}

y
rmax

6 32 T 95 x 10 x 2 291 = = 4 D D - 0.0254 J

D4 0.0254 = 6.24 x 10-5 D

D 4.15 cm

33

4.3. Thin walled pressure vessel subject to torque

T = r J

now cylinder

J=

[(D + 2t ) 32

3

- D4

]
+ ...

[8D t + 24 D t 32

4
D 3t

2 2

so

2
D

4T D 3 t

2T D 2 t

34

CET 1, SAPV

5. Components of Stress/ Mohrs Circle 5.1 Definitions Scalars

tensor of rank 0

Vectors
tensors of rank 1
r r F = ma hence : F1 = ma1 F2 = ma2 F3 = ma3 or : Fi = mai

Tensors of rank 2
pi = Tij q j
j =1 3

i, j = 1,2,3

or : p1 = T11q1 + T12 q2 + T13 q3 p2 = T21q1 + T22 q2 + T23 q3 p3 = T31q1 + T32 q2 + T33 q3

Axis transformations
The choice of axes in the description of an engineering problem is arbitrary (as long as you choose orthogonal sets of axes!). Obviously the physics of the problem must not depend on the choice of axis. For example, whether a pressure vessel will explode can not depend on how we set up our co-ordinate axes to describe the stresses acting on the

34

CET 1, SAPV vessel. However it is clear that the components of the stress tensor will be different going from one set of coordinates xi to another xi. How do we transform one set of co-ordinate axes onto another, keeping the same origin?

x1 x1 ' a11 x2 ' a21 x3 ' a31

x2 a12 a22 a32

x3 a13 a23 a33

... where aij are the direction cosines Forward transformation:

xi ' = aij x j
j =1

New in terms of Old

Reverse transformation:

xi = a ji x j
j =1

Old in terms of New

We always have to do summations in co-ordinate transformation and it is conventional to drop the summation signs and therefore these equations are simply written as:

xi ' = aij x j xi = a ji x j

35

CET 1, SAPV

Tensor transformation
How will the components of a tensor change when we go from one coordinate system to another? I.e. if we have a situation where
pi = Tij q j = Tij q j (in short form)
j

where Tij is the tensor in the old co-ordinate frame xi, how do we find the corresponding tensor Tij in the new co-ordinate frame xi, such that: pi ' = Tij ' q j ' = Tij ' q j ' (in short form)
j

We can find this from a series of sequential co-ordinate transformations:

p' p q q'
Hence: pi ' = aik pk

pk = Tkl ql

ql = a jl q j '

Thus we have:

36

CET 1, SAPV
pi ' = aik Tkl a jl q j '

= aik a jl Tkl q j '

= Tij ' q j '

For example:
Tij ' = ai1 a jl T1l + ai 2 a jl T2l + ai 3 a jl T3l = ai1 a j1 T11 + ai1 a j 2 T12 + ai1 a j 3 T13 + ai 2 a j1 T21 + ai 2 a j 2 T22 + ai 2 a j 3 T23 + ai 3 a j1 T31 + ai 3 a j 2 T32 + ai 3 a j 3 T33 Note that there is a difference between a transformation matrix and a 2nd rank tensor: They are both matrices containing 9 elements (constants) but:

Symmetrical Tensors:

Tij=Tji
37

CET 1, SAPV

38

CET 1, SAPV We can always transform a second rank tensor which is symmetrical:
Tij Tij '

such that : T1 0 Tij ' = 0 T2 0 0 0 0 T3

Consequence? Consider:

pi = Tij q j then p1 = T1 q1 , p2 = T2 q2 , p3 = T3 q3

The diagonal T1, T2, T3 is called the PRINCIPAL AXIS. If T1, T2, T3 are stresses, then these are called PRINCIPAL STRESSES.

39

CET 1, SAPV

Mohrs circle
Consider an elementary cuboid with edges parallel to the coordinate directions x,y,z.
y Fxy y face Fx x z face z x face Fxz Fxx

The faces on this cuboid are named according to the directions of their normals. There are thus two x-faces, one facing greater values of x, as shown in Figure 1 and one facing lesser values of x (not shown in the Figure). On the x-face there will be some force Fx. Since the cuboid is of infinitesimal size, the force on the opposite side will not differ significantly. The force Fx can be divided into its components parallel to the coordinate directions, Fxx, Fxy, Fxz. Dividing by the area of the x-face gives the stresses on the x-plane:

xx xy xz
It is traditional to write normal stresses as and shear stresses as .

