Dr. Florea Ioncioaia Alexandru-Ioan Cuza University of Iasi Iai Romania E-mail: Ioncioaia@ a!oo.com " I#$CI#AIA@%e&.

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Walking out Dissent: Counter-Culture, Milieu, and Student Rebellion during Ceausescus Romania

Abstract At t!e end of '()*+ t!e ,eo,le ,assin- &y do.nto.n /uc!arest .itnessed+ &e.ildered+ a nocturnal ,rotest marc!. After a lon- ,eriod+ t!is .as t!e first time t!at t!e streets of /uc!arest &ecame t!e sta-e of free demonstrations+ even if t!e slo-ans t!e demonstrators s!outed seemed to &e entirely a,olitical. Almost t.enty years later+ in Fe&ruary '(*0+ t!e ,o,ulation of t!e city of Ia1i assisted at an almost identical ,rocession. 2!ese ,u&lic irru,tive ,rotests .ere amon- t!e fe. ur&an u,risin-s t!at Romania3s 4oviet-ty,e re-ime under.ent for over four decades. 2!e ,resent a,,roac! aims+ firstly+ at reconstructin- t!e social and cultural environment of t!ese demonstrations. 2!en+ it .ill analyse t!e extent to .!ic! t!ese u,risin-s re,resent a student counter-culture+ in a discrete &ut constant conflict .it! t!e ideolo-ical codes of Ceau1escu re-ime.

Introduction It .as t!e very C!ristmas Eve of '()* .!en+ in t!e centre of /uc!arest '+ ,assers&y .itnessed ,er,lexedly a street demonstration t!at seemed to !ave not!in- in common .it! t!e !a&itual manifestations+ .!ic! .ere usually more or less 5directed6 &y t!e
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2!is .or7 .as su,,orted &y a -rant of t!e Romanian $ational Aut!ority for 4cientific Researc!+ C$C48UEFI4CDI+ ,ro9ect num&er :$-II-RU-2E-;<''-=-<')>.

re-ime. After a lon- time+ t!e streets of /uc!arest started to &ecome t!e scene of s,ontaneous ,rotest marc!es and even if t!e ,artici,ants3 slo-ans !ad+ a,,arently+ not!in- ,olitical in t!em+ t!e fact ,er se .as mostly unusual+ even ,rovocative. Almost t.enty years later+ in Fe&ruary '(*0+ t!e ,o,ulation of Iai+ an im,ortant university city in eastern Romania+ .itnessed an identical demonstration: t!e same nocturnal out&urst of a social cate-ory sooner i-nored or considered ,rivile-ed &y ordinary ,eo,le+ t!e same stran-e am&i-uity &et.een carnival-li7e and civic attitude+ t!e same s.ift and s,ontaneous nature+ t!e same a&sence of o,en ,olitical demands+ &ut+ most im,ortantly+ t!e same desire for fusin- .it! t!e rest of t!e city. Exce,t for .or7ers3 ,rotests in /raov+ in $ovem&er '(*0+ t!e student manifestations in /uc!arest and Iai !ave &een t!e only street ,rotests in Romania &et.een '(?) and '(*(. Des,ite t!e different !istorical contexts+ t!e similarities &et.een t!e t.o events are visi&le. @o. can t!ese manifestations+ t!eir similitude and t!eir reiteration &e ex,lainedA 2o .!at lo-ic s!ould .e ,ro9ect t!em in order to adeBuately inter,ret t!emA %ere t!ey t!e ex,ression of dee,+ solidly confi-ured dissatisfaction+ or 9ust a form of mimicry of t!e %estern counter-culture at t!at ,articular timeA Do t!ey re,resent t!e -erm of a ,rotest-&ased culture or merely functionin- 5accidents6 of t!e re-imeA At t!e same time+ .!at su&stance did it !ave for t!e student .orld: !ave t!ey contri&uted to t!e formation of a critical ,olitical culture of resistance to t!e totalitarian re-imeA 2!e ,resent a,,roac! aims first to reconstruct t!e facts and context of t!ese events: t!eir course and develo,ment+ t!eir causes and t!eir sta7e+ and t!eir effects u,on t!e student milieu. /ased on t!e si-nification of t!e t.o e,isodes+ t!e second o&9ective is to ,rovide an analysis of t!e relations &et.een t!e communist re-ime and t!e students+ &ot! for framin- t!e !istorical and ,olitical context of t!e ,rotests and+ es,ecially+ for esta&lis!in- !o. t!e Ceausescu re-ime envisa-es t!e student .orld. Finally+ a t!ird o&9ective is attem,tin- a reconstruction of t!e ,articular student context t!at is trac7int!e extent to .!ic! t!e student milieu in Romania !as set u, an autonomous s,ace for ex,ression in relation to t!e re-ime. 2!e startin- ,remise of t!is study is t!e fact t!at t!e student milieu+ t!e most o,en+ li&eral and cosmo,olitan environment+ !as ,layed+ in t!e seventies-ei-!ties+ a 7ey-

