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Stem cell

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Mouse embryonic stem cells with fluorescent marker

Human embryonic stem cell colony on mouse embryonic fibroblast feeder layer Latin Code cellula precursoria TH H2.00.01.0.00001

This article is about the cell type. For the medical therapy, see Stem Cell Treatments Stem cells are biological cells found in all multicellular organisms, that can divide (through mitosis) and differentiate into diverse specialized cell types and can self-renew to produce more stem cells. In mammals, there are two broad types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells, which are isolated from the inner cell mass of blastocysts, and adult stem cells, which are found in various tissues. In adult organisms, stem cells and progenitor cells act as a repair system for the body, replenishing adult tissues. In a developing embryo, stem cells can differentiate into all the specialized cells (these are called pluripotent cells), but also maintain the normal turnover of regenerative organs, such as blood, skin, or intestinal tissues. There are three sources of autologous adult stem cells: 1) Bone marrow, which requires extraction by harvesting, that is, drilling into bone (typically the femur or iliac crest), 2) Adipose tissue (lipid cells), which requires extraction by liposuction, and 3) Blood, which requires extraction through pheresis, wherein blood is drawn from the donor (similar to a blood donation), passed through a machine that extracts the stem cells and returns other portions of the blood to the donor. Stem cells can also be taken from umbilical cord blood. Of all stem cell types, autologous harvesting involves the least risk. By definition, autologous cells are obtained from one's own body, just as one may bank his or her own blood for elective surgical procedures. 1

Highly plastic adult stem cells are routinely used in medical therapies, for example bone marrow transplantation. Stem cells can now be artificially grown and transformed (differentiated) into specialized cell types with characteristics consistent with cells of various tissues such as muscles or nerves through cell culture. Embryonic cell lines and autologous embryonic stem cells generated through therapeutic cloning have also been proposed as promising candidates for future therapies. Research into stem cells grew out of findings by Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till at the University of Toronto in the 1960s.

Properties
The classical definition of a stem cell requires that it possess two properties:

Self-renewal: the ability to go through numerous cycles of cell division while maintaining the undifferentiated state. Potency: the capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types. In the strictest sense, this requires stem cells to be either totipotent or pluripotentto be able to give rise to any mature cell type, although multipotent or unipotent progenitor cells are sometimes referred to as stem cells. Apart from this it is said that stem cell function is regulated in a feedback mechanism.

Self-renewal Two mechanisms to ensure that a stem cell population is maintained exist: 1. Obligatory asymmetric replication: a stem cell divides into one father cell that is identical to the original stem cell, and another daughter cell that is differentiated 2. Stochastic differentiation: when one stem cell develops into two differentiated daughter cells, another stem cell undergoes mitosis and produces two stem cells identical to the original.

Potency definitions

Pluripotent, embryonic stem cells originate as inner cell mass (ICM) cells within a blastocyst. These stem cells can become any tissue in the body, excluding a placenta. Only cells from an earlier stage of the 2

embryo, known as the morula, are totipotent, able to become all tissues in the body and the extraembryonic placenta.

Human embryonic stem cells A: Cell colonies that are not yet differentiated. B: Nerve cell Main article: Cell potency Potency specifies the differentiation potential (the potential to differentiate into different cell types) of the stem cell.

Totipotent (a.k.a omnipotent) stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extraembryonic cell types. Such cells can construct a complete, viable organism. These cells are produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell. Cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized egg are also totipotent. Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e. cells derived from any of the three germ layers. Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of cells. Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells. Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal, which distinguishes them from non-stem cells (e.g., muscle stem cells).

Identification
The practical definition of a stem cell is the functional definitiona cell that has the potential to regenerate tissue over a lifetime. For example, the defining test for a bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) is the ability to transplant one cell and save an individual without HSCs. In this case, a stem 3

cell must be able to produce new blood cells and immune cells over a long term, demonstrating potency. It should also be possible to isolate stem cells from the transplanted individual, which can themselves be transplanted into another individual without HSCs, demonstrating that the stem cell was able to selfrenew. Properties of stem cells can be illustrated in vitro, using methods such as clonogenic assays, in which single cells are assessed for their ability to differentiate and self-renew. Stem cells can also be isolated by their possession of a distinctive set of cell surface markers. However, in vitro culture conditions can alter the behavior of cells, making it unclear whether the cells will behave in a similar manner in vivo. There is considerable debate as to whether some proposed adult cell populations are truly stem cells.

Embryonic
Main article: Embryonic stem cell Embryonic stem (ES) cell lines are cultures of cells derived from the epiblast tissue of the inner cell mass (ICM) of a blastocyst or earlier morula stage embryos. A blastocyst is an early stage embryo approximately four to five days old in humans and consisting of 50150 cells. ES cells are pluripotent and give rise during development to all derivatives of the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm. In other words, they can develop into each of the more than 200 cell types of the adult body when given sufficient and necessary stimulation for a specific cell type. They do not contribute to the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta. The endoderm is composed of the entire gut tube and the lungs, the ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system and skin, and the mesoderm gives rise to muscle, bone, bloodin essence, everything else that connects the endoderm to the ectoderm. Nearly all research to date has made use of mouse embryonic stem cells (mES) or human embryonic stem cells (hES). Both have the essential stem cell characteristics, yet they require very different environments in order to maintain an undifferentiated state. Mouse ES cells are grown on a layer of gelatin as an extracellular matrix (for support) and require the presence of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Human ES cells are grown on a feeder layer of mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and require the presence of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF or FGF-2). Without optimal culture conditions or genetic manipulation,embryonic stem cells will rapidly differentiate. A human embryonic stem cell is also defined by the expression of several transcription factors and cell surface proteins. The transcription factors Oct-4, Nanog, and Sox2 form the core regulatory network that ensures the suppression of genes that lead to differentiation and the maintenance of pluripotency. The cell surface antigens most commonly used to identify hES cells are the glycolipids stage specific embryonic antigen 3 and 4 and the keratan sulfate antigens Tra-1-60 and Tra-1-81. The molecular definition of a stem cell includes many more proteins and continues to be a topic of research. There are currently no approved treatments using embryonic stem cells. The first human trial was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in January 2009. However, the human trial was not initiated until October 13, 2010 in Atlanta for spinal injury victims. On November 14, 2011 the company conducting the trial announced that it will discontinue further development of its stem cell programs. ES cells, being pluripotent cells, require specific signals for correct differentiationif injected directly into another body, ES cells will differentiate into many different types of cells, causing a teratoma. Differentiating ES cells into usable cells while avoiding transplant rejection are just a few of the hurdles that embryonic stem cell researchers still face. Many nations currently have moratoria on either ES cell research or the production of new ES cell lines. Because of their combined abilities of unlimited

expansion and pluripotency, embryonic stem cells remain a theoretically potential source for regenerative medicine and tissue replacement after injury or disease.

