Haidt Ch.8 1 1The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom 2006 by Jonathan Haidt.

t. Published by Basic Books. All ri hts reser!ed. Belo" is cha#ter 8 $ro% The Happiness Hypothesis. &o understand it "ithout readin the #re!ious cha#ters you need to kno" that cha#ter 1 described ho" the sel$ is di!ided into #arts that o$ten con$lict. &he central %eta#hor de!elo#ed in that cha#ter is that our %inds are like a rider on an ele#hant. &he rider is our conscious' lin uistic sel$. (t is "hat social #sycholo ists call controlled #rocessin . &he ele#hant is e!erythin else the ))* o$ %ental #rocesses about "hich "e si%#ly can+t be a"are. (t is auto%atic %ental #rocesses. &he rider %ay think he+s in control' but "hene!er the ele#hant really "ants to do so%ethin ' it+s oin to do it. ,eal chan e and ro"th can only co%e $ro% trainin the ele#hant -co!ered in cha#ter 2.. Cha#ter / co!ered reci#rocity' and cha#ter 0 co!ered hy#ocrisy' es#ecially 1the %yth o$ #ure e!il2' "hich is the hu%an tendency to di!ide the "orld into #er$ect ood !ersus #er$ect e!il. 3or %ore in$or%ation' #lease see4 """.ha##inesshy#othesis.co%

Chapter 8: The Felicity of Virtue

It is impossible to live the pleasant life without also living sensibly, nobly and ustly, and it is impossible to live sensibly, nobly and ustly without living pleasantly -5#icurus1. !et your heart on doing good" #o it over and over again, and you will be filled with oy" A fool is happy until his mischief turns against him" And a good man may suffer until his goodness flowers . -Buddha2.

6hen sa es and elders ur e !irtue on the youn ' they so%eti%es sound like snake oil sales%en. &he "isdo% literature o$ %any cultures essentially says' 17ather round8 ( ha!e a tonic that "ill %ake you ha##y' healthy' "ealthy' and "ise8 (t "ill et you into hea!en' and brin you 9oy on earth alon the "ay8 Just be !irtuous82 :oun #eo#le are e;tre%ely ood' thou h' at rollin their eyes and shuttin their ears. &heir interests and desires are o$ten at odds "ith those o$ adults' and they <uickly $ind "ays to #ursue their oals and et the%sel!es into trouble' "hich o$ten beco%es character=buildin ad!enture. Huck 3inn runs a"ay $ro% his $oster %other to ra$t do"n the >ississi#i "ith a runa"ay sla!e? the youn Buddha lea!es his $ather+s #alace to be in his s#iritual <uest in the $orest? @uke Aky"alker abandons his $oster #arents to 9oin the alactic rebellion. All three re9ect the security and %oral uidance o$$ered by adults and set o$$ on their o"n 9ourneys' 9ourneys that %ake each into an adult' co%#lete "ith a set o$ ne" !irtues. &hese hard="on !irtues are es#ecially ad%irable to us as readers because they re!eal a de#th and authenticity o$ character that "e don+t see in the obedient kid "ho si%#ly acce#ts the !irtues #ro#osed by

5#icurus' $rinciple #octrines. (n 5#icurus' 1)6/' #.2)B. #hammapada, sec.)' stanCa 118. &his translation is $ro% Byro%' 1))/. (t has the sa%e %eanin as the translation in >ascaro' but has %uch better $lo".
2

Haidt Ch.8 2 adults. (n this li ht' Ben 3ranklin is su#re%ely ad%irable. Born in Boston in 1B06' he "as a##renticed at the a e o$ t"el!e to his older brother Ja%es' "ho o"ned a #rintin sho#. A$ter %any dis#utes "ith -and beatin s by. his brother' he yearned $or $reedo%' but Ja%es "ould not release hi% $ro% the le al contract o$ his a##renticeshi#. Ao at the a e o$ se!enteen' Ben broke the la" and ski##ed to"n. He ot on a boat to De" :ork and' $ailin to $ind "ork there' ke#t on oin to Philadel#hia. &here he $ound "ork as an a##rentice #rinter and' throu h skill and dili ence' e!entually o#ened his o"n #rint sho# and #ublished his o"n ne"s#a#er. He "ent on to s#ectacular success in business - $oor %ichard&s Almanac' ( a co%#endiu% o$ sayin s and %a;i%s "as a hit in its day.? in science -he #ro!ed that li htnin is electricity' then ta%ed it by in!entin the li htnin rod.? in #olitics -he held too %any o$$ices to na%e.? and in di#lo%acy -he #ersuaded 3rance to 9oin the A%erican colonies+ "ar a ainst Britain' thou h 3rance had little to ain $ro% the enter#rise.. He li!ed to the a e o$ ei hty $our and en9oyed the "hole ride. He took #ride in his scienti$ic disco!eries and ci!ic creations? he basked in the lo!e and estee% o$ 3rance as "ell as o$ A%erica? and e!en as an old %an he relished the attentions o$ "o%en and the art o$ $lirtation. 6hat "as his secretE Firtue. Dot the sort o$ u#ti ht' #leasure=hatin Puritanis% that so%e #eo#le no" associate "ith that "ord' but a broader kind o$ !irtue that oes back to ancient 7reece. &he 7reek "ord arete %eant e;cellence' !irtue' or oodness' es#ecially o$ a $unctional sort. &he arete o$ a kni$e is to cut "ell? the arete o$ an eye is to see "ell? the arete o$ a #erson is... "ell' that+s one o$ the oldest <uestions o$ #hiloso#hy4 "hat is the true nature' $unction' or oal o$ a #erson' relati!e to "hich "e can say that he or she is li!in "ell or badlyE &hus in sayin that "ell bein or ha##iness - eudaimonia. is )an activity of soul in conformity with e*cellence or virtue,+ / Aristotle "asn+t sayin that ha##iness co%es $ro% i!in to the #oor and su##ressin your se;uality. He "as sayin that a ood li$e is one "here you de!elo# your stren ths' realiCe your #otential' and beco%e "hat it is in your nature to beco%e. -Aristotle belie!ed that all thin s in the uni!erse had a telos' or #ur#ose to"ard "hich they ai%ed' e!en thou h he did not belie!e that the ods had desi ned all thin s.. Gne o$ 3ranklin+s %any i$ts "as his e;traordinary ability to see #otential and then realiCe it. He sa" the #otential o$ ha!in #a!ed and li hted streets' !olunteer $ire de#art%ents' and #ublic libraries' and he #ushed to %ake the% all a##ear in Philadel#hia. He sa" the #otential o$ the youn A%erican re#ublic and #layed %any roles in creatin it. And he sa" the #otential in hi%sel$ $or i%#ro!in his "ays' and he set out to do so. (n his late t"enties' as a youn #rinter and entre#reneur' he e%barked on "hat he called a 1bold and arduous #ro9ect o$ arri!in at %oral #er$ection 0.2 He #icked a $e" !irtues he "anted to culti!ate' and he tried to li!e accordin ly. He disco!ered i%%ediately the li%itations o$ the rider4 While my care was employed in guarding against one fault, I was often surprised by another, habit too' the advantage of inattention, inclination was sometimes too strong for reason" I concluded, at length, that the mere speculative conviction that it was our interest to be completely virtuous was not sufficient to prevent our slipping, and that the contrary habits must be bro'en, and good ones ac-uired and established, before we can have any dependence on a
/ 0

Aristotle' .ichomachean /thics' 10)8a. 3ranklin' Autobiography' #.82.

