Professional Documents
Culture Documents
tele and
communication. This is a Greek word which means “at a distance”. Hence telecommunication
means that communication at distant end i.e. sending message at distant end which may be in
the form of voice, data or pictorial.
Wireless Local Loop: Traditionally the provision of voice and data communications to the
end user over the local loop or subscriber loop has been provided by wired systems. For
residential subscribers twisted pair has been and continues to be the standard means of
connection. For business and government subscribers twisted pair coaxial cable and optical fiber
are in use.
As subscribers have demanded greater capacity, particularly to support internet use, traditional
twisted pair technology has become inadequate. Telecommunications providers have developed
number technologies to meet the need including ISDN and a family of digital subscriber loop
technologies known as xDSL. In addition cable operations have introduced two-way high-speed
service using cable modem technology. Thus, wired technologies are responding to the need for
reliable high speed access by residential, business, and government subscribers.
However increasing interest is being shown in competing wireless technologies for subscriber
access. These approaches are generally referred to as wireless local loop (WLL) or fixed wireless
access. WLL alternatives are narrowband, which offer a replacement for existing telephony
services, and broadband, which provide high-speed two-way voice and data service.
Hence Wireless Local Loop (WLL) is a system that connects subscribers to the public switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) using radio signals as a substitute for copper all or part of connection
between the subscriber and the switch. As WLL is largely based on Mobile cellular Telephony’s
architecture, it uses used Radio base stations connected to common public switching exchanges
to reach via radio the subscriber’s residence or office fixed terminal, equipped with radio
transceiver. The utilization of several radio base stations each of them covering an area, called
Cell, guarantees the covering of the whole pre-determined region. Due to restricted mobility of the
subscriber’s terminal, there is no need for handoff (mobility in between cells), the connection to a
PSTN is generally available
The Role of WLL:
A WLL provider services one or more cells. Each cell. Each cell includes a base station antenna
mounted on top of a tall building or tower. Individual subscribers have a fixed antenna mounted
on a building or pole that has an unobstructed line of sight to the base station antenna. From the
base station, there is a link, which may either be wired or wireless, to a switching center. The
switching center typically a telephone company local office. This provides connections to the local
and long distance telephone networks. An Internet service provider (ISP) may be collocated at the
switch or connected to the switch by high-speed link.
The figure below shows a two level hierarchy. More complex configurations have also been
implemented in which a base station may serve a number of subordinate base station antennas,
each of which supports a number of subscribers.
The WLL has a number of advantages over a wired approach to subscriber loop support:
Cost: Wireless systems are less expensive than wired systems. Although the electronics of the
wireless transmitter may be more expensive than those used for wired communications, with WLL
the cost of installing kilometers of cable, either underground or on poles is avoided, as well as the
cost of maintaining the wired infrastructure.
Installation Time: WLL system typically can be installed rapidly. The key stumbling blocks are
obtaining permission to use a given frequency band and finding a suitable elevated site for the
base station antennas. Once these hurdles are cleared, a WLL system can be installed in a small
fraction of the time required for a new wired system.
Selective Installation: Radio units are installed only for those subscribers who want the service at
a given time. With a wired system, typically cable is laid out in anticipation of serving every
subscriber in a local area.
The other advantages are:
-- Quality of wire less technology has improved the speech quality
-- Cellular systems are too expensive with lesser signal quality than fixed broad band wireless
which uses directional antennas
WLL needs to be evaluated with respect to two alternatives:
Wired scheme using existing installed cable: A large fraction of the earth’s inhabitants do not
have a telephone line. For high speed applications, many subscribers with telephone lines do not
have a line of sufficient quality or are too far from the central office to effectively use xDSL. Many
of these same subscribers also do not have cable TV or their cable provider does not offer two
way data service. Finally, because WLL has become cost competitive with wired schemes, new
installation face a genuine choice between the wired and wireless approaches.
Mobile cellular technology: Current cellular systems are too expensive and do not provide
sufficient facilities to act as a realistic alternative to WLL. Even when 3G systems become
available they are likely to be more expensive and less functional than broadband WLL
alternatives. A major advantage of WLL over mobile cellular is that, because the subscriber unit is
fixed, the subscriber can use a directional antenna pointed at the base station antenna, providing
improved signal quality in both directions.
Advantages of WLL:
1- Cost of installation and Maintenance of WLL is lower than cable network
2- Installation time is less.