Fetal
The primitive stem cells located in the organs of fetuses are referred to as fetal stem cells.

Adult
Main article: Adult stem cell

Stem cell division and differentiation. A: stem cell; B: progenitor cell; C: differentiated cell; 1: symmetric stem cell division; 2: asymmetric stem cell division; 3: progenitor division; 4: terminal differentiation Also known as somatic (from Greek , "of the body") stem cells and germline (giving rise to gametes) stem cells, they can be found in children, as well as adults. Pluripotent adult stem cells are rare and generally small in number but can be found in a number of tissues including umbilical cord blood. A great deal of adult stem cell research to date has had the aim of characterizing the capacity of the cells to divide or self-renew indefinitely and their differentiation potential. In mice, pluripotent stem cells are directly generated from adult fibroblast cultures. Unfortunately, many mice do not live long with stem cell organs. Most adult stem cells are lineage-restricted (multipotent) and are generally referred to by their tissue origin (mesenchymal stem cell, adipose-derived stem cell, endothelial stem cell, dental pulp stem cell, etc.). Adult stem cell treatments have been successfully used for many years to treat leukemia and related bone/blood cancers through bone marrow transplants. Adult stem cells are also used in veterinary medicine to treat tendon and ligament injuries in horses. The use of adult stem cells in research and therapy is not as controversial as the use of embryonic stem cells, because the production of adult stem cells does not require the destruction of an embryo. Additionally, in instances where adult stem cells are obtained from the intended recipient (an autograft),

the risk of rejection is essentially non-existent. Consequently, more US government funding is being provided for adult stem cell research. An extremely rich source for adult mesenchymal stem cells is the developing tooth bud of the mandibular third molar. The stem cells eventually form enamel (ectoderm), dentin, periodontal ligament, blood vessels, dental pulp, nervous tissues, and a minimum of 29 different end organs. Because of extreme ease in collection at 810 years of age before calcification and minimal to no morbidity, these will probably constitute a major source of cells for personal banking, research and current or future therapies. These stem cells have been shown capable of producing hepatocytes.

Amniotic
Multipotent stem cells are also found in amniotic fluid. These stem cells are very active, expand extensively without feeders and are not tumorigenic. Amniotic stem cells are multipotent and can differentiate in cells of adipogenic, osteogenic, myogenic, endothelial, hepatic and also neuronal lines. All over the world, universities and research institutes are studying amniotic fluid to discover all the qualities of amniotic stem cells, and scientists such as Anthony Atala and Giuseppe Simoni have discovered important results. Use of stem cells from amniotic fluid overcomes the ethical objections to using human embryos as a source of cells. Roman Catholic teaching forbids the use of embryonic stem cells in experimentation; accordingly, the Vatican newspaper "Osservatore Romano" called amniotic stem cells "the future of medicine". It is possible to collect amniotic stem cells for donors or for autologuous use: the first US amniotic stem cells bank was opened in 2009 in Medford, MA, by Biocell Center Corporation and collaborates with various hospitals and universities all over the world.

Induced pluripotent
Main article: Induced pluripotent stem cell These are not adult stem cells, but rather adult cells (e.g. epithelial cells) reprogrammed to give rise to pluripotent capabilities. Using genetic reprogramming with protein transcription factors, pluripotent stem cells equivalent to embryonic stem cells have been derived from human adult skin tissue. Shinya Yamanaka and his colleagues at Kyoto University used the transcription factors Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4 in their experiments on cells from human faces. Junying Yu, James Thomson, and their colleagues at the University of WisconsinMadison used a different set of factors, Oct4, Sox2, Nanog and Lin28, and carried out their experiments using cells from human foreskin. As a result of the success of these experiments, Ian Wilmut, who helped create the first cloned animal Dolly the Sheep, has announced that he will abandon somatic cell nuclear transfer as an avenue of research. Frozen blood samples can be used as a source of induced pluripotent stem cells, opening a new avenue for obtaining the valued cells.

Lineage

Main article: Stem cell line To ensure self-renewal, stem cells undergo two types of cell division (see Stem cell division and differentiation diagram). Symmetric division gives rise to two identical daughter cells both endowed with stem cell properties. Asymmetric division, on the other hand, produces only one stem cell and a progenitor cell with limited self-renewal potential. Progenitors can go through several rounds of cell division before terminally differentiating into a mature cell. It is possible that the molecular distinction between symmetric and asymmetric divisions lies in differential segregation of cell membrane proteins (such as receptors) between the daughter cells. An alternative theory is that stem cells remain undifferentiated due to environmental cues in their particular niche. Stem cells differentiate when they leave that niche or no longer receive those signals. Studies in Drosophila germarium have identified the signals decapentaplegic and adherens junctions that prevent germarium stem cells from differentiating. Main article: Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell The signals that lead to reprogramming of cells to an embryonic-like state are also being investigated. These signal pathways include several transcription factors including the oncogene c-Myc. Initial studies indicate that transformation of mice cells with a combination of these anti-differentiation signals can reverse differentiation and may allow adult cells to become pluripotent. However, the need to transform these cells with an oncogene may prevent the use of this approach in therapy. Challenging the terminal nature of cellular differentiation and the integrity of lineage commitment, it was recently determined that the somatic expression of combined transcription factors can directly induce other defined somatic cell fates; researchers identified three neural-lineage-specific transcription factors that could directly convert mouse fibroblasts (skin cells) into fully functional neurons. This "induced neurons" (iN) cell research inspires the researchers to induce other cell types implies that all cells are totipotent: with the proper tools, all cells may form all kinds of tissue.