Similarly, on the y-face:

yx , yy , yz

40

CET 1, SAPV and on the z-face we have:

zx , zy , zz

There are therefore 9 components of stress;

xx xy ij = yx yy zx zy

xz yz zz

Note that the first subscript refers to the face on which the stress acts and the second subscript refers to the direction in which the associated force acts.
yy
y x

yx xy xx

xx xy yx yy

But for non accelerating bodies (or infinitesimally small cuboids):

and therefore:

xx xy xz xx xy xz ij = yx yy yz = xy yy yz zx zy zz xz yz zz
Hence ij is symmetric! 41

CET 1, SAPV This means that there must be some magic co-ordinate frame in which all the stresses are normal stresses (principal stresses) and in which the off diagonal stresses (=shear stresses) are 0. So if, in a given situation we find this frame we can apply all our stress strain relations that we have set up in the previous lectures (which assumed there were only normal stresses acting). Consider a cylindrical vessel subject to shear, and normal stresses (h, l, r). We are usually interested in shears and stresses which lie in the plane defined by the vessel walls.

Is there a transformation about zz which will result in a shear Would really like to transform into a co-ordinate frame such that all components in the xi :

ij

ij '

So stress tensor is symmetric 2nd rank tensor. Imagine we are in the coordinate frame xi where we only have principal stresses:
0 1 0 0 2 0 ij = 0 0 3

Transform to a new co-ordinate frame xi by rotatoin about the x3 axis in the original co-ordinate frame (this would be, in our example, z-axis)

42

CET 1, SAPV The transformation matrix is then:

a11 aij = a21 a 31 a12 a22 a32 a13 cos a23 = sin a33 0 sin cos 0 0 0 1

Then:

ij ' = aik a jl kl

cos = sin 0

sin cos 0

0 cos 0 sin 1 0

sin cos 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 0 3 0

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2 = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin 0

1 cos sin + 2 cos sin 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

0

0 0 3

43

CET 1, SAPV

Hence:

11 ' = 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

1 1 = ( 1 + 1 ) ( 2 1 ) cos 2 2 2

22 ' = 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2

= 1 1 ( 1 + 1 ) + ( 2 1 ) cos 2 2 2

12 ' = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

= 1 ( 2 1 ) sin 2 2

44

Yield conditions. Tresca and Von Mises

Mohrs circle in three dimensions.

Shear stresses

y,z plane x, y plane

normal stresses

x,z plane

We can draw Mohrs circles for each principal plane.

6. BULK FAILURE CRITERIA

Materials fail when the largest stress exceeds a critical value. Normally we test a material in simple tension:

y =

Pyield A

This material fails under the stress combination (y, 0, 0) max = 0.5 y = 95 Mpa for steel We wish to establish if a material will fail if it is subject to a stress combination (1, 2, 3) or (n, L, )
2

Failure depends on the nature of the material: Two important criteria (i) (ii) Trescas failure criterion: brittle materials Cast iron: concrete: ceramics Von Mises criterion: ductile materials Mild steel + copper

6.1. Trescas Failure Criterion; The Stress Hexagon (Brittle)

A material fails when the largest shear stress reaches a critical value, the yield shear stress y. Case (i) Material subject to simple compression:

Principal stresses (-1, 0, 0)

M.C: mc passes through (1,0), (1,0) , ( 0,0)

max

max = 1/2 occurs along plane at 45 to 1 Similarly for tensile test. Case (ii) 2 < 0 < 1

2
1

1 - 2
M.C. Fails when

= max = y =

y
2

i.e., when

1 - 2 = y material will not fail.

Lets do an easy example.

6.2 Von Mises Failure Criterion; The stress ellipse (ductile materials)
Trescas criterion does not work well for ductile materials. Early hypothesis material fails when its strain energy exceeds a critical value (cant be true as no failure occurs under uniform compression). Von Mises: failure when strain energy due to distortion, UD, exceeds a critical value. UD = difference in strain energy (U) due of a compressive stress C equal to the mean of the principal stresses.

C =

1 [ + 2 + 3 ] 3 1
1 2 + 2E 1 1 = (1 12G

UD =

1 2 2 3C 2 + 6 C 2 2 + 3 + 2 (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) 2E

- 2 ) + ( 2 - 3 ) + ( 3 - 1 )

M.C.

