Failure Theories

Why do mechanical components fail? Mechanical components fail because the applied stresses exceeds the materials strength (Too simple). What kind of stresses cause failure? Under any load combination, there is always a combination of normal and shearing stresses in the material.

What is the definition of Failure? Obviously fracture but in some components yielding can also be considered as failure, if yielding distorts the material in such a way that it no longer functions properly Which stress causes the material to fail? Usually ductile materials are limited by their shear strengths. While brittle materials (ductility < 5%) are limited by their tensile strengths. Stress at which point?

Stress at which point?

Failure Theories Load type Uniaxial Biaxial Pure Shear Material Property Ductile Brittle Application of Stress Static Dynamic

Static Loading Maximum Normal Stress Modified Mohr Yield strength Maximum shear stress Distortion energy

Dynamic Loading Goodman Gerber Soderberg

Static Failure Theories

The idea behind the various classical failure theories is that whatever is responsible for failure in the standard tensile test will also be responsible for failure under all other conditions of static loading.

Ductile Material Characteristic Yield Stress Failure Stress Important Theories

Brittle Material Ultimate Stress

1. Maximum Shear Stress 1. Maximum Normal Stress 2. Maximum Octahedral Shear Stress 2. Modified Mohr.

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

Ductile Materials
Failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in the part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile test specimen (of the same material) at yield. Hence in a tensile test,

max =

Sy 2

For a general state of stresses 1 3 S y max = = 2 2 This leads to an hexagonal failure envelop. A stress system in the interior of the envelop is considered SAFE

The Maximum Shear Stress Theory for Ductile Materials is also known as the Tresca Theory. for design purposes, the failure relation can be modified to include a factor of safety (n):

n=

Sy

1 3

Several cases can be analyzed in plane stress problems: Case 1: 1 2 0 In this case 3=0 1 3 1 S y max = = =
1 S y
2 2 2

Case 2: 1 0 3
Yielding condition

max =

1 3

2 1 3 S y

Sy 2

Distortion Energy Theory

Based on the consideration of angular distortion of stressed elements. The theory states that failure occurs when the distortion strain energy in the material exceeds the distortion strain energy in a tensile test specimen (of the same material) at yield.

Resilience
Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to have this energy recovered. Modulus of resilience Ur If it is in a linear elastic region,

U r = d
0

1 1 y y = U r = y y = y 2 2 E 2E

1 For general 3-D stresses: u = ( 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 ) 2 Applying Hookes Law u = 1 2 + 2 + 2 2 ( + + ) 1 2 3 1 2 2 3 3 1 2E

There are two components in this energy a mean component and deviatoric component.

M =

1 + 2 + 3
3

x + y + z
3
3, D = 3 M

1, D = 1 M

2, D = 2 M

The energy due to the mean stress (it gives a volumetric change but not a distortion:
u Mean u Mean 1 2 2 2 = M +M +M 2 ( M M + M M + M M ) 2E 1 1 2 2 2 2 ( ) = 3 M 1 2 = 1 + 2 + 32 + 2 1 2 + 2 2 3 + 2 3 1 2E 6E

u D = u u Mean

1 + 2 2 = 1 + 2 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1 3E

)
)

Compare the distortion energy of a tensile test with the distortion energy of the material.

uTensile

1 + 2 1 + 2 2 = S y = uD = 1 + 2 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1 3E 3E

2 S y = 12 + 2 + 32 1 2 2 3 3 1

S y = 12 + 32 3 1

Plane Stress

Von Mises effective stress : Defined as the uniaxial tensile stress that creates the same distortion energy as any actual combination of applied stresses.

This simplifies the approach since we can use the following failure criterion

VM S y
n= Sy

VM

VM =

2 2 2 ) ( ) ( ) + + + 6 + + x y y z z x xy yz zx 2 2 2

2
2 2

2 VM = x + y x y + 3 xy

2D

Case of Pure Shear

VM = 3 xy S y Max =
Sy 3 = 0.577 S y

Brittle Materials
Several theories have been developed to describe the failure of brittle materials, such as: Maximum Normal Stress Theory Coulomb-Mohr Theory Modified-Mohr Theory

Maximum Normal Stress Theory

Failure occurs when one of the three principal stresses reaches a permissible strength (TS). Failure is predicted to occur when 1=St and 2<-Sc Where St and Sc are the tensile and compressive strength For a biaxial state of stresses -Sc St 1 St

1 > 2
2

-Sc

Coulomb-Mohr Theory or Internal Friction Theory (IFT)

This theory is a modification of the maximum normal stress theory in the which the failure envelope is constructed by connecting the opposite corners of quadrants I and III.

The result is an hexagonal failure envelop. Similar to the maximum shear stress theory but also accounts for the uneven material properties of brittle material

Mohrs Theory
The theory predicts that a material will fail if a stress state is on the envelope that is tangent to the three Mohrs circles corresponding to: a. uni-axial ultimate stress in tension, b. uni-axial ultimate stress in compression, and c. pure shear.