Treatments
Main article: Stem cell treatments

Diseases and conditions where stem cell treatment is promising or emerging. Bone marrow transplantation is, as of 2009, the only established use of stem cells. Medical researchers believe that stem cell therapy has the potential to dramatically change the treatment of human disease. A number of adult stem cell therapies already exist, particularly bone marrow transplants that are used to treat leukemia. In the future, medical researchers anticipate being able to use technologies derived from stem cell research to treat a wider variety of diseases including cancer, Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, and muscle damage, amongst a number of other impairments and conditions. However, there still exists a great deal of social and scientific uncertainty surrounding stem cell research, which could possibly be overcome through public debate and future research, and further education of the public. One concern of treatment is the risk that transplanted stem cells could form tumors and become cancerous if cell division continues uncontrollably. Stem cells are widely studied, for their potential therapeutic use and for their inherent interest. Supporters of embryonic stem cell research argue that such research should be pursued because the resultant treatments could have significant medical potential. It has been proposed that surplus embryos created for in vitro fertilization could be donated with consent and used for the research. The recent development of iPS cells has been called a bypass of the legal controversy. Laws limiting the destruction of human embryos have been credited for being the reason for development of iPS cells, but it is still not completely clear whether hiPS cells are equivalent to hES cells. Recent work demonstrates hotspots of aberrant epigenomic reprogramming in hiPS cells (Lister, R., et al., 2011).

Expert explains promise of stem cell therapy


By Charles E. Buban Philippine Daily Inquirer First Posted 00:07:00 09/12/2009 Filed Under: Science (general), Medical research, Health WE MAY have heard the words ?stem cell? while watching science- or health-oriented TV shows, read it on papers or perhaps, chanced upon it while surfing the Net. And yet, its significance still eluded us, even regarding it as science fiction. But there?s nothing mystical about stem cells. Present in fetuses and placenta as well as in a wide range of adult tissues, a stem cell is a cell whose function has not been decided, much like a modeling clay that is ready to take whatever shape. In the case of stem cells, they could keep making more of themselves or could become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as heart muscle cells, red blood cells, brain and nerve cells. Eliminates rejection

The use of stem cells for transplants, for example, minimizes if not eliminates the risk of rejection ? an occurrence too common in people needing tissues or organ transplants ? since the stem cells will be coming from the patients themselves. Because of these abilities, scientists hope that they could in the near future ?program? these stem cells to repair or replace defective cells or those that have been injured or killed off by disease. In fact, they are now looking into the possibility of using stem cells to treat illnesses such as Type 1 diabetes, Alzheimer?s disease, heart disease and liver disease. Encouraged by these developments, the Parkinson?s Support Group of the Philippines Foundation will be holding a lay forum on October 11 from 12 noon to 4 p.m. at the 14th floor auditorium of Cathedral Heights Building Complex, South Tower, St. Luke?s Medical Center in Quezon City. The PSPG founded by former Vice President Emmanuel Pelaez in 1999, aims to provide support to families and patients with Parkinson?s disease, Parkinsonism, tremor, dystonia (involuntary contractions of muscles) and other movement disorder. Because Parkinson?s disease is mainly caused by the degeneration of dopamine-producing cells (responsible for controlling muscle movement) in certain parts of the brain, high hopes have been pinned on the prospects of using stem cells to eventually be able to replace diseased or dead cells with new, healthy ones. Doctor Mark Pierre Dimamay, PhD, head of St. Luke?s Stem Cell Laboratory was invited to discuss these possibilities. Open forum The doctor hopes to dispel myths, shed light on stem cell therapy in an open form happening right after the talk. It should be noted that St. Luke?s Stem Cell Laboratory is the first in the Philippines to apply stem cell technology for medical treatment. A team of experts has successfully conducted a conjunctival stem cell transplantation, which involved the replacement of conjunctiva (thin outer coating that covers the whites of the eye) with a tissue grown in a laboratory dish. With this first successful operation, St. Luke?s Stem Cell Laboratory is looking forward to engineering other tissue grafts including nerve or brain cells that could be used to replace damaged tissue as well as genetically engineered cells to correct genetic diseases.

How Stem Cells Work


by Stephanie Watson and Craig Freudenrich, Ph.D.

Microscopic view of a colony of undifferentiated human embryonic stem cells being studied in developmental biologist James Thomson's research lab at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Photo courtesy University of Wisconsin-Madison Many diseases kill cells within organs, claiming lives or impairing a person's ability to live a normal life. For example, about 5.8 million Americans have heart failure and 670,000 people are diagnosed with it each year [source: Centers for Disease Control]. In heart failure, much of the heart muscle itself dies, so the heart cannot sufficiently pump blood. Similarly, about 23.6 million Americans have diabetes [source: NIDDK, NIH]. Five to 10 percent of these people have Type I diabetes in which the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are dead. Finally, about 1 million Americans live with Parkinson's disease [source: Parkinson's Disease Foundation]. In this disease, cells that make the neurotransmitter dopamine, which helps control movement, die. Patients with Parkinson's disease have tremors and uncontrollable movements. But what if these dead cells could be replaced with fresh cells? Could the patients be treated and live normal lives? That's the goal of stem cell research. In this article, we'll look at stem cells, starting with the accompanying picture above. In the photo, the embryonic stem cell colonies are the rounded, dense masses of cells. The flat elongated cells are fibroblasts used as "feeder cells." We'll also find out how stem cells work, discover their potential to treat disease and get inside the ongoing debate surrounding their research and use. But first, let's cover some basics.