Haidt Ch.8 / steady, uniform rectitude of conduct"0 3ranklin "as a brilliant intuiti!e #sycholo ist. He realiCed that the rider can be success$ul only to the e;tent that it trains the ele#hant -thou h he did not use those ter%s.' so he de!ised a trainin re i%en. He "rote out a list o$ thirteen !irtues' each linked to s#eci$ic beha!iors that he should or should not do. -3or e;a%#le4 1&e%#erance4 5at not to dullness...2? 13ru ality4 >ake no e;#ense but to do ood to others or yoursel$2? 1Chastity4 ,arely use !enery but $or health or o$$s#rin ...2.. He then #rinted $or hi%sel$ a table "ith se!en colu%ns -one $or each day o$ the "eek. and thirteen ro"s -one $or each !irtue.' and he #ut a black s#ot in the a##ro#riate s<uare each ti%e he $ailed to li!e a "hole day in accordance "ith a #articular !irtue. He concentrated on only one !irtue #er "eek' ho#in to kee# its ro" clear o$ s#ots "hile #ayin no s#ecial attention to the other !irtues' thou h he $illed in their ro"s "hene!er !iolations occurred. G!er thirteen "eeks he "orked throu h the "hole table. &hen he re#eated the #rocess' $indin that "ith re#etition' the table ot less and less s#otty. 3ranklin re#orted in his autobio ra#hy that' thou h he $ell $ar short o$ #er$ection' )I was, by the endeavor, a better and a happier man than I otherwise should have been if I had not attempted it"+ He "ent on to say4 )my posterity should be informed that to this little artifice, with the blessing of 1od, their ancestor ow&d the constant felicity of his life, down to his 23th year, in which this is written"+6 6e can+t kno" "hether' "ithout his !irtue table' 3ranklin "ould ha!e been any less ha##y or success$ul' but "e can search $or other e!idence to test his %ain #sycholo ical clai%. &his clai%' "hich ( "ill call the virtue hypothesis' is the sa%e clai% %ade by 5#icurus and the Buddha in the e#i ra#hs that o#en this cha#ter4 culti!atin !irtue "ill %ake you ha##y. &here are #lenty o$ reasons to doubt the !irtue hy#othesis. 3ranklin hi%sel$ ad%itted that he $ailed utterly to de!elo# the !irtue o$ hu%ility' yet he rea#ed reat social ains by learnin to $ake it. Perha#s the !irtue hy#othesis "ill turn out to be true only in a cynical' >achia!ellian "ay4 culti!atin the appearance o$ !irtue "ill %ake you success$ul' and there$ore ha##y' re ardless o$ your true character. The Virtues of the Ancients (deas ha!e #edi rees' ideas ha!e ba a e. 6hen "e 6esterners think about %orality' "e use conce#ts that are thousands o$ years old' but that took a turn in their de!elo#%ent in the last t"o hundred years. 6e don+t realiCe that our a##roach to %orality is odd $ro% the #ers#ecti!e o$ other cultures' or that it is based on a #articular set o$ #sycholo ical assu%#tions a set that no" a##ears to be "ron . 5!ery culture is concerned about the %oral de!elo#%ent o$ its children' and in e!ery culture that le$t us %ore than a $e" #a es o$ "ritin ' "e $ind te;ts that re!eal its a##roach to %orality. A#eci$ic rules and #rohibitions !ary <uite a bit' but the broad outlines o$ these a##roaches ha!e a lot in co%%on. >ost cultures "rote about !irtues to be culti!ated' and %any o$ those !irtues "ere and still are !alued across %ost culturesB -$or e;a%#le' honesty' 9ustice' coura e' bene!olence' sel$=restraint' and res#ect $or authority.. >ost a##roaches then s#eci$ied a reat %any s#eci$ic actions that "ere ood and bad "ith res#ect to those #articular !irtues. >ost a##roaches "ere #ractical' stri!in to inculcate !irtues that "ould
H 6

3ranklin' Autobiography' #.82. 3ranklin' Autobio ra#hy' #.88. B Peterson and Aeli %an' 2000.

Haidt Ch.8 0 bene$it the #erson "ho culti!ates the%. Gne o$ the oldest "orks o$ direct %oral instruction is the Teaching of Amenemope' an 5 y#tian te;t thou ht to ha!e been "ritten around 1/00 BC5. (t be ins by describin itsel$ as 1instruction about li$e2 and as a 1 uide $or "ell=bein '2 #ro%isin that "hoe!er co%%its its lessons to heart "ill 1disco!er ... a treasure house o$ li$e' and your body "ill $lourish u#on earth.2 A%ene%o#e then o$$ers thirty cha#ters o$ ad!ice on ho" to treat other #eo#le' de!elo# sel$=restraint' and $ind success and content%ent in the #rocess. 3or e;a%#le' a$ter re#eatedly ur in honesty' #articularly in res#ectin the boundary %arkers o$ other $ar%ers' the te;t says4 $low your fields, and you&ll find what you need, 4ou&ll receive bread from your threshing floor" 5etter is a bushel given you by god Than five thousand through wrongdoing"""" 5etter is bread with a happy heart Than wealth with ve*ation"8 ($ this last line sounds $a%iliar to you' it is because the biblical book o$ Pro!erbs borro"ed a lot $ro% A%ene%o#e. 3or e;a%#le4 )5etter is a little with the fear of the 6ord than great treasure and trouble with it.2 -Pro!erbs' 1H416. An additional co%%on $eature is that these ancient te;ts rely hea!ily on %a;i%s and role %odels' rather than on #roo$s and lo ic. >a;i%s are care$ully #hrased to #roduce a $lash o$ insi ht and a##ro!al. ,ole %odels are #resented to elicit ad%iration and a"e. 6hen %oral instruction tri ers e%otions' it s#eaks to the ele#hant as "ell as the rider. &he "isdo% o$ Con$ucius and the Buddha' $or e;a%#le' co%es do"n to us as lists o$ a#horis%s so ti%eless and e!ocati!e that #eo#le still read the% today $or #leasure and uidance' re$er to the% as 1"orld"ide la"s o$ li$e )'2 and "rite books about their scienti$ic !alidity. A third $eature o$ %any ancient te;ts is that they e%#hasiCe #ractice and habit' rather than $actual kno"led e. Con$ucius co%#ared %oral de!elo#%ent to learnin ho" to #lay %usic4 10 both re<uire the study o$ te;ts' obser!in role %odels' and %any years o$ #ractice to de!elo# 1!irtuosity.2 Aristotle used a si%ilar %eta#hor4 Men become builders by building houses, and harpists by playing the harp" !imilarly, we grow ust by the practice of ust actions, self7controlled by e*ercising our self7control, and courageous by performing acts of courage"88 &he Buddha o$$ered his $ollo"ers the 15i ht$old Doble Path'2 a set o$ acti!ities that "ill' "ith #ractice' create an ethical #erson -by ri ht s#eech' ri ht action' ri ht li!elihood.' and a %entally disci#lined #erson -by ri ht e$$ort' ri ht %ind$ulness' ri ht concentration.. (n all o$ these "ays' the ancients re!eal a so#histicated understandin o$ %oral #sycholo y'
8 )

(n @ichthei%' 1)B6' #.1H2. &e%#leton' 1))B. 10 Hansen' 1))1. 11 Aristotle' .ichomachean /thics' 110/b.

Haidt Ch.8 H si%ilar to 3ranklin+s. &hey all kne" that !irtue resides in a "ell=trained ele#hant. &hey all kne" that trainin takes daily #ractice and a reat deal o$ re#etition. &he rider %ust take #art in the trainin ' but i$ %oral instruction i%#arts only e*plicit kno"led e -$acts that the rider can state.' then it "ill ha!e no e$$ect on the ele#hant' and there$ore little e$$ect on beha!ior. >oral education %ust also i%#art tacit kno"led e skills o$ social #erce#tion and social e%otion so $inely tuned that one auto%atically feels the ri ht thin in each situation' 'nows the ri ht thin to do' and then wants to do it. >orality' $or the ancients' "as a kind o$ #ractical "isdo%. How the West was Lost &he 6estern a##roach to %orality ot o$$ to a reat start' $ocused' as in other ancient cultures' on !irtues. &he Gld &esta%ent' the De" &esta%ent' Ho%er' and Aeso# all sho" that our $oundin cultures relied hea!ily on #ro!erbs' %a;i%s' $ables' and role %odels to illustrate and teach the !irtues. Plato+s %epublic and Aristotle+s .ichomachean /thics, t"o o$ the reatest "orks o$ 7reek #hiloso#hy' are essentially treatises on the !irtues and their culti!ation. 5!en the 5#icureans' "ho thou ht #leasure "as the oal o$ li$e' belie!ed that #eo#le needed !irtues to culti!ate #leasures. :et contained in these early triu%#hs o$ 7reek #hiloso#hy are the seeds o$ later $ailure. 3irst' the 7reek %ind that a!e us %oral in<uiry also a!e us the be innin s o$ scienti$ic in<uiry' "hose ai% is to search $or the s%allest set o$ la"s that can e;#lain the enor%ous !ariety o$ thin s and e!ents in the "orld. Acience !alues #arsi%ony' but !irtue theories' "ith their lon lists o$ !irtues' "ere ne!er #arsi%onious. Ho" %uch %ore satis$yin it "ould be to the scienti$ic %ind to ha!e a sin le !irtue' #rinci#le' or rule $ro% "hich all other !irtues could be deri!edE Aecond' the "ides#read #hiloso#hical "orshi# o$ reason %ade %any #hiloso#hers unco%$ortable "ith locatin !irtue in habits and $eelin s. Althou h Plato located %ost o$ !irtue in the rationality o$ his charioteer -back in cha#ter 1.' e!en he had to concede that !irtue re<uired the ri ht #assions' so he ca%e u# "ith that co%#licated %eta#hor in "hich one o$ t"o horses contains so%e !irtue "hile the other has none. 3or Plato and %any later thinkers' rationality "as a i$t $ro% the ods' a tool to control our ani%al lusts. ,ationality had to be in char e. &hese t"o seeds the <uest $or #arsi%ony and the "orshi# o$ reason lay dor%ant in the centuries a$ter the $all o$ ,o%e' but they s#routed and bloo%ed in the 5uro#ean 5nli hten%ent o$ the se!enteenth century. As ad!ances in technolo y and co%%erce be an to create a ne" "orld' so%e #eo#le be an to seek rationally 9usti$ied social and #olitical arran e%ents. &he 3rench #hiloso#her ,enI Jescartes' at the be innin o$ this #eriod' "as <uite ha##y to rest his ethical syste% on the bene!olence o$ 7od' but later thinkers sou ht a $oundation $or ethics that did not de#end on di!ine re!elation or on 7od+s en$orce%ent. (t "as as thou h so%ebody had o$$ered a #riCe' like those #riCes that lured early a!iators to undertake darin 9ourneys4 &en thousand Pounds Aterlin to the $irst #hiloso#her "ho can co%e u# "ith a sin le %oral rule' to be a##lied by the #o"er o$ reason' that can cleanly se#arate ood $ro% bad. Had there been such a #riCe' it "ould ha!e one to the 7er%an #hiloso#her (%%anuel Kant. 12 @ike Plato' Kant belie!ed that hu%an bein s ha!e a dual nature4 #art ani%al and #art rational. &he ani%al #art o$ us $ollo"s the la"s o$ nature' 9ust as does a $allin rock or a lion killin its #rey. &here is no
12

Kant' 1)H).