Tresca failure when max (I) y) Von Mises failure when root mean square of {a, b, c} critical value

Compare with (y, , ) . simple tensile test failure Failure if

1 2 2 (1 - 2 )2 + (2 + 3 )2 + (3 - 1 )2 > 1 2 y + 0 + y 12G 12G

{( - )
1 2

+ ( 2 + 3 ) + (3 - 1 ) > 2 2 y
2 2

Lets do a simple example.

Example Tresca's Failure Criterion

The same pipe as in the first example (D = 0.2 m, t' = 0.005 m) is subject to an internal pressure of 50 barg. What torque can it support?

Calculate stresses

PD = 50 N / mm 2 4 t' PD h = = 100 N / mm 2 2t'

L =

and 3 = r 0

Mohr's Circle
(100,)

50 s (50,)

100

Circle construction

s = 75 N/mm2 t = (252+2)

The principal stresses

1,2 = s t

Thus 2 may be positive (case A) or negative (case B). Case A occurs if is small.

10

Case A (100,)

2 50 s (50,)
Case B

100 1

(100,)

50
s

100

(50,)

We do not know whether the Mohr's circle for this case follows Case A or B; determine which case applies by trial and error. Case A; 'minor' principal stress is positive (2 > 0) Thus failure when
2 max = 1 2 y = 105 N / mm

11

For Case A;

max =

Giving

1
2

1 2

[75 +

(252 + 2 )]

2 = 135 252

= 132.7 N / mm 2 1 = 210 N / mm2 ; 2 = 60 N / mm2

Case B; We now have max as the radius of the original Mohr's circle linking our stress data. Thus

max = 252 + 2 = 105

Principal stresses

= 101.98 N / mm2

1,2 = 75 105

1 = 180 N / mm2 ; 2 = 30 N / mm 2

Thus Case B applies and the yield stress is 101.98 N/mm2. The torque required to cause failure is

T = D2 t' / 2 = 32kNm
Failure will occur along a plane at angle anticlockwise from the y (hoop) direction;

tan(2 ) =

102 2 = 76.23 ; 75 2 = 90 - 2 = 6.9

12

Example

More of Von Mises Failure Criterion

From our second Tresca Example

h = 100 N / mm 2 L = 50 N / mm 2 r 0 N / mm2
What torque will cause failure if the yield stress for steel is 210 N/mm2? Mohr's Circle
(100,)

50 s (50,)

100

Giving

1 = s + t = 75 + 252 + 2
2 = s t = 75 252 + 2 3 = 0
1 ( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 } { 12G

At failure

UD =

13

Or

(1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2 = ( y )2 + (0)2 + (0 y ) 2 4 t 2 + (s t )2 + ( s + t ) 2 = 2 2 y
2 2 s 2 + 6t 2 = 2 y

s 2 + 3t 2 = 2 y 752 + 3(252 + 2 ) = 210 2

The tube can thus support a torque of

= 110 N / mm 2

D2 t' T= = 35kNm 2
which is larger than the value of 32 kNm given by Tresca's criterion - in this case, Tresca is more conservative.

14

7. Strains 7.1. Direct and Shear Strains

Consider a vector of length lx lying along the x-axis as shown in Figure 1. Let it be subjected to a small strain, so that, if the left hand end is fixed the right hand end will undergo a small displacement x. This need not be in the x-direction and so will have components xx in the x-direction and xy in the y-direction.

1 lx We can define strains xx and xy by,

x xx

xy Figure 1

xx =

xx ; lx

xy =

xy lx

xx is the direct strain, i.e. the fractional increase in length in the direction of the original vector. xy represents rotation of the vector through the small angle 1 where,
1 tan 1 = xy l x + xx xy lx = xy

Thus in the limit as x 0, 1 xy. Similarly we can define strains yy and yx = 2 by,

yy =

yy
ly

yx =

yx
ly

 yx
Figure 2

yy

y ly

as in Figure 2.

lx

Or, in general terms:

ij =

ij
li

where i, j = 1,2,3

The ENGINEERING SHEAR STRAIN is defined as the change in an angle relative to a set of axes originally at 90. In particular xy is the change in the angle between lines which were originally in the x- and ydirections. Thus, in our example (Figure 2 above):
xy = ( 1 + 2 ) = xy + yx or xy = ( 1 + 2 )

depending on sign convention.

yx

xy

A'

C
Figure 3a

B'

C'
Figure 3b

Positive values of the shear stresses xy and yx act on an element as shown in Figure 3a and these cause distortion as in Figure 3b. Thus it is sensible to take xy as +ve when the angle ABC decreases. Thus
2

 xy = +( 1 + 2 )

Or, in general terms:

ij = ( ij + ji )
and since

ij = ji,
we have

ij = ji.

