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EC2151 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES
UNIT-I CIRCUIT ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
Ohm`s Law
Temperature remaining constant, the potential difference (E) across the ends of a
conductor is proportional to the current (I) flowing through it.
Mathematically, V=IR
Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
The alge!raic sum of all currents entering and e"iting a node must e#ual $ero
Iin = Iout
%imilarly, at any instant the alge!raic sum of all the currents at any circuit node is $ero.
SI 0
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
The alge!raic sum of all &oltages in a loop must e#ual $ero
E = IZ
%imilarly, t any instant the alge!raic sum of all the &oltages around any closed circuit is $ero'
E - IZ = 0

Series and Parallel Resistor Combinations
There are two !asic ways in which to connect more than two circuit components'
%eries and (arallel.
) *or analysis, series resistors+impedances can !e replaced !y an e#ui&alent resistor+
impedance.
) (arallel resistors+impedances can !e replaced !y an e#ui&alent resistor+ impedance.
Series Resistance
Two elements are in series if the current that flows through one must also flow
through the other.

Req is e#ui&alent to the resistor networ, on the left in the sense that they ha&e the
same i-v characteristics.
R
-
R
.
%ERIE% Req R1 + R2 + R3
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Parallel Resistance
Two elements are in parallel if they are connected !etween (share) the same two
(distinct) end nodes.
Inductors
Series and parallel inductances

/here, 0 = Inductance in henrys
Capacitors
Series and Parallel Capacitances
/here, 1 = 1apacitance in farads
Mesh current method
The Mesh Current Method uses simultaneous e#uations, 2irchhoff3s Voltage 0aw,
and 4hm3s 0aw to determine un,nown currents in a networ,. It differs from the 5ranch
1urrent method in that it does not use 2irchhoff3s 1urrent 0aw, and it is usually a!le to
sol&e a circuit with less un,nown &aria!les and less simultaneous e#uations.
Steps to follow for the .Mesh Current method of analysis:
-. 6raw mesh currents in loops of circuit, enough to account for all components.
.. 0a!el resistor &oltage drop polarities !ased on assumed directions of mesh currents.
7. /rite 2V0 e#uations for each loop of the circuit, su!stituting the product IR for E
in each resistor term of the e#uation. /here two mesh currents intersect through a
component, e"press the current as the alge!raic sum of those two mesh currents.
8. %ol&e for un,nown mesh currents (simultaneous e#uations).
9. If any solution is negati&e, then the assumed current direction is wrong:
R
-
R
.
7 . -
- - - -
R R R R
eq
+ + = (;R;00E0
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<. ;lge!raically add mesh currents to find current in components sharing multiple
mesh currents.
=. %ol&e for &oltage drops across all resistors (E=IR).
Node voltage method
The node &oltage method of analysis sol&es for un,nown &oltages at circuit nodes
in terms of a system of 210 e#uations. This analysis loo,s strange !ecause it in&ol&es
replacing &oltage sources with e#ui&alent current sources.
Node voltage rules:
-. 1on&ert &oltage sources in series with a resistor to an e#ui&alent current source
with the resistor in parallel.
.. 1hange resistor &alues to conductance.
7. %elect a reference node(E>)
8. ;ssign un,nown &oltages (E-)(E.) ... (E?)to remaining nodes.
9. /rite a 210 e#uation for each node -,., ... ?. The positi&e coefficient of the first
&oltage in the first e#uation is the sum of conductances connected to the node.
Repeat for coefficient of second &oltage, second e#uation, and other e#uations.
These coefficients fall on a diagonal.
<. ;ll other coefficients for all e#uations are negati&e, representing conductances
!etween nodes. The first e#uation, second coefficient is the conductance from node
- to node ., the third coefficient is the conductance from node - to node 7. *ill in
negati&e coefficients for other e#uations.
=. The right hand side of the e#uations is the current source connected to the
respecti&e nodes.
@. %ol&e system of e#uations for un,nown node &oltages.
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NETWORK THEOREMS:
Thevenin's Theorem:
) ;ny circuit with sources (dependent and+or independent) and resistors can !e
replaced !y an e#ui&alent circuit containing a single &oltage source and a single
resistor.
) The&eninAs theorem implies that we can replace ar!itrarily complicated networ,s
with simple networ,s for purposes of analysis.
Norton's Theorem:
;ny circuit with &oltage sources, resistances (impedances) and open output
terminals can !e replaced !y a single current source in parallel with single resistance
(impedance), where the &alue of current source is e#ual to the current passing through the
short circuit output terminals and the &alue of the resistance (impedance) is e#ual to the
resistance seen into the output terminals.
Super Position Theorem:
In a linear, lumped element, !ilateral electric circuit that is energi$ed !y two or
more sources the current in any resistor is e#ual to the alge!raic sum of the separate
currents in the resistor when each sources acts separately. /hile one source is applied, the
other sources are replaced !y their respecti&e internal resistances.
Super Position Theorem is not &alid for power responses. It is applica!le only for
computing &oltage and 1urrent responses.
Maximum Power transfer Theorem:
The ma"imum (ower transferred to a load resistor occurs when it has a &alue e#ual
to the resistance of the networ, loo,ing !ac, at it from the load terminals (all sources !eing
replaced !y their respecti&e internal resistances).

Duality:
Two electrical networ,s which are go&erned !y the same type of e#uations are
called duality.
*or the networ,s to !e duals it is necessary that the &aria!les B elements of one
networ, should also !e the duals of &aria!les B elements of other networ,s.
Method of drawing duality (or) dual network:
a) (lace a dot in each independent loop of the gi&en networ,. These dots placed inside
the loops correspond to the independent node in the dual networ,.
!) ; dot is placed outside the gi&en networ,. This corresponds to the reference node
of the dual networ,.
c) ;ll the dots are connected !y dotted lines crossing all the !ranches. The dotted lines
should cross only one !ranch at a time.
d) The dual elements will form the !ranches connecting the corresponding nodes in
the dual networ,.
