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Stress-strain curve

A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from measuring load (stress - ) versus extension (strain - ) for a sample of a material. The nature of the curve varies from material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the stress-strain behaviour of typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the original dimensions of the sample and not the instantaneous values. n each case the samples are loaded in tension although in many cases similar behaviour is observed in compression.

Ductile materials

!ig ". A stress-strain curve typical of structural steel ". #ltimate $trength %. &ield $trength '. (upture ). $train hardening region *. +ec,ing region. $teel generally exhibits a very linear stress-strain relationship up to a well defined yield point (figure "). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of elasticity or &oung-s .odulus. After the yield point the curve typically decreases slightly due to dislocations escaping from /ottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues the stress increases due to strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate strength. #ntil this point the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly due

to 0oisson contractions. 1owever2 beyond this point a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area decreases more 3uic,ly than the rest of the sample resulting in an increase in the true stress. 4n an engineering stress-strain curve this is seen as a decrease in the stress. /onversely2 if the curve is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the stress will continue to rise until failure. 5ventually the nec, becomes unstable and the specimen ruptures (fractures). .ost ductile metals other than steel do not have a well-defined yield point (figure %). !or these materials the yield strength is typically determined by the 6offset yield method62 by which a line is drawn parallel to the linear elastic portion of the curve and intersecting the abscissa at some arbitrary value (most commonly .%7). The intersection of this line and the stress-strain curve is reported as the yield point.

Brittle materials
8rittle materials such as concrete or ceramics do not have a yield point. !or these materials the rupture strength and the ultimate strength are the same.

Properties
The area underneath the stress-strain curve is the toughness of the material- i.e. the energy the material can absorb prior to rupture......... The resilience of the material is the triangular area underneath the elastic region of the curve.

Yield (engineering)
Yield strength2 or the yield point2 is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material begins to plastically deform. 0rior to the yield point the material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. 4nce the yield point is passed some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. 9nowledge of the yield point is vital when designing a component since it generally represents an upper limit to the load that can

be applied. t is also important for the control of many materials production techni3ues such as forging2 rolling2 or pressing n structural engineering2 yield is the permanent plastic deformation of a structural member under stress. This is a soft failure mode which does not normally cause catastrophic failure unless it accelerates buc,ling. n ': space of principal stresses ("2%2')2 an infinite number of yield points form together a yield surface.

Definition
t is often difficult to precisely define yield due to the wide variety of stress-strain behaviours exhibited by real materials. n addition there are several possible ways to define the yield point in a given material;

The point at which dislocations first begin to move. <iven that dislocations begin to move at very low stresses2 and the difficulty in detecting such movement2 this definition is rarely used.

Elastic Limit - The lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be measured. This re3uires a complex iteractive load-unload procedure and is critically dependent on the accuracy of the e3uipment and the s,ill of the operator.

Proportional Limit - The point at which the stress-strain curve becomes nonlinear. n most metallic materials the elastic limit and proportional limit are essentially the same.

Offset Yield Point (proof stress) - :ue to the lac, of a clear border between the elastic and plastic regions in many materials2 the yield point is often defined as the stress at some arbitrary plastic strain (typically =.%7 >"?). This is determined by the intersection of a line offset from the linear region by the re3uired strain. n some materials there is essentially no linear region and so a certain value of plastic strain is defined instead. Although somewhat arbitrary this method does allow for a consistent comparison of materials and is the most common.

Yield criterion
A yield criterion2 often expressed as yield surface2 is an hypothesis concerning the limit of elasticity under any combination of stresses. There are two interpretations of yield criterion; one is purely mathematical in ta,ing a statistical approach while other models attempt to provide a @ustification based on established physical principles. $ince stress and strain are tensor 3ualities they can be described on the basis of three principal directions2 in the case of stress these are denoted by 2 and .

The following represent the most common yield criterion as applied to an isotropic material (uniform properties in all directions). 4ther e3uations have been proposed or are used in specialist situations. a!imum Principal Stress "heory - &ield occurs when the largest principal stress exceeds the uniaxial tensile yield strength. Although this criterion allows for a 3uic, and easy comparison with experimental data it is rarely suitable for design purposes.

a!imum Principal Strain "heory - &ield occurs when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain corresponding to the yield point during a simple tensile test. n terms of the principal stresses this is determined by the e3uation;

a!imum Shear Stress "heory - Also ,nown as the Tresca criterion2 after the !rench scientist 1enri Tresca. This assumes that yield occurs when the shear stress exceeds the shear yield strength ;

"otal Strain Energy "heory - This theory assumes that the stored energy associated with elastic deformation at the point of yield is independent of the specific stress tensor. Thus yield occurs when the strain energy per unit volume is greater than the

strain energy at the elastic limit in simple tension. !or a '-dimensional stress state this is given by;

Distortion Energy "heory - This theory proposes that the total strain energy can be separated into two components; the volumetric (hydrostatic) strain energy and the shape (distortion or shear) strain energy. t is proposed that yield occurs when the distortion component exceeds that at the yield point for a simple tensile test. This is generally referred to as the Aon .ises criterion and is expressed as;

8ased on a different theoretical underpinning this expression is also referred to as octahedral shear stress theory.