role in confi-urin- a ,olitical culture at odds .it! t!e totalitarian re-imeC t!is !as !a,,ened eit!er as a discrete and non-,olitical re&ellion+ or as t!e ex,ression of a counterculture t!at !as nurtured various forms of dis,utation and su&version. Des,ite its tem,oral ,roximity Din ,oint of fact+ ,recisely due to itEF+ t!e main ,ro&lem of t!is researc! is c!iefly t!e uneven nature of t!e sources. A,,arently+ t!ere are no direct+ narrative sources: t!e neutral re,orts and t!e ,ros,ective ,u&lic ones Dt!e ,ress and administrative re,ortsF under-o an evaluation at t!eir very time of occurrence. 2!e ,resent study is &ased mainly on t.o ty,es of sources: t!e testimony of direct ,artici,ants Dresulted from t!e em,loyment of intervie.s as a met!od of oral !istoryF and re,orts of ,arty officials. All testimonies &elon- to direct ,artici,ants and t!us are cons,icuously mar7ed &y an in!erent su&9ectivity. Es,ecially in t!is case+ .!ic! ex,resses ,o.erful ex,eriences+ sometime decisive for t!e ,artici,ants3 entire life+ t!ese stories must &e inter,reted on several levels. In order to esca,e+ as muc! as ,ossi&le+ t!e lo-ic of a com,etition &et.een ,ersonal ex,eriences+ I !ave tried+ t!rou-! a series of surveys+ to reca,ture student memory of t!ose years 8 t!is &ein- a delicate o,eration .it! most li7ely im,ro&a&le results. 2!e fact itself s!o.s t!e ,ro&lematic nature of collective memory in t!e student .orld durin- t!e communist re-ime and it demonstrates t!e need of systematic researc! over t!is matter. In addition+ .it! t!e exce,tion of some rat!er sensationalistic articles in t!e ,ress+ t!ere is no systematic researc! done over t!is ,articular e,isode of !istory. Gean.!ile+ t!e reference system in .!ic! suc! materials are desi-ned is usually lin7ed to t!e !istory of ,ost-.ar Romanian society in -eneral. In fact+ t!e si-nificance of t!e events descri&ed &elo. is muc! more im,ortant if .e relate t!ese e,isodes to t!e !istory of student life+ as a s,ecific form of culture+ a radically different 7ind of ex,erience t!an any ot!er in a ,olitically closed re-ime.

1. acts and Words Usually+ for a Romanian student in t!e sixties+ C!ristmas Eve .as a ni-!t li7e any ot!er. Classes .ere not interru,ted durin- t!at ,eriod+ and any form of ,u&lic or ,rivate ceremony .as com,letely ,ro!i&ited+ sometimes ,unis!ed .it! im,risonment+ as it .as re-arded more serious t!an a common la. offence: cele&ratin- C!ristmas .as considered

a deviation from secular radicalism+ an act of defyin- t!e fundamental assum,tions on .!ic! t!e communist re-ime in Romania !ad &een founded. Actually+ C!ristmas .as officially entitled as a 5fol7 festival6. Ironically t!ou-!+ it is t!is very ty,e of restrictions t!at made t!e re-ime order vulnera&le. %!en -rou,s of students in /uc!arest3s university cam,uses s,ontaneously -at!ered for carollin- on C!ristmas Eve+ no one .as a&le to ima-ine .!at .ould follo.. 2!e success of t!e initiative .as immediate. In a very s!ort time+ over t.o t!ousand students 9oined t!e -rou, carollin-. @o.ever+ since t!e distance &et.een t!ese cam,uses is Buite lar-e and it reBuires crossin- t!e city+ t!e festive ,il-rima-e &ecame t!e o&9ect of /uc!arest in!a&itants3 sym,at!y. 2!e cam,uses .ere -enerally or-anized on t!e ,rinci,le of -ender exclusivity 8 t!ere .ere cam,uses exclusively for -irls and+ res,ectively+ for &oys -+ and t!is fact created a certain tension+ almost as in an amorous -ame. 4o t!e limits &et.een ,ermissi&le and illicit -re. more and more distant. From t!e University 4Buare+ t!e to,o-ra,!ic and sym&olic centre of t!e city+ .!ere t!ey danced Hora Unirii Da fol7 dance on a son- .it! stron- ,atriotic+ even nationalistic si-nificanceF+ t!e carollers3 convoy .ent to t!e Czec!oslova7ian Em&assy Din Decem&er '()* ec!oes of t!e :ra-ue 4,rinand of t!e 4oviet intervention .ere stron-EF+ t!en to /uc!arest $ort! Rail.ay station. /uc!arest residents .ere c!eerin- t!em and+ in t!e C!ristmas s,irit+ t!ey .ere -ivin&a-els and a,,les to t!e students+ from t!eir .indo.s. Huite va-ue and innocent+ slo-ans a,,eared Dit is said t!at t!ey called IFreedom+ freedom for studentsIEF+ &ut also ver&al clas!es .it! t!e civil la. enforcements+ ,ro&a&ly officers of t!e De,artment of 4tate 4ecurity D Securitatea+ t!e secret ,olice of re-imeEF or t!e mem&ers .it! su,erior ,ositions in t!e :arty !ierarc!y. 2!e students3 intention of -oin- to t!e U.4. Em&assy .as &loc7ed &y t!e ,olice forces. Jradually+ due to ,olice mo&ilisation+ t!e yout! realised t!at t!ey !ad exceeded t!e red line and t!eir only esca,e .as eit!er anonymity+ ,rovided ,artly &y t!e s,ontaneous+ innocent and some.!at non-res,onsi&le c!aracter of t!e ,!enomenon+ or actin- &ravely on. 2!erefore+ t!ey tried to reac! $icolae Ceauescu3s villa+ and to maintain a com,act -rou,. /ut+ as t!e manifestation extended+ most students left t!e convoy+ es,ecially after t!eir intention to -o to $icolae Ceau1escu3s villa or to return in