Modified Mohrs Theory

2 1 1 C T

This theory is a modification of the Coulomb-Mohr theory and is the preferred theory for brittle materials.

Maximum Normal-Strain Theory

Also known as the Saint-Venants Theory. Applies only in the elastic range. Failure is predicted to occur if 1 2 = S y Where Sy is the yield strength. For a biaxial state of stress

or
2 Sy

2 1 = S y

-Sy

Sy

-Sy

Maximum Strain-Energy Theory

Yielding is predicted to occur when the total strain energy in a given volume is greater than or exceeds the strain energy in the same volume corresponding to the yield strength in tension or compression. The strain energy stored per unit volume (us) during uniaxial loading is In a biaxial state of stress

us =
+

2 Sy

u =

1 1
2

2 2
2

2 E

1 2 u = 12 + 2 2 1 2 2E
This theory is no longer used

Example:
Given the material SY , x , v and xy find the safety factors for all the applicable criteria. a. Pure aluminum SY = 30 MPa x = 10 MPa y = 10 MPa xy = 0 MPa

1 = 10 MPa

3 = 10 MPa

Is Al ductile or brittle?

Max = 10 MPa Ductile

Use either the Maximum Shear Stress Theory (MSST) or the Distortion Theory (DT)

-10

10

MSST Theory Sy 30 30 n= = = = 1.5 1 3 10 (10) 20

2 DT Theory VM = x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy = 300 = 17.32 MPa

n=

Sy

VM

30 MPa = 1.73 17.32 MPa

b. 0.2%C Carbon Steel

SY = 65 Ksi x = 5 Ksi y = 35 Ksi xy = 10 Ksi

In the plane XY the principal stresses are 1.973Ksi and -38.03Ksi with a maximum shear stress in the XY plane of 18.03Ksi In any orientation 1 = 0 Ksi 2 = 1.973Ksi 3 = 38.03Ksi

Max = 19.01Ksi
65 = = 1.71 MSST Theory n = 1 3 0 (38.03)
VM = 12 + 3 2 1 3 = 38.03Ksi
n= Sy

Sy

Ductile

DT Theory

VM

65 Ksi = = 1.71 38.03MPa

C. Gray Cast Iron

Sut = 30 Ksi S uc = 120 Ksi x = 35 Ksi y = 10 Ksi xy = 0 Ksi

1 = 10 Ksi 2 = 0 Ksi 3 = 35 Ksi Max = 22.5Ksi

-35 10 Brittle Use Maximum Normal Stress Theory (MNST), Internal Friction Theory (IFT), Modified Mohr Theory (MMT)

MNST Theory (tensile)

30 n= = = 3.0 1 10 120 n= = = 3.4 3 35 Suc

Sut

MNST Theory (compression)

IFT

1 0 3 0 4th _ quadrant
line _ equation S uc 3 = Suc + 1 S ut

2 1 1 C T

1 1 3 10 35 = 0.625 = = n Sut Suc 30 120 n = 1.6 MMT

1 0 3 0 4th _ quadrant
S ut 1 S uc S ut 1 3 = S uc S ut n S uc S ut 30 1 (120)(30) 10 (35) = n (120 30) 120 30
1 = 0.54 n n = 1.84

Example 1 The cantilever tube shown is to be made of 2014 aluminum alloy treated to obtain a specified minimum yield strength of 276MPa. We wish to select a stock size tube (according to the table below). Using a design factor of n=4. The bending load is F=1.75kN, the axial tension is P=9.0kN and the torsion is T=72N.m. What is the realized factor of safety? Consider the critical area ( top surface).

P Mc x = + A I
Maximum bending moment = 120F

d 120mm 1.75kNx 9kN 2 x = + A I d 72 Tr 2 36d = zx = = J J J

VM = ( + 3
2 x

2 zx

VM

Sy n

0.276 GPa = 0.0690GPa 4

For the dimensions of that tube

n= Sy

VM

0.276 = 4.57 0.06043

Example 2: A certain force F is applied at D near the end of the 15-in lever, which is similar to a socket wrench. The bar OABC is made of AISI 1035 steel, forged and heat treated so that it has a minimum (ASTM) yield strength of 81kpsi. Find the force (F) required to initiate yielding. Assume that the lever DC will not yield and that there is no stress concentration at A. Solution: 1) Find the critical section The critical sections will be either point A or Point O. As the moment of inertia varies with r4 then point A in the 1in diameter is the weakest section.