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Star-Delta Transformation:
The %tarC6elta transformation techni#ues are useful in sol&ing comple" networ,.
; star networ, of three resistances R
A
, R
B
and R
C
connected together at common
node ? can !e transformed into a delta networ, of three resistances R
AB
, R
BC
and R
CA
!y
the a!o&e e#uations'
In general terms'
R
delta
= (sum of R
star
pair products) + (opposite R
star
)
Delta-Star Transformation
; delta networ, of three impedances R
AB
, R
BC
and R
CA
can !e transformed into a star
networ, of three impedances R
A
, R
B
and R
C
connected together at common node ? !y the
following e#uations'
In general terms'
R
star
= (adDacent R
delta
pair product) + (sum of R
delta
)


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UNIT-II TRANSIENT RESONANCE IN RLC CIRCUITS
Transient State:
If a networ, contains energy storage elements, with change in e"citation, the
current and &oltages change from one state to another state is called transient state. The
!eha&ior of the &oltage or current when it is changed from one state to another state is
called transient state.
Transient Time:
The time ta,en for the circuit to change from one steady state to another steady
state is called the transient time.
Natural response:
If we consider a circuit containing storage elements which are independent of sources,
the response depends upon the nature of the circuit, it is called natural response.
Transient response:
The storage elements deli&er their energy to the resistances, hence the response
changes with time, gets saturated after sometime, and is referred to the transient response.
Laplace Transform'
The 0aplace transform of any time dependent function f(t) is gi&en !y *(s).
/here %E; comple" fre#uency gi&en !y %=F G DH
Inverse Laplace Transform'
In&erse 0aplace transforms permits going !ac, in the re&erse direction i.e. from s
domain to time domain.
Order of a System:
The order of the system is gi&en !y the order of the differential e#uation go&erning
the system. If the system is go&erned !y n
th
order differential e#uation, than the system is
called n
th
order system.
I(s) = a
>
s
n
G a
-
s
nC-
G a
.
s
nC.
G JJ..Ga
nC-
s Ga
n

the order of the system is e#ual to KnA.
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Initial Value Theorem
The initial &alue theorem states that if " (t) and "A (t) !oth are laplace
transforma!le, then

Final Value Theorem
The final &alue theorem states that if " (t) and "A (t) !oth are laplace transforma!le,
then
Driving Point impedance
The ratio of the 0aplace transform of the &oltage at the port to the laplace transform
of the current at the same port is called dri&ing point impedance.
Transfer Point impedance
The ratio of the &oltage transform at one port to the current transform at the other
port is called transfer point impedance.
Resonant Circuit
The circuit that treat a narrow range of fre#uencies &ery differently than all other
fre#uencies are referred to as resonant circuit.
The gain of a highly resonant circuit attains a sharp ma"imum or minimum at its
resonant fre#uency.
Resonance
Resonance is defined as a phenomenon in which applied &oltage and resulting
current are in phase.
Bandwidth
The 5andwidth is defined as the fre#uency difference !etween upper cutCoff
fre#uency (f
.
) and lower cutCoff fre#uency (f
-
).
Half Power frequencies
The upper and lower cutCoff fre#uencies are called the halfCpower fre#uencies. ;t
these fre#uencies the power from the source is half of the power deli&ered at the resonant
fre#uency.
Selectivity
%electi&ity is defined as the ratio of !andwidth to the resonant fre#uency of
resonant circuit.
Q factor
The #uality factor, I, is the ratio of the reacti&e power in the inductor or capacitor
to the true power in the resistance in series with the coil or capacitor.
Series Resonance in RLC circuit
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In series R01 circuit resonance may !e produced !y either &arying fre#uency for
gi&en constant &alues of 0 and 1 or &arying either 0 and 1 or !oth for a gi&en
fre#uency.
;t resonance inducti&e reactance is e#ual to the capaciti&e reactance.
If f L f
>
the current I leads the resultant supply &oltage V and so the circuit !eha&es
as a capaciti&e circuit at the fre#uencies which are less than f
>
.
;t f = f
>
, the &oltage and current are in phase. The circuit !eha&es as pure resisti&e
circuit at the resonant fre#uency with unit power factor.
If f M f
>
, the current I lags the resultant supply &oltage V and so the circuit !eha&es
as an inducti&e circuit at the fre#uencies which are more than f
>
.
;t resonance series R01 circuit acts as a &oltage amplifier.
%eries resonance circuit is always dri&en !y a &oltage source with &ery small
internal resistance to maintain high selecti&ity of the circuit.
Parallel Resonance
; parallel circuit is said to !e in resonance when applied &oltage and resulting
current are in phase that gi&es unity power factor condition.
(arallel resonance is also ,nown as ;nti resonance.
;t anti resonance the parallel resonant circuit acts as current amplifier.
Reactance curves
The graph of indi&idual reactance &ersus the fre#uency is called Reactance 1ur&e.
Types of Tuned circuits
%ingle tuned circuit
6ou!le tuned circuit
Single tuned circuit
In R* circuit design, tuned circuits are generally employed for o!taining ma"imum
power transfer to the load connected to secondary or for o!taining ma"imum possi!le &alue
of secondary &oltage.
; single tuned circuit is used for coupling an amplifier and radio recei&er circuits.
Double tuned circuit
In dou!le tuned circuits, a &aria!le capacitor is used at input as well as output side.
/ith the help of adDusta!le capaciti&e reactance, impedance matching is possi!le if
the coupling is critical, sufficient or a!o&e.
It is also possi!le to adDust phase angle such that impedance at generator side
!ecomes resisti&e.
The magnitude matching can !e achie&ed !y adDusting mutual inductance to the
critical &alue, which effecti&ely fulfills ma"imum power transfer condition.
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UNIT-III SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
Energy Bands
The range of energies possessed !y an electron in a solid is ,nown as Energy
band.
Classification of Energy Band
-. 1onduction !and
.. *or!idden !and
7. Valence !and
Classification of semiconductors
-. Intrinsic %emiconductors.
.. E"trinsic %emiconductors.