Haidt Ch.8 6 %orality in nature? there is only causality. But the rational #art o$ us' Kant said' can $ollo" a !ery di$$erent kind o$ la"4 it can res#ect rules o$ conduct' and so #eo#le -but not lions. can be 9ud ed %orally $or the de ree to "hich they res#ect the ri ht rules. 6hat %i ht those rules beE Here Kant de!ised the cle!erest trick in all o$ %oral #hiloso#hy. He reasoned that $or %oral rules to be laws' they had to be uni!ersally a##licable. ($ ra!ity "orked di$$erently $or %en and "o%en' or $or (talians and 5 y#tians' "e could not s#eak o$ it as a la". But rather than searchin $or rules to "hich all #eo#le "ould in $act a ree -a di$$icult task' likely to #roduce only a $e" bland eneralities.' Kant turned the #roble% around and said #eo#le should think about "hether the rules uidin their o"n actions could reasonably be proposed as uni!ersal la"s. ($ you are #lannin on breakin a #ro%ise that has beco%e incon!enient' can you really #ro#ose that it be a uni!ersal rule that #eo#le ought to break any #ro%ise that has beco%e incon!enientE &o endorse such a rule "ould be to render all #ro%ises %eanin less. Dor could you consistently "ill that #eo#le cheat' lie' steal' or in any other "ay de#ri!e other #eo#le o$ their ri hts or their #ro#erty' $or such e!ils "ould surely co%e back to !isit you. &his si%#le test' "hich Kant called the 1cate orical i%#erati!e'2 "as e;traordinarily #o"er$ul. ($ o$$ered to %ake ethics a branch o$ a##lied lo ic' thereby i!in it the sort o$ certainty that secular ethics' "ithout recourse to a sacred book' had al"ays $ound elusi!e. G!er the $ollo"in decades' the 5n lish #hiloso#her Jere%y Bentha% challen ed Kant $or the -hy#othetical. #riCe. 6hen Bentha% beca%e a la"yer in 1B6B' he "as a##alled by the co%#le;ities and ine$$iciencies o$ 5n lish la". He set out' "ith ty#ical enli hten%ent boldness' to reconcei!e the entire le al and le islati!e syste%' statin clear oals and then #ro#osin the %ost rational %eans o$ achie!in those oals. &he ulti%ate oal o$ all le islation' he concluded' "as the ood o$ the #eo#le? and the %ore ood' the better. Bentha% "as the $ather o$ utilitarianis%' the doctrine that in all decision %akin -le al and #ersonal.' our oal should be to #roduce the %a;i%u% total bene$it -utility.' "ithout %uch concern $or "ho ets the bene$it.1/ &he ar u%ent bet"een Kant and Bentha% has continued e!er since. Jescendants o$ Kant -kno"n as 1deontolo ists2 $ro% the 7reek deon L obli ation. try to elaborate the duties and obli ations that ethical #eo#le %ust res#ect' e!en "hen their actions lead to bad outco%es -$or e;a%#le' you %ust ne!er kill an innocent #erson' e!en i$ doin so "ill sa!e a hundred li!es.. Jescendants o$ Bentha% -kno"n as conse<uentialists' because they e!aluate actions only by their conse<uences. try to "ork out the rules and #olicies that "ill brin about the reatest ood' e!en "hen doin so "ill so%eti%es !iolate other ethical #rinci#les - o ahead and kill the one to sa!e the hundred' they say' unless it "ill set a bad e;a%#le that leads to later #roble%s.. Jes#ite their %any di$$erences' ho"e!er' the t"o ca%#s a ree in i%#ortant "ays. &hey both belie!e in #arsi%ony4 decisions should be based ulti%ately on a sin le #rinci#le' be it the cate orical i%#erati!e or the %a;i%iCation o$ utility. &hey both insist that only the rider can %ake such decisions' because %oral decision %akin re<uires lo ical reasonin and so%eti%es e!en %athe%atical calculation. &hey both distrust intuitions and ut $eelin s' "hich they see as obstacles to ood reasonin . And they both shun the #articular in $a!or o$ the abstract4 you don+t need a rich' thick descri#tion o$ the #eo#le in!ol!ed' or o$ their belie$s and cultural traditions. :ou 9ust need a $e" $acts' #lus a ranked list o$ their
1/

Bentha%' 1))6M18;;

Haidt Ch.8 B likes and dislikes -i$ you are a utilitarian.. (t doesn+t %atter "hat country or historical era you are in? it doesn+t %atter "hether the #eo#le in!ol!ed are your $riends' your ene%ies' or co%#lete stran ers. &he %oral la"' like a la" o$ #hysics' "orks the sa%e $or all #eo#le at all ti%es. &hese t"o #hiloso#hical a##roaches ha!e %ade enor%ous contributions to le al and #olitical theory and #ractice' hel#in to create societies that res#ect indi!idual ri hts -Kant. "hile still "orkin e$$iciently $or the ood o$ the #eo#le ->ill.. But these ideas ha!e also #er%eated 6estern culture %ore enerally' "here they ha!e had so%e unintended conse<uences. &he #hiloso#her 5d%und Pinco$$s 10 has ar ued that conse<uentialists and deontolo ists "orked to ether to con!ince 6esterners in the 20th century that %orality is the study o$ %oral <uandaries and dile%%as. 6here the 7reeks $ocused on the character o$ a #erson and asked "hat kind o$ #erson "e should each ai% to beco%e' %odern ethics $ocuses on actions' askin "hen a #articular action is ri ht or "ron . Philoso#hers "restle "ith li$e or death dile%%as4 kill one to sa!e $i!eE Allo" aborted $etuses to be used as a source o$ ste% cellsE ,e%o!e the $eedin tube $ro% a "o%an "ho has been unconscious $or $i$teen yearsE Don=#hiloso#hers "restle "ith s%aller <uandaries4 Pay %y ta;es "hen others are cheatin E &urn in a "allet $ull o$ %oney' "hich a##ears to belon to a dru dealerE &ell %y s#ouse about a se;ual indiscretionE &his turn $ro% character ethics to <uandary ethics has turned %oral education a"ay $ro% !irtues and to"ard %oral reasonin . ($ %orality is about dile%%as' then %oral education is trainin in #roble% sol!in . Children %ust be tau ht ho" to think about %oral #roble%s' es#ecially ho" to o!erco%e their natural e ois% and take into their calculations the needs o$ others. As the Nnited Atates beca%e %ore ethnically di!erse in the 1)B0s and 1)80s' and also %ore a!erse to authoritarian %ethods o$ education' the !ery idea o$ teachin s#eci$ic %oral $acts and !alues "ent out o$ $ashion. (nstead' the rationalist le acy o$ <uandary ethics a!e us teachers and %any #arents "ho "ould enthusiastically endorse this line' $ro% a recent child=rearin handbook4 1>y a##roach does not teach children "hat and "hat not to do and "hy' but rather' it teaches the% ho" to think so they can decide $or the%sel!es "hat and "hat not to do' and "hy.1H1 ( belie!e that this turn $ro% character to <uandary "as a #ro$ound %istake' $or t"o reasons. 3irst' it "eakens %orality and li%its its sco#e. 6here the ancients sa" !irtue and character at "ork in e!erythin a #erson does' our %odern conce#tion con$ines %orality to a set o$ situations that %ay arise $or each #erson only a $e" ti%es in any i!en "eek4 tradeo$$s bet"een sel$=interest and the interests o$ others. (n our thin and restricted %odern conce#tion' a %oral #erson is one "ho i!es to charity' hel#s others' #lays by the rules' and in eneral does not #ut his or her o"n sel$=interest too $ar ahead o$ others+. >ost o$ the acti!ities and decisions o$ li$e are there$ore insulated $ro% %oral concern. 6hen %orality is reduced to the o##osite o$ sel$=interest' ho"e!er' the !irtue hy#othesis beco%es #arado;ical4 in %odern ter%s' the !irtue hy#othesis says that actin a ainst your sel$ interest is in your sel$=interest. (tOs hard to con!ince #eo#le that this is true' and it canOt #ossibly be true in all cases. (n his ti%e' Ben 3ranklin had a

Pinco$$s' 1)86. >. B. Aure' 1,aisin a &hinkin Child 6orkbook2' retrie!ed $ro%4 """.thinkin child.co% on 0M1HM0H
1H

