1

VT L I CNG 1 (C NHIT)
PHN 1: C HC
C hc nghin cu dng vn ng c (chuyn ng) tc l s chuyn di v tr
ca cc vt v m. C hc gm nhng phn sau:
- ng hc nghin cu nhng c trng ca chuyn ng v nhng dng
chuyn ng khc nhau.
- ng lc hc nghin cu mi lin h ca chuyn ng vi s tng tc
gia cc vt. Tnh hc l mt phn ca ng lc hc nghin cu trng thi
cn bng ca cc vt.
Phn c hc c trnh by y ch yu l nhng c s ca c hc c in
ca Newton; ni dung ch yu ca n bao gm: cc nh lut c bn ca ng lc
hc; cc nh lut Newton v nguyn l tng i Galil; ba nh lut bo ton ca
c hc (nh lut bo ton ng lng, bo ton mmen ng lng v nh lut
bo ton nng lng); hai dng chuyn ng c bn ca vt rn (chuyn ng tnh
tin v chuyn ng quay). Cui cng l phn gii thiu v thuyt tng i ca
Einstein.
Bi m u
1. i tng nghin cu Vt l hc
Vt l hc l mt mn khoa hc t nhin nghin cu v cu trc, tnh cht v
cc dng vn ng tng qut ca th gii vt cht.
Tn khoa hc l Physics, xut pht t gc t Hylp: phylosophia, c ngha l
yu thch s thng thi. Cc tri thc Vt l c t thi c v cc nh khoa hc c
Hylp t gi mnh l phylosophos ngi bn ca s khn ngoan v dy s khn
ngoan, hiu bit ca mnh cho ngi khc.
Trc y, Vt l hc cng cc khoa hc t nhin khc nm chung trong mt
khoa hc duy nht, gi l Trit hc t nhin. n th k XVIII mi bt u pht
trin ring thnh mt khoa hc c lp (Vt l c in).
Khi cc Khoa hc phn ngnh, mi b mn s i su nghin cu vo mt vi
lnh vc. Vt l hc nghin cu cc c trng, cc tnh cht, cc quy lut vn ng
mang tnh tng qut ca cc s vt hin tng xy ra trong t nhin nhm hiu r
bn cht ca s vt hin tng y, t vn dng vo cuc sng, phc v li ch
cho con ngi.
2. Phng php nghin cu Vt l
Cc hin tng xy ra trong t nhin l c lp vi thc ca con ngi.
khm ph ra quy lut ca s vt hin tng, nh Vt l trc ht phi bit quan st

2
v ghi chp din bin ca s vt hin tng . Trong mt s trng hp, phi tin
hnh cc th nghim lp li, quan st li s vt, hin tng, ng thi thay i
mt vi thng s nhm rt ra s nh hng ca tng thng s vo hin tng .
Cc s liu thu c t quan st, th nghim ch l nhng d liu ri rc, qua
qu trnh x l (bng cc quy tc ton hc, biu th, th ), cc d liu s cho
thng tin quan trng v quy lut, bn cht ca s vt, hin tng m ta nghin cu
chnh l nhng nh lut ca Vt l.
3. Vai tr ca khoa hc Vt l i vi i sng
Do mc ch l nghin cu cc tnh cht tng qut nht ca th gii vt cht,
Vt l hc ng v mt kha cnh no c th coi l c s ca nhiu mn khoa
hc t nhin khc.
Nhng kt qu ca Vt l hc c dng lm c s gii thch cu to
nguyn t, phn t, lin kt ho hc trong ho hc. Vt l hc cng cung cp
nhng c s kho st cc qu trnh ca s sng. Mn k thut in c xy
dng trn c s l thuyt in t trng trong Vt l.
Vt l hc c tc dng ht sc to ln trong cuc cch mng khoa hc k thut
hin nay. Nh nhng thnh tu ca ngnh Vt l, cuc cch mng khoa hc k
thut tin nhng bc di trong cc lnh vc sau:
- Khai thc v s dng nhng ngun nng lng mi c bit l nng lng
ht nhn.
- Ch to v nghin cu tnh cht cc vt liu mi (siu dn nhit cao, vt
liu v nh hnh, cc vt liu c kch thc nano ).
- Tm ra nhng qu trnh cng ngh mi (cng ngh mch t hp, cng ngh
nano ).
- Cuc cch mng v tin hc v s xm nhp ca tin hc vo cc ngnh khoa
hc k thut.
Mc ch vic hc mn Vt l trong cc trng i hc k thut cng nghip:
- Cho sinh vin nhng kin thc c bn v Vt l trnh i hc.
- Cho sinh vin nhng c s hc v nghin cu cc ngnh k thut.
- Gp phn rn luyn phng php suy lun khoa hc, t duy logic, phng
php nghin cu thc nghim, tc phong i vi ngi k s tng lai.
- Gp phn xy dng th gii quan khoa hc duy vt bin chng.
4. H o lng quc t SI. n v v th nguyn ca cc i lng Vt l
+ n v Vt l