Intrinsic Semiconductors
; %emiconductor which is in its e"tremely pure form is ,nown as an
intrinsic semiconductor.
If potential difference is applied across intrinsic semiconductor, the
electrons will mo&e towards the positi&e terminal while the holes will drift
towards the negati&e terminal.
The total current inside the semiconductor is the sum of currents due to
free electrons and holes.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
The conducti&ity can !e increased !y the addition of a small amount of
suita!le metallic impurity. It is also ,nown as impurity semiconductor.
The process of adding impurity atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor is
called doping.
The purpose of adding impurity is to increase either the num!er of free
electrons or holes in a semiconductor.
Two types of impurity atoms are added to the semiconductor.
Pentavalent impurity atoms - containing fi&e &alance electrons
Trivalent impurity atoms - containing three &alance electrons
E"trinsic semiconductors are classified as,
N-type Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor
N-type Semiconductor
; small amount of penta&alent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor is ,nown as N-type Semiconductor.
/hen a penta&alent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it
displaces some of its atoms. E.g. ;R%E?I1 (;s), ;?TIM4?N (%!)
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In ?Ctype semiconductor, maDor part of the current flows due to the
mo&ement of Electrons. Therefore electrons in an ?Ctype semiconductor are
,nown as maDority carriers and holes as minority carriers.
P-type Semiconductor
; small amount of tri&alent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor
is ,nown as P-type Semiconductor.
E.g. Oallium (Oa), Indium (In), ;luminium (;l), 5oron (5) etc.
In (Ctype semiconductor, maDor part of the current flows due to the
mo&ement of holes. Therefore holes in a (Ctype semiconductor are ,nown as
maDority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.
Conductivity of a semiconductor
Each holeCelectron pair created two charge carrying particles is formed. 4ne is negati&e
of mo!ility P
n
(free electron) and the other is positi&e of mo!ility P
p
(hole). These particles
mo&e in opposite direction in an electric field.
Hence the current density 1 oE
/here n , p = magnitude of free electrons B holes respecti&ely.
F = 1onducti&ity of semiconductor
E= applied electric field
# = 1harge of electron or hole.
Hence o (nP
n
+ pP
p
)E
*or a pure semiconductor n = p = n
i
Q where n
i
R intrinsic semiconductor
CARRIER CONCENTRATIONS IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
In order to calculate the conducti&ity of a semiconductor, it is necessary to ,now the
concentration of free electrons n and the concentration of holes p.
Concentration of Electrons (n)
The num!er of electrons in the conduction !and, n N
c
e
- (E
C
-E
F
)/KT

/here,
N
c
= .
h
.
.Smn 2T
7+.
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Concentration of holes (p)
The num!er of holes in the conduction !and, p N
v
e
- (E
F
-E
V
)/KT

/here,
N
v
= .
Energy Gap (E
G
)
The energy re#uired to !rea, a co&alent !ond in a semiconductor is ,nown as
energy gap. The Energy gap at any temperature is gi&en !y, E
G
E
GO
- T
Drift Current
6rift current is defined as the flow of electric current due to the motion of the
charge carriers under the influence of an e"ternal electric field applied across the
semiconductor material.
Diffusion Current
In a semiconductor material, the charge carriers ha&e the tendency to mo&e from
the region of higher concentration to that of lower concentration of the same type of charge
carriers. This mo&ement of charge carriers ta,es place resulting in a current called diffusion
current.
6iffusion current density due to holes, 1p - q D
p
dp/dx A/cm
2
6iffusion current density due to electrons, 1n - q D
n
dn/dx A/cm
2
Total Current Density
Total current is the sum of drift current and diffusion current.
The total current density for (Ctype semiconductor 1p - qpP
p
E- q D
p
dp/dx
The total current density for ?Ctype semiconductor 1n - qnP
n
E- q D
n
dn/dx
Diffusion Length (L)
The a&erage distance that a charge carrier can diffuse during its lifetime is called as
diffusion 0ength 0.
h
.
.Smp 2T
7+.
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Theory of PN 1unction Diode
/hen a (Ctype semiconductor s Doined to a ?Ctype semiconductor the contact surface is
called PN junction or (? diode.
The &oltage across (? Dunction can !e applied in two ways.
(i) *orward !iasing
(ii) Re&erse !iasing
The ?Ctype material has high concentration of free electrons and, (Ctype material
has high concentration of holes. ;t the Dunction, there is a tendency for the free ?Ctype of
diffuse o&er to the (Cside and holes from the (Cside to the ?Cside. This process is called
diffusion.
Thus a !arrier is set up against further mo&ement of charge carriers. This is called
Potential barrier or 1unction barrier (V
5
).The potential !arrier is of the order of >.-V to
>.7 V.
The mo!ile charges ha&e !een depleted in this region. It is ,nown as depletion
layer.

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ZENER DIODE
; $ener diode is a special purpose diode that is operated in re&erseC!iased
conditions. Its operation depends on the zener breakdown phenomenon.
Symbol
;node 1athode
V-I Characteristics of Zener diode
The operation of $ener diode is same as that of ordinary pCn diode order forward
!iased condition, whereas under re&erse !iased condition !rea,down of the Dunction
occurs.
5rea,down &oltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is hea&ily
doped, depletion layer will !e thin and conse#uently !rea,down occurs at lower re&erse
&oltage and further, the !rea,down &oltage is sharp. The !rea,down &oltage can !e
selected with the amount of doping.
The sharp increase in current under !rea,down condition is due to the following
two mechanisms.
;&alanche !rea,down
Tener !rea,down
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Avalanche breakdown
/hen doping concentration is less li,e in ordinary diode then under re&erse !iased
condition a small amount of re&erse saturation current flows and is constant as long as the
temperature is constant.
/hen the re&erse &oltage is increased width of the depletion layer increases at the
same time the electrons due to force of attraction !y the plates ac#uire some high &elocity
and during their motion inside the diode they collide with the electrons in co&alent !onds
and !ring them out.