#actors influencing yield stress


The stress at which yield occurs is dependent on both the rate of deformation (strain rate) and2 more significantly2 the temperature at which the deformation occurs. 5arly wor, by Alder and 0hilips in "B*) found that the relationship between yield stress and strain rate (at constant temperature) was best described by a power law relationship of the form

where / is a constant and m is the strain rate sensitivity. The latter generally increases with temperature2 and materials where m reaches a value greater than C=.* tend to exhibit super plastic behaviour. Dater2 more complex e3uations were proposed that simultaneously dealt with both temperature and strain rate;

where E and A are constants and F is the temperature-compensated strain-rate - often described by the Fener-1ollomon parameter;

where G1H is the activation energy for hot deformation and T is the absolute temperature.

$mplications for structural engineering


&ielded structures have a lower and less constant modulus of elasticity2 so deflections increase and buc,ling strength decreases2 and both become more difficult to predict. Hhen load is removed2 the structure will remain permanently bent2 and may have residual pre-stress. f buc,ling is avoided2 structures have a tendency to adapt a more efficient shape that will be better able to sustain (or avoid) the loads that bent it. 8ecause of this2 highly engineered structures rely on yielding as a graceful failure mode which allows fail-safe operation. n aerospace engineering2 for example2 no safety factor is needed when comparing limit loads (the highest loads expected during normal operation) to yield criteria. $afety factors are only re3uired when comparing limit loads to ultimate failure criteria2 (buc,ling or rupture.) n other words2 a plane which undergoes extraordinary loading beyond its operational envelope may bend a wing slightly2 but this is considered to be a fail-safe failure mode which will not prevent it from ma,ing an emergency landing.

Elastic modulus
An elastic modulus2 or modulus of elasticity2 is the mathematical description of an ob@ect or substance-s tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e. non-permanently) when a force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an ob@ect is defined as the slope of its stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region;

where is the elastic modulusI stress is the force causing the deformation divided by the area to which the force is appliedI and strain is the ratio of the change caused by the stress to the original state of the ob@ect. 8ecause stress is measured in pascals and strain is a unitless ratio2 the units of are therefore pascals as well. An alternative definition is that the elastic modulus is the stress re3uired to cause a sample of the material to double in length. This is not literally true for most materials because the value is far greater than the yield stress of the material or the point where elongation becomes nonlinear but some may find this definition more intuitive. $pecifying how stress and strain are to be measured2 including directions2 allows for many types of elastic moduli to be defined. The three primary ones are

Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity2 or the tendency of an ob@ect to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axisI it is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. t is often referred to simply as the elastic modulus.

The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or J) describes an ob@ect-s tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at constant volume) when acted upon by opposing forcesI it is defined as shear stress over shear strain. The shear modulus is part of the derivation of viscosity.

The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity2 or the tendency of an ob@ect-s volume to deform when under pressureI it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain2 and is the inverse of compressibility. The bul, modulus is an extension of &oung-s modulus to three dimensions.

Three other elastic moduli are 0oisson-s ratio2 DamK-s first parameter2 and 0-wave modulus. 1omogeneous and isotropic (similar in all directions) materials (solids) have their (linear) elastic properties fully described by two elastic moduli2 and one may choose any pair. <iven a pair of elastic moduli2 all other elastic moduli can be calculated according to formulas in the table below. nviscid fluids are special in that they can not support shear stress2 meaning that the shear modulus is always Lero. This also implies that &oung-s modulus is always Lero.

Young%s modulus
n solid mechanics2 Young%s modulus (E) is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. t is also ,nown as the Young modulus2 modulus of elasticity2 elastic modulus or tensile modulus (the bul, modulus and shear modulus are different types of elastic modulus). t is defined as the ratio2 for small strains2 of the rate of change of stress with strain.>"? This can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stressstrain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material. &oung-s modulus is named after Thomas &oung2 the "Mth /entury 8ritish scientist.

