Maris Stella High School Name: ___________________

GCE O Level Biology Class (Index No.): ____ ( )

Revision Summary Date:_____________

Nutrition
Class Components Sources Importance
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides (simple Examples: o Main source of
(contain sugars) o Glucose energy
C, H, O) o Fructose o To form supporting
o Galactose structures (eg.
o All are Reducing Cellulose cell wall
(H: O ratio = sugars (sweet fruits & in plts)
2:1) honeys) o Converted to other
organic compounds
eg. Fats & amino
acids
Disaccharides (Complex Examples: o For formation of
sugars) o Maltose (Reducing) = nucleic acids (DNA)
Glucose + Glucose
o Formed when 2 simple
sugars combine with o Lactose (Reducing) =
elimination of a water Glucose + Galactose
molecule
• Sucrose (non-reducing) =
Glucose + Fructose
Polysaccharides Examples:
(Macromolecules) o Starch (green plts)
o Glycogen (animals)
o Made up of thousands o Cellulose (plants)
of simple sugar units
(glucose) o In each, the glucose is
linked differently
Class Components Sources Importance
Fats Fats: solid at r.t.p o Meat, Milk, lard, butter, egg o As a source of energy
(contain Oils: liquid at r.t.p yolk (from animals) o To form part of the cell
C, H, O), but o Oils in nuts and seeds membrane
less O Fats = Fatty acids + (from plants) o As solvents for fat-
compared to Glycerol soluble vitamins and
Carbohydrates some hormones
o As an insulator to
(H:O > 2:1) prevent excessive heat
loss from skin
Proteins Made up of amino acids o Lean meat, fish, eggs, milk, o For growth & repair of
(contain cheese (from animals) worn-out parts, new
C, H, O, N) Each protein is unique o Beans & Cereals (from protoplasm
may contain some or all of plants) o Source of energy
the amino acid molecules o For producing
 the way each a.a is enzymes, hormones,
arranged determines what antibody, haemoglobin,
type of protein it is etc
 Absorption Process
Water
& Simple sugars + mineral salts + Fatty acids Glycerol
mineral vitamins + amino acids
salts
Pass through
villi
Absorbed
by React with bile salts
Large Blood capillaries
Form
intestine
Soluble soaps
Other parts of body

Diffuse into villi epithelium

Soluble soaps + glycerol --> small fat globules

Absorbed by lymphatic capillaries

Assimilation
Simple sugars + amino acids
Hepatic vein Distributed round body & used
Hepatic portal
vein Remaining

In Liver
Simple sugars Amino acids
Excess glucose --> glycogen
Excess amino acids --> urea

Tissue respiration Growth & repair of

worn-out body parts

Used as building
blocks of enzymes
and hormones
 Fats
Fats
Enter

Lymphatic capillaries
Excess fats Glucose insufficient

Fats + Lymph
Stored in adipose tissues Fats transported to
Form • Fat storage liver --> converted
• Insulation to oxidizable forms
Chyle

Transported in Lymph
vessels

Functions of Liver
Bile production  stored in
Physical
gall bladder
Liver Digestion
Deamination of excess amino
Assimilation acids  urea
Release Hb
back to
Regulation of blood
Breakdown of glucose level
RBC in spleen

Protein synthesis Fasting (glucagon After heavy meal

converts) insulin converts
Glycogen  Glucose Glucose  Glycogen
Detoxification Eg. Breakdown  enter into  stored
of alcohol  bloodstream
acetaldehyde
(harmless)
Otherwise Stimulate HCl (acidic) secretion in the stomach

Excessive
alcohol
consumption
leads to
Liver cirrhosis  liver cells killed 
replaced with fibrous tissue  liver failure
Intake of CO2 and H2O by plants for photosynthesis

 Raw materials (H2O + CO2)

 Entry of CO2

 Light


CO2 in leaf < CO2 in atm



 Diffusion gradient forms
Atm CO2  stomata
 intercellular air
spaces
CO2  dissolves in thin film of
H2O on surface of mesophyll cells
Dissolved CO2  diffuses into cells
Structure
Large surface area
Thin Lamina
Chloroplasts found in all
mesophyll cells
More chloroplasts in upper
palisade tissue
Inter-connecting system of air
spaces in mesophyll
Stomata present in epidermal
layers
Veins (vascular bundles)
containing xylem and phloem
Petiole (Leaf stalk)
Entry of H2O +
mineral salts
Veins in leaf
Form
Fine branches ending among
mesophyll cells
Contains
Xylem Phloem
Transport H2O + mineral salts
soil  root  leaf
via mesophyll of leaf
Diffuse from cell to cell
Adaptation
Absorb maximum light energy
• Diffusion distance reduced to allow CO2
to reach inner cells rapidly.
• Enables sunlight to reach all mesophyll
cells.
Chlorophyll absorbs and converts light energy
to chemical energy used to manufacture
sugars.
More light energy can be absorbed near leaf
surface.
Allows rapid diffusion of CO2 to mesophyll
cells.
Open in sunlight, allowing CO2 to diffuse in
and O2 to diffuse out of leaf.
Xylem
• Transports water and mineral salts to
mesophyll cells
Phloem
• Transports sugars away from leaf
Holds leaf in position to absorb maximum light
energy