3- Selective installation for those who require connection at certain time.
4- Quality of wire less technology has improved the speech quality
5- Cellular systems are too expensive with lesser signal quality than fixed broad band wireless
which uses directional antennas
Need for WLL:
1- The Global for Telephone Network Access is driven by:
• The pent-up demand of existing telecom services.
• The economic pressure to expand a region’s access to telecom.
• The impacts to deregulation.
2- The target of raising tele-density.
3- There are many populations in remote rural Areas and rugged terrain.
4- Cost of local loop is much less than traditional copper wire.
5- Despite of much higher innovations in telecom sector, hundred of million of subscribers are
waiting for dial tone.
6- The motivation for local loop deployment thus can drive from:
• The extension of existing service for new areas.
• The support of new or competitive network in both advance and underdeveloped
markets e.g. provision of direct local access.
• To by pass the existing local network.
WLL Primary Requirement:
1- Fast and cost effective network deployment.
2- Flexible – subscriber locations not known.
3- Low cost.
4- Integration in the existing network.
5- Shortest possible time to market.
6- Virtually un-limited capacity on demand.
7- Support of value added services like ISDN.
8- Quality of service compatible with PSTN standards.
9- Equal service access provided to urban and rural users.
11- Key factor for success: competitive on price and service level.
12- Customer’s equipment must be inexpensive and easy to use.
Technical requirements of WLL Systems:
1- Communications quality.
2- Short construction period.
3- Absence of interference with other wireless systems.
4- High traffic volume.
5- A successful WLL system must meet standards in:
• Dropped calls and Fades (Fading: the net result of all the waves at the
receiving and is zero)
• Static and cross-talk.
• Privacy.
• Data rates.
• Voice quality.
• Fraud prevention capacities.
GSM An Introduction: Today GSM stand for Global System for Mobile Communication. It is
the globally accepted standard for cellular communication.
The idea of cell based mobile radio system (mobile phones) was born back in the early 1970 at
Bell Laboratories in the USA. Although it was not until the early 1980 when the first commercial
system was established in Scandinavia. Analogue cellular telephone systems experience a very
rapid growth in Europe particularly in Scandinavia and the UK.
At this early stage every country began developing its own system each with its own standard,
which was incompatible with everyone else. This was an undesirable situation because it meant
that equipment was limited to operate only one country’s network and the market for each mobile
device was limited.
In order to overcome these problems the Conference of European Post and Telecommunication
(CEPT) formed the Group Special Mobile (GSM) in 1982 to develop a pan-European mobile
cellular radio system. Only later did the acronym GSM come to stand for Global System for
Mobile Communications.
The standardized system had to meet the following criteria:
• Spectrum efficiency (Limited radio frequencies)
• International roaming
• Low mobile base station costs
• Good subjective voice quality
• Compatibility with other systems / technology such as ISDN and PDAs
• Ability to support new services
Unlike the existing analogue cellular technology the GSM system was developed using digital
technology. The decision to adopt digital technology was taken for a number of reasons.
For example with the huge numbers of subscribers it was not going to be long before the
analogue system would not be able to cope with the limited number of existing frequencies. Plans
to expand the frequency range were proposed but these plans were rejected by al large number
of countries because of the restricted spectrum.
Also the restriction on frequencies combined with the development of new telecommunication
technology such as ISDN presented many problems directly related to quality and compatibility.
GSM intended to address these issues.
From 1982 – 1985 discussions were held to decide between building an analogue or digital
system. After multiple field tests, a digital system was adopted. The next task was to decide
between narrowband or broadband solution. In May 1987 the narrowband time division multiple
access (TDMA) solution was chosen.
In 1989 the responsibility for the GSM specifications passed from CEPT to the European
Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI). The aim of the GSM specifications was to
describe the functionality and the interface for each component of the system and to provide
guidance on the design of the system. These specifications standardized the system
guaranteeing the proper inter working of all the different elements of the GSM system. In 1990
phase I of the GSM specifications were published but the commercial use of GSM did not start
until mid 1991. Initially only the larger cities and airports were covered. By the end of 1993 there
were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries, with 25 additional countries having selected or
considering GSM.
Already GSM had gone far beyond its European target audience, South Africa Australia and many
middle-east and far-east countries had chosen GSM. By the beginning of 1994 there were 1.3
million subscribers worldwide.