10

Haidt Ch.8 8 %uch easier task "hen he e;tolled the !irtue hy#othesis. @ike the ancients' he had a thicker' richer notion o$ !irtues as a arden o$ e;cellences that a #erson culti!ated to beco%e %ore e$$ecti!e and a##ealin to others. Aeen in this "ay' !irtue is' ob!iously' its o"n re"ard. 3ranklin+s e;a%#le i%#licitly #osed this <uestion $or his conte%#oraries and his descendants4 Are you "illin to "ork no" $or your o"n later "ell=bein ' or are you so laCy and short si hted that you "on+t %ake the e$$ortE &he second #roble% "ith the turn to %oral reasonin is that it relies on bad #sycholo y. >any %oral education e$$orts since the 1)B0s take the rider o$$ o$ the ele#hant and train hi% to sol!e #roble%s on his o"n. 6ith hours o$ case studies and classroo% discussions about %oral dile%%as' and "ith !ideos about #eo#le "ho $aced dile%%as and %ade the ri ht choices' the child learns ho" -not "hat. to think. &hen class ends' the rider ets back on the ele#hant' and nothin chan es at recess. &ryin to %ake children beha!e ethically by teachin the% to reason "ell is like tryin to %ake a do ha##y by "a in its tail. (t ets causality back"ards. Jurin %y $irst year o$ raduate school at the Nni!ersity o$ Pennsyl!ania ( disco!ered the "eakness o$ %oral reasonin in %ysel$. ( read a "onder$ul book $ractical /thics by the Princeton #hiloso#her Peter Ain er16. Ain er' a hu%ane conse<uentialist' sho"s ho" "e can a##ly a consistent concern $or the "el$are and su$$erin o$ others to resol!e %any ethical #roble%s o$ daily li$e. Ain er+s a##roach to the ethics o$ killin ani%als chan ed $ore!er %y thinkin about %y $ood choices. Ain er #ro#oses and 9usti$ies a $e" uidin #rinci#les4 3irst' it is "ron to cause #ain and su$$erin to any sentient creature' so current $actory $ar%in %ethods are unethical. Aecond' it is "ron to take the li$e o$ a sentient bein that has so%e sense o$ identity and attach%ents' so killin ani%als "ith lar e brains and hi hly de!elo#ed social li!es -such as other #ri%ates and %ost other %a%%als. is "ron ' e!en i$ they could be raised in an en!iron%ent they en9oyed and "ere then killed #ainlessly. Ain er+s clear and co%#ellin ar u%ents con!inced %e on the s#ot' and since that day ( ha!e been %orally o##osed to all $or%s o$ $actory $ar%in . >orally o##osed' but not beha!iorally o##osed. ( lo!e the taste o$ %eat' and the only thin that chan ed in the $irst si; %onths a$ter readin Ain er is that ( thou ht about %y hy#ocrisy each ti%e ( ordered a ha%bur er. But then' durin %y second year o$ raduate school' ( be an to study the e%otion o$ dis ust' and ( "orked "ith Paul ,oCin' one o$ the $ore%ost authorities on the #sycholo y o$ eatin . ,oCin and ( "ere tryin to $ind !ideo cli#s to elicit dis ust in the e;#eri%ents "e "ere #lannin ' and "e %et one %ornin "ith a research assistant "ho sho"ed us so%e !ideos he had $ound. Gne o$ the% "as Faces of #eath' a co%#ilation o$ real and $ake !ideo $oota e o$ #eo#le bein killed. -&hese scenes "ere so disturbin that "e could not ethically use the%.. Alon "ith the !ideota#ed suicides and e;ecutions' there "as a lon se<uence shot inside a slau hter house. ( "atched in horror as co"s' %o!in do"n a dri##in disasse%bly line' "ere blud eoned' hooked' and sliced u#. A$ter"ard' ,oCin and ( "ent to lunch to talk about the #ro9ect. 6e both ordered !e etarian %eals. 3or days a$ter"ard' the si ht o$ red %eat %ade %e <ueasy. >y !isceral $eelin s no" %atched the belie$s Ain er had i!en %e. &he ele#hant no" a reed "ith the rider' and ( beca%e a !e etarian. 3or about three "eeks. 7radually' as the dis ust $aded' $ish and chicken re=entered %y diet. &hen red %eat did too' althou h e!en no"' ei hteen years later' ( still eat less red %eat and choose non=$actory $ar%ed %eats "hen they are a!ailable.
16

Ain er' 1)B).

Haidt Ch.8 ) &hat e;#erience tau ht %e an i%#ortant lesson. ( think o$ %ysel$ as a $airly rational #erson. ( $ound Ain er+s ar u%ents #ersuasi!e. But' to #ara#hrase >edea+s la%ent -$ro% cha#ter 1.4 ( sa" the ri ht "ay and a##ro!ed it' but $ollo"ed the "ron ' until an e%otion ca%e alon to #ro!ide so%e $orce. The Virtues of Positive Psychology &he cry that "e+!e lost our "ay is #robably heard $ro% so%e <uarter in e!ery country and era' but it has been #articularly loud in the Nnited Atates since the social tur%oil o$ the 1)60s and the econo%ic %alaise and risin cri%e o$ the 1)B0s. Political conser!ati!es' #articularly those "ith stron reli ious belie$s' bridled both at the 1!alue=$ree2 a##roach to %oral education and at the oal o$ 1e%#o"erin 2 children to think $or the%sel!es' rather than teachin the% $acts and !alues to think about. (n the 1)80s these conser!ati!es there$ore challen ed the education establish%ent by #ushin $or character education #ro ra%s in schools' and by ho%e=schoolin their o"n children. Also in the 1)80s' se!eral #hiloso#hers hel#ed to re!i!e !irtue theories. >ost notably Alasdair >ac(ntyre ar ued in After 9irtue1B that the enli hten%ent #ro9ect o$ creatin a uni!ersal' conte;t=$ree %orality "as doo%ed $ro% the be innin . Cultures that ha!e shared !alues and rich traditions in!ariably enerate a $ra%e"ork in "hich #eo#le can !alue and e!aluate each other. Gne can easily talk about the !irtues o$ a #riest' a soldier' a %other' or a %erchant in the conte;t o$ $ourth=century BC5 Athens. Atri# a"ay all identity and conte;t' ho"e!er' and there is little to rab on to. Ho" %uch can you say about the !irtues o$ a eneraliCed Ho%o Aa#iens' $loatin in s#ace "ith no #articular se;' a e' occu#ation' or cultureE &he %odern re<uire%ent that ethics i nore #articularity is "hat a!e us our "eaker %orality a##licable e!ery"here' but ri##in no"here. >ac(ntyre says that the loss o$ a lan ua e o$ !irtue' rounded in #articular traditions' %akes it di$$icult $or us to $ind %eanin ' coherence' and #ur#ose in li$e18. (n recent years' e!en #sycholo y has beco%e in!ol!ed. (n 1))8 >artin Aeli %an $ounded #ositi!e #sycholo y "hen he asserted that #sycholo y had lost its "ay. Psycholo y had beco%e obsessed "ith #atholo y and the dark side o$ hu%an nature' and blind to all that "as ood and noble in #eo#le. Aeli %an noted that #sycholo ists had created an enor%ous %anual' kno"n as the JA> -the #iagnostic and !tatistical Manual of Mental #isorders.' to dia nose e!ery #ossible %ental illness' character de$ect' or beha!ioral annoyance' but #sycholo y didn+t e!en ha!e a lan ua e "ith "hich to talk about the u##er reaches o$ hu%an health' talent' or #ossibility. 6hen Aeli %an launched #ositi!e #sycholo y' one o$ his $irst oals "as to create a dia nostic %anual $or the stren ths and !irtues. He and another #sycholo ist' Chris Peterson o$ the Nni!ersity o$ >ichi an' set out to construct a list o$ the stren ths and !irtues' one that %i ht be !alid $or any hu%an culture. ( ar ued "ith the% that the list did not ha!e to be !alid $or all cultures to be use$ul' so they should $ocus 9ust on lar e=scale industrial societies. Ae!eral anthro#olo ists told the% that a uni!ersal list could ne!er be created. 3ortunately' ho"e!er' they #erse!ered. As a $irst ste#' Peterson and Aeli %an sur!eyed e!ery list o$ !irtues they could $ind' $ro% the holy books o$ e!ery %a9or reli ion do"n to the Boy Acout Gath -1trust"orthy' loyal' hel#$ul' $riendly....2.. &hey %ade lar e tables o$ !irtues and tried to see "hich ones "ere co%%on across lists.
1B 18

>ac(ntyre' 1)81. Aee also &aylor' 1)8).