6ue to this multiplication process a large current flows and this ,ind of !rea,down
is called Avalanche multiplication or !rea,down. 4nce when this !rea,down occurs the
diode gets damaged.
Zener breakdown
/hen doping is hea&y then in re&erse !ias e&enC!efore the minority charge carries
ac#uire sufficient &elocity the !rea,down occurs and is ,nown as Zener breakdown.
In re&erse !ias under hea&y doping condition the width of the depletion layer will !e &ery
thin strong electric field e"ists inside the diode. /hen re&erse &oltage increased at once
electric field the electrons which are present in the co&alent !ond are !rought due to strong
force of attraction. ?ow, suddenly a large amount of current flows. ?othing !ut 5rea,down
occurs. In Tener diode first $ener !rea,down occurs and later a&alanche !rea,down.
Applications of Zener diodes
Voltage regulator
*i"ing reference &oltages in electronic circuits such as power supplies and
transistor !iasing.
1lippers in wa&eCshaping circuits.
%#uare wa&e generation.
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UNIT-IV TRANSISTORS
Introduction of transistors
Transistor is a semiconductor de&ice that can amplify electronic signals such as radio and
tele&ision signals.
Advantage of the transistor
-. %maller in si$e
.. ?o filament and no need of power for heating filament
7. 0ow operating &oltage
8. Uigher efficiency
Types of the transistor
Vnipolar Wunction Transistor
5ipolar Wunction Transistor
Construction of the transistor
nCpCn transistor
pCnCp transistor
n-p-n transistor
It is formed !y sand witching pCtype semiconductor !etween two nCtype.
p-n-p transistor
It is formed !y sand witching nCtype semiconductor !etween two pCtype.
Terminals for the transistor
Emitter
1ollector
5ase
Functions of Emitter, Collector & Base:
Emitter ' To supply maDority charge carriers.
1ollector' To collect maDority charge carriers.
5ase' It passes most of the inDected charge carriers to the collector.
Transistor Biasing
;pplying e"ternal &oltage to a transistor is called biasing.
In order to operate transistor properly as an amplifier, it is necessary to correctly !ias the
two pn Dunctions with e"ternal &oltages.
6epending upon e"ternal !ias &oltage polarities used, the transistor wor,s in one of the
three regions.
;cti&e region.
1utCoff region.
%aturation region.
Sl.No. Region Emitter Base Collector Base Operation of a transistor
- ;cti&e *orward !iased Re&erse !iased acts as an amplifier
. 1utCoff *orward !iased Re&erse !iased acts as an open switch
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7 %aturation *orward !iased Re&erse !iased acts as an closed switch
Operation of NPN transistors
Emitter is forward !iased B as a result large forward current flows across the
emitter Dunction due to flow of maDority carriers.
InDected electrons diffuse into the collector region due to the e"tremely small
thic,ness of the !ase.
1ollector is re&erse !ias and creates a strong electrostatic field !etween !ase
Bcollector.
*ield immediately collects the diffused electrons which enter the collector Dunction.
*low of electrons into the !ase region when confronted with the holes, a few
electrons com!ine B neutrali$e
Rest of the electrons of the inDected electrons diffuse into the collector region and is
collected !y the collector electrode.
Operation of PNP transistors
*orward !ias causes the holes in the (Ctype emitter to flow towards the !ase.
Reduces the potential !arrier at the Dunction
Uoles cross the Dunction B penetrate into the ?Cregion. This constitutes emitter
current I
E
.
/idth of the !ase region is &ery thin B lightly dopedQ hence a small amount of the holes
recom!ine with free electrons of ?Cregions. This constitutes !ase current I5 B is &ery small.
Rest of the holes drift across the !ase and enter the collector region and are swept
away !y the negati&e collector electrode. This constitutes !ase current I
1
.
1urrent conduction I (?( transistors is !y mo&ement of holes.
1urrent conduction in the e"ternal circuit is !y electrons.
Types of configuration
1ommon 5ase configuration
1ommon Emitter configuration
1ommon 1ollector configuration
Common Base configuration
Input is connected !etween emitter B !ase. 4utput is connected !etween
collector B!ase.
EmitterC!ase Dunction is forward !iased. 1ollectorC!ase Dunction is re&erse
!iased.
Emitter current I
E
flows in the input circuit. 1ollector current I
1
flows in
output circuit.
The ratio of collector current I
1
, to emitter current I
E
, is called the Current
amplification factor (o).
If there is no input ac signal, then the ratio of I
1
to I
E
is called dc alpha (o
dc
).
ac alpha refers to the ratio of change in I
1
to change in I
E
.
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The higher the &alue of o, !etter the transistor. X can !e increased !y
ma,ing !ase thin and lightly doped.
Characteristics of CB configuration
The performance of transistors, when connected in a circuit, may !e determined
from their characteristic cur&es that relate different d.c. currents and &oltages of a
transistor.%uch cur&es are ,nown as Static characteristic curves.
Input Characteristics
The cur&e drawn !etween Emitter current and Emitter R 5ase &oltage for a
gi&en &alue of collectorC5ase &oltage is ,nown as input 1haracteristics.
*or a gi&en &alue of V
15
,the cur&e is Dust li,e a forwardC!iased (? Dunction.
/ith an increase in the &alue of V
15
,it conducts !etter. This is !ecause of
the effect called early effect or Base width modulation.
Output Characteristics
The cur&e drawn !etween 1ollector current and 1ollector R 5ase &oltage
for a gi&en &alue of emitter current is ,nown as output 1haracteristics.
The collector current &aries with V
15
for &ery low &oltage !ut transistor is
ne&er operated in this region.
Common Emitter configuration
Input is connected !etween !ase B emitter. 4utput is connected !etween
collector B emitter.
EmitterC!ase Dunction is forward !iased. 1ollectorC!ase Dunction is re&erse
!iased.
5ase current I
5
flows in the input circuit. 1ollector current I
1
flows in
output circuit.
1E is commonly used !ecause its current, &oltage and power gains are #uite
high and output to input impedance ratio is moderate.