Stem Cell Basics


Introduction: What are stem cells, and why are they important? Stem cells have the remarkable potential to develop into many different cell types in the body during early life and growth. In addition, in many tissues they serve as a sort of internal repair system, dividing essentially without limit to replenish other cells as long as the person or animal is still alive. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell. Stem cells are distinguished from other cell types by two important characteristics. First, they are unspecialized cells capable of renewing themselves through cell division, sometimes after long periods of inactivity. Second, under certain physiologic or experimental conditions, they can be induced to become tissue- or organ-specific cells with special functions. In some organs, such as the gut and bone marrow,

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stem cells regularly divide to repair and replace worn out or damaged tissues. In other organs, however, such as the pancreas and the heart, stem cells only divide under special conditions. Until recently, scientists primarily worked with two kinds of stem cells from animals and humans: embryonic stem cells and non-embryonic "somatic" or "adult" stem cells. The functions and characteristics of these cells will be explained in this document. Scientists discovered ways to derive embryonic stem cells from early mouse embryos nearly 30 years ago, in 1981. The detailed study of the biology of mouse stem cells led to the discovery, in 1998, of a method to derive stem cells from human embryos and grow the cells in the laboratory. These cells are called human embryonic stem cells. The embryos used in these studies were created for reproductive purposes through in vitro fertilization procedures. When they were no longer needed for that purpose, they were donated for research with the informed consent of the donor. In 2006, researchers made another breakthrough by identifying conditions that would allow some specialized adult cells to be "reprogrammed" genetically to assume a stem cell-like state. This new type of stem cell, called induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), will be discussed in a later section of this document. Stem cells are important for living organisms for many reasons. In the 3- to 5-day-old embryo, called a blastocyst, the inner cells give rise to the entire body of the organism, including all of the many specialized cell types and organs such as the heart, lung, skin, sperm, eggs and other tissues. In some adult tissues, such as bone marrow, muscle, and brain, discrete populations of adult stem cells generate replacements for cells that are lost through normal wear and tear, injury, or disease. Given their unique regenerative abilities, stem cells offer new potentials for treating diseases such as diabetes, and heart disease. However, much work remains to be done in the laboratory and the clinic to understand how to use these cells for cell-based therapies to treat disease, which is also referred to as regenerative or reparative medicine. Laboratory studies of stem cells enable scientists to learn about the cells essential properties and what makes them different from specialized cell types. Scientists are already using stem cells in the laboratory to screen new drugs and to develop model systems to study normal growth and identify the causes of birth defects. Research on stem cells continues to advance knowledge about how an organism develops from a single cell and how healthy cells replace damaged cells in adult organisms. Stem cell research is one of the most fascinating areas of contemporary biology, but, as with many expanding fields of scientific inquiry, research on stem cells raises scientific questions as rapidly as it generates new discoveries.

Types of Stem Cells


Many different terms are used to describe various types of stem cells, often based on where in the body or what stage in development they come from. You may have heard the following terms: 1. Adult Stem Cells or Tissue-specific Stem Cells Many adult tissues contain stem cells that can replace cells that die or restore tissue after injury. Skin, muscle, intestine and bone marrow, for example, each contain their own stem cells. In the bone marrow, billions of new blood cells are made every day from blood-forming stem cells.

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Adult stem cells are tissue-specific, meaning they are found in a given tissue in our bodies and generate the mature cell types within that particular tissue or organ. It is not clear whether all organs, such as the heart, contain stem cells. The term adult stem cells is often used very broadly and may include fetal and cord blood stem cells. There are a few stem cell therapies that are widely accepted by the medical community and these use tissue-specific stem cells. These are bone marrow or cord blood stem cell transplantation to treat diseases and conditions of the blood or to restore the blood system after treatment for specific cancers, skin stem cell therapies for burns and limbal stem cells for corneal replacement. In each case, the stem cells repair the same tissue from which they came. Another type of adult stem cell is the mesenchymal stem cell. These are found in a number of tissues, including bone marrow, and may be able to produce bone, cartilage and fat. It is also possible that these or similar cells may aid in the regeneration of tissues. Extensive animal studies are currently ongoing to determine if these cells may be used for treatment of diseases such as arthritis and non-healing bone fractures. It is also possible that these or similar cells modulate the immune system in response to injury. 2. Fetal Stem Cells As their name suggests, fetal stem cells are taken from the fetus. The developing baby is referred to as a fetus from approximately 10 weeks of gestation. Most tissues in a fetus contain stem cells that drive the rapid growth and development of the organs. Like adult stem cells, fetal stem cells are generally tissuespecific, and generate the mature cell types within the particular tissue or organ in which they are found. 3. Cord Blood Stem Cells At birth the blood in the umbilical cord is rich in blood-forming stem cells. The applications of cord blood are similar to those of adult bone marrow and are currently used to treat diseases and conditions of the blood or to restore the blood system after treatment for specific cancers. Like the stem cells in adult bone marrow, cord blood stem cells are tissue-specific. 4. Embryonic Stem Cells Embryonic stem cells are derived from very early embryos and can in theory give rise to all cell types in the body. However, coaxing these cells to become a particular cell type in the laboratory is not trivial. Furthermore, embryonic stem cells carry the risk of transforming into cancerous tissue after transplantation. To be used in cell transplant treatments the cells will most likely need to be directed into a more mature cell type, both to be therapeutically effective and to minimize risk that cancers develop. While these cells are already helping us better understand diseases and hold enormous promise for future therapies, there are currently no treatments using embryonic stem cells accepted by the medical community. 5. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPS cells) In 2006, scientists discovered how to reprogram cells with a specialized function (for example, skin cells) in the laboratory, so that they behave like an embryonic stem cell. These cells, called induced pluripotent cells or iPS cells, are created by inducing the specialized cells to express genes that are normally made in embryonic stem cells and that control how the cell functions. Embryonic stem cells and iPS cells share many characteristics, including the ability become the cells of all organs and tissues, but they are not identical and can sometimes behave slightly differently. IPS cells are a powerful method for 12

creating patient- and disease-specific cell lines for research. However, the techniques used to make them need to be carefully refined before they can be used to generate iPS cells suitable for safe and effective therapies.