Haidt Ch.8 10 6hile no s#eci$ic !irtue %ade e!ery list' si; broad !irtues' or $a%ilies o$ related !irtues' a##eared on nearly all lists4 "isdo%' coura e' hu%anity' 9ustice' te%#erance' and transcendence -the ability to $or e connections to so%ethin lar er than the sel$.. &hese !irtues are "idely endorsed because they are abstract4 there are %any "ays to be "ise' or coura eous' or hu%ane' and it is i%#ossible to $ind a hu%an culture that re9ects all $or%s o$ any o$ these !irtues. -Can "e e!en i%a ine a culture in "hich #arents ho#e that their children "ill ro" u# to be $oolish' co"ardly' and cruelE. But the real !alue o$ the list o$ si; is that it ser!es as an or aniCin $ra%e"ork $or %ore s#eci$ic strengths of character. Peterson and Aeli %an de$ine character stren ths as s#eci$ic "ays o$ dis#layin ' #racticin ' and culti!atin the !irtues. &here are se!eral #aths to each !irtue. Peo#le' as "ell as cultures' !ary in the de ree to "hich they !alue each #ath. &his is the real #o"er o$ the classi$ication4 it #oints to s#eci$ic %eans o$ ro"th to"ard "idely !alued ends' "ithout insistin that any one "ay is %andatory $or all #eo#le at all ti%es. &he classi$ication is a tool both $or dia nosin #eo#le+s di!erse stren ths and $or hel#in the% $ind "ays to culti!ate e;cellence. Peterson and Aeli %an su est that there are t"enty $our #rinci#le character stren ths' each leadin to one o$ the si; hi her le!el !irtues1). :ou can dia nose yoursel$ by lookin at the list belo"' or by takin the stren ths test that ( %entioned in cha#ter H -at """.authenticha##iness.or .. I Wis!o"4 -1. Curiosity' -2. @o!e o$ learnin ' -/. Jud %ent' -0. (n enuity' -H. 5%otional intelli ence' -6. Pers#ecti!e. II Courage4 -B. Falor' -8. Perse!erance' -). (nte rity. III Hu"anity4 -10. Kindness' -11. @o!in . IV #ustice4 -12. CitiCenshi#' -1/. 3airness' -10. @eadershi#. V Te"perance4 -1H. Ael$=control' -16. Prudence' -1B. Hu%ility. VI Transcen!ence4 -18. A##reciation o$ beauty and e;cellence' -1). 7ratitude' -20. Ho#e' -21. A#irituality' -22. 3or i!eness' -2/. Hu%or' -20. Pest. Gdds are that you don+t ha!e %uch trouble "ith the list o$ si; !irtue $a%ilies' but you #robably do ha!e ob9ections to the list o$ t"enty $our stren ths. 6hy is hu%or a %eans to transcendenceE 6hy is leadershi# on the list' but not the !irtues o$ $ollo"ers and subordinates duty' res#ect' and obedienceE Please' o ahead and ar ue. &he enius o$ Peterson and Aeli %an+s classi$ication is to et the con!ersation oin ' to #ro#ose a s#eci$ic list o$ stren ths and !irtues' and then let the scienti$ic and thera#eutic co%%unities "ork out the details. Just as the JA> ets thorou hly re!ised e!ery ten or $i$teen years' the classi$ication o$ stren ths and !irtues -kno"n collo<uially as the 1un=JA>2. is sure to be re!ised and i%#ro!ed in a $e" years. (n darin to be s#eci$ic' in darin to be "ron ' Peterson and Aeli %an ha!e de%onstrated in enuity' !alor' leadershi#' and ho#e. @et us then be rate$ul' because this classi$ication is already eneratin e;citin research and liberatin ideas. Here+s %y $a!orite idea4 "ork on your stren ths' not your "eaknesses. Ho" %any o$ your De" :ear+s resolutions ha!e been about $i;in a $la"E And ho" %any o$ those resolutions ha!e you %ade se!eral years in a ro"E (t+s di$$icult to chan e any as#ect o$ your #ersonality by sheer $orce o$ "ill'
1)

Peterson and Aeli %an' 2000.

Haidt Ch.8 11 and i$ it is a "eakness you choose to "ork on' you #robably "on+t en9oy the #rocess. ($ you don+t $ind #leasure or rein$orce%ent alon the "ay' then unless you ha!e the "ill#o"er o$ Ben 3ranklin == you+ll soon i!e u#. But you don+t really ha!e to be ood at e!erythin . @i$e o$$ers so %any chances to use one tool instead o$ another' and o$ten you can use a stren th to et around a "eakness. (n the #ositi!e #sycholo y class ( teach at the Nni!ersity o$ Fir inia' the $inal #ro9ect is to %ake yoursel$ a better #erson' usin all the tools o$ #sycholo y' and then #ro!e that you ha!e done so. About hal$ o$ the students each year succeed' and the %ost success$ul ones usually either used co niti!e beha!ioral thera#y on the%sel!es -it really does "ork8. or e%#loyed a stren th' or both. 3or e;a%#le' one student la%ented her inability to $or i!e. Her %ental li$e "as do%inated by ru%inations about ho" those to "ho% she "as closest had hurt her. 3or her #ro9ect' she dre" on her stren th o$ lo!in 4 each ti%e she $ound hersel$ s#iralin do"n into thou hts about !icti%hood she brou ht to %ind a #ositi!e %e%ory about the #erson in <uestion' "hich tri ered a $lash o$ a$$ection. 5ach $lash cut o$$ her an er and $reed her' te%#orarily' $ro% ru%ination. (n ti%e this e$$ort$ul %ental #rocess beca%e habitual and she beca%e %ore $or i!in -as she de%onstrated "ith an analysis o$ the re#orts she had $illed out each day to chart her #ro ress.. &he rider had trained the ele#hant "ith re"ards at each ste#. Another outstandin #ro9ect "as done by a "o%an "ho had 9ust had sur ery $or brain cancer. At the a e o$ t"enty one' Julia $aced no better than e!en odds o$ sur!i!in . &o deal "ith her $ears' she culti!ated one o$ her stren ths Cest. Ahe %ade lists o$ all the acti!ities oin on at the uni!ersity' and o$ all the beauti$ul hikes and #arks in the nearby Blue ,id e >ountains. Ahe shared these lists "ith the rest o$ the class' she took ti%e a"ay $ro% her studies to o on these hikes' and she in!ited $riends and class%ates to 9oin her. Peo#le o$ten say that ad!ersity %akes the% "ant to li!e each day to the $ullest' and "hen Julia %ade a conscious e$$ort to culti!ate her natural stren th o$ Cest' she really did it. -Ahe is still $ull o$ Cest' t"o years later.. Firtue sounds like hard "ork' and o$ten is. But "hen !irtues are re=concei!ed as e;cellences' each o$ "hich can be achie!ed by the #ractice o$ se!eral stren ths o$ character' and "hen the #ractice o$ these stren ths is o$ten intrinsically re"ardin ' suddenly the "ork sounds %ore like CsiksCent%ihalyi+s $lo" and less like toil. (t+s "ork that like Aeli %an+s descri#tion o$ rati$ications in cha#ter H en a es you $ully' dra"s on your stren ths' and allo"s you to lose sel$=consciousness and i%%erse yoursel$ in "hat you are doin . 3ranklin "ould be #leased4 the !irtue hy#othesis is ali!e and "ell' $ir%ly ensconced in #ositi!e #sycholo y. Har! $uestion% &asy Answers Firtue can be its o"n re"ard' but that+s only ob!ious $or the !irtues that one $inds re"ardin . ($ your stren ths include curiosity or lo!e o$ learnin ' then you+ll en9oy culti!atin "isdo% by tra!elin ' oin to %useu%s' or attendin #ublic lectures. ($ your stren ths include ratitude and a##reciation o$ beauty' then the $eelin s o$ transcendence you et $ro% conte%#latin the 7rand Canyon "ill i!e you #leasure too. But it "ould be nai!e to think that doin the ri ht thin al"ays $eels ood. &he real test o$ the !irtue hy#othesis is to see i$ it is true e!en on our restricted %odern understandin o$ %orality as altruis%. 3or et all that stu$$ about ro"th and e;cellence. (s it true that actin a ainst %y sel$ interest' $or the ood o$ others' e!en "hen ( don+t "ant to' is still ood $or %eE Aa es and %oralists ha!e al"ays