In December 1995 there were over 10 million subscribers in Europe alone, and GSM systems
existing in every continent around the world GSM earned its current meaning Global System for
mobile communication.
Today GSM has become the world’s most widely used mobile system used in over 700 networks
in over 100 countries.
At its 48th meeting on 16thOctober2002 the GSM Association (GSMA) announced that 95% of the
world countries have now signed the GSM Memorandum of Understanding.
Concept of Cellular System: The concept of cellular system is the use of a set of radio
transceivers spread across a geographical area. These transceivers are the gateway for mobile
devices to be connected to a communication network.
GSM Architecture: The best way to create a manageable communication system is to divide
it into various subgroups that are interconnected using standardized interfaces.
A GSM system can be divided into three sub systems.
1. The Mobile Station Sub System (MSS).
2. The Base Station Subsystem (BSS).
3. The Network and Signaling Subsystem (NSS).
1- Mobile Station Subsystem: The mobile station subsystem is the mobile phone equipment
whether portable or within a vehicle which houses a radio transceiver and a Subscriber Identity
Module other wise knows as a SIM smart card the size of a first class postage stamp. A SIM card
can be moved between compatible mobile phone equipment since it is not fixed inside the
equipment. It has memory (for data such as personal phone numbers and applications), a
processor and the ability to interact with the user. Current SIM typically have 16 to 64 kb of
memory which provides plenty of room for storing hundreds of personal phone numbers, text
message and value added service. Each SIM card contains an International Mobile Subscriber
Identity (IMEI) number and a security key which can be used by the GSM network to identify a
unique user and provide authentication. It provides a secure infrastructure for the protection of
signaling and user data which is especially useful for e and m commerce. The mobile
equipment sometimes referred to as a terminal, contains an International Mobile Equipment
Identity (IMEI) number which can be used by the network to identify the equipment. All this
information is required by the GSM network to allow the mobile station access to services. These
services are offered by a base station with which the mobile station communicates.
3- Network and Switching Subsystem: This part of GSM network connects the base station
subsystem to other network to allow users to communicate with other users by cal routing. The
switching part of this subsystem is known as Mobile Switching Center MSC. It acts like a standard
exchange in a fixed network and additionally provides all the function need to handle a mobile
subscriber. The MSC also has a Gateway function for communication with other networks. It is
called gateway MSC (GMSC). The network switching system is also responsible for providing the
features like.
Mobility
Authentication
Security
To perform these functions it is necessary for the network to keep database containing user
details so that decisions can be made of how service can be offered to the mobile users. There
are four main data base which performs these functions.
(i) The home Location Register (HLR)
(ii) Visitor Location Register (VLR)
(iii) Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
(iv) Authentication Center
These could be within a switching center or be linked remotely by means of some other
communication channel.
(i) The Home Location Register (HLR): It is a data base used for management of mobile
subscribers. It stores the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMEI), mobile station ISDN
number and Current Visitor Location Register address. The main information stored their
concerns the location of each mobile station in order to able to route calls to he mobile
subscribers managed by each HLR. The HLR also maintains the services associated with each
MS. One HLR can serve several MSC’s
(ii) The Visitor Location Register (VLR): It contains the current location of the MS and selected
administrative information from the HLR necessary for call control and provision of the subscribed
services for each mobile currently located in the geographical area controlled by the VLR. A
VLR is connected to one MSC and is normally integrated into the MSC’s hardware.
(iii) The Authentication Center (AUC): A protected data base that holds a copy of the secret key
stored in each subscribers SIM card which is used for authentication and encryption over the
radio channel. The AUC provides additional security against fraud. It is normally located close to
each HLR with in a GSM network.
(iv) The Equipment Identity Register (EIR): It is a data base that contains a list of all valid mobile
station equipment with in the network where each mobile station is identified by its International
Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. The EIR has three data bases:
White List: for all known, good IMEI’s
Black list: for bad or stolen hand sets.
Gray List: for hand sets / IMEI’s those are uncertain.
Operation and Maintenance Center: The OMC is a management system that oversees
the GSM functional blocks. The OMC assists the network operator in maintaining satisfactory
operation of the GSM network. Hardware redundancy and intelligent error detection mechanisms
help prevent network down-time. The OMC is responsible for controlling and maintaining the
MSC BSC and BTS. It can be incharge of an entire public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) or just
some parts of the PLMN.