__________________________________________________________________ Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many different types of cells in the body. They serve as a repair system for the body. There are two main types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Doctors and scientists are excited about stem cells because they have potential in many different areas of health and medical research. Studying stem cells may help explain how serious conditions such as birth defects and cancer come about. Stem cells may one day be used to make cells and tissues for therapy of many diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, spinal cord injury, heart disease, diabetes and arthritis. NIH: National Institutes of Health

Stem cell transplant


Stem cells: What they are and what they do Researchers believe stem cells offer great promise for new medical treatments. Learn about stem cell types, current and possible uses, ethical issues and the state of research. By Mayo Clinic staff You've heard about stem cells in the news, and perhaps you've wondered if they might help you or a loved one with a serious disease. You may wonder what stem cells are, how they're being used to treat disease and injury, and why they're the subject of such vigorous debate. Here are some answers to frequently asked questions about stem cells. Why is there such an interest in stem cells? Researchers hope stem cell studies can help to:

Increase understanding of how diseases occur. By watching stem cells mature into cells that eventually become bones, heart muscle, nerve cells, and other organs and tissue, researchers and doctors may better understand how a variety of diseases and conditions develop. Generate healthy cells to replace diseased cells (regenerative medicine). Researchers hope they can train stem cells into becoming specific cells so that those specialized cells can be used to regenerate and repair diseased or damaged tissues in people. People who might benefit from stem cell therapies include those with spinal cord injuries, type 1 diabetes, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, heart disease, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and multiple sclerosis. Stem cells could also be grown to become new tissue for use in transplant medicine.

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Test new drugs for safety and effectiveness. Before using new drugs in people, researchers could use stem cells to test the safety and quality of investigational drugs. For instance, nerve cells could be generated in order to test a new drug for a nerve disease. Tests could show whether the new drug had any effect on the cells and whether the cells were harmed.

What are stem cells?


Stem cells: The body's master cells Stem cells are the body's raw materials cells from which all other cells with specialized functions are generated. Under the right conditions in the body or a laboratory, stem cells divide to form more cells, called daughter cells. These daughter cells either become new stem cells (self-renewal) or become specialized cells (differentiation) with a more specific function, such as blood cells, brain cells, heart muscle or bone. Stem cells are unique no other cell in the body has the natural ability to generate new cell types. Where do stem cells come from? Researchers have discovered several sources of stem cells:

Embryonic stem cells. These stem cells come from embryos that are four to five days old. At this stage, an embryo is called a blastocyst and has about 150 cells. These are pluripotent (plooRIP-uh-tunt) stem cells, meaning they can divide into more stem cells or they can specialize and become any type of body cell. Because of this versatility, embryonic stem cells have the highest potential for use to regenerate or repair diseased tissue and organs in people. Adult stem cells. These stem cells are found in small numbers in most adult tissues, such as bone marrow. Adult stem cells are also found in children and in placentas and umbilical cords. Because of that, a more precise term is somatic stem cell, meaning "of the body." Until recently, it was believed that adult stem cells could only create similar types of cells. For instance, it was thought that stem cells residing in the bone marrow could give rise only to blood cells. However, emerging evidence suggests that adult stem cells may be more versatile than previously thought and able to create unrelated types of cells after all. For instance, bone marrow stem cells may be able to create muscle cells. This research has led to early-stage clinical trials to test usefulness and safety in people. Adult cells altered to have properties of embryonic stem cells (induced pluripotent stem cells). Scientists have successfully transformed regular adult cells into stem cells using a technique called nuclear reprogramming. By altering the genes in the adult cells, researchers can reprogram the cells to act similarly to embryonic stem cells. This new technique may help researchers avoid the controversies that come with embryonic stem cells, and prevent immune system rejection of the new stem cells. But, it's not yet known if altering adult cells will cause adverse effects in humans. Researchers have been able to take regular connective tissue cells and reprogram them to become heart cells. The new heart cells were injected into mice with heart failure, where they improved heart function and survival time. Amniotic fluid stem cells. Researchers have also discovered stem cells in amniotic fluid. Amniotic fluid fills the sac that surrounds and protects a developing fetus in the uterus. Researchers have identified stem cells in samples of amniotic fluid drawn from pregnant women during a procedure called amniocentesis. During this test, a doctor inserts a long, thin needle into a pregnant woman's abdomen to collect amniotic fluid. The fluid can be tested for abnormalities, such as Down syndrome, and fetal maturity. The procedure is generally considered safe for the 14

developing fetus and the mother. More study of amniotic fluid stem cells is needed to understand their potential. Why is there a controversy about using embryonic stem cells? Embryonic stem cells are obtained from early-stage embryos a group of cells that forms when a woman's egg is fertilized with a man's sperm. Extracting stem cells from embryos raises significant ethical questions. Where do these embryos come from? The embryos being used in embryonic stem cell research come from eggs that were fertilized at in vitro fertilization clinics but never implanted in a woman's uterus because they were no longer wanted or needed. The excess embryos were frozen and later voluntarily donated for research purposes. The stem cells can live and grow in special solutions in test tubes or petri dishes in laboratories. Why can't researchers use adult stem cells instead? While research into adult stem cells is promising and moving forward rapidly, adult stem cells may not be as versatile and durable as embryonic stem cells are. Adult stem cells may not be able to be manipulated to produce all cell types, which limits how they can be used to treat diseases, and they don't seem to have the same ability to multiply that embryonic stem cells do. They're also more likely to contain abnormalities due to environmental hazards, such as toxins, or from errors acquired by the cells during replication. However, researchers have found that adult stem cells are more adaptable than was initially suspected. There have been significant advances in work with adult stem cells, and more studies are under way.

8th June 2002 by Richard Conan-Davies BSc Dip Ed A straightforward and fast information guide to Stem Cells from ClearlyExplained.Com updated: 22 June 2009

An illustration showing the basics of stem cells. A newly fertilised egg produces 8 identical cells that go on to form a 'clump' of cells that can potentially produce other types of cells. What are stem cells? Stem cells are generally very early stage cells that have the There are generally 3 types of stem cells that are important: ability to turn into other specialised types of cells. For example a stem cell can turn into liver cells, skin cells ,

embryonic stem cells adult stem cells

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nerve cells etc. These early stage cells can have differing abilities to turn into more specialised cells.

umbilical cord stem cells*

Why are stem cells important? Stem cells are significant for a number of reasons. These include things like: On a very basic level stem cells are interesting in trying to understand how such cells store information and then turn into other cells with very different properties is quite a fascinating topic. How a cell goes from type A to type B is part of discovering something about ourselves and the world we live in. Stem cell research may also be useful for improvement of livestock or other animals

Potential therapeutic uses such as: o cures for diabetes, brain diseases like Parkinson. Treatments for cancer or Multiple sclerosis (MS) Ethical concerns o Issues of when is a human human, misuse. Scientific curiosity- simply knowing how cells can change from one function to another.