Haidt Ch.8 12 ans"ered "ith an un<uali$ied yes' but the use$ulness o$ their ans"ers has !aried. &he challen e $or science is to <uali$y4 "hen is it true' and "hyE ,eli ion and science each be in "ith an easy and unsatis$yin ans"er' but then %o!e on to %ore subtle and interestin e;#lanations. 3or reli ious sa es' the easy "ay out is to in!oke di!ine reci#rocity in the a$terli$e. Jo ood' because 7od "ill #unish the "icked and re"ard the !irtuous. 3or Christians' there+s Aaint Peter at the Pearly 7ates. Hindus ha!e the i%#ersonal "orkin s o$ kar%a4 the uni!erse "ill re#ay you in the ne;t li$e "ith a hi her or lo"er rebirth' based on your !irtue in this li$e. (+% in no #osition to say "hether 7od' hea!en' or an a$terli$e e;ists' but as a #sycholo ist ( a% entitled to #oint out that belie$ in #ost=%orte% 9ustice sho"s t"o si ns o$ #ri%iti!e %oral thinkin . (n the 1)20s' the reat de!elo#%ental #sycholo ist Jean Pia et 20 ot do"n on his knees to #lay %arbles and 9acks "ith children and' in the #rocess' %a##ed out ho" %orality de!elo#s. He $ound that' as children de!elo# an increasin ly so#histicated understandin o$ ri ht and "ron ' they o throu h a #hase in "hich %any rules take on a kind o$ sacredness and unchan eability. Jurin this #hase' kids belie!e in 1i%%anent 9ustice2 9ustice that is inherent in an act itsel$. Kids in this sta e think that i$ they break rules' e!en accidentally' so%ethin bad "ill ha##en to the%' e!en i$ nobody kno"s about their trans ression. (%%anent 9ustice sho"s u# in adults' too' #articularly "hen it co%es to e;#lainin illness and ra!e %is$ortune. A sur!ey21 o$ belie$s about the causes o$ illness across cultures sho"s that the three %ost co%%on e;#lanations are bio%edical -re$errin to #hysical causes o$ disease.' inter#ersonal -illness is caused by "itchcra$t' related to en!y and con$lict.' and %oral -illness is caused by one+s o"n #ast actions' #articularly !iolations o$ $ood and se;ual taboos.. >ost 6esterners consciously e%brace the bio%edical e;#lanation and re9ect the other t"o' yet "hen illness strikes and 6esterners ask 1"hy %eE2 one o$ the #laces they o$ten look $or ans"ers is to their o"n #ast trans ressions. &he belie$ that 7od or $ate "ill dole out re"ards and #unish%ents $or ood and bad beha!ior see%s on its $ace to be a cos%ic e;tension o$ our childhood belie$ in i%%anent 9ustice' "hich is itsel$ a #art o$ our obsession "ith reci#rocity -cha#ter /.. &he second #roble% "ith #ost=%orte% 9ustice is that it relies on the %yth o$ #ure e!il -cha#ter 0.. 5ach o$ us can easily di!ide the "orld into ood and e!il' but #resu%ably 7od "ould not su$$er $ro% the %any biases and >achia!ellian %oti!ations that %ake us do so. >oral %oti!ations -9ustice' honor' loyalty' #atriotis%. enter into %ost acts o$ !iolence' includin terroris% and "ar. >ost #eo#le belie!e their actions are %orally 9usti$ied. A $e" #ara ons o$ e!il stand out as candidates $or Hell' but al%ost e!eryone else "ould end u# in li%bo. (t 9ust "on+t "ork to turn 7od into Aanta Claus' a %oral accountant kee#in track o$ si; billion accounts' because %ost li!es can+t be #laced de$initi!ely in the nau hty or nice colu%ns. &he scienti$ic a##roach to the <uestion also be ins "ith an easy and unsatis$yin ans"er4 !irtue is ood $or your enes under so%e circu%stances. Gnce 1sur!i!al o$ the $ittest2 ca%e to %ean 1sur!i!al o$ the $ittest ene'2 it beca%e easy to see that the $ittest enes "ould %oti!ate kind and coo#erati!e beha!iors in t"o cases4 "hen it bene$itted those "ho bore a co#y o$ those enes -that is' kin.' or "hen it bene$itted the bearers o$ the enes directly by hel#in the% to rea# the sur#lus o$ non=Cero=su% a%es
20 21

Pia et' 1)6HM1)/2. Ah"eder' >uch' >aha#atra and Park' 1))B.

Haidt Ch.8 1/ usin the tit=$or=tat strate y. &hese t"o #rocesses kin altruis% and reci#rocal altruis% do indeed e;#lain nearly all altruis% a%on non=hu%an ani%als' and %uch o$ hu%an altruis% too. &his ans"er is unsatis$yin ' ho"e!er' because our enes are' to so%e e;tent' #u##et %asters %akin us "ant thin s that are so%eti%es ood $or the% but bad $or us -such as e;tra%arital a$$airs' or #resti e bou ht at the e;#ense o$ ha##iness.. 6e cannot look to enetic sel$=interest as a uide either to !irtuous or to ha##y li!in . 3urther%ore' anyone "ho does e%brace reci#rocal altruis% as a ustification $or altruis% -rather than %erely a cause o$ it. "ould then be $ree to #ick and choose4 be nice to those "ho can hel# you' but don+t "aste ti%e or %oney on anyone else -$or e;a%#le' ne!er lea!e a ti# in restaurants you "ill not return to.. Ao to e!aluate the idea that altruis% #ays $or the altruist' "e+re oin to ha!e to #ush the sa es and the scientists harder4 does it e!en #ay "hen there is neither #ost=%orte% nor reci#rocal #aybackE Har! $uestion% Har! Answers At. Paul <uotes Jesus as ha!in said 1it is more blessed to give than to receive+ -Acts 204/H.. Gne %eanin o$ 1bless2 is 1to con$er ha##iness or #ros#erity u#on.2 22 Joes hel#in others really con$er ha##iness or #ros#erity on the hel#erE ( kno" o$ no e!idence sho"in that altruists ain %oney $ro% their altruis%' but the e!idence su ests that they do ain ha##iness. Peo#le "ho do !olunteer "ork are ha##ier and healthier than those "ho don+t' but' as al"ays' "e ha!e to contend "ith the #roble% o$ re!erse correlation4 con enitally ha##y #eo#le are 9ust #lain nicer to be in "ith' 2/ so their !olunteer "ork %ay be a conse<uence o$ their ha##iness' not a cause. &he ha##iness=as=cause hy#othesis recei!ed direct su##ort "hen the #sycholo ist Alice (sen20 "ent around Philadel#hia lea!in di%es in #ay#hones. &he #eo#le "ho used those #hones and $ound those di%es "ere then %ore likely to hel# a #erson "ho dro##ed a stack o$ #a#ers -care$ully ti%ed to coincide "ith the #hone caller+s e;it.' co%#ared "ith #eo#le "ho used #hones "ithout e;tra di%es. (sen has done %ore rando% acts o$ kindness than any other #sycholo ist4 she has distributed cookies' ba s o$ candy' and #acks o$ stationery? she has %ani#ulated the outco%e o$ !ideo a%es -to let #eo#le "in.? and she has sho"n #eo#le ha##y #ictures' al"ays "ith the sa%e $indin 4 ha##y #eo#le are kinder and %ore hel#$ul than those in the control rou#. 6hat "e need to $ind' ho"e!er' is the re!erse e$$ect4 that altruistic acts directly cause ha##iness andMor other lon =ter% bene$its. (s the A%erican ,ed Cross tellin the truth "hen its ads say 17i!e blood? all you+ll $eel is oodE2 &he #sycholo ist Jane Pilia!in has studied blood donors in detail and $ound that' yes' i!in blood does indeed %ake #eo#le $eel ood' and ood about the%sel!es. Pilia!in 2H has re!ie"ed the broader literature on all kinds o$ !olunteer "ork and reached the conclusion that hel#in others does hel# the sel$' but in co%#le; "ays that de#end on one+s li$e sta e. ,esearch on 1ser!ice learnin '2 in "hich -%ostly. hi h school students do !olunteer "ork as #art o$ a course' and en a e in rou# re$lection on "hat they are doin ' #ro!ides enerally encoura in results4 reduced delin<uency and beha!ioral #roble%s' increased ci!ic #artici#ation' and increased co%%it%ent to #ositi!e social !alues. Ho"e!er'

6ebster+s De" Colle iate Jictionary' 1)B6. @yubo%irsky' Kin ' Q Jiener' in #ress. 20 (sen and @e!in' 1)B2. &here are li%its on this e$$ect' such as "hen the hel#in "ill ruin the ha##y %ood' (sen and Ai%%onds' 1)B8. 2H Pilia!in' 200/.
2/

22

Haidt Ch.8 10 these #ro ra%s do not a##ear to ha!e %uch e$$ect on the sel$=estee% or ha##iness o$ the adolescents in!ol!ed. 3or adults' the story is a bit di$$erent. A lon itudinal study 26 that tracked !olunteerin and "ell= bein o!er %any years in thousands o$ #eo#le "as able to sho" a causal e$$ect4 "hen a #erson increased !olunteer "ork' all %easures o$ ha##iness and "ell=bein increased -on a!era e. a$ter"ards' $or as lon as the !olunteer "ork "as a #art o$ the #erson+s li$e. &he elderly bene$it e!en %ore than do adults' #articularly "hen their !olunteer "ork either in!ol!es direct #erson=to=#erson hel#in ' or is done throu h a reli ious or aniCation. &he bene$its o$ !olunteer "ork $or the elderly are so lar e that they e!en sho" u# in i%#ro!ed health and lon er li$e. Ate#hanie Bro"n and her collea ues at the Nni!ersity o$ >ichi an $ound strikin e!idence o$ such e$$ects "hen they e;a%ined data $ro% a lar e lon itudinal study o$ older %arried cou#les.2B &hose "ho re#orted i!in %ore hel# and su##ort to s#ouses' $riends and relati!es "ent on to li!e lon er than those "ho a!e less -e!en a$ter controllin $or $actors such as health at the be innin o$ the study #eriod.' "hereas the a%ount o$ hel# that #eo#le re#orted recei!in sho"ed no relationshi# to lon e!ity. Bro"n+s $indin sho"s <uite directly that' at least $or older #eo#le' it really is %ore blessed to i!e than to recei!e. &his #attern o$ a e=related chan e su ests that t"o o$ the bi bene$its o$ !olunteer "ork are that it brin s #eo#le to ether' and it hel#s the% to construct a >cAda%s=style li$e story -see cha#ter B.. Adolescents are already i%%ersed in a dense net"ork o$ social relationshi#s' and they are 9ust barely be innin to construct their li$e stories' so they don+t %uch need either o$ these bene$its. 6ith a e' ho"e!er' one+s story be ins to take sha#e' and altruistic acti!ities add de#th and !irtue to one+s character. (n old a e' "hen social net"orks are thinned by the death o$ $riends and $a%ily' the social bene$its o$ !olunteerin are stron est -and indeed' it is the %ost socially isolated elderly "ho bene$it the %ost $ro% !olunteerin 28.. 3urther%ore' in old a e' enerati!ity' relationshi#' and s#iritual stri!in s co%e to %atter %ore "hile achie!e%ent stri!in s see% out o$ #lace 2) %ore a##ro#riate $or the %iddle cha#ters so any acti!ity that lets one 1 i!e so%ethin back2 $its ri ht into the story and hel#s to cra$t a satis$yin conclusion. The Future of Virtue Acienti$ic research su##orts the !irtue hy#othesis' e!en "hen it is reduced to the clai% that altruis% is ood $or you. 6hen it is e!aluated in the "ay that Ben 3ranklin %eant it' as a clai% about !irtue %ore broadly' it beco%es so #ro$oundly true that it raises the <uestion "hether the cultural conser!ati!es are correct in their criti<ue o$ %odern li$e and its restricted' #er%issi!e %orality. Ahould "e in the 6est try to return to a %ore !irtue=based %oralityE ( belie!e that "e ha!e indeed lost so%ethin i%#ortant a richly te;tured co%%on ethos "ith "idely shared !irtues and !alues. Just "atch %o!ies $ro% the 1)/0s and 1)00s and you+ll see #eo#le %o!in around in a dense "eb o$ %oral $ibers4 #eo#le are concerned about their honor' their re#utation' and the a##earance o$ #ro#riety. Children are $re<uently disci#lined by adults other than their #arents.
26 2B