Note that the TENSOR SHEAR STRAINS are given by the averaged sum of shear strains:

1 1 1 1 ij = ( ij + ji ) = ( 1 + 2 ) = ji 2 2 2 2

7.2 Mohrs Circle for Strains

The strain tensor can now be written as:

11 1 ij = y 21 2 1 y 31 2

1 y12 2

22
1 y32 2

1 y13 11 2 1 1 y 23 = y12 2 2 1 33 y13 2

1 y12 2

22
1 y 23 2

1 y13 2 1 y 23 2 33

where the diagonal elements are the stretches or tensile strains and the off diagonal elements are the tensor shear strains. Thus our strain tensor is symmetrical, and:
3

 ij = ji
This means there must be a co-ordinate transformation, such that:

ij '

ij

such that : 1 0 ij = 0 2 0 0 0 0 3

we only have principal (=longitudinal) strains! Exactly analogous to our discussion for the transformation of the stress tensor we find this from:

ij ' = aik a jl kl

cos = sin 0

sin cos 0

0 cos 0 sin 1 0

sin cos 0

0 1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0

0 0 3

1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2 = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin 0

And hence:

1 cos sin + 2 cos sin 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

0

0 0 3

11 ' = 1 cos 2 + 2 sin 2

1 1 = (1 + 1 ) ( 2 1 ) cos 2 2 2

22 ' = 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2

= 1 1 (1 + 1 ) + ( 2 1 ) cos 2 2 2

12 ' = 12 ' = 1 cos sin + 2 cos sin

1 ( 2 1 ) sin 2 2

1 2

For which we can draw a Mohrs circle in the usual manner:

Note, however, that on this occasion we plot half the shear strain against the direct strain. This stems from the fact that the engineering shear strains differs from the tensorial shear strains by a factor of 2 as as discussed.

7.3 Measurement of Stress and Strain - Strain Gauges

It is difficult to measure internal stresses. Strains, at least those on a surface, are easy to measure. Glue a piece of wire on to a surface Strain in wire = strain in material As the length of the wire increases, its radius decreases so its electrical resistance increases and can be readily measured. In practice, multiple wire assemblies are used in strain gauges, to measure direct strains.
strain gauge _ _ _
45 120

Strain rosettes are employed to obtain three measurements: 7.3.1 45 Strain Rosette Three direct strains are measured
C

B A principal strain

Mohrs circle for strains gives

/2 B 2 B C

radius t so we can write

circle, centre s,

A = s + t cos(2 ) B = s + t cos(2 + 90) = s t sin( 2 ) C = s t cos(2 )

3 equations in 3 unknowns Using strain gauges we can find the directions of Principal strains

/2

7.4 Hookes Law for Shear Stresses

St. Venants Principle states that the principal axes of stress and strain are co-incident. Consider a 2-D element subject to pure shear (xy = yx = o).
y

o o

The Mohrs circle for stresses is

Y Q

o
x

where P and Q are principal stress axes and

pp = 1 = o qq = 2 = o pq = qp = 0

Since the principal stress and strain axes are coincident,

pp = 1 =
=

1
E

2
E

o
E

(1 + )
2
E

qq = 2 =

1
E

o (1 + ) E

and the Mohrs circle for strain is thus

/2

Y Q P

the Mohrs circle shows that

qq

pp
X (0, ) xy

xx = 0 xy
2

o
E

(1 + )

So pure shear causes the shear strain o

o
/2
/2

2 o (1 + ) E
But by definition o = G so

and

G=

o E = 2(1 + )

Use St Venants principal to work out principal stress values from a knowledge of principal strains. Two Mohrs circles, strain and stress.

1 =

1
E

2
E
+

3
E

2 =
3 =

1
1
E

3
E

2
E

3
E

So using strain gauges you can work out magnitudes of principal strains. You can then work out magnitudes of principal stresses. Using Tresca or Von Mises you can then work out whether your vessel is safe to operate. ie below the yield criteria

10