How are stem cells classified? Generally there are 2 types of stem cells, embryonic and adult stem cells.

How are these types of cells developed? Embryonic stem cells are 'harvested' or collected from the very early stages of a fertilised egg called a blastocyst.

Adult stem cells are collected from a limited number of Embryonic - technically called totipotent and produce all types of tissue. This is the very early cell types in the body. Typically these are bone marrow cells or from very early stages of tissue development. stage of a recently fertilised egg and has only about 8 cells( morula) Umbilical cord stem cells are collected from the cells of o Inner cells-pluripotent can become the umbical cord of a recently born baby. Some of these almost all types of cells and are taken cells are slightly undeveloped and so can turn into other from an early embryo stage. types of cells (multipotent)

Adult stem cells are typically called multipotent cells like bone marrow cells that can produce a wide range of different blood cells. There are also some cell types in the body that have be But there is continuing research into if it is possible to make multipotent cells into pluripotent types. There are wide range of chemical signals from nearby cells that direct what the cells should become. There are even signals from the uterus where the embryos are normally held.

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What is the history of stem cells? Stem cell research has been around for almost as long as microscopes. Though it is only within the 1980s that more Stem cells themselves have actually been around for almost sophisticated genetechnology developments have allowed as long as life has been on earth. In essence all life evolved for the culturing (growing of cells) in laboratories. from stem cells of some kind. Stem cell field research developed from studies in the Many of the earliest forms of life on earth were not much 1960s by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till . more complex than stem cells. Stem cell field research developed from studies in the 1960s by Canadian scientists Ernest A. McCulloch and James E. Till . Fetal nerve cells were one of the first 'stem cells" not real stem cells though were used to treat Parkinson. source: Lasker Foundation Later in 1998 a team from University of Wisconsin managed to grow human stem cells in culture. The future of stem cells? Stem cell research is about the future, it is cutting edge technology that brings a headline each day. So stem cell research is likely to continue in various forms. The main controversy is the use of human embryonic stem cells. The future of stem cells is a consideration of the benefits and dangers of the technology. It is similar to many other kinds of technology. EurekaAlert provides a portal to some of the most recent scientific discoveries about stem cells that points to the future uses of stem cells. About the Author Richard, has worked explaining science for the past 10 years, including at Questacon, Mount Stromlo, CSIRO, the Maritime Museum in Greenwich, and various schools in South East London. He studied immunology and biochemistry at ANU.

Types of stem cells


Three main types of stem cells are being investigated for their potential use in research and medicine. The cell types differ in their degree of differentiation and ability to self-renew. In humans: a. Embryonic stem cells come from a five to six-day-old embryo. They have the ability to form virtually any type of cell found in the human body. b. Embryonic germ cells are derived from the part of a human embryo or foetus that will ultimately produce gametes (eggs or sperm).

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c. Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells found among specialised (differentiated) cells in a tissue or organ after birth. Based on current research, adult stem cells appear to have a more restricted ability to produce different cell types and to self-renew than embryonic stem cells. d. Umbilical cord blood stem cells are used to treat a range of blood disorders and immune system conditions.

Stem cells growing in culture Stem cells that have the potential to develop into any of the cell types found in an adult organism are called pluripotent. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent. Stems cells that only have the potential to make a few cell types in the body are called multipotent. Adult stem cells appear to be multipotent. Cells that are capable of forming a completely new embryo that can develop into a new organism are called totipotent. A fertilised egg is totipotent. None of the stem cells used in research appear to have this capacity. More basic research is required to find out how stem cells can be:

located and extracted kept alive in the laboratory multiplied for extended periods of time directed to form specific types of specialised cells.

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What are stem cells?


Stem cells are the cells that have an ability to become various types of cells. They are present both during embryonic development (embryonic stem cells) and in the adult body (adult stem cells). Stem cells have unique properties that other cells do not have. First, to understand what stem cells are, you need to understand how humans and other mammals develop: 1. Sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a single cell called a zygote. 2. The zygote undergoes a process known as mitosis, in which it replicates its chromosomes (which carry each parents DNA) and then divides, resulting in two identical cells. These cells are called totipotent and have the ability to develop into a new organism. The zygote repeats the process of mitosis for about 5 or 6 days creating a small ball of a few hundred cells called a blastocyst. 3. The blastocyst has an outer-layer of cells called the trophoblast, which will eventually form the protective placenta. Inside the trophoblast is a group of cells called the inner cell mass. The organism in a stage between zygote to fetus is called an embryo* and the cells are called embryonic stem cells. At this point embryonic stem cells have the ability to become a cell for any part of the body (nerve, muscle, blood, etc.). This ability to become any type of cell in the body is called pluripotent. The difference between totipotent and pluripotent cells is only that totipotent cells can give rise to both the placenta and the embryo. 4. As the embryo grows these pluripotent cells develop into specialized, multipotent stem cells. Multipotent stem cells have the ability to develop specific types of cells (terminally differentiated cells). For example a blood stem cell (multipotent) can develop into a red blood cell, white blood cell or platelets (all specialized cells). There are multipotent stem cells for all of the 'PLURIPOTENT' CELLS This micrograph shows a colony of undifferentiated human embyonic stem cells. Argonne National Laboratory Web site.

Embryonic stem cells. National Science Foundation Web site.

Drawing depicting differentiated cells coming from embryonic stem cells. National Institutes of Health, National Institute of General Medical Sciences Web site.