-rou,s to t!eir cam,uses failed as t!ey .ere confronted .it! t!e tactics of re,ressive structures+ increasin-ly numerous and a--ressive. 2!e manifestation dies out &y da.n. 2!e re,ression .as moderate and limited to alle-ed leaders or insti-ators. Initially+ aut!orities tried to &loc7 t!e students into t!eir !ostels+ in order to ,revent t!eir ,artici,ation. 2!en+ as t!eir num&er increased and t!e manifestants occu,ied t!e streets and t!e main mar7et,laces of t!e city+ t!e force orders started re-rou,in-+ in order to sto, t!eir advancement. 4imultaneously+ mem&ers of t!e :arty &e-in early ne-otiations .it! t!e students+ es,ecially to convince t!em to Buit. It is Buite clear t!at t!e intention of t!e Re-ime .as not to ,unis!+ &ut to deter. A,,arently $icolae Ceauescu !imself !ad called t!e tune ri-!t a.ay. It is a 7no.n fact t!at at least t!ree arrests .ere made t!e next day. #ne of t!e arrestees .ent t!rou-! t.o consecutive trials and+ at a certain time+ .as admitted in a mental clinic. 4!e not only lost !er student status+ &ut also t!e ri-!t to of any ,u&lic career. 4!e .as made to leave /uc!arest ,ermanently and -ive u, !er ,osition as a 9ournalist. 2!ere .ere ,ro&a&ly ot!er victims of re,ression. %e !ave to 7ee, in mind t!at+ inside communist re-imes+ ,unis!ment for a ,articular ,olitical fault is never enou-!. Also+ due to s!orta-e of revolutionary vigilance, some ,arty officials .ere I,oliticallyI ,unis!ed &y disc!ar-e from office and flaws in t!eir ,ersonal files. /ut t!eir ,unis!ment did not Buite seem to res,ect t!e ,rinci,le of ans.era&ility. From t!is ,oint of vie.+ a,,arently &izarre+ t!e main victims of re,ression !ave ,ro&a&ly &een !eads of 7ey ,u&lications for students and yout! .!o .ere dismissed from t!eir ,osts. In fact+ t!is .ouldn3t &e sur,risin- if .e try to understand some of t!e .or7in-s of t!e Ceausescu re-ime in its early years. In t!is case+ t!ose .!o are res,onsi&le .it! t!e ,ro,a-anda are considered t!e -uiltiest and t!is is related+ on t!e one !and+ to t!eir ,osition D.ea7 and am&i-uous+ intellectuals and a,,aratc!i7s ali7e+ none of .!ic! com,letelyEF .it!in t!e ,arty !ierarc!y+ and+ on t!e ot!er !and+ to t!e ne. form t!at t!e ,olitical re,ression ta7es in t!e late sixties. It is t!e ,rimacy of r!etoric a-ainst ,!ysical re,ression+ of sym&olic means versus direct ones. 2!is also reveals t!e nature of t!e ne. IcontractI .it! society t!at t!e re-ime is tryin- to ,romote. First+ &y a,,ealin- to selfcriticism+ and second+ &y restraint in t!e use of force+ t!e ,ro,ensity in t!e use of ,ro,a-anda and discourse as means of coercion. 2!us t!e re-ime loo7s for causes .it!in+

and not .it!out Ds,ies+ im,erialists etcF+ t!us tryin- to ac7no.led-e its limits+ if not its errors. From t!e evidence t!at .e !ave+ .e 7no. t!at in t!e follo.in- days some ela&oration meetin-s .it! students and t!e ,arty active too7 ,lace+ in all faculties t!rou-!out t!e country. 4tudents also &ecame a matter of almost Isociolo-icalI attention for t!e aut!orities. It is t!en easily seen from re,orts and ,ositionin- of t!e ,arty leaders involved t!at t!ey tried to moderate t!e tem,tation of re,ressiveness and convert it into s,eec!. /ut .!en violence is used in s,eec!+ t!is is done only &y aut!orized ,ersons Dim,ortant leaders or senior a,,aratc!i7sEF and it is .ell restrained. 2!e idea .as of ma7in- a clear se,aration &et.een t!e IconductorI and t!e ImassI of students and also to -ive t!e ,artici,atin- students t!e &enefit of naivety. /esides+ anot!er concern .as to de,oliticize t!e demonstration. Ion Iliescu+ t!e leader of t!e yout! :arty or-anisation and+ im,licitly+ t!e official leader of t!e Romanian yout!+ noted on several occasions t!e I!ooli-anisticI c!aracter of t!e event+ to conclude t!at it is only Ianarc!ic+ student !oodlumismI: ,ertainin- rat!er to t!e field of social ,at!olo-y t!an ,olitical en-a-ement. @e also em,!asised t!at students .ere some!o. ta7en !osta-es &y a -rou, of Iless so&er -uysI+ Itur&ulent elementsI+ Ia series of errant elements t!at !ave &ecome t!e leaders of t!e eventI+ t!e !ead of .!ic! .as Ia -irl .!o K...L is 7no.n as a .oman of loose moralsI+ t!at al.ays ,ic7ed fi-!ts+ a du&ious fi-ure+ a socio,at! t!at Ceausescu !imself treats as IcrazyI. Anot!er leader D$iculae 4toian+ 9ournalist and servant of t!e ,ro,a-andaF distin-uis!es from t!e usual mass of students It!ose =-? re,ro&ates .!o incited t!e studentsI. :aradoxically+ t!is scat!in-+ rudimentary lan-ua-e+ in .!ic! t!e ,rotesters are identified .it! social deviance+ is in fact a ma9or s!ift in t!e &e!aviour of t!e totalitarian state to.ards society+ a s!ift t!at .as almost unima-ina&le only a fe. years &efore. 2!is not only s!o.s t!at t!e class stru--le no lon-er functions as ,rinci,le of ,olitical action+ &ut rat!er t!at t!e ,arty-state .anted and felt a&le to -overn .it!out recourse to t!e revolutionary violence of ,revious decades+ conseBuently &y normal means. 2.enty years later+ in t!e evenin- of Fe&ruary '0t!+ '(*0+ t!e students3 demonstration in Iai .as muc! more radical. 2!e context .as different: Ceau escu .as not at t!e !ei-!t of !is ,o,ularity li7e in '()*+ &ut on t!e contraryE 2!at .as a ,eriod of

