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Hallucinogensof PlantOrigin
Interdisciplinarystudies ofplantssacred inprimitiveculturesyieldresults ofacademicandpracticalinterest.
Richard EvansSchultes
Hallucinogensof PlantOrigin
Interdisciplinarystudies ofplantssacred inprimitiveculturesyieldresults ofacademicandpracticalinterest.
Richard EvansSchulteseven moreastounding.Glycosides,resinoids,essentialoils,andotherorganicconstituentsmayalsobe re-sponsible,sothelimitednumber of hallucinogensmustbeconsideredchal-lenginglyprovocative(6).Hallucinogensoccurnearlythrough-outtheplantkingdom. Althoughmostarespermatophytes,some of the bio-logically,chemically,andsociologicallymostfascinatingarecryptogams.
Agaricaceae
even moreastounding.Glycosides,resinoids,essentialoils,andotherorganicconstituentsmayalsobe re-sponsible,sothelimitednumber of hallucinogensmustbeconsideredchal-lenginglyprovocative(6).Hallucinogensoccurnearlythrough-outtheplantkingdom. Althoughmostarespermatophytes,some of the bio-logically,chemically,andsociologicallymostfascinatingarecryptogams.
Agaricaceae
Anoutstandingmark of thiscenturywillcertainlybethegrowthinuse,abuse,andmisuse,insophisticatedcultures,ofhallucinogenicsubstancesofvegetalandsyntheticorigin (1).Primitivecultures,wheresicknessanddeathareusuallyascribed toasupernaturalause,havelongaccordedpsychoactive plantsahigh,evensacred,rank intheirmagic,medical,and reli-gious practices,becausetheirethnophar-macologyoftenvaluesthepsychic effectsof"medicine"more than thephysiolog-ical.Ethnobotanical studieshavere-centlyadvancedourunderstandingofknownhallucinogenicplantsandhaveuncoverednewones,some ofwhichhaveyieldedcompounds(Fig.1)ofextraordinarychemical andpharmaco-logicalinterest,evenofpromiseinmodemmedicine(1-5).Thepaceof research intohallucino-gensindyingordisappearingprimitivecultures;the successofstudiesintotheplantsandtheirconstituents;andtheconfusiongeneratedbycasual or friv-olousinterests n somesegmentsofoursociety-allseemtojustifyan ethno-botanicalsummarybaseduponthepremisethat,eventhoughonlyan in-terdisciplinaryconsideration canade-quatelycopewiththisfast-growingfield,thestartingpointforunderstand-ingnaturallyoccurringpsychoactivesubstances must beanappreciationof
17JANUARY 1969
Anoutstandingmark of thiscenturywillcertainlybethegrowthinuse,abuse,andmisuse,insophisticatedcultures,ofhallucinogenicsubstancesofvegetalandsyntheticorigin (1).Primitivecultures,wheresicknessanddeathareusuallyascribed toasupernaturalause,havelongaccordedpsychoactive plantsahigh,evensacred,rank intheirmagic,medical,and reli-gious practices,becausetheirethnophar-macologyoftenvaluesthepsychic effectsof"medicine"more than thephysiolog-ical.Ethnobotanical studieshavere-centlyadvancedourunderstandingofknownhallucinogenicplantsandhaveuncoverednewones,some ofwhichhaveyieldedcompounds(Fig.1)ofextraordinarychemical andpharmaco-logicalinterest,evenofpromiseinmodemmedicine(1-5).Thepaceof research intohallucino-gensindyingordisappearingprimitivecultures;the successofstudiesintotheplantsandtheirconstituents;andtheconfusiongeneratedbycasual or friv-olousinterests n somesegmentsofoursociety-allseemtojustifyan ethno-botanicalsummarybaseduponthepremisethat,eventhoughonlyan in-terdisciplinaryconsideration canade-quatelycopewiththisfast-growingfield,thestartingpointforunderstand-ingnaturallyoccurringpsychoactivesubstances must beanappreciationof