The rate of change in collector current I
1
, to change in emitter current I
E
, is
called amplification factor ().
Input Characteristics
The cur&e drawn !etween 5ase current and 5ase R Emitter &oltage for a
gi&en &alue of collectorCemitter &oltage is ,nown as input 1haracteristics.
*or a gi&en &alue of V
E1
,the cur&e is Dust li,e a forwardC!iased (? Dunction
diode.
Input resistance is larger in 1E configuration than in 15 configuration. This
is !ecause the input current I
5
increases less rapidly with increase in V
5E
.
;n increment in the &alue of V
1E
, causes the input current I
5
to !e lower for
a gi&en le&el of V
5E
. This is !ecause of the effect called early effect.
Output Characteristics
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The cur&e drawn !etween 1ollector current I
1
and 1ollector R emitter
&oltage V
1E
for a gi&en &alue of !ase current I
5
is ,nown as output 1haracteristics.
4utput characteristics in 1E configuration ha&e some slope while 15
configuration has almost hori$ontal characteristics. This indicates that output
resistance in case of 1E configuration is less than that in 15 configuration.
Common Collector configuration
Input is connected !etween !ase B collector. 4utput is connected !etween
collector B emitter.
The 1ollector forms the terminal common to !oth the input and output.
5ase current flows in the input circuit. Emitter current flows in output
circuit.
/ith !ase current I
5
e#ual to V
14
, the emitter current I
E
is $ero, so no
current flows in the load resistor R
0
.
/ith increases in input current I
5
, the transistor passes through the acti&e
region and finally reaches saturation.
Input Characteristics
To determine the input 1haracteristics, V
E1
is ,ept at a suita!le fi"ed &alue.
The !aseCcollector &oltage V
5c
is increased in e#ual steps and the
corresponding increase in I
5
is noted.
This is repeated for different &alues of V
E1
.
Breakdown in Transistors
;&alanche Multiplication
ReachCThrough (or) (unch through
Avalanche Multiplication
The ma"imum re&erse !ias &oltage which can !e applied !efore !rea,down
!etween collector and !ase terminals of the transistor under the condition that the
emitter is openCcircuited.
It is represented !y the sym!ol 5V
154
(for 15 configuration).
This !rea,down &oltage is a characteristic of the transistor alone.
5rea,down occurs !ecause of the a&alanche multiplication of current I
14
that crosses the collector Dunction.
;s a result of this multiplication, the current !ecomes MI
14
in which M is
the factor !y which the original current I
14
is multiplied !y the a&alanche effect.
;t a high &oltage 5V
154
, the multiplication factor M !ecomes infinite and
the region of !rea,down is then attained.
The current increases a!ruptly and large changes in current accompanies
small changes in &oltage.
Reach-Through (or) Punch through
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It results from Early effect (i.e.) as a result of increase in V
15
and as the
doping of the !ase is su!stantially smaller than that of the collector and the
penetration of the transition region into the !ase is larger than into the collector
%ince the !ase is &ery thin, the transition region spreads completely across
the !ase to reach the emitter Dunction.
;t this point, normal transistor action ceases and the emitter and collector
are effecti&ely shorted.
Uence, a large current flows from the emitter to collector. This is called
ReachCthrough.
Field Effect Transistor (FET)
*ET is a semiconductor de&ice which depends for its operation on the control of
current !y an electric field.
The output characteristics of *ET are controlled !y Input &oltage and not !y the
Input current.
%o, it is also ,nown as &oltageCcontrolled de&ice.
Features of FET
The *ET has se&eral ad&antages o&er the con&entional transistor.
Its operation depends upon the flow of maDority carrier only. %o, it is called as
Vnipolar de&ice.
It is relati&ely immune to radiation.
It e"hi!its a high input resistance, typically many mega ohms.
It is less noisy than a tu!e of a 5ipolar Transistor.
It e"hi!its no offset &oltage at $ero 6rain current.
It has thermal sta!ility.
Types of FET
Wunction *ield Effect Transistor (W*ET)
Metal 4"ide *ield Effect Transistor (M4%*ET) (or)
Insulated Oate *ield Effect Transistor (IO*ET)
Construction of 1FET
W*ET is a three terminal semiconductor de&ice in which current conduction is !y
one type of carrier either Electrons or holes.
The W*ET consists of a (Ctype or ?Ctype silicon !ar.
The !ar is made up of ?Ctype material which is ,nown as ?Cchannel W*ET and if
the !ar is made up of (Ctype material, it is ,nown as ( channel W*ET.
The current in *ET is carried !y the maDority carriers.
4ne end of the channel is called the source and the other is called the drain.
Operation of 1FET
*ET wor,s under the three conditions.
/hen V
OO
applied and V
66
=>
/hen V
6%
applied and V
OO
=>
/hen V
66
applied and V
OO is
applied.
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/here,
V
OO
R Oate supply &oltage.
V
6%
R 6rain %ource &oltage.
V
66
R 6rain supply &oltage.
Characteristics of 1FET
; family of cur&es that relate the current and &oltage are ,nown as
characteristics cur&e.
There are the two important characteristics of a W*ET.
Transfer characteristics
6rain characteristics
Characteristics Parameters of 1FET
The parameters of W*ET are
Transconductance
6rain resistance
6rain conductance
;mplification factor
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
M4%*ET is a three terminal de&ice. Those terminals are source, gate and drain.
The gate of a M4%*ET is insulated from the channel.
5ecause of this, the M4%*ET is also ,nown as an IO*ET (Insulated gate *ET).
The M4%*ET is a second category of *ET.
The M4%*ET differs from the W*ET is that it has no pn Dunction structureQ instead
the gate of the M4%*ET is insulated from the channel !y a silicon dio"ide layer.
Types of MOSFET
6epletion R type M4%*ET
Enhance R type M4%*ET
Construction of MOSFET
Two highly doped n regions are diffused into a lightly doped p type su!strate.
These two highly doped regions are represents source and drain. In some cases
su!strate is internally connected to the source terminal.