2) Determine the stresses at the critical section

d M My 2 32 F 14in x = = = 142.6 F = 4 3 d d I 64

3) Chose the failure criteria.

d T Tr 2 16 F 15in = = 76.4 F zx = = 4 3 The AISI 1035 is a d (1in) J ductile material. Hence, 32 we need to employ the
distortion-energy theory.
2 2 2 VM = x 2 + y 2 x y + 3 xy = x + 3 zx = 194.5 F

F=

Sy

VM

81000 = = 416lbf 194.5

Apply the MSS theory. For a point undergoing plane stress with only one non-zero normal stress and one shear stress, the two nonzero principal stresses (A and B) will have opposite signs (Case 2).

max =

A B
2

x 2 = = + zx 2 2 Sy
2 2

x 2 2 2 = x + 4 zx A B S y = 2 + zx 2 81000 = (142.6 F ) + 4 (76.4 F )

2

F = 388lbf

Example 3: A round cantilever bar is subjected to torsion plus a transverse load at the free end. The bar is made of a ductile material having a yield strength of 50000psi. The transverse force (P) is 500lb and the torque is 1000lb-in applied to the free end. The bar is 5in long (L) and a safety factor of 2 is assumed. Transverse shear can be neglected. Determine the minimum diameter to avoid yielding using both MSS and DET criteria. Solution 1) Determine the critical section The critical section occurs at the wall.

d PL Mc 2 32 PL x = = = 4 d I d 3 64

xy

d T Tc 2 16T = 3 = = 4 d J d 32

1, 2 =

x + y 2

x y 2
2

2 ( ) + xy 2

2 = x x + ( xy ) 2 2
2

1, 2 1, 2

16 PL 16 16 PL 16T = + 3 = 3 3 3 d d d d 16 2 = 3 500 5 (500 5) + 1000 2 d

PL

(PL )2 + T 2

26450 1 = d3 26450 1 = d3
MSS

980.8 2 = 3 d 980.8 3 = 3 d 1 3
2

The stresses are in the wrong order.. Rearranged to

MAX =

1 3 = 2 MAX
d 1 . 031 in

26450 ( 980 . 8 ) 13715 . 4 = = 3 d3 2d Sy 50000 = = 25 , 000 n 2

26450 980.8 26450 980.8 VM = 12 + 3 2 1 3 = 3 + 3 3 3 d d d d DET 26950 S y 50000 = VM = 3 n 2 d d 1.025in

Example 4:

In the wheel suspension of a car, the spring motion is provided by a torsion bar fastened to the arm on which the wheel is mounted. The torque in the torsion bar is created by the 2500N force acting on the wheel from the ground through a 300mm long lever arm. Because of space limitations, the bearing holding the torsion bar is situated 100mm from the wheel shaft. The diameter of the torsion bar is 28mm. Find the stresses in the torsion bar at the bearing by using the DET theory.

Solution The stresses acting on a torsion bar are:

d ( F arm _ length)( ) 2 = 32 (2500 0.3)(0.014 ) Pa = 174 MPa 1. Torsion = Tc = d 4 J (0.028)4 32 d (F bearing _ length ) 2. bending Mc 2 = 64 (2500 0.1)(0.014) Pa = 116MPa = = d 4 I (0.028)4 64

The principal stresses are:

1, 2 =
x + y 2

x y 2
2

2 ( ) + xy

2 = x x + ( xy ) 2 2
2

116.0 116.0 2 ( ) 1, 2 = + 174 . 0 2 2 1 = 241.4MPa 2 = 125.4 MPa

DET

VM = 1 + 3 1 3 =
2 2

(241.4) + ( 125.4) (241.4)( 125.4)

2 2

VM = 322.6MPa
MSS

Sy n

241.4 ( 125.4 ) = 183.4 MPa Max = = 2 2 SY 2 Max = 366.8MPa n

1 3

Example 5: The factor of safety for a machine element depends on the particular point selected for the analysis. Based upon the DET theory, determine the safety factor for points A and B. This bar is made of AISI 1006 cold-drawn steel (Sy=280MPa) and it is loaded by the forces F=0.55kN, P=8.0kN and T=30N.m
d Solution: Fl Mc P P 32 Fl 4 P 2 + = + 2 = + 2 Point A x = 4 3 d d I Area d d 64 4

32(0.55) 103 (0.1) 4(8) 103 x = + = 95.49 MPa 3 2 (0.02) (0.02)

( )

( )

 xy
VM =
n= Sy

Tr 16T 16(30) = = 3 = = 19.10 MPa 3 J d (0.020 )

2 x

+ 3

2 xy

) = [95.49

+ 3(19.1)

= 101.1MPa

VM

280 = = 2.77 101.1

Point B

4 P 4(8) 103 x = 2 = = 25.47 MPa 2 d (0.02)

( )

xy

16T 4V 16(30) 4(0.55) 103 = 21.43MPa = 3+ = + 3 d 3 A (0.02 ) 2 3 (0.02) 4

( )

VM = 25.47 + 3(21.43)
2

= 45.02 MPa

280 = 6.22 n= 45.02