&nits
The $ unit of modulus of elasticity (52 or less commonly &) is the pascal. <iven the large values typical of many common materials2 figures are usually 3uoted in megapascals or gigapascals. $ome use an alternative unit form2 ,+NmmO2 which gives the same numeric value as gigapascals. The modulus of elasticity can also be measured in other units of pressure2 for example pounds per s3uare inch.

&sage
The &oung-s modulus allows the behavior of a material under load to be calculated. !or instance2 it can be used to predict the amount a wire will extend under tension2 or to predict the load at which a thin column will buc,le under compression. $ome calculations also re3uire the use of other material properties2 such as the shear modulus2 density2 or 0oisson-s ratio.

Linear vs non-linear
!or many materials2 &oung-s modulus is a constant over a range of strains. $uch materials are called linear2 and are said to obey 1oo,e-s law. 5xamples of linear materials include steel2 carbon fiber2 and glass. (ubber and soil (except at very low strains) are non-linear materials.

Directional materials
.ost metals and ceramics2 along with many other materials2 are isotropic - their mechanical properties are the same in all directions2 but metals and ceramics can be treated to create different grain siLes and orientations. This treatment ma,es them anisotropic2 meaning that &oung-s modulus will change depending on which direction the force is applied from. 1owever2 some materials2 particularly those which are composites of two or more ingredients have a 6grain6 or similar mechanical structure. As a result2 these anisotropic materials have different mechanical properties when load is applied in different directions. !or example2 carbon fiber is much stiffer (higher &oung-s modulus) when loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). 4ther such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. 5ngineers can use this directional phenomonon to their advantage in creating various structures in our environment. /oncrete is commonly used to construct support columns in buildings2 supporting huge loads under compression. 1owever2 when concrete is used in the construction of bridges and is in tension2 it needs to be reinforced with steel which has a far higher value of &oung-s modulus in tension and compensates for concrete-s low value in tension. /opper is an excellent conductor of electricity and is used to transmit electricity over long distance cables2 however copper has a relatively low value for &oung-s modulus at "'=<0a and it tends to stretch in tension. Hhen the copper cable is bound completely in steel wire around its outside this stretching can be prevented as the steel (with a higher value of &oung-s modulus in tension) ta,es up the tension that the copper would otherwise experience.

'alculation
&oung-s modulus2 E2 can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile strain;

where E is the &oung-s modulus (modulus of elasticity) measured in pascalsI

F is the force applied to the ob@ectI A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is appliedI ! is the amount by which the length of the ob@ect changesI !0 is the original length of the ob@ect.

#orce e!erted (y stretched or compressed material


The &oung-s modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under a specific strain.

where F is the force exerted by the material when compressed or stretched by !. !rom this formula can be derived 1oo,e-s law2 which describes the stiffness of an ideal spring;

where

Elastic potential energy


The elastic potential energy stored is given by the integral of this expression with respect to !;

where "e is the elastic potential energy. The elastic potential energy per unit volume is given by;

2 where

is the strain in the material.

This formula can also be expressed as the integral of 1oo,e-s law;

)ppro!imate values
&oung-s modulus can vary considerably depending on the exact composition of the material. !or example2 the value for most metals can vary by *7 or more2 depending on the precise composition of the alloy and any heat treatment applied during manufacture. As such2 many of the values here are approximate.

)ppro!imate Young%s moduli of various solids


aterial (ubber (small strain) Dow density polyethylene 0olypropylene 8acteriophage capsids 0olyethylene terephthalate 0olystyrene +ylon 4a, wood (along grain) 1igh-strength concrete (under compression) .agnesium metal (.g) Aluminium alloy <lass (all types) 8rass and bronLe Young%s modulus (E) in *Pa =.="-=." =.% ".*-% "-' %-%.* '-'.* '-P "" '= )* QB P% "='-"%) Young%s modulus (E) in l(f+in, (psi) "2*==-"*2=== '=2=== %"P2===-%B=2=== "*=2===-)'*2=== %B=2===-'Q=2=== )'*2===-*=*2=== %B=2===-*M=2=== "2Q==2=== )2'*=2=== Q2*==2=== "=2===2=== "=2)==2=== "P2===2===

Titanium (Ti) /arbon fiber reinforced plastic (unidirectional2 along grain) Hrought iron and steel Tungsten (H) $ilicon carbide ($i/) Tungsten carbide (H/) $ingle carbon nanotube >"? :iamond (/)

"=*-"%= "= - %= "B=-%"= )==-)"= )*= )*=-Q*= "2===R "2=*=-"2%==

"*2===2===-"P2*==2=== "2*==2=== - '2%==2=== '=2===2=== *M2===2===-*B2*==2=== Q*2===2=== Q*2===2===-B)2===2=== ")*2===2=== "*=2===2===-"P*2===2===

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