&hoits and He"itt' 2001. Bro"n' Desse' Finokur and A%ith' 200/. 28 Pilia!in' 200/. 2) 5%%ons' 200/.

Haidt Ch.8 1H &he ood uys al"ays "in' and cri%e ne!er #ays. (t %ay sound stu$$y and constrainin to us no"' but that+s the #oint4 so%e constraint is ood $or us? absolute $reedo% is not. Jurkhei%' the sociolo ist "ho $ound that $reedo% $ro% social ties is correlated "ith suicide' also a!e us the "ord anomie -nor%lessness.. Ano%ie is the condition o$ a society in "hich there are no clear rules' nor%s' or standards o$ !alue/0. (n an ano%ic society' #eo#le can do as they #lease' but "ithout any clear standards or res#ected social institutions to en$orce those standards' it is harder $or #eo#le to $ind anythin they "ant to do. Ano%ie breeds $eelin s o$ rootlessness and an;iety' and leads to an increase in a%oral and antisocial beha!ior. >odern sociolo ical research stron ly su##orts Jurkhei%4 one o$ the best #redictors o$ the health o$ an A%erican nei hborhood is the de ree to "hich adults res#ond to the %isdeeds o$ other #eo#le+s children/1' rather than look the other "ay. 6hen co%%unity standards are en$orced' there is constraint and coo#eration. 6hen e!eryone %inds his or her o"n business' there is $reedo% and ano%ie. >y collea ue at the Nni!ersity o$ Fir inia' the sociolo ist Ja%es Hunter' carries Jurkhei%+s ideas $or"ard into the current debate o!er character education. (n his #ro!ocati!e book' The #eath of :haracter,/2 Hunter traces out ho" A%erica lost its older ideas about !irtue and character. Be$ore the industrial re!olution' A%ericans honored the !irtues o$ 1#roducers2 hard "ork' sel$=restraint' sacri$ice $or the $uture' and sacri$ice $or the co%%on ood. But durin the t"entieth century' as #eo#le beca%e "ealthier and the #roducer society turned radually into the %ass consu%#tion society' an alternati!e !ision o$ the sel$ arose a !ision centered on the idea o$ indi!idual #re$erences and #ersonal $ul$ill%ent. &he intrinsically %oral ter% 1character2 $ell out o$ $a!or and "as re#laced by the a%oral ter% 1#ersonality.2 Hunter #oints to a second cause o$ character+s death4 inclusi!eness. &he $irst A%erican colonists created encla!es o$ ethnic' reli ious' and %oral ho%o eneity' but the history o$ A%erica e!er since has been one o$ increasin di!ersity. (n res#onse' educators ha!e stru led to identi$y the e!er=shrinkin set o$ %oral ideas e!eryone could a ree u#on. &his shrinkin reached its lo ical conclusion in the 1)60s "ith the #o#ular 1!alues clari$ication2 %o!e%ent' "hich tau ht no %orality at all. ,ather' it tau ht children ho" to $ind their o"n !alues' and it ur ed teachers to re$rain $ro% i%#osin !alues on anyone. 6hile the oal o$ inclusi!eness "as laudable' it had unintended side e$$ects4 it cut children o$$ $ro% the soil o$ tradition' history' and reli ion that nourished older conce#tions o$ !irtue. :ou can ro" !e etables hydro#onically' but e!en then you ha!e to add %any nutrients to the "ater. Askin children to ro" !irtues hydro#onically' lookin only "ithin the%sel!es $or uidance' is like askin the% each to in!ent their o"n lan ua e. 5!en i$ they could do it' the resultin isolation "ould be cri##lin . ( belie!e Hunter+s analysis is correct' but ( a% not yet con!inced that "e are "orse o$$' o!erall' "ith our restricted %odern %orality. Gne thin that o$ten distresses %e in old %o!ies and tele!ision #ro ra%s' e!en u# throu h the 1)60s' is ho" li%ited "ere the li!es o$ "o%en and A$rican=A%ericans. 6e ha!e #aid a #rice $or our inclusi!eness' but "e ha!e bou ht oursel!es a %uch %ore hu%ane society' "ith %uch reater o##ortunity $or A$rican=A%ericans' "o%en' ay #eo#le' the handica##ed' and others that is' $or %ost #eo#le. And e!en i$ so%e #eo#le think the #rice "as too stee#' it doesn+t %atter. 6e
/0 /1

Jurkhei%' 1)H1. Aa%#son' 1))/. /2 Hunter' 2000.

Haidt Ch.8 16 can+t o back' either to a #re=consu%er society or to ethnically ho%o eneous encla!es. All "e can do is search $or "ays that "e %i ht reduce our ano%ie "ithout e;cludin lar e classes o$ #eo#le. Bein neither a sociolo ist nor an e;#ert in education #olicy' ( "ill not try to reco%%end #olicy chan es or to desi n a radical ne" a##roach to %oral education. ,ather' ( "ill #resent one $indin $ro% %y o"n research on di!ersity. &he "ord 1di!ersity2 took on its current role in A%erican discourse only a$ter a 1)B8 Au#re%e Court rulin -NC ,e ents !. Bakke. that the use o$ racial #re$erences to achie!e racial <uotas at uni!ersities "as unconstitutional' but that it "as #er%issible to use racial #re$erences to increase di!ersity in the student body. Aince then' di!ersity has been "idely celebrated' on bu%#er stickers' in ca%#us di!ersity days' and in ad!ertise%ents. 3or %any liberals' di!ersity has beco%e an un<uestioned ood like 9ustice' $reedo%' and ha##iness' the %ore di!ersity' the better. >y research on %orality' ho"e!er' s#urred %e to <uestion it. 7i!en ho" easy it is to di!ide #eo#le into hostile rou#s based on tri!ial di$$erences //' ( "ondered "hether celebratin di!ersity %i ht also encoura e di!ision' "hile celebratin co%%onality "ould hel# #eo#le $or% cohesi!e rou#s and co%%unities. ( <uickly realiCed that there are t"o %ain kinds o$ di!ersity de%o ra#hic and %oral. Je%o ra#hic di!ersity is about socio=de%o ra#hic cate ories such as race' ethnicity' se;' se;ual orientation' a e' and handica##ed status. Callin $or de%o ra#hic di!ersity is in lar e %easure callin $or 9ustice' $or the inclusion o$ #re!iously e;cluded rou#s. >oral di!ersity' on the other hand' is essentially "hat Jurkhei% described as ano%ie4 a lack o$ consensus on %oral nor%s and !alues. Gnce you %ake this distinction' you see that nobody can coherently e!en want %oral di!ersity. ($ you are #ro=choice on the issue o$ abortion' "ould you prefer that there be a "ide !ariety o$ o#inions and no do%inant oneE Gr "ould you rather that e!eryone a ree "ith you and the la"s o$ the land re$lect that a ree%entE ($ you #re$er di!ersity on an issue' then the issue is not a %oral issue $or you? it is a %atter o$ #ersonal taste. 6ith %y students Holly Ho% and 5!an ,osenber ' ( conducted a study a%on se!eral rou#s at the Nni!ersity o$ Fir inia. 6e $ound/0 that there "as stron su##ort a%on students $or increasin di!ersity $or de%o ra#hic cate ories -such as race' reli ion' and social class.' e!en a%on students "ho described the%sel!es as #olitically conser!ati!e. >oral di!ersity -o#inions about contro!ersial #olitical <uestions.' ho"e!er' "as %uch less a##ealin in %ost conte;ts' "ith the interestin e;ce#tion o$ se%inar classes. Atudents "anted to be e;#osed to %oral di!ersity in class' but not in the #eo#le they li!e "ith and socialiCe "ith. Gur conclusion $ro% this study is that di!ersity is like cholesterol4 there+s a ood kind and a bad kind' and #erha#s "e should not be tryin to %a;i%iCe both. @iberals are ri ht to "ork $or a society that is o#en to #eo#le o$ e!ery de%o ra#hic rou#' but conser!ati!es %i ht be ri ht that at the sa%e ti%e' "e should "ork %uch harder to create a co%%on' shared identity. 6hile ( %ysel$ a% a #olitical liberal' ( belie!e that conser!ati!es ha!e a better understandin o$ %oral de!elo#%ent -althou h not o$ %oral #sycholo y in eneral they are %uch too co%%itted to the %yth o$ #ure e!il.. Conser!ati!es "ant schools to teach thin s that "ill create a #ositi!e and uni<uely A%erican identity' includin a hea!y dose o$ A%erican history and ci!ics' usin 5n lish as the only national lan ua e. @iberals are 9usti$iably "ary o$ 9in ois%' nationalis%' and the $ocus on books by 1dead "hite %ales'2 but ( think e!eryone "ho cares about education should re%e%ber that the A%erican %otto o$ e pluribus, unum -$ro% %any' one. has t"o
// /0