17JANUARY 1969
the identification andaboriginalsignifi-cance of theplantsinvolved.Myownethnobotanical researchwhich,since1936,hastaken meintoremoteareasof the NewWorldtostudynative nar-cotics,hasconvincedmethatthereexistsanappreciablenumber ofhallu-cinogenicplantsstillunknownto sci-ence,and thatwecannolongeraffordtoignorereportsofaboriginalusesmerelybecausetheyfallbeyondthelimitsof ourcredence.Primitivecul-tures arefastdisappearingand,withthem,nativeknowledgeofplantprop-erties that couldhelpusalongpathsofacademic andpracticalachievement.In viewofthenumber ofplantspe-cies,variouslyestimatedat from400,-000to800,000,thosethathave beenusedashallucinogensarefew;probablyno morethan 60speciesofcryptogamsandphanerogams.Only20maybeconsideredimportant.Evenmorein-terestingistheunexplainedconcentra-tionofthemajorityofthehallucinogensinthe NewWorld. Inbothhemispheres,there areplantswithhallucinogenicpropertieswhichapparentlyhave neverbeenemployedasnarcotics,butevenifthesewere added to those thatmanhas bent tohispurpose,thenumberisverysmall.Sincemosthallucinogensowe theiractivitytoalkaloids andatleast5000higherplantsarealkaloidal,the smallnumber ofhallucinogensisthe identification andaboriginalsignifi-cance of theplantsinvolved.Myownethnobotanical researchwhich,since1936,hastaken meintoremoteareasof the NewWorldtostudynative nar-cotics,hasconvincedmethatthereexistsanappreciablenumber ofhallu-cinogenicplantsstillunknownto sci-ence,and thatwecannolongeraffordtoignorereportsofaboriginalusesmerelybecausetheyfallbeyondthelimitsof ourcredence.Primitivecul-tures arefastdisappearingand,withthem,nativeknowledgeofplantprop-erties that couldhelpusalongpathsofacademic andpracticalachievement.In viewofthenumber ofplantspe-cies,variouslyestimatedat from400,-000to800,000,thosethathave beenusedashallucinogensarefew;probablyno morethan 60speciesofcryptogamsandphanerogams.Only20maybeconsideredimportant.Evenmorein-terestingistheunexplainedconcentra-tionofthemajorityofthehallucinogensinthe NewWorld. Inbothhemispheres,there areplantswithhallucinogenicpropertieswhichapparentlyhave neverbeenemployedasnarcotics,butevenifthesewere added to those thatmanhas bent tohispurpose,thenumberisverysmall.Sincemosthallucinogensowe theiractivitytoalkaloids andatleast5000higherplantsarealkaloidal,the smallnumber ofhallucinogensisThepresenceoftoxicconstituentsinsomanybasidiomycetesledto theearlydiscoveryofhallucinogenicprop-erties inthe mushrooms.Ithasevenbeenpostulatedthatmushrooms wereancientlyandwidelyvaluedinprimi-tivereligions;thatthevery conceptofdeityarosefrom theireffects;andthattheirpresentdisjunctritualisticuse isrelict.Thehallucinogenicuseof thefly
agaric(Amanitamuscaria)byprimi-
tivetribesmeninSiberiacame to theattention ofEuropeansinthe 18thcentury.Thisfungus-widespreadinnorth-temperate partsof bothhemi-spheres-haslongbeenrecognizedastoxic;itsname referstotheEuropeancustomofemployingit topoisonflies.Inrecenttimes,itsuse as aninebrianthasbeen known inonlytwocenters:extreme westernSiberia,amongFinno-Ugrianpeoples,theOstyakandVogul;andextremenortheasternSiberia,amongtheChukchi,Koryak,andKamchadal. Tradition establishedtheuse offlyagaricbywitch doctors oftheLappsof Inari inEuropeand oftheYakagirofnorthernmost Siberia.Formerly,thenarcoticemploymentof
Amanitamuscariawasapparently