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different types of tissue in the body. *Embryo: the embryo of mammals is defined as the stage of organism between the first division of zygote and the time it becomes a fetus through further development. For humans, the embryo is defined as the implantation of fertilized egg in the uterus through the eighth week of its development. The embryo will be called a fetus after the eighth week until birth. Stem Cells are different from other cells because: 1. They can continue to divide for long periods of time: Most cells such as skin cells cannot replicate themselves after a certain period of time. Stem cells are self-sustaining by replicating themselves for a much longer period of time. 2. They are unspecialized: Specialized cells have specific capabilities that allow them to perform certain tasks. For example a red blood cell contains hemoglobin that allows it to carry oxygen. Stem cells have unspecialized capability and do not have tissue- specific structures to perform specialized functions. 3. They can give rise to specialized cells: Stem cells go through a process called differentiation and create special types of cells (muscle, nerve, skin, etc.). Embryonic stem cells Embryonic stem cells are the cells within the protective layer of the blastocyst. They are pluripotent, which means they can develop into any of the cells of the adult body. Researchers believe that, because they are pluripotent, and easy to grow, they have the best potential for replacing damaged or lost tissue or body parts. Adult stem cells Also known as progenitor cells or somatic stem cells, adult stem cells are located, in small quantities, throughout the body and generate specialized cells for the area they are located. These cells do not renew themselves as well as embryonic stem cells. Still, if these cells are put in a different environment, they may produce a different type of cells from the originating cell. Stem cell research is an active area of inquiry and scientists are discovering new characteristics of stem cells every day. For example, recent research indicated that multipotent stem 20 Techniques for generating embryonic stem cell cultures. USDA Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research Web site.

Biologists Eliezer Huberman (right) and Yong Zhao discovered that the human blood stream is a source for stem cells. Argonne National Laboratory Web site.

cells from one type of tissue (blood) might actually have the ability to generate cells for a different type of tissue (nerve). Scientists are continuing to search for new sources of adult stem cells. Some of the locations where stem cells have been located include: bone marrow, skin, liver, blood, and the brain. Some adult stem cells, which have already been used to treat illnesses, include hematopoietic stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells. Hematopoietic stem cells are located in the bone marrow and form blood cells. They have been successfully used to treat blood disorders for younger patients. Umbilical cord blood stem cells are located in the blood of the umbilical cord after birth. Umbilical cord stem cells are similar to hematopeitetic stem cells in adults, but they are less mature and have much more potential to differentiate into various types of cells. Related Web Sites

International Society for Stem Cell Research-Public Information - This site provides term definitions, answers to common questions, video clips describing certain concepts, and more. National Institutes of Health - Stem Cell Information - This site is the stem cell resource for the National Institutes of Health. It contains detailed information about many aspects of stem cell research, from basic information to research, current news and also Federal policies Nova Science: Stem Cells - This site provides information to commonly asked questions. There

Further Reading

Allman, Toney. Stem cells. Detroit, Lucent Books, c2006. 128 p. (Juvenile) Gibbs, Nancy. Stem cells: the hope and the hype. Time. v.168, August 7, 2006: 40-46. Lanza, Robert et al. Essentials of stem cell biology. Amsterdam, Boston, Elsevier, c2006. 548 p. Panno, Joseph. Stem cell research: medical applications and ethical controversy. New York, Facts on File, c2005. 178 p. (Juvenile) are slide shows, movies, interviews, and an Ask- the-Expert section. Sohn, Emily. From stem cell to any cell. Science News for Kids. Oct. 19, 2005. http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20051019 /Feature1.asp

For more print resources... Search on "Stem cells," "Stem Cells physiology" in the Library of Congress Online Catalog

What are Stem Cells?

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Stem cells are a class of undifferentiated cells that are able to differentiate into specialized cell types. Commonly, stem cells come from two main sources: 1. Embryos formed during the blastocyst phase of embryological development (embryonic stem cells) and 2. Adult tissue (adult stem cells). Both types are generally characterized by their potency, or potential to differentiate into different cell types (such as skin, muscle, bone, etc.). Adult stem cells Adult or somatic stem cells exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the liver. They remain in a quiescent or non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury. Adult stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of cell types from the originating organ or even regenerate the entire original organ. It is generally thought that adult stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on their tissue of origin, but there is some evidence to suggest that they can differentiate to become other cell types.

Embryonic stem cells


Embryonic stem cells are derived from a four- or five-day-old human embryo that is in the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras that have been created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube, but only one is implanted into a woman. Sexual reproduction begins when a male's sperm fertilizes a female's ovum (egg) to form a single cell called a zygote. The single zygote cell then begins a series of divisions, forming 2, 4, 8, 16 cells, etc. After four to six days - before implantation in the uterus - this mass of cells is called a blastocyst. The blastocyst consists of an inner cell mass (embryoblast) and an outer cell mass (trophoblast). The outer cell mass becomes part of the placenta, and the inner cell mass is the group of cells that will differentiate to become all the structures of an adult organism. This latter mass is the source of embryonic stem cells totipotent cells (cells with total potential to develop into any cell in the body).

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9-week Human Embryo from Ectopic Pregnancy [by Ed Uthman, MD]


In a normal pregnancy, the blastocyst stage continues until implantation of the embryo in the uterus, at which point the embryo is referred to as a fetus. This usually occurs by the end of the 10th week of gestation after all major organs of the body have been created. However, when extracting embryonic stem cells, the blastocyst stage signals when to isolate stem cells by placing the "inner cell mass" of the blastocyst into a culture dish containing a nutrient-rich broth. Lacking the necessary stimulation to differentiate, they begin to divide and replicate while maintaining their ability to become any cell type in the human body. Eventually, these undifferentiated cells can be stimulated to create specialized cells.

Stem cell cultures

Human embryonic stem cell colony Stem cells are either extracted from adult tissue or from a dividing zygote in a culture dish. Once extracted, scientists place the cells in a controlled culture that prohibits them from further specializing or differentiating but usually allows them to divide and replicate. The process of growing large numbers of embryonic stem cells has been easier than growing large numbers of adult stem cells, but progress is being made for both cell types.

Stem cell lines


Once stem cells have been allowed to divide and propagate in a controlled culture, the collection of healthy, dividing, and undifferentiated cells is called a stem cell line. These stem cell lines are subsequently managed and shared among researchers. Once under control, the stem cells can be stimulated to specialize as directed by a researcher - a process known as directed differentiation. Embryonic stem cells are able to differentiate into more cell types than adult stem cells.