-reat economic and social difficulties. 2!e source of t!e demonstration a,,ears to &e a s,ontaneous student meetin- around a cam,fire in t!e small ,ar7 :us!7in of t!e University cam,us. 2!is .as occasioned+ on t!e one !and+ &y t!e s!utdo.n of electricity in t!e cam,us 8 for economic reasons 8 and secondly+ &y a cele&ration of study com,letion for some of t!e students. 2!e formula is cuasi-similar: a mixture of fol7 music+ ,ro&a&ly alco!ol and a diffuse state of frustration -enerated &y cuttin- electricity on cam,us. As did t!eir ,eers in Decem&er '()*+ t!e students in Iai tried to co-o,t collea-ues from ot!er cam,uses and universities of t!is to.n to t!e demonstration. ItMs !ard to say .!et!er t!eir ,ur,ose .as to ,rotest or to cele&rate to-et!er+ to socialize or to s!o. solidarity. A massive convoy of t!ousands of students crossed t!e city from end to end in an over ten 7ilometre ni-!t marc!+ sin-in- fol7 son-s and slo-ans .it! s,ecific claims+ ,articularly a-ainst restrictions on electricity and !ot .ater in student !ostels. As .as t!e case in /uc!arest t.enty years earlier+ aut!orities tried+ on t!e one !and+ to frame t!e movement in order to limit its ,ro,ortions+ and on t!e ot!er !and+ t!ey tried to !arass t!e ,artici,ants D&y ver&al+ even ,!ysical violence+ and arrestF. 2!e ,rotest came into disarray .!en t!e students from t!e lar-est university cam,us in t!e city .ere loc7ed in t!eir !ostels. @o.ever+ a numerically si-nificant -rou, continued its marc! to.ards t!e administrative centre of t!e city. 2!ere+ in front of t!e district3s administrative ,alace+ students !ave o,enly ex,ressed t!eir dissent. Nust as in ,revious events in /uc!arest+ t!ere .eren3t massive arrests. Re,ression relied more on 5ideolo-ical6 and administrative measures. In t!e follo.in- days+ in a state of -reat tension+ endless meetin-s of 5unmas7in- and o&loBuy6 .ere !eld at eac! faculty 8 a sudden reiteration of 4talinist ,olitical culture. 4ome of t!e leaders .ere summoned to t!e De,artment of 4tate 4ecurity to ma7e statements+ t!e &lac7 lists .ere com,iled+ and a series of ex,ulsions .as conducted &y t!e University 4taff+ &ut some.!at randomly+ more to a,,ease t!e secret ,olice officers+ and a,,arently .it!out direct connection to t!e event. 4tudent su,ervision measures s,ecific to t!e communist re-ime .ere ta7en: student life control reinforcement and ,ro!i&ition of any 7ind of ,u&lic events+ &e t!ey official or not.

/ut t!ere is a ma9or difference from t!e ,rotest t!at too7 ,lace in /uc!arest+ in Decem&er '()*: not only arrests or la.suits did not ta7e ,lace anymore+ &ut+ exce,t for faculty meetin-s ordered &y aut!orities+ no ot!er discussions too7 ,lace .it!in t!e formal frame.or7 of ,arty and state structures+ as it !a,,ened in '()*. It seems t!at $icolae Ceauescu .as not even told+ and t!is is almost an act of diso&edience. It is o&vious t!at t!e re-ime did not .ant to create tension or martyrs+ and+ es,ecially+ t!ey did not .ant to &esto. a ,olitical dimension u,on t!e event. At t!e same time+ t!is s!o.s !o. ri-id t!e structures of t!e system !ad &ecome: t!ey could not acce,t t!e idea of a &reec! from societyE 2!e society constituted a com,act &loc7 &e!ind $icolae Ceauescu and any form of difference .as seen as unima-ina&le+ rationally s,ea7in-+ and suc! facts could never &e re,orted to !im. @ere .e see a -reat difference from '()*. !. Students and Regime %e !ave o&served t!at &ot! in Decem&er '()* and in Fe&ruary '(*0 t!e re,ression .as limited and !ad a dominant r!etorical c!aracter. An intense discursive cam,ai-n of discreditin- t!e ,rotests and t!eir alle-ed leaders ta7e ,lace in t!e follo.indays in all universities from /uc!arest and Iai. @o.ever+ massive arrests and ousts do not !a,,en anymore. 4een from t!e ,ers,ective of t!e re,ressive communist re-ime in Romania+ t!e fact .as sur,risin-+ &ut it must &e related to t!e ,olitical context of eac! ,articular momentC it s!o.s+ in t!e same time+ t!e contradictory nature of t!e relations t!at Ceausescu re-ime !ad .it! t!e student .orld. %e !ave no direct accounts on !o. t!e :arty !ierarc!y ,erceived and descri&ed t!e demonstration in Fe&ruary '(*0. Instead+ t!ere is conclusive evidence a&out t!e reaction of t!e :arty !ierarc!y in Decem&er '()*. For some activists and mem&ers of t!e Securitate+ t!e student-inflicted events re,resent a ,ersonal matter: t!ey 7no. t!ey .ill lose t!eir ,ositions. 2!ey !ave a ras, reaction. /ut as it reac!es !i-!er levels in t!e :arty !ierarc!y+ t!e tone &ecomes more and more relaxed. Ceausescu seems to a,,rove .it! t!e students+ es,ecially .!en !e &ecomes critical to.ards t!e attitude of some ,rofessors .!o+ su,,osedly+ did not res,ect t!e la. on education on t!e maximum num&er of exams reBuired.