morewidespread,andithaseven beenThepresenceoftoxicconstituentsinsomanybasidiomycetesledto theearlydiscoveryofhallucinogenicprop-erties inthe mushrooms.Ithasevenbeenpostulatedthatmushrooms wereancientlyandwidelyvaluedinprimi-tivereligions;thatthevery conceptofdeityarosefrom theireffects;andthattheirpresentdisjunctritualisticuse isrelict.Thehallucinogenicuseof thefly
agaric(Amanitamuscaria)byprimi-
tivetribesmeninSiberiacame to theattention ofEuropeansinthe 18thcentury.Thisfungus-widespreadinnorth-temperate partsof bothhemi-spheres-haslongbeenrecognizedastoxic;itsname referstotheEuropeancustomofemployingit topoisonflies.Inrecenttimes,itsuse as aninebrianthasbeen known inonlytwocenters:extreme westernSiberia,amongFinno-Ugrianpeoples,theOstyakandVogul;andextremenortheasternSiberia,amongtheChukchi,Koryak,andKamchadal. Tradition establishedtheuse offlyagaricbywitch doctors oftheLappsof Inari inEuropeand oftheYakagirofnorthernmost Siberia.Formerly,thenarcoticemploymentof
Amanitamuscariawasapparently
morewidespread,andithaseven been
Theauthoris executive directorand curator ofeconomicbotany,Botanical Museum ofHarvardUniversity,Cambridle,,Massachusetts.Heisalsolecturerin economicbotany,BiologyDepart-ment,HarvardUniversity.245Theauthoris executive directorand curator ofeconomicbotany,Botanical Museum ofHarvardUniversity,Cambridle,,Massachusetts.Heisalsolecturerin economicbotany,BiologyDepart-ment,HarvardUniversity.245
 
suggestedthatthe ancientgiantber-serkersofNorwayinducedtheiroc-casionalfits ofsavagemadnessbyingestingthis mushroom(7).InSiberia,severalmushrooms,oftenanexpensivearticleoftrade,suffice tocause anintoxication.Theymaybetaken as extracts in cold or warm waterormilk,eitheraloneor with thejuice
ofVacciniumuliginosumorEpilobiumangustifolium.Sometimes,adried
mushroommay simplybeheld,moist-ened,inthemouth.AmongtheKor-yak,the women chew the mushroomsandrollthem intoelongatedpelletswhichthemenswallow.Manyofthesepeopleshave discoveredthat theintoxi-catingprinciplesareexcretedunalteredintheurine,almost ashallucinogenicastheoriginalplantmaterial. Thisdis-coveryhasgivenrisetothecustom,sometimesrituallyexecuted,of thein-00HNCaN~muscimoleCH(Amanita)CH30NibogaineN(Tabernanthe)Hergine(Rivea,lpomoea)
N-CH3
scopolamine(Datura)H
0
I
\==/
ebriate'sdrinkinghis ownoranother'surine whenhe feels the intoxicationwaning,thusrepeatedlyeffectingacontinuation ofthe narcosis.
Effects of Amanitamuscariavary ap-
preciablywith individuals and atdif-ferent times.An hour aftertheingestionofthemushrooms,twitchingandtrem-blingofthelimbs isnoticeable withtheonsetof aperiodofgoodhumorandlighteuphoria,characterizedbymacro-scopia,visions of thesupernaturalandillusionsofgrandeur. Religiousover-tones-such as anurgetoconfesssins-frequentlyoccur.Occasionally,thepartakerbecomesviolent,dashingmadlyaboutuntil,exhausted,hedropsinto adeep sleep.Since1869,whenmuscarinewasiso-lated,most workershaveassumedthatthetoxicityandhallucinogenicprop-
ertiesof Armanita muscaria could beOPO H
NH
H
CH32
N"NpsilocybineI(Psilocybe,C2H5HStrophria)
CH3ONharmineI
(Banisteriop$is)H
CH3
CH3O
-'
CH2CH2NH2CH,3O
"N
mescaline
(Lophophora)OCH3
CH$O(CH2)2-N(CH3)2
ICH20H5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine(Virola)
C,H,,-n
(CH2)2-N(CH3)2
IH
H3crHydimethyltryptamineZtetrahydrocannabinol(Anadenanthera, Mimosa,Banisteriopsis)(Cannabis)
Fig.1.Mainhallucinatingconstituents ofpsychotomimeticplants.