Interface and Protocols: Providing voice and data transmission quality over the radio link
is only part of the function of a cellular mobile network. AGSM mobile can seamlessly roam
nationally and internationally, requiring standardized call routing and location updating functions
in GSM network. A public communication system also needs solid security mechanisms to
prevent misuse by third parties. Security functions such as authentication, encryption and the use
of Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identities (TMSI’s) are an absolute must with in a GSM network;
different protocols are needed to enable the flow of data and signaling between different GSM
subsystems.
Multiple Accesses: The ability of system to carry many signals at the same time is known as
multiple accesses. Multiple Access allows the communication capacity of the system to be shared
among a large number of subscribers (Mobile station or wireless phones), and to accommodate
the different mixes of communication traffic that are transmitted by the different subscribers.
Multiple Access Techniques:
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) (Narrow Band Technique)
2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) (Narrow Band Technique)
3. Code Division Multiple Access (FDMA) (Wide Band Technique)
1- Frequency Division Multiple Accesses (FDMA): This technique involves subdividing a wide
frequency band into narrower sub-bands which are assigned to various callers. This allows a
single base station to serve many callers.
2- Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): It is one of the several technologies used in wireless
communication. TDMA provides each caller with time slots so that several calls can occupy one
band width. Each caller is assigned a specific time slot and receives/ transmits signals with in the
specified timeslot.
3- Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): CDMA is a direct sequence spread spectrum
system where the entire band width of the system i.e 1.25 MHz is mode available to each user.
This technique eliminates the frequency reuse problem in cellular systems.
Unlike TDMA and FDMA system where user signals never overlap in either the time or the
frequency domains respectively, a CDMA system allows transmission at the same time while
using the same frequency. The mechanism separating the users in CDMA system consist of
assigning a unique code that modulates the signal from each user. The number of unique codes
in a CDMA link is equal to the number of active users. The code modulating the users signal is
also called a separating code, spreading sequence or chip sequence.
Bandwidth = 25 MHz
Channel = 200 KHz
Speech Channels / Frame = 8
Each slot has 156.25 bits (0.577 ms)
6 Trail bits
8.25 Guard bits
26 synchronization bits
2x58=116 Data Bits
Transmission rate = 270.833 kbps
Time duration of slot = 0.577 ms
Time duration of one TDMA frame = 4.615 ms
One TDMA multi-frame = 26 TDMA frames
Time duration of one TDMA multi-frame = 120 ms
Logical Channels on the Air Interface: Several logical channels are mapped on to the
physical channels. The organization of logical channel depends on the application and the
direction of the information flow (uplink/downlink or bidirectional). The logical channel can be
either a traffic channel (TCH), which carries user data, or a signaling channel.
Traffic Channel on the Air Interface: A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech
and data traffic. Traffic channels are defined using a 26 frame multi-frame or group of 26 TDMA
frames. The length of a 26 frame multi-frame is 120ms.Hence length of multi-frame is defined as:
Length of one TDMA multi-frame / Total no of frames in one multi-frame * Total no of time sots in one TDMA frame
=120 / 26 * 8 = 0.577 ms
Out of 26 frames, 24 are used for traffic. One is used for Slow Associated Control Channel
(SACCH) and one is currently unused. TCH for the uplink & down link are separated in time by 3
burst periods so that the mobile station does not have to transmit and receive simultaneously,
thereby simplifying the electronic circuitry.
In addition to these full rate TCHs (TCH/F, 22.8 kbit/s), half rate TCHs (TCH/H, 11.4 kbit/s) are
also defined. Half rate TCHs double the capacity of a system effectively by making it possible to
transmit two calls in a single channel. If a TCH/F is used for data communications, the usable
data rate drops to 9.6 kbit/s (in TCH/H: max. 4.8 kbit/s). Eight-rate TCHs are also specified, and
are used for signaling. In the GSM recommendations, they are called Stand-Alone Dedicated
Control Channels (SDCCH).