The source and drain terminals are connected through metallic contacts the nCdoped
regions lin,ed !y an nCchannel.
The gate is also connected to a metal contact surface !ut remains insulted from the
nC1hannel !y a &ery thin layer of dielectric material, %ilicon 6io"ide.
This layer act as one parallel plate capacitor.
Thus, there is no direct electrical connection !etween the gate terminal and the
channel of a M4%*ET increasing the input impedance of the de&ice.
Characteristics of MOSFET
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The different characteristics of a 6CM4%*ET are
6rain characteristics
Transfer characteristics
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UNIT-V SPECIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
Tunnel Diodes
/hen the impurity concentration is of the order of one part to ->
7
parts then tunnel
diode is formed.
This diode has negati&e resistance region.
6ue to which it is used as an oscillator.
This diode is uses the tunneling phenomenon.
Tunneling
The process that an electron from nCside of a pn diode directly penetrates through
the Dunction into the pCside of diode is called tunneling. It is a #uantum Rmechanical
!eha&iors.
Operation
/hen a tunnel diode is under un!iased condition then there will not transfer of
electrons from nCside to pCside hence the net current will !e $ero.
/hen the diode is re&erse !iased under this condition the electrons from nCside are
attracted !y the positi&e plate and hence mo&e away from the Dunction.
;s a result the energy le&el in the nCside decreases when compared to the un!iased
state.
?ow, there will !e some empty state in &alence !and of pCside #uite opposite to the
empty conduction !and.
Uence tunneling ta,es place from p to nCside.
;s re&erse !ias is increased this current increase.
Applications
Tunnel diode is used as VltraChigh speed switch.
Vsed in rela"ation oscillator.
Vsed as an amplifier.
Vsed as logic memory storage de&ice.
Vsed as microwa&e oscillator.
Advantages
Uigh speed operation
Ease of operation
0ow noise
0ow cost
0ow power
Disadvantages
It is two terminal de&ice, there is no isolation !etween the input and output circuit.
Voltage range o&er which it can !e operated is - V or less.
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PIN Diode
It has highly impro&ed switching time in comparison with a (? diode.
(I? diodes are used in microwa&e switches.
In (I? diode high resisti&ity intrinsic layer is sandwiched !etween the ( and ?
regions. This results in impro&ed switching time.
Iuite often instead of ICregion we actually use either a high resisti&ity (Cregion is
called S region and the high resisti&ity ?Cregion is called Y region.
The ICregion has typically resisti&ity of -> Zm.
Applications of PIN Diode
Vsed as pulse and phase shifter.
Vsed as %(%T and M(%T switches.
Vsed in amplitude modulation.
Vsed as photo detectors in fi!er optic systems.
Vsed as TCR switch.
Vsed as attenuator and duple"er.
Varactor diode
Varactor diode is a specially manufactured re&erse !iased (? Dunction diode with a
suita!le impurity concentration profile.
It is also called as &aricap or &oltacap.
It is used as a &aria!le reactance capacitance.
Characteristics of Varactor diode
The diode conducts normally in the forward direction.
;t relati&ely low &oltage the re&erse current saturates and then remains constant.
It is rising rapidly at a&alanche point.
;t the saturation point the ma"imum Dunction capacitance is o!tained and a point
Dust a!o&e a&alanche the minimum Dunction capacitance is o!tained.
Therefore there are two conditions which are limiting the re&erse &oltage swing and
the capacitance &ariation.
Applications
Vsed as a tuning de&ice in recei&ers.
It is used in Uigh fre#uency.
It is used in adDusta!le !andCpass filter
It is used in *M modulation.
It is used in automatic fre#uency control de&ices.
It is used in parametric amplifier.
SCR
%1R consist of four semiconductor layers forming a (?(? structure.
It has three (? Dunctions namely W
-
, W
.
, W
7
.
There are three terminals called anode (;), cathode (2) and the gate (O).
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The anode terminal is ta,en out from (
-
layer, and the gate (O) terminal from the (
.
layer. It conducts the current in forward direction only.
Operation of SCR
%1R is forward !ias with a small &oltage, it is in K4**A and no current flows
through the %1R.
The applied forward &oltage is increased, a certain critical &oltage called forward
!rea, o&er &oltage (V
54
).It reaches at the Dunction W
.
!rea,down. ;t this case the
%1R switched K4?A position.
If the %1R is re&erse !ias, the Dunction W
-
and W
7
are re&erse !ias and Dunction W
.
is
forward !ias.
It has found that most of the &oltage will drop across Dunction W
-
only.
/hen the applied re&erse &oltage is small, the %1R is 4**, and there is no current
flow through the de&ice.
SCR characteristics
It is the relationship !etween the anode Rcathode &oltage and anode current at
different gate current.
Two types of VCI characteristics
*orward 1haracteristics
Re&erse 1haracteristics
Forward Characteristics
It is the current drawn !etween anodeCcathode &oltage (V
;2
) and anode current (I
;
)
at different gate current.
;dDust the gate current to $ero &alue !y ,eeping the switch open.
Increase the applied &oltage across the %1R in small suita!le steps at each step.
?ote the anode current B plot the graph.
Reverse Characteristics
The re&erse characteristic is o!tained !y re&ersing the connections of the d.c.
supplies V
;;
and V
OO
.
;dDust the gate current to any suita!le &alue.
Increase the re&erse applied &oltage in suita!le steps.
?ote the anode current for each steps.
?ow we plot a graph with anode current and anode cathode &oltage.
Turning ON (Triggering) SCR
The %1R can !e turned 4?, from 4** position !y anyone of the following methods.
Oate triggering
*orward !rea, o&er &oltage
0ight triggering
RateCeffect
Latching
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4nce the %1R is turned 4?, it starts to conduct and remains in conduction state
e&en when the gate signal is remo&ed. This a!ility of the %1R to remain conducting, e&en
when the gate signal is remo&ed, is ,nown as latching.
Turning OFF
4ne of the following methods is applied to turn 4** the %1R.