246
attributed o this alkaloid.Studies haveshown,however,that muscarine isaminor constituent which could not bealoneresponsible.The same is true ofthetraceamounts ofbufoteninereport-ed inthecarpophores.Recentpharma-cologicaltests show thatthe centralnervoussystemactivityis dueprimarilytomuscimole,anunsaturatedcyclichydroxamicacid,andtoaminoacids,ibotenicacid,andtheless active mus-cazone. Since ibotenicacid is apre-cursorformuscazone,the variationinintoxicationpotentialof theflyagaricmaybedueto fluctuations n the ratiobetween these two constituents. Thereisevidence that still other asyetun-characterizedprinciplesmaytakepartinthetoxicityofthisspecies(8).About 3500yearsago,Aryanpeo-plessweptfromthe northintoIndia,bringingwith them the cultofaplantcalledsoma.Theydeified theplantasaholyinebriant,drinkingitsjuiceinreligiousrites. Morethan1000hymnstosoma have come down intactintheRigVeda. For over 2000years,duringwhichperiodtheAryansabandoned heoriginalplantandforgotit,theidentityof soma has been adeepmystery.ForacenturyWestern civilizationhasbeenpuzzled bytheidentityofsoma.Morethan100specieshavebeensuggestedas itssource,but nonehasgainedac-ceptance.Ephedra,agymnosperm,andPeriplocaandSarcostemma(Asclepi-adaceae)havebeenprincipalcontend-ers-allfleshy,leafless ornearlyleaf-lessdesertvines.Some botanists havefelt that soma couldhavebeenCanna-bis,othersthatitwaswhollymythicalandneverwasderivedfrom aplant.The mostrecentidentificationofsomaasAmanita muscariaappearstobethefirstthatsatisfiesallof themanyde-scriptivedetailsandevidencegleanedfromtheVedichymns,andnoneseemsto contradictt. Ifcorrect,itrepresentsameaningfulcontribution toethno-botanyinviewof theextraordinaryreligiousand socialroleofsomaasemphasizedinoneofthe earliertextsintheIndo-Europeanworld(9).Another center ofhallucinogenicuseofmushrooms liesinMexico.Arche-ological"mushroom stones" indicatethat asophisticatedmushroomcultexistedin Guatemala3500yearsago.EarlySpanishchroniclers wrotein de-tailedoppositiontothediabolicmush-rooms oftheAztec,teonanacatl("foodofthegods"),eatenceremoniallyfordivination,prophecy,andworship(Fig.2);but sincefour centureisfailed toproduceevidence ofsuchuse ofmush-
SCIENCE,VOL.1.63
 
453.
Fig.2.AnearlyillustrationfthesacredhallucinogenicmushroomsofMexico,teonanacatl.FromtheFlorentinoCodex
ofSahaguin'sHistoriade las cosas dela
NuevaEspafia,writtenduringhemiddleof the16thcentury]rooms,thesuggestionthat thechron-iclershadconfusedthe driedmush-rooms with thedriedcrowns of thehallucinogenicpeyotecactuswasac-cepted.Onlyduringthepasttwodec-adeshaveethnobotanicalstudieseluci-dated the extent of modern useinsouthern Mexicoof atleast 20speciesof mushroomsinfourgeneraamongnine tribes.These mushroomsbelong
toConocybe,Panaeolus,Psilocybe,andStropharia,withPsilocybemexicana
perhapsthemostimportant(10).Many,ifnotall,containpsilocybine,anextraordinarilybiodynamictrypta-minewith aphosphorylatedsidechain,and an unstablederivativepsilocine
(11).Psilocybeyungensishas beensug-
gestedas theidentification of a"treefungus"reportedby earlymissionariesas the sourceof anintoxicatingbev-erageof theYurimaguaof AmazonianPeru.Noevidence, however,pointstothepresentuse ofanhallucinogenicmushroom in thatarea(5).Among spermatophytes,hallucino-gensare foundthroughoutthedicotyle-dons,butthemonocotyledonsarenotablypoorinpsychotomimetic prop-erties.ZingiberaceaeThere have beenvague reportsofthehallucinogenicuseofKaempferiagalangain NewGuinea,but,asyet,ethnobotanicalandphytochemicalcor-roborationarewhollylacking(12).MoraceaePerhapsone of the oldest known
hallucinogensis Cannabissativa,a
member ofamonotypicmoraceousgenus,sometimes,togetherwiththehopsplant,set asideinadistinctfamilyCannabinaceae(13).Oneofthemostancient ofcultivatedplants,thisdioe-