2!erefore+ .e do not s,ea7 of !o,elessly fractured relations. 2!e leaders of t!e :arty feel sli-!tly &e.ildered and !umiliated. $ot at any time do t!ey acce,t t!e le-itimacy of suc! events+ &ut t!ey try not to &esto. t!em a 5,olitical6 c!aracter+ t!at is to formally treat t!em as 5!ostile6 and anticommunist+ as !ad !a,,ened &efore. In t!eir a-enda+ t!is .as a 5lac7 of maturity6 from t!e ,art of t!e students+ &ut also some system dysfunctionalities. 2!erefore+ matters t!at could find resolve. 2!e ec!o of t!is attitude is t!eir decision of reinstatin- Dafter t.enty yearsEF t!e C!ristmas &rea7 for students+ and also reinforcin- t!e ,ro!i&ition to exceed seven exams ,er session. In s!ort+ in Decem&er '()*+ t!e :arty &elieves t!at t!e main cause of t!e ,rotests is a scarcity in .!at concerns 5student la&our6. In ot!er .ords+ students .ere not sufficiently inte-rated in t!e 5:arty-state6. 2!us it is ,rimarily a ,ro&lem of lo-istics. In Ion Iliescu3s .ords Dminister of yout! and t!e main res,onsi&le from t!e :arty directly involved in t!e matterF+ a fe. days follo.in- t!e event+ t!e manifestation of Decem&er ;? !ad ,roven t!e .ea7ness of our or-anisation+ with them Dmy em,!asisEF+ t!e lac7 of com&ativeness+ of ,olitical firmness of t!e U2C; frame.or7 and its mem&ers.6 2!e a,,ellative them could ex,lain everyt!in-: des,ite t!e :arty3s o,enin- to.ards t!e society and es,ecially to.ards students in t!e first years of Ceauescu3s re-ime+ t!e student .orld continued to &e forei-n territory to t!e :arty. Even t!rou-! t!e voice of an 5intellectual6 of t!e ,arty+ suc! as Ion Iliescu 8 one of t!e fe. mem&er of t!e :arty administration .it! !i-!er education 8 .as deemed+ it s!o.s t!at t!e students re,resented a .orld in relation to .!ic! t!e :arty !ad 5cultural6 difficulties: .!o .ere 5t!ey6A %ere t!ey ready to &e a&sor&ed into t!e :arty frame.or7 and ,oliticsA %it! its va-ue social and cultural &oundaries+ t!e student .orld !ad unBuestiona&ly eluded t!e system until t!en: in Decem&er '()* it .as still t!e only si-nificant social cate-ory not ,ro,erly inte-rated to t!e 5:arty-state6. 2!e or-anisation aimin- to attract students to t!e re-ime lac7ed an actual influence+ in s,ite of t!e fact t!at+ after '()>+ t!e :arty itself !ad made serious efforts to im,rove student life and even t!e freedom of s,eec!. 4!ould .e &elieve+ t!erefore+ t!at t!e students .ere anticommunists or militants a-ainst t!e re-imeA $ot+ of course.

Uniunea Tineretului Comunist DCommunist Youth LeagueF: t!e yout! or-anization of t!e Romanian Communist :arty D:CRF.

U,on t!e instauration of t!e communist re-ime in Romania+ in t!e late forties+ t!e student .orld soon turned into an am&i-uous social form: on t!e one !and+ it seemed to &e a source of !i-!ly Bualified ,ersonnel for t!e 5socialist revolution6+ .!ile on t!e ot!er !and+ even as as,irin- intellectuals+ t!ey .ere automatically .ere re-arded as sus,ects. It is 7no.n t!at t!e intellectuals .ere not amon- t!e foundin- social classes of t!e re-ime Desta&lis!ed+ accordin- to t!e official ideolo-y+ u,on t!e alliance &et.een t!e .or7inclass and t!e ,easantryF+ t!ey .ere ,otential carriers of t!e 5counter-revolution6 -erm+ soa7ed in &our-eois and cosmo,olite attitudes+ as t!e context of t!e @un-arian revolution of '(>) !ad ,roven+ .!en numerous students !ad &een involved in various 5!ostile6 actions. et t!e most im,ortant as,ect in t!is case is t!e fact t!at t!e re-ime !ad coerced t!e student .orld to isolate itself from t!e rest of t!e society+ as if in a 5-olden -!etto6. In s!ort+ in t!e mid-sixties+ t!e student .orld is a de,oliticised ,olitical s,ace+ ,otentially a--ressive for t!e re-ime+ &ut !eld under a careful .atc! t!rou-! systematic cam,ai-ns of ,ro,a-anda and re,ression+ &ut most im,ortantly t!ou-! a drastic control of study access and study content. For t!is reason+ t!e ,u&lic reaction of t!e student .orld !a,,ens at a later time in ,ost-.ar Romania in relation to t!e !istory of t!e students .orld.ide+ and it is for t!e same reason t!at it seems so sur,risin-. It is true t!at+ in t!e inter.ar ,eriod+ t!e students3 en-a-ement in ,u&lic life !ad left rat!er ne-ative memories+ &ecause it !ad re,resented t!e cradle of radical ,olitical movements. 2!e ,oliticisin- tendency of ,u&lic en-a-ement is maintained in t!e first ,ost-.ar years+ es,ecially &y t!e students3 ad!erence to various forms of ,rotest a-ainst t!e communist re-ime. @o.ever+ after '(?* es,ecially+ t!e terri&le re,ression and t!e ne. ,olicies of student recruitment+ &ased on socially restrictive numerus clausus, !ave determined students to disa,,ear from ,u&lic life+ as a source of autonomous action. #nly after t!e re,ression decreases in intensity+ in mid-sixties+ and t!e university recruitment restrictions -radually relax+ students seem to re-ain certain autonomy. is+ From t!is ,oint of vie.+ Decem&er '()* .itnesses a landmar7: it s!o.s t!e limits of student involvement .it! t!e re-ime on t!e one !and+ &ut also t!e &e-innin- of a come&ac7 in t!e ,u&lic s,ace+ on t!e ot!er.

In t!e seventies+ t!e re,orts of t!e ,olitical militia+ &ut es,ecially ,ersonal recollections seem to indicate a fairly !i-! de-ree of inte-ration of t!e students .it!in t!e re-ime. 2!is ad!esion is &ased on t!e illusion of a 7ind of contract: students &elieve in t!e re-ime as far as t!e re-ime offers t!em trust and+ res,ectively+ a s,ace .!ere t!ey can freely ex,ress t!eir s,ecific rituals. 2!ere is no frontal o,,osition+ nor unconditional su&mission. Des,ite t!e fact t!at t!e student environments .ere re-ularly su&9ected to moralizin- sessions+ es,ecially earlier in t!e decade+ .!en t!e re-ime !ad a more ,ronounced ideolo-ical ca,acityC for instance+ t!e famous cam,ai-ns of !aircut correction Dcom,ulsory !aircutsF or dress attire correction+ t!e seventies re,resent ,ro&a&ly t!e &est ,eriod in terms of student activism and relations .it! t!e re-ime. In t!e ei-!ties+ !o.ever+ ad!esion is -radually reduced to a minimum+ even if+ concurrently+ ,arty mem&ers!i, !ad &ecome mandatory for a career+ and eac! student .as automatically re-istered in a :arty-affiliated student or-anisation. Fe&ruary '(*0 indicates Buite clearly t!e end of all illusion. ". Rebellion, counterculture and #er$ormance /ut t!ere is somet!in- t!at seems to disBuiet t!e :arty line and staff even more t!an its a&ility to convert students. %as sim,le+ formal and or-anisational ad!esion to t!e :arty and its satellite structures enou-! to consider students as an inte-ral ,art of t!e re-imeA Are students a -ood ,artner for t!e 5-reat e,ic of constructin- socialism6 in Romania+ es,ecially as future leaders and models for societyA 2o.ards t!e mid-sixties+ t!e ,arty !ad renounced t!e class-stru--le lo-ic in relations .it! students+ on &e!alf of .!ic! all students of 5du&ious ori-in6 Dall .!o did not come from t!e .or7in- classes or ,roletarian ,easantryF !ad &een eliminated. Furt!ermore+ students are no lon-er t!e usual sus,ects in t!e eyes of t!e re-ime. 2!ey !ave no. t!e ri-!t to !ave ne. ,u&lications+ al&eit under t!e control of t!e :arty+ to !ave relations .it! forei-ners+ and es,ecially t!ey are allo.ed some freedom of &e!aviour accordin- to t!e evolution of %estern ,olitical culture. In t!e late sixties+ students re,resent more t!an ever t!e !o,e in t!e country3s &ri-!t future+ t!rou-! 7no.led-e and tec!nolo-ic ,ro-ress. It is t!e moment in .!ic! Ceausescu3s Romania ex,eriences a -enuine tec!nolo-ical and tec!nocratic fervour. et