Potency
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Stem cells are categorized by their potential to differentiate into other types of cells. Embryonic stem cells are the most potent since they must become every type of cell in the body. The full classification includes:

Totipotent - the ability to differentiate into all possible cell types. Examples are the zygote formed at egg fertilization and the first few cells that result from the division of the zygote. Pluripotent - the ability to differentiate into almost all cell types. Examples include embryonic stem cells and cells that are derived from the mesoderm, endoderm, and ectoderm germ layers that are formed in the beginning stages of embryonic stem cell differentiation. Multipotent - the ability to differentiate into a closely related family of cells. Examples include hematopoietic (adult) stem cells that can become red and white blood cells or platelets. Oligopotent - the ability to differentiate into a few cells. Examples include (adult) lymphoid or myeloid stem cells. Unipotent - the ability to only produce cells of their own type, but have the property of selfrenewal required to be labeled a stem cell. Examples include (adult) muscle stem cells.

Embryonic stem cells are considered pluripotent instead of totipotent because they do not have the ability to become part of the extra-embryonic membranes or the placenta.

Identification of stem cells


Although there is not complete agreement among scientists of how to identify stem cells, most tests are based on making sure that stem cells are undifferentiated and capable of self-renewal. Tests are often conducted in the laboratory to check for these properties. One way to identify stem cells in a lab, and the standard procedure for testing bone marrow or hematopoietic stem cell (HSC), is by transplanting one cell to save an individual without HSCs. If the stem cell produces new blood and immune cells, it demonstrates its potency. Clonogenic assays (a laboratory procedure) can also be employed in vitro to test whether single cells can differentiate and self-renew. Researchers may also inspect cells under a microscope to see if they are healthy and undifferentiated or they may examine chromosomes. To test whether human embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, scientists allow the cells to differentiate spontaneously in cell culture, manipulate the cells so they will differentiate to form specific cell types, or inject the cells into an immunosuppressed mouse to test for the formation of a teratoma (a benign

tumor containing a mixture of differentiated cells). Research with stem cells


Scientists and researchers are interested in stem cells for several reasons. Although stem cells do not serve any one function, many have the capacity to serve any function after they are instructed to specialize. Every cell in the body, for example, is derived from first few stem cells formed in the early stages of embryological development. Therefore, stem cells extracted from embryos can be induced to become any desired cell type. This property makes stem cells powerful enough to regenerate damaged tissue under the right conditions.

Organ and tissue regeneration

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Tissue regeneration is probably the most important possible application of stem cell research. Currently, organs must be donated and transplanted, but the demand for organs far exceeds supply. Stem cells could potentially be used to grow a particular type of tissue or organ if directed to differentiate in a certain way. Stem cells that lie just beneath the skin, for example, have been used to engineer new skin tissue that can be grafted on to burn victims.

Brain disease treatment


Additionally, replacement cells and tissues may be used to treat brain disease such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's by replenishing damaged tissue, bringing back the specialized brain cells that keep unneeded muscles from moving. Embryonic stem cells have recently been directed to differentiate into these types of cells, and so treatments are promising.

Cell deficiency therapy


Healthy heart cells developed in a laboratory may one day be transplanted into patients with heart disease, repopulating the heart with healthy tissue. Similarly, people with type I diabetes may receive pancreatic cells to replace the insulin-producing cells that have been lost or destroyed by the patient's own immune system. The only current therapy is a pancreatic transplant, and it is unlikely to occur due to a small supply of pancreases available for transplant.

Blood disease treatments


Adult hematopoietic stem cells found in blood and bone marrow have been used for years to treat diseases such as leukemia, sickle cell anemia, and other immunodeficiencies. These cells are capable of producing all blood cell types, such as red blood cells that carry oxygen to white blood cells that fight disease. Difficulties arise in the extraction of these cells through the use of invasive bone marrow transplants. However hematopoietic stem cells have also been found in the umbilical cord and placenta. This has led some scientists to call for an umbilical cord blood bank to make these powerful cells more easily obtainable and to decrease the chances of a body's rejecting therapy.

General scientific discovery

Stem cell research is also useful for learning about human development. Undifferentiated stem cells eventually differentiate partly because a particular gene is turned on or off. Stem cell researchers may help to clarify the role that genes play in determining what genetic traits or mutations we receive. Cancer and other birth defects are also affected by abnormal cell division and differentiation. New therapies for diseases may be developed if we better understand how these agents attack the human body. Another reason why stem cell research is being pursued is to develop new drugs. Scientists could measure a drug's effect on healthy, normal tissue by testing the drug on tissue grown from stem cells rather than testing the drug on human volunteers. 25

Stem cell controversy


The debates surrounding stem cell research primarily are driven by methods concerning embryonic stem cell research. It was only in 1998 that researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison extracted the first human embryonic stem cells that were able to be kept alive in the laboratory. The main critique of this research is that it required the destruction of a human blastocyst. That is, a fertilized egg was not given the chance to develop into a fully-developed human.

When does life begin?


The core of this debate - similar to debates about abortion, for example - centers on the question, "When does life begin?" Many assert that life begins at conception, when the egg is fertilized. It is often argued that the embryo deserves the same status as any other full grown human. Therefore, destroying it (removing the blastocyst to extract stem cells) is akin to murder. Others, in contrast, have identified different points in gestational development that mark the beginning of life - after the development of certain organs or after a certain time period.

Chimeras
People also take issue with the creation of chimeras. A chimera is an organism that has both human and animal cells or tissues. Often in stem cell research, human cells are inserted into animals (like mice or rats) and allowed to develop. This creates the opportunity for researchers to see what happens when stem cells are implanted. Many people, however, object to the creation of an organism that is "part human".

Legal issues
The stem cell debate has risen to the highest level of courts in several countries. Production of embryonic stem cell lines is illegal in Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, and Ireland, but permitted in Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Sweden, and the UK. In the United States, it is not illegal to work with or create embryonic stem cell lines. However, the debate in the US is about funding, and it is in fact illegal for federal funds to be used to research stem cell lines that were created after August 2001.

Stem cell research news


Medical News Today is a leading resource for the latest headlines on stem cell research. So, check out our stem cell research news section. You can also sign up to daily stem cell news alerts or our weekly digest newsletters to ensure that you stay up-to-date with the latest news.

This what are stem cells? information section was written by Peter Crosta for Medical News Today, and may not be re-produced in any way without the permission of Medical News Today.

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