Re&ersing polarity of anodeCtoCcathode &oltage called as Oate turn 4** switch
(OT4).
The second method is anode current interruption. 1hanging anode current !y means
of momentarily series or parallel switching arrangement.
Third method is forced commutation. In this, the current through %1R is reduced
!elow the holding current.
Applications of SCR
(ower control de&ice
Relay control
Regulated power supplies
%tatic switches
Motor control
5attery charges
Ueater controls
(hase controls
*or speed control of 61 shunt motor
Advantages of SCR
%1R controls large current in the load !y means of a small gate current.
%1R si$e is &ery compact.
%witching speed is high.
Uni1unction Transistor (U1T)
VniWunction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor de&ice consisting of only
one (? Dunction.
It differs from ordinary (? diode in the sense that it has three terminals namely
Emitter, 5ase- and 5ase ..
The !eha&ior of VWT differs from other transistors li,e 5WT and *ET in the sense
that it has no a!ility to amplify.
Uowe&er, it has a!ility to control large ac power with a small signal.
It also e"hi!its a negati&e resistance characteristic which allows it to !e used as an
oscillator.
Applications of U1T
?on sinusoidal oscillator
Timing circuits
%aw tooth generators
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Triggering de&ice for %1R and TRI;1
%witching circuits
Voltage regulated supply
Diac (Diode A.C. switch)
; 6I;1 is two terminal semiconductor de&ice and three layer !idirectional de&ice,
which can !e switched form of itAs 4** to 4? state for either negati&e or positi&e
polarity of applied &oltage.
The two leads are connected to pCregion of silicon separated !y an nCregion. It
consists of two 8Clayer diodes connected in parallel in opposite direction.
The diodes are (
-
?
-
(
.
?
.
and (
.
?
-
(
-
?
7
.
It has two main terminals namely Main terminal - and Main terminal ..
Applications of DIAC
Temperature control
Triggering of TRI;1
0ight dimming circuits
Motor speed control
Triac (Triode A.C. switch)
TRI;1 is a three terminal semiconductor switching de&ice which can conduct in
either forward or re&erse direction.
The TRI;1 is the com!ination of two %1RAs connected in parallel !ut in opposite
direction.
The anode of one %1R is connected to the cathode of another %1R.
The gates are connected together.
It consists of two four layer switches in parallel and the switches are (
-
?
-
(
.
?
.
and
(
.
?
-
(
-
?
8
.
The TRI;1 has two main terminals namely main terminal- and main terminal. and
one Oate terminal.
Applications of TRIAC
Ueater control
(hase control
0ight dimming control
%tatic switch to turn a.c. power 4? and 4**.
%peed control of motor.
Light Activated SCR (LASCR)
0;%1R is similar to that of a %1R e"cept the light triggering.
It has a window and lens which focuses light on the gate Dunction area.
It can !e triggered 4? !y a light input on the gate area, !ut does not turn 4**,
when light source is remo&ed.
The 0;%1R acts li,e a latch.
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To reduce the holding current, it can !e turned 4**.
6epending on its si$e a 0;%1R is capa!le of handling larger amount of current.
It can !e handled !y a photo transistor or a photo diode.
Applications of LASCR
4ptical light controls
(hase control
In relays
Motor control
LASER DIODE
The term 0aser comes from the acronym for light amplification for
stimulated emission of radiation.
The 0aser medium can !e a gas, li#uid, amorphous solid or
semiconductor.
Two commonly used 0aser structure
(? homoDunction laser
6ou!le hetrostructure laser
Laser Action
The light tra&eling through a semiconductor, then a single photon is a!le to
generate an identical second photon.
This photon multiplication is the ,ey physical mechanism of lasing.
The carrier in&ersion is the first re#uirement of lasing.
It is achie&ed at the (? Dunction !y pro&iding the conduction !andwidth electrons
from the ?Cdoped side and the Valence !and with the holes from the (Cdoped side.
The photon energy is gi&en !y the !and gap, which depends on the semiconductor
material. The optical feed!ac, and the confinement of photon in an optical
resonator are the second !asic re#uirement of lasing.
Photodiode
It is a light sensiti&ity de&ice used to con&ert light signal into electrical signal.
It is also called (hoto detector.
The light energy fall on the Dunction through lens, when, the (? photodiode
Dunction is re&erse !ias.
The holeCelectrons pairs are created.
The mo&ement of the holeCelectron pairs in a properly connected circuit results in
current flows.
The current is proportional to the intensity of light and the fre#uency of the light
falling on the Dunction of the photo diode.
It is used in demodulator, encodes and light detectors systems.
Phototransistor
The photo transistor is a light detector.
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It com!ines a photodiode and phototransistor.
The phototransistor cannot !e directly used in control applications. 5ecause, it
produces a &ery low current.
5efore applying to control circuit the current should !e amplified.
; lens focuses the energy on the !aseCcollector Dunction.
It has three terminal, !ut only two leads are generally used (emitter and collector).
The !ase current is supplied !y the current created !y the light falling on the 5aseC
collector photodiode Dunction.
In phototransistors, the current is dependent mainly on the intensity of light
entering into the lens and the &oltage applied to the e"ternal circuit.
Photoconductive sensors
(hotoconducti&e sensor is also called as 0ight 6epending Resistor (06R).
It is made of thin layer of semiconductor material (cadmium sulfide).
There is no light falls on the sensor the resistance is &ery high and the current is
low.
Uence, the &oltage drop across R is high. It is used in control circuits to control the
current.
Photovoltaic sensors
It is a lightCsensiti&e semiconductor de&ice, and it produces a &oltage, when the
&oltage increases and the intensity of light falling on the semiconductor Dunction of
this photo&oltaic cell increases.
It consists of a piece of semiconductor material (silicon or germanium).
The photo&oltaic cells are produced more power, as in solar cells. These are called
photo&oltaic de&ices.
It is used in light meters.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
;n 0E6 is a semiconductor pCn Dunction diode which con&erts electrical energy to
light energy under forward !iasing.
It emits light in !oth &isi!le and IR region.