t!e carollin- e,isode and t!e aut!ority diso&edience are still confusin- to t!e ,arty !ierarc!y. 2!e ,arty leaders are es,ecially !orrified at t!e ease .it! .!ic! re-ular students !ave &een attracted to suc! ,rotests. 54tudents KOL follo.ed t!em li7e a floc7 of s!ee,6+ one of t!e :arty official mentions. 54ome student !ostels !ave &een loc7ed and t!ey clamoured to o,en t!em free+ &ecause t!ey .anted out6. In t!e eyes of t!e ,arty+ naivetP+ alco!ol+ for&idden attractions and t!e desire for socialization .ere not sufficient ex,lanation. Actually+ if one carefully o&serves+ on t!is occasion students are de,icted as Buite uncertain t!rou-! t!e lens of :arty &ureaucracy. 2!eir artistic manifestations are -enerally som&re+ and at times 5t!ey !ave a&normal c!aracteristic KOL to t!e li7in- of certain+ su,,osedly 5select6 cate-ory+ .!ic! comes and socialises in t!e ree76. Jraver still is t!e fact t!at amon- t!ese activities one cannot distin-uis! t!e 5care and consideration for ,romotin- militant activities6 res,ectively+ for t!e cultivation of t!ematic su&9ects and ,olitical orientation in t!e service of t!e :arty ,olicy and ,ro,a-anda. #r in t!e .ords of a ,oet and ,ro,a-andist+ editorial &oard mem&er of a ,u&lication for students+ $. 4toian: 5.e need to consider a num&er of t!in-s and see .!et!er are ca,a&le to confer t!em ,olitical content6. Huestionin- t!e student3s a&ility to confer 5,olitical content6 to t!eir activities is very si-nificant .!en related to t!e values t!at motivate students. 2!e findin- does not translate a sim,le rift &et.een -enerations+ alt!ou-! t!is is not insi-nificant. It is a fracture of ima-ery: in relation to .!at one t!in7s it is ,ossi&le or desira&le in a society. Des,ite t!e ideolo-ical a,erture of t!e re-ime in t!e mid-sixties and des,ite t!e ne. ,ossi&ilities Dincludin- t!eir readiness to reconnect .it! t!e 5old re-ime6 and es,ecially .it! t!e ca,italist and li&eralist .estern .orldF+ t!e manifestation of Decem&er '()* definitely em,!asises t!e fact t!at students !ave ot!er cultural+ and even ideolo-ical landmar7s t!an t!ose ,ro,osed &y t!e official ,ro,a-anda. 4ome of t!ese emanate from t!e %estern entertainment culture+ .!ic! &e-an to &e availa&le in Romania at t!at time t!rou-! official+ &ut mostly unofficial means+ relatively tolerated &y t!e re-ime. 2!ese im,orts do not !ave t!e intensity of t!ose in u-oslavia or @un-ary &ut still accounted as a cultural s!oc7 for a do-matic and ,rudis! society. #t!er s!oc7s ,ertain to t!e ,olitical culture of radical .estern activism of t!ose

years+ al&eit randomly ,erceived in Romania. Finally+ t!ere is a recovery of fol7 culture and C!ristian traditions+ as t!e ,retext for carollin- in t!e eve of Decem&er ;>+ '()* s!o.s. 2!is is not a structured form of culture. Actually+ t!e main feature of t!is counterculture is its diffuse+ unsystematic c!aracter+ al.ays in tension .it! formal ,u&lic s,eec!. $or is it a conscious form of resistance to t!e re-ime and its ,ro,a-anda+ &ut rat!er a form of identity-&ased alternative culture: a discreet re&ellion as strate-y of -enerational identification+ .!ic! sometimes &ecomes to t!e most a form of resistance to &ureaucratic communism. Its ,olitical c!aracter is+ t!en+ rat!er im,licit. 2!e manifestation of Fe&ruary '(*0 is not different at its core+ .it! t!e mention t!at t!e performance as,ect is muc! more visi&le: from t!e carnivalesBue and ,o,ular entertainment direction+ to t!e nocturnal ta7in- into ,ossession of t!e main streets and mar7ets of t!e city+ &ot! an ec!o of re,ression anxiety+ and also a reflection of a desire for ,u&licity and t!eatricality. /ot! must &e understood as forms of ex,eriencin- and ne-otiatin- freedom as a -eneration: a rite de passage. Is true+ in t!e case of Iai students ,rotest a difference of ,olitical culture &et.een t!e various student milieus is evident. 2!e manifestation .as initiated &y students Dmost of t!em+ -irls+ as .as t!e case in /uc!arestF of t!e University Dfrom t!e faculties of Letters+ History and Philosophy+ GeologyF+ .!ere a more li&eral+ even cosmo,olite atmos,!ere dominated. 2!ey !ad t!e su,,ort of t!e students in :olytec!nics+ .!o .ere very numerous and t!erefore !etero-eneous+ often lin7ed &y a-e com,ati&ility to t!eir collea-ues from t!e University. In contrast+ students from cam,uses of t!e A-ronomy and Gedicine institutes -enerally refused ,artici,ation. 2!e ex,lanations are various: a-ronomy students usually !ave limited involvement in student life+ and t!ey are also -eo-ra,!ically mar-inalized+ .it! a distinctly ,atriarc!al ,olitical culture. #,,ositely+ medical students re,resented t!e aristocracy of student life and .ere more careful a&out t!eir careers+ .!ic! could !ave &een severely affected &y a ,olitical im,lication of t!is 7ind. /ot! cate-ories re,resented t!e conformist ,art of student .orld. Conclusions