Signaling Channels on the Air Interface: The signaling channels on the air interface
are used for call establishment, paging, call maintenance, synchronization, etc. There are three
groups of signaling channels
(i)The Broadcast Channels (BCH): Carry only downlink information and are mainly responsible
for synchronization and frequency correction. This is the only channel type enabling point-to-
multipoint communication in which short messages are simultaneously transmitted to several
mobiles. These are:
-- The Broadcast Control Channel: This channel gives the mobile station information of the base
station identity and the carrier frequency available
-- The Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH): The mobile station must be corrected if necessary
to ensure it is using the correct frequency with the network
-- The Synchronization channel (SCH): This is used to correct the timing of the frames and burst
periods
(ii) The Common Control Channels (CCCH): The group of uplink and downlink channels
between the MS and BTS. These channels are used to carry information from the network to
mobile stations and provide access to the network. This includes:
-- The Paging Channel (PCH): Downlink only. This channel notifies a mobile station of an incoming
call
-- The Random Access Channel (RACH): Uplink only. Used by mobile station when it is to request
access to the GSM network
-- The Access Grant Channel (AGCH): Downlink only. The base station uses this channel to inform
the mobile station which dedicated channel it should use for communication after requesting
access on the RACH channel
(iii) The Dedicated Control Channels (DCCH): They are responsible for roaming, handovers,
encryption, etc. The DCCHs includes:
-- The Standalone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH): Used to swap signaling information
between the uplink and downlink channels
-- The Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH): It is used to perform maintenance and control
of the channels
-- The Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH): It is similar to SDCCH but used in parallel to
operation of the TCH
Almost all the signaling channel uses the normal burst format except the following channels.
RACH (Which uses random access burst)
FCCH (Which uses frequency correction burst)
SCH (Which uses synchronization burst)
Burst Format: A time slot is a 577 us or 0.577ms time interval i.e 156.25 bits duration and its
physical contents are known as a burst. Five different types of bursts exist in the system. They
are distinguished by different TDMA frame divisions.
(i) The Normal Burst (NB): Used to carry information on traffic and control channels,
except RACH. It contains 116 encrypted bits.
(ii) The Frequency Correction Burst (FB): Used for the frequency synchronization of
the mobile. The contents of this burst are used to calculate an un-modulated,
sinusoidal oscillation, onto which the synthesizer of the mobiles is clocked
(iii) The Synchronization Burst (SB): Used for time synchronization of the mobile. It
contains a long training sequence and carries the information of a TDMA frame
number.
(iv) The Access Burst (AB): Used for random access and characterized by a longer
guard period (256 us) to allow for burst transmission from a mobile that doses not
know the correct timing advance at the first access to a network (or after handover).
(v) The Dummy Burst (DB): Transmitted as a filter in un used time slots of the carrier,
does not carry any information but has the same format as a normal burst (NB).
The Abis Interface: It lies between the base station sub system (BSS) and represents the
dividing line between the BSC function and the BTS.
The BSC and BTS can be connected using leased lines, radio links or metropolitan area networks
(MANs).
Basically two channel types exist between the BSC and BTC.
Traffic Channels (TCH): It can be configured in 8, 16, 64 kbits/s formats and transport user data.
Signaling Channel: It can be configured is 16, 32, 56 & 64 kbits/s formats and are used for
signaling purpose between BTS & BSC
The A Interface: It lies between the BCS & MSC.
Other MSC based Interfaces: All of the interfaces around the MSC use SS7 based
protocols. The B, C, D, F and G interfaces are referred to as MAP interfaces. These connect
either the MSC to registers or registers to other registers. The E interface supports the MAP
protocol and call set up protocols (TUP). This interface connects one MSC to another MSC with
in the same network or to another network; MSC. They are designed as follows:
Fundamentals of PCM
Sampling Theorem: The sampling theorem is used to determine the minimum rate at which and
analog signal can be sampled without information is being lost when the original signal is
received. The sampling frequency must be more than twice the highest frequency contained in
the analog signal
fA>2fs
Analog to Digital Convention
Sampling: A sampling frequency of 8000Hz has been specified internationally for the frequency
band (300 Hz to 3400 Hz) used in telephone systems i.e. voice signal is sampled 8000 times per
second. The interval between two consecutive samples from the same voice signal (sampling
interval) is calculated as:
TA = 1/fA = 1/8000 = 125us
Where TA= Sampling Interval
fA= Sampling Frequency
The figure below shows how the voice signal is fed via a low pass filter to an electronic switch.
The low pass filter limits the frequency band to be transmitted i.e. it suppresses frequencies
higher than half of the sampling frequency. The electronic switch driven at the sampling frequency
of 8000Hz takes samples from the telephone signal once every 125 us. A Pulse Amplitude
Modulated signal (PAM signal) is thus obtained at the output of the electronic switch.