17JANUARY 1969
cious,weedyannual thatmaygrowtoaheightof 15 feet(5.5 meters),is na-tiveprobablyto Central Asia. It is thesource ofhempfiber,aseedoil,andanarcotic. Overthemillennia,manhasselected"races" or "varieties" of thiscultigenwithdesired characteristics:someforstrongeriber;someforhigheroilcontent;othersforgreaternarcoticpotency.Selection for narcoticactivityhasbeenespeciallynotableinregionslikeIndia,where theinebriatingprop-ertieshadreligious significance.Fur-thermore,it isrecognizedthat thestrengthof theintoxicatingprinciplesinanygiven"race"of Cannabiswilldecreaseastheplantisgrowninmorenorthern latitudes.HempwasreportedinaChinesedocument 3500yearsago.TheAssyri-ans used theplantin9thcenturyB.C.as an incense.TheSanskritZend-Avestafirstmentioneditsintoxicatingresin in 600 B.C. Herodotus wrote thattheScythiansburnedits seedstopro-duceanarcotic smoke.InThebes,itwasmadeintoadrinkwithopium-likeproperties.Galenreportedgeneraluseofhempin cakeswhich,eaten toex-cess,were narcotic.In13thcenturyAsiaMinor,thehashishinswerepoliti-calmurdererswho,excited to theirnefarious workbyingestinghashish,aformofcannabis,wouldcarryoutmur-der forpay;from this Arabic termcomes ourwordassassin.Cannabis sprobablythe mostwidelydisseminatedhallucinogenicplant,nowknown invirtuallyall inhabitedpartsoftheworld,escaping easilyfromcul-tivation andgrowingspontaneously.Consequently,ts narcotic use insophis-ticatedsocieties,especiallyin urbanareas,hasrecentlyincreased,presentingmajor legal,moral,social,andhealthdilemmas toEuropeanand Americanauthorities.Itsemploymentinprimitivesocietiesmayshed muchlightonprob-lemsresultingfromitsuseand abusein moreadvancedcommunities.Recentstudyhasestablishedthattheeuphoricandpsychotomimeticactivity
ofCannabis sativais dueprimarilyto
AM-tetrahydrocannabinol11)foundconcentratednaresin abundant n theunripenedfruits andadjacentleavesandnormallyabsentfromorsparseinstaminateplants.Althoughmuchisknownabouttheeffectsinman ofcrude Cannabispreparations,littleisyetunderstood ofthebiologicalactiv-ityofpuretetrahydrocannabinol.De-spiteitslonghistoryasatherapeuticagent,especiallyasasedativein thetreatmentofhysteria,t hasdisappeared
Fig.3. Virola.[FromRhodora,p.151(see15)1
fromthepharmacopoeiasofmostna-tions,since it is now consideredtobemedicallyvalueless. The intoxicationfrom abusive use ofCannabisprepara-tionsexhibitshighvariabilitybutischaracterizedusuallybyanearlyonsetofadreamystate with confusionofthoughts,euphoricexaltation,and ex-tremehappinessoftenalternatingwithabnormaldepression.Visual andaudito-ryhallucinationsare common.Timeper-ceptionisalmostalwaysaltered.Theremaybenausea,dizziness,delusionsofpersecutionandsuffering,andrarelysuicidaltendencies.Althoughnotaddic-tive,Cannabismaybedefinitelyhabitu-ating. Dullingofthe intellect andpsy-choticdisturbancesare often associatedwith excessive andcontinueduse,butoccasional use does notappearto beexceptionallydeleterious.Methods oftakingCannabisvarywidely.In theNewWorld,marihuanaor,inBrazil,maconha-thedried,crushedfloweringtopsandleaves-aresmoked,usuallymixedwithtobacco,incigarettes.InpartsofprimitiveAfrica,Cannabisenjoysanimportantrole inreligionandmagic.Hashish,the resinfrompistillateflowers,is eatenbymil-lions,especiallyinMoslemareasofNorthAfrica andthe NearEast. It isinIndia,however,thatCannabis as-sumesextraordinaryreligioussignifi-canceandwhere,as aresult,manhasselected"races"characterizedbyhighconcentrationsoftetrahydrocannabinol.TheancientAtharva-Veda calledit a"liberatorof sin"and"heavenlyguide,"and itisstill used intemplesas asacredplant.ThreeCannabispreparationsare
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