2!e student demonstrations of Decem&er ;?+ '(*) in /uc!arest and of Fe&ruary '0t!+ in Iai re,resent t!e most im,ortant student ,rotests durin- t!e communist re-ime+ &et.een '(?) and '(*(. 2!ey are also amon- t!e fe. street demonstrations t!at t!e 4oviet-li7e re-ime under.ent in almost !alf a century. /ut t!e im,ortance of suc! demonstrations lies not only in t!eir unusual+ exce,tional c!aracter+ &ut also in t!e form of manifestation itself+ in .!ic! ur&an ,erformance seems to &e t!e 7ey of t!e -ame. Concurrently+ t!e student manifestations of /uc!arest and Iai+ reiterated almost t.enty years a,art+ can offer si-nificant clues in order to see .!et!er t!e tri--erin- factor of t!ese attitudes in t!e student .orld re,resent s,ontaneous reactions or ,rofound ,!enomena. 2!erefore+ t!e ,resent a,,roac! aimed first to reconstruct t!e facts and context of t!e t.o events: t!eir course and develo,ment+ t!eir causes and t!eir sta7e+ and t!eir effects u,on t!e student .orld+ as .ell. /ased on t!e t.o e,isodes3 si-nification+ t!e second o&9ective .as to ,rovide an analysis of t!e relations &et.een t!e communist re-ime and t!e students. Finally+ a t!ird o&9ective .as to trac7 t!e extent to .!ic! t!e student .orld in Romania !ad set u, an autonomous s,ace for ex,ression in relation to t!e re-ime. Alt!ou-! .e don3t only consider different cities or ,olitical contexts+ &ut also some.!at different causes or sta7es+ t!e similarities &et.een t!e t.o events are easily o&serva&le. Firstly+ &ot! manifestations !ave a s,ontaneous c!aracter and similar develo,ments: t!ey start off as forms of performance+ t!ey ta7e into ,ossession t!e main ur&an sBuares+ only to .ra, u, in dee, confusion and tension. 2!en+ &ot! manifestation lac7 leaders 8 at least formally 8 and t!ey do not !ave martyrs. 4imilarly+ neit!er one ,rotest nor t!e ot!er for.ard ,olitical or -eneral o&9ectives+ even if t!e ,rotesters s!o. messa-es t!at indicate a state of frustration and a need of autonomy. Des,ite all t!ese+ at t!at ,articular time &ot! manifestations !ad &een t!e su&9ect of 5Buasi-,olitical6 inter,retation from t!e ,art of t!e aut!orities. /esides t!ese similarities+ t!ere are ot!er elements t!at unify t!e t.o events and ali-n t!em more clearly to student action in t!e years of t!e Ceauescu re-ime: '. 2!e ,rotests3 mode of o,eration: &ot! ,rotests are .al7in- manifestations. Govin- from one ,lace to anot!er is t!e essential sceno-ra,!ic element for &ot! manifestations+ itinerancy

&ein- a ty,e of ,u&lic dis,lay+ a searc! for allies and a form of ,rotection a-ainst re,ression. It .as also intended to allo. t!e dis,lay of a-e con-enialness. /ut mostly+ nocturnal de,loyments allo. a form of social dissimulation+ of emanci,ation in relation to t!e official+ diurnal constraints. ;. 2!e enactment of t!e t.o ,rotests is &ased as .ell on a fe. common elements: t!e carnivalesBue Dt!e festive+ 9ocular+ loosened atmos,!ere+ Buestionin- t!e social norms and !ierarc!y+ t!e dissimulation re-ardin- any ,olitical intent+ etc.F+ t!e reclaimin- and recovery of certain forms of fol7 lore Dcarollin-+ fol7 son-sF+ launc!in- slo-ans and insolence to.ards aut!orities as forms of s!o.ins,ontaneous co!esion and communion .it! t!e city+ ne-otiations .it! t!e aut!orities and t!e collective confusion at t!e end of &ot! manifestations. =. 2!e a&sence of massive re,ression: in t!e case of &ot! ,rotests+ for t!e first time in its !istory+ t!e re-ime decides to decriminalise t!e ,rotests in favour of t!e ideolo-ical+ administrative and &ureaucratic res,onse. ?. In &ot! situations+ t!e citizens of t!e t.o cities a,,laud t!e manifestations D,ro&a&ly for different reasonsF+ &ut do not ,artici,ate directly. Des,ite t!e similitude+ one cannot invo7e a -enealo-ical connection &et.een t!e t.o ,rotests. Actually+ even if student memory !as some.!at turned t!em into myt!s+ t!e ,ur,ose .as never t!at of an ideolo-ical or intellectual recovery as ,art of collective memory. Also+ .!ile t!e demonstration of /uc!arest !as no concrete claims and no ,articular+ .ell-defined cause+ t!e student ,rotest of Iai seems to !ave an a-enda of some!o. narro.+ &ut s,ecific claims. Finally+ t!e reaction of t!e re-ime .as &roadly similar in t!e t.o cases+ t!ere is !o.ever a num&er of differences in t!eir mode of 5readin-6 t!ese ,rotests: t!us+ .!ile t!e /uc!arest manifestation received a some.!at sociolo-ic inter,retation 8 if not relaxed+ in any case not dramatised+ o&9ect of interest for t!e ,arty !ierarc!y and a ,retext for im,rovin- t!e re-ime efficiency 8 t!e manifestation t!at too7 ,lace in Iai t.enty years later !as &een inter,reted in a diametrically o,,osite manner. Firstly+ t!e Central Committee !as i-nored t!e ,rotest+ .!ile for local ,arty officials t!e ,rotest .as a 7ind of mec!anical incident related to t!e -ood functionin- of t!e social a,,aratus+ !avin- no im,act .!atsoever on t!e system+ .!ile its only ,ossi&le inter,retation .as a form of 9uvenile misconduct. 2!eir &lindness is noticea&ly a si-n of .ea7ness and a testimony of t!e &loc7a-e t!e system .as in durin- t!at ,eriod.