&a9$el' 1)82. Haidt' ,osenber and Ho%' 200/.

Haidt Ch.8 1B #arts. &he celebration o$ pluribus should be balanced by #olicies that stren then the unum. >aybe it+s too late. >aybe in the hostility o$ the current culture "ar' no one can $ind any !alue in the ideas o$ the other side. Gr %aybe "e can turn $or instruction to that reat %oral e;e%#lar' Ben 3ranklin. ,e$lectin u#on the "ay history is dri!en $or"ard by #eo#le and #arties $i htin each other bitterly in #ursuit o$ their sel$=interest' 3ranklin #ro#osed creatin a 1Nnited Party $or Firtue.2 &his #arty' co%#osed o$ #eo#le "ho had culti!ated !irtue in the%sel!es' "ould act only 1"ith a !ie" to the ood o$ %ankind.2 Perha#s that "as nai!e e!en in 3ranklin+s day' and it see%s unlikely that these 1 ood and "ise %en2 "ould $ind it as easy to a ree on a #lat$or% as 3ranklin su##osed. Donetheless' 3ranklin %ay be ri ht that leadershi# on !irtue can ne!er co%e $ro% the %a9or #olitical actors? it "ill ha!e to co%e $ro% a %o!e%ent o$ #eo#le' such as the #eo#le o$ a to"n "ho co%e to ether and a ree to create %oral coherence across the %any areas o$ children+s li!es. Auch %o!e%ents are ha##enin no". &he de!elo#%ental #sycholo ist 6illia% Ja%on/H calls the% 1youth charter2 %o!e%ents' $or they in!ol!e the coo#eration o$ all #arties to childrearin #arents' teachers' coaches' reli ious leaders' and the children the%sel!es "ho co%e to consensus on a 1charter2 describin the co%%unity+s shared understandin s' obli ations' and !alues and co%%ittin all #arties to e;#ect and u#hold the sa%e hi h standards o$ beha!ior in all settin s. >aybe youth charter co%%unities can+t ri!al the %oral richness o$ ancient Athens' but they are doin so%ethin to reduce their o"n ano%ie "hile $ar e;ceedin Athens in 9ustice.

/H

Ja%on' 1))B.

Haidt Ch.8 18 'eferences Aristotle. -1)62.. .ichomachean ethics.->. Gs"ald' &rans... (ndiana#olis' (D4 Bobbs=>errill.-Gri inal "ork #ublished c. //0 BC5.. Bentha%' J. -1))6M18;;.. An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. G;$ord4 Clarendon. Bro"n' A. @.' Desse' ,. >.' Finokur' A. J.' Q A%ith' J. >. -200/.. Pro!idin social su##ort %ay be %ore bene$icial than recei!in it4 ,esults $ro% a #ros#ecti!e study o$ %ortality. $sychological !cience, 8;' /20=/2B. Byro%' &. -5d... -1))/.. #hammapada: The sayings of the 5uddha. Boston4 Aha%bhala. Ja%on' 6. -1))B.. The youth charter: How communities can wor' together to raise standards for all our children. De" :ork4 3ree Press. Jurkhei%' 5. -1)H1.. !uicide De" :ork4 &he 3ree Press.-Gri inal "ork #ublished 5%%ons' ,. A. -200/.. Personal oals' li$e %eanin ' and !irtue4 6ells#rin s o$ a #ositi!e li$e. (n C. @. >. Keyes Q J. Haidt -5ds..' Flourishing: $ositive psychology and the life well7lived -##. 10H= 128.. 6ashin ton JC4 A%erican Psycholo ical Association. 5#icurus. -1)6/.. The philosophy of /picurus.-7. K. Atrodach' &rans... Chica o4 Dorth"estern Nni!ersity Press.-Gri inal "ork #ublished c. 2)0 BC5.. 3ranklin' B. -1)62.. Autobiography of 5en amin Fran'lin. De" :ork4 >ac>illan. Haidt' J.' ,osenber ' 5.' Q Ho%' H. -200/.. Ji$$erentiatin di!ersities4 >oral di!ersity is not like other kinds. <ournal of Applied !ocial $sychology, ==' 1=/6. Hansen' C. -1))1.. Classical Chinese 5thics. (n P. Ain er -5d..' A companion to ethics -##. 6)=81.. G;$ord' NK4 G;$ord. Hunter' J. J. -2000.. The death of character: Moral education in an age without good and evil . De" :ork4 Basic. (sen' A. >.' Q @e!in' P. 3. -1)B2.. 5$$ect o$ $eelin ood on hel#in 4 Cookies and kindness. <ournal of $ersonality and !ocial $sychology, >8' /80=/88. (sen' A. >.' Q Ai%%onds' A. -1)B8.. &he e$$ect o$ $eelin ood on a hel#in task that is inco%#atible "ith ood %ood. !ocial $sychology, ;8' /06=/0). Kant' (. -1)H).. 3oundation o$ the %eta#hysics o$ %orals. (ndiana#olis4 Bobbs=>errill. @ichthei%' >. -1)B6.. Ancient egyptial literature: A boo' of readings" 9ol" II: The new 'ingdom . Berkeley' CA4 Nni!ersity o$ Cali$ornia. @yubo%irsky' A.' Kin ' @.' Q Jiener' 5. -in #ress.. &he bene$its o$ $re<uent #ositi!e a$$ect4 Joes ha##iness lead to successE $sychological 5ulletin. >ac(ntyre' A. -1)81.. After virtue. Dotre Ja%e4 Nni!ersity o$ Dotre Ja%e Press. Peterson' C.' Q Aeli %an' >. 5. P. -2000.. :haracter strengths and virtues: A handboo' and classification. 6ashin ton JC4 A%erican Psycholo ical Association' and G;$ord Nni!ersity Press. Pia et' J. -1)6HM1)/2.. The moral udgement of the child. De" :ork4 3ree Press. Pilia!in' J. A. -200/.. Join "ell by doin ood4 Bene$its $or the bene$actor. (n C. @. >. Keyes Q J. Haidt -5ds..' Flourishing: $ositive psychology and the life well7lived -##. 22B=20B.. 6ashin ton JC4 A%erican Psycholo ical Association.

Haidt Ch.8 1) Pinco$$s' 5. @. -1)86.. ?uandaries and virtues: Against reductivism in ethics. @a"rence' Kansas4 Nni!ersity o$ Kansas. Aa%#son' ,. J. -1))/.. 3a%ily %ana e%ent and child de!elo#%ent4 (nsi hts $ro% social disor aniCation theory. (n J. >cCord -5d..' Advances in criminological theory -Fol. 6' ##. 6/=)/.. De" Bruns"ick' DJ4 &ransaction Press. Ah"eder' ,. A.' >uch' D. C.' >aha#atra' >.' Q Park' @. -1))B.. &he Rbi threeR o$ %orality -autono%y' co%%unity' and di!inity.' and the Rbi threeR e;#lanations o$ su$$erin . (n A. Brandt Q P. ,oCin -5ds..' Morality and Health -##. 11)=16).. De" :ork4 ,outled e. Ain er' P. -1)B).. $ractical ethics. Ca%brid e4 Ca%brid e Nni!ersity Press. &a9$el' H. -1)82.. Aocial #sycholo y o$ inter rou# relations. Annual %eview of $sychology, ==' 1=/). &aylor' C. -1)8).. !ources of the self: The ma'ing of the modern identity. Ca%brid e' >A4 Har!ard. &e%#leton' J. >. -1))B.. Worldwide laws of life: >@@ eternal spiritual principles. Philadel#hia4 &e%#leton 3oundation Press. &hoits' P. A.' Q He"itt' @. D. -2001.. Folunteer "ork and "ell=bein . <ournal of Health and !ocial 5ehavior, ;>' 11H=1/1.