The amount of light output is directly proportional to the forward current.
0E6 structure can !e di&ided into two categories.
%urface C emitting 0E6
Edge C emitting 0E6
%urface emitting 0E6As emit light perpendicular to the (? Dunction plane.
EdgeCemitting 0E6 emits light parallel to the (? in the plane.
Principle and Working
InDection luminescence is the principle used in 0E6As.
/hen 0E6 is forward !iased, the maDority charge carriers mo&es from p to n and
similarly from n to p region and !ecomes e"cess minority carriers.
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These e"cess minority carriers diffuse through the Dunction and recom!ines with the
maDority carriers in n and p region respecti&ely to produce light.
The light thus produced is emitted from the pCn Dunction of the diode.
Advantages of LED
They are smaller in si$e.
Its cost is &ery low.
It has long life time.
It operates 0E6As are a&aila!le in different colours at low cost.
e&en at &ery low &oltage.
Response time of 0E6 is &ery fast in the order of ->
[
seconds.
Its intensity can !e controlled easily.
It can !e operated at a wide range of temperature (>C=>\) 1.
Applications of LED
Vsed for numeric display in poc,et calculators.
Vsed for applying input power to lasers.
Vsed for entering information into optical computer memories
Vsed for solid &ideo displays.
Vsed in image sensing circuits.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
0i#uid crystal display is not a semiconductor de&ice as 0E6.
016As display the light, it doesnAt radiate light energy.
Therefore, 016As re#uire an e"ternal (or) internal source of light so that it can
either transmit (or) reflect the incident light.
016 is a passi&e type display de&ice used to display alpha numeric character and is
se&en segment display, watches calculators etc., in which the digits are displayed
!y the transmission (or) deflection of the incident light, with &ery low power
consumption.
Molecules in ordinary li#uids ha&e random orientation !ut in a li#uid crystal they
are oriented in a definite crystal pattern.
Types of 016As
o 6ynamic %cattering 6isplays.
o Twisted nematic display (or) *ield effect display
Advantages of LCD
0ow power is re#uired
Oood contrast
0ow cost
Disadvantages of LCD
%peed of operation is slow
016 occupy a large area
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016 life span is #uite small, when used on d.c. Therefore, they are used with a.c.
suppliers.
Applications of LCD
Vsed as numerical counters for counting production items.
;nalog #uantities can also !e displayed as a num!er on a suita!le de&ice. (e.g.)
6igital multimeter.
Vsed for solid state &ideo displays.
Vsed for image sensing circuits.
Vsed for numerical display in poc,et calculators.
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RA1ALAKSHMI INSTITUTE OF THCHNOLOGY
Kuttambakkam (PO), Chennai-602 107.
EC2151 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND ELECTRON DEVICES
SEM:II Branch: CSE Staff-in-Charge: K.KIRUBA RANI
ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
UNIT - I
-. 6efine the following terms' i) Mesh ii) 0oop iii) ?ode i&) 5ranch
.. %tate and e"plain 2irchhoffAs laws
7. E"plain &oltage di&ision B current di&ision method using suita!le e"ample.
8. 6eri&e the relationship to e"press three delta connected resistances into star.
9. Two resistances -9Z and .>Z are connected in parallel. ; resistance of -.Z is
connected in series with the com!ination. ; &oltage of -.> V is applied across the
entire circuit. *ind the current in each resistance, &oltage across -.Z resistance and
power consumed in all the resistances.
<. ; resistance R is connected in series with a parallel circuit comprising two
resistances of -. and @Z. The total power dissipated in the circuit is =>> watts
when the applied &oltage is .>>V. 1alculate the &alue of R.
=. E"plain the loop analysis of analy$ing a gi&en networ,, with a suita!le e"ample.
@. %tate and e"plain %uperposition theorem.
[. %tate and e"plain The&eninAs theorem.
->. ; !ridge networ, formed !y four arms is as ;5=.Z, 51=7Z, 16=8Z, 6;=9Z. ;
< Z resistance is connected !etween 5 and 6. ; !attery source of [V is connected
with internal resistance of - Z !etween ; and 1 such that ; is G&e and 1 is R&e.
1alculate current through <Z resistance !y, i) ?ortonAs theorem ii) The&eninAs
theorem.
UNIT - II
-. 6etermine the e"pression of resonant fre#uency and !andwidth of a series resonant
circuit.
.. 6eri&e the e"pression for the half power !andwidth of a parallel resonant circuit.
7. /hat is ICfactor] *ind &alues of ICfactor for an inductor and capacitor.
8. In a single tuned resonant circuit, the applied &oltage in a primary coil E
g
= .> &olts
(R
g
=>), R
-
=R
.
= 9Z, 0
-
=0
.
= 7. ^U, M =.>^ U, secondary side capacitance 1
.
=
>.9^ *. 6etermine the resonant fre#uency and the output &oltage at this fre#uency.
9. 6eri&e the e"pression of ma"imum &alue of E
>
and I
>
.
UNIT - III
-. E"plain the (? Dunction diode.
.. E"plain the diode current e#uation.
7. 6eri&e the e"pression for transition capacitance and diffusing capacitance.
8. E"plain different methods of !rea,down in (? Dunction diodes.
9. 6escri!e the operation of Tener diode and e"plain its characteristics.
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UNIT - IV
-. 6escri!e 1ommon Emitter configuration and its characteristics.
.. E"plain the !rea,down in transistor.
7. 6escri!e the transistor switching times.
8. E"plain the 1haracteristics of W*ET with the help of neat s,etches.
9. /ith the help of suita!le diagrams e"plain the wor,ing of different types of
M4%*ET.
UNIT -V
-. E"plain the operation of (I? diode.
.. E"plain the following terms' i) (hotoconducti&e sensor ii) (hoto emissi&e sensor
7. 6escri!e the operation of 0E6 and 016.
8. E"plain the operation of TRI;1 and 6I;1.
9. 6raw the e#ui&alent circuit of VWT and e"plain its operation.
<. /rite short notes on light acti&ated %1R.
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