%!ere does t!is im,ression of unity u,on analysin- t!e t.o events come from+ t!enA Definitely+ t!is is an ima-e -enerated &y t!e common constraints+ fears and ex,ectations+ meanin- &y .!at .e mi-!t call t!e s,ecific student context. 2!e first ones to understand+ even -rud-in-ly+ t!at t!e student .orld must &e addressed se,arately in relation to t!e Romanian society of t!e time+ .ere t!e aut!orities in '()*. Ceausescu !imself tries to understand and to ,acify t!is ,eculiar .orld+ usin- ne. means+ .it!out i-norin- t!e undesira&ility of student underta7in-s. @o.ever+ students do not actually exceed t!e red line+ t!ey do not ,ursue t!eir endeavour+ and t!ey do not ,oliticize it. 2!ey seem to acce,t t!e re,ression and es,ecially t!e re-ime3s conclusions. 2!ey are not an autonomous ,erformer. /ut t!ey try to &ecome one at all times. 2!erefore+ .!at .e can call student counterculture in Romania arises in t!e late sixties in an atmos,!ere of freedom offered &y t!e Ceausescu re-ime+ and t!en esca,es !is control in t!e follo.in- decades. It is a s,ecific form of ex,ression: it is not -enuine ad!erence to t!e re-ime+ nor is it o,en revolt+ &ut a mix of ec!oes from %estern counterculture .it! attem,ts of recoverin- 5non-communist6 national traditions+ or+ &etter said+ .it!out a ,ro,a-andistic nature. 2!e main venture of t!is counterculture is not o,,osin- t!e totalitarian re-ime+ &ut rat!er see7in- for s,ecific+ -enerational ex,ression+ a form of aut!enticity at odds .it! t!e more and more a--ressive ,ro,a-anda of t!e Ceausescu re-ime. 2!is counterculture does not directly incentives t!e t.o ,rotests+ &ut -ives t!em a framin- and+ may&e+ certain le-itimacy.

Suggestions $or $urt%er reading Sources nterview with on liescu a!out the attempt of the Young Communist League to support the young people in doing patriotic activities+ Romanian 2elevision+ /roadcast date ''"<>"'()*:!tt,:""....euscreen.eu",lay.9s,A idQEU4RDF(;;>>;F(E<?;>C/0>(D/ACA/C;*D<A

Gi!nea /erindei+ Dorin Do&rincu 1i Armand Jo1u Deds.F+ storia comunismului "n #om$nia% &ocumente 'icolae Ceau(escu )*+,-.*+/*0K@istory of Communism in Romania. Documents $icolae CeauescuL DIai: :olirom+ ;<'=F Ion Iliescu and Sladimir 2ismaneanu Deds.F, 1arele oc din finalul unui secol scurt2 on liescu "n dialog cu 3ladimir Tism4neanu K2!e Jreat 4!oc7 at t!e End of a 4!ort Century. Ion Iliescu in Dialo-ue .it! Sladimir 2ismaneanuL D/uc!arest: Editura Enciclo,edica+ ;<<?F. Gircea 4tTnescu+ Ded.F+ 5rganismele politice rom$ne(ti )*+67.*+,-0% &ocumente privind institu8iile (i practicile KRomanian :olitical #r-anisations+ '(?*-'()=. Documents concernin- Institutions and :racticesL D/ucure1ti: Editura Sremea+ ;<<=F. &ooks Dennis Deletant+ #omania, *+67.*+7+2 9 Historical 5verview D/uc!arest: FundaUia Academia CivicT+ '((0F Dorin Do&rincu+ Cristian Sasile+ Sladimir 2ismTneanu Deds.F+ Ra,ort final al Comisiei Pre:iden8iale pentru 9nali:a &ictaturii Comuniste din #om$nia KFinal Re,ort of :residential Commission for 4tudy of Communist Dictators!i, in RomaniaL D/uc!arest: @umanitas+ ;<<0F: '0)-'(*. Sladimir 2ismTneanu+ Stalinism for 9ll Seasons% 9 Political History of #omanian Communism D/er7eley: University of California :ress+ ;<<=F. Studies and Articles Ioana /oca+ 64tudenUii Vn anii 3><6 K4tudents in ><t!L+ 9nuarul nstitutului #om$n de storie #ecent4+ I D;<<;F no.': ;<0-;?;. Adrian CioflWncT+ 6Re,ere ,entru o istorie a Uniunii 2ineretului Comunist6 K/enc!mar7 for a @istory of Communist out! Xea-ueL+ 9nuarul nstitutului de storie ;9%&% <enopol+ YXIII- YXIS D;<<)-;<<0F: >;0->?*. 4anda I. Ducaru+ 6Reli-ia cincinalT. FuncUiile sTr&Ttorilor comuniste6 KFive- ears Reli-ion. Function of CommunistL+ in: Xucian /oia Ded%F+ 1iturile comunismului rom$nesc D/uc!arest: Editura UniversitTUii+ '((>F: '0;-'*<.

No!anna Jranville+ 6 f Hope is Sin, Then =e 9re 9ll Guilty. Romanian 4tudentsM Reactions to t!e @un-arian Revolution and 4oviet Intervention+ '(>)-'(>*6+ Carl >ec? Paper, no. '(<> DA,ril ;<<*F: '-0*.