Quantizing: The pulse amplitude modulated signal (PAM signal) still represents the voice signal
in analog form. The samples can however be transmitted and further processed much more
easily in digital form. The first stage in the conversion of a digital signal in case of PAM signal is
Quantizing the whole range of possible amplitude values is divided into quantizing intervals and
the quantizing intervals is determined for each sample. The quantizing principle is shown in the
figure below:
In order to simplify the explanation only 16 equal quantizing intervals are indicated. The
quantizing intervals are numbered +1 to +8 in the positive range and -1 to -8 in the negative
range of the voice signal. The several different analog values fall with in the same quantizing
intervals.
Quantizing distortion decreases as the number of quantizing intervals are increased. If the
quantizing intervals are made sufficiently small the distortion will be minimum and the noise
imperceptible.
Types of Quantization
Uniform Quantization: Quantization in which all the quantizing intervals are of equal size. In this
type equal and large quantizing intervals are used over the whole amplitude range, relatively
large discrepancies will occur in case of small signal amplitude.
Non Uniform Quantization: Quantization in which the quantizing interval are not of equal size.
Small quantizing intervals are usually allocated to small signal values (samples) and large
quantizing intervals to large signal values to make the quantizing distortion ratio nearly
independent of the signal level.
Encoding: The PCM signal to be transmitted is obtained by encoding the quantizing intervals.
The electronic encoder allocates on 8-bit PCM word to each individual sample. In PCM
transmission system an 8-digit binary code is used for 128 positive and 128 negative quantizing
intervals (128+128=256)
Multiplexing: The 8 bit PCM words of a number of voice signals can be transmitted
consecutively in repeated cycles. A PCM word of one voice signal is followed by the PCM words
of all other telephone signals arranged in consecutive order. This creates a PCM time division
multiple signal. The process involved in multiplexing are carried out fully electronically.
Summary
Transmit Side:
1. Band limiting of a voice signal by means of a low pass filter.
2. Sampling voice signal. The resulting samples form a PAM signal.
3. Quantizing samples i.e. the quantizing interval is determined for each sample.
4. Encoding sample i.e. a binary PCM word is allocated to the determined quantizing
interval. The voice signal which consists of 8-bits PCM word is known as a PCM signal.
5. Multiplexing PCM signals i.e. the PCM word in a voice signal are interleaved with PCM
words from other voice signals to form a PCM time division multiplex signal.
Receive Side:
1. De-multiplexing PCM time division multiplex signal i.e. the PCM word of the voice
signals are distributed to the individual lines.
2. Decoding PCM words in the PCM signal i.e. a signal amplitude is allocated to each
PCM word. The signal amplitude is equal to the mid point value of the particular
quantizing interval. A PAM signal is produced again.
3. Reproducing the original analog voice signal from the PAM signal with the aid of a low
pass filter.
The sequence in which the individual steps are carried out depends on the system used. It may
differ from the sequence discussed above the samples from several voice signal could for
example be composed into a PAM time division multiplex signal and then quantized and encoded
into one common unit.
Synchronization of Received and Transmit Section:
PCM transmission systems terminate at both ends in a digital multiplex unit. Each multiplex unit
contains a transmit section and a receive section. The transmit section from the 8-bit PCM words
to be transmitted, and the receive section convert the received PCM words back to analog signal.
In either speech direction the receive section must recover the analog signals using the same
timings signal as its associated transmit section. Thus the information received from the transmit
section by the receive section contains not only the PCM signals but also the timing signal used
to form them. In order to carry out these functions the transmit section is provided with a timing
signal generator and the receive section with a timing signal detector which extracts the timing
signal from the received PCM signal. The received section is thus synchronized i.e. it operates in
step with the transmit section of the same speech direction.
PCM Characteristics:
Sampling Frequency=8 kHz or 8000Hz
No of samples per voice signal=8000 samples
Pulse frame period= 1/fA=1/8000=125us
No of bits in a PCM word=8bits
Bit rate of a voice channel=8000x8 bit=64 kbits/s
No of channel time slots per pulse frame=32
No of bits per pulse frame=8x32=256 bits
Period for an 8-bit channel time slot=125usx8/256=3.9us
Bit rate of time division multiplex signal=8000x256=2048kbit/s=2Mbits/s.