3
o mt i lng Vt l l chn mt i lng cng loi lm chuNn gi l n
v ri so snh i lng phi o vi n v , gi tr o s bng t s: i lng
phi o/i lng n v.
Mun nh ngha n v ca tt c cc i lng Vt l ngi ta ch cn chn
trc mt s n v gi l n v c bn cc n v khc suy ra c t cc n v
c bn gi l n v dn xut.
Tu theo cc n v c bn chn trc s suy ra cc n v dn xut khc
nhau. Tp hp cc n v c bn v n v dn xut tng ng hp thnh mt h
n v.
Nm 1960 nhiu nc trn th gii chn h n v thng nht gi l h SI.
H n v o lng hp php ca nc ta ban hnh t 1965 cng da trn c s h
SI:
n v c bn:
H SI
- di mt (m)
- Khi lng kilogram (kg)
- Thi gian giy (s)
- Cng dng in ampe (A)
- sng candela (Cd)
- Nhit (tuyt i) kelvin (K)
- Lng cht mol (mol)
n v ph:
- Gc phng radian (rad)
- Gc khi Steradian (sr)
Mt s n v dn xut:
- Din tch Mt vung (m
2
)
- Th tch Mt khi (m
3
)
- Chu k Giy (s)
- Tn s Hc (Hz)
- Vn tc Mt trn giy (m/s)
- Gia tc Mt trn giy bnh phng (m/s
2
)
- Lc Niutn (N)
- Nng lng Jun (J)

4
- Cng sut Ot (W)
- p sut Pascal (Pa)
- in tch Culng (C)
- Cng in trng Vn trn mt (V/m)
- in dung Fara (F)
- Cm ng t Tesla (T)
- T thng Vbe (Wb)
- T cm Henry (H)
+ Th nguyn: T cc n v c bn, ta nh ngha c cc n v dn xut.
Vic nh ngha ny da vo mt khi nim gi l th nguyn. Th nguyn ca mt
i lng l quy lut nu ln s ph thuc ca n v o i lng vo cc n
v c bn.
cho cch vit n gin ta k hiu:
[ di] = L
[thi gian] = T
[khi lng] = M
[din tch] = L
2
[th tch] = L
3

[vn tc] = LT
-1

[gia tc] = LT
-2

[lc] = MLT
-2

[cng] = ML
2
T
-2

Khi vit cc biu thc, cc cng thc Vt l, ta cn ch cc quy tc sau:
- Cc s hng ca mt tng (i s) phi c cng th nguyn.
- Hai v ca cng mt cng thc, mt phng trnh Vt l phi c cng th
nguyn.
Ngoi cc n v chuNn, ngi ta cn dng cc tip u ng ch c v bi ca
n v (xem bng).
hc tt Vt l i cng, sinh vin phi c mt s kin thc v ton, nht
l kin thc v vect, vi phn v tch phn.
Tn gi K hiu Bi Tn gi K hiu c
ca da 10 xi d 10
-1

hect h 10
2
centi c 10
-2

kil k 10
3
mili m 10
-3

mga M 10
6
micr 10
-6

giga G 10
9
nan n 10
-9

tra T 10
12
pic p 10
-12

pta P 10
15
femt f 10
-15

ecxa E 10
18
att a 10
-18




5
CHNG 1. NG HC CHT IM
1.1. Chuyn ng c hc. H quy chiu
1.1.1. nh ngha chuyn ng c hc
Chuyn ng c hc l s chuyn di v tr trong khng gian ca cc vt hay
l s chuyn ng ca mt b phn ny so vi b phn khc ca cng mt vt.
V d: chuyn ng ca cc thin th trn bu tri, chuyn ng ca xe t
trn ng, chuyn ng ca con thoi trong mt my dt,
Ni mt vt chuyn ng hay ng yn th iu ch c tnh cht tng i
v iu ny cn ph thuc vo vic ngi quan st ng v tr no. Tht vy, nu
ta ng bn ng quan st th ta thy cc cy ng yn, nhng nu ta ngi trn mt
ci t ang chuyn ng th ta thy ci cy chuyn ng. iu tng t xy ra khi
chng ta quan st cc ngi sao trn bu tri: ta thy qu t ng yn cn mt tri,
mt trng v cc ngi sao u quay quanh tri t.
Tm li, chuyn ng c tnh cht tng i v ph thuc vo v tr m ta
ng quan st chuyn ng. Thc ra trong v tr khng c vt no ng yn mt
cch tuyt i, mi vt u chuyn ng khng ngng. V vy, khi ni rng mt vt
chuyn ng th ta phi ni r l vt chuyn ng so vi vt no m ta quy c l
ng yn.
1.1.2. H quy chiu
Vt hay h vt m ta quy c l ng yn khi nghin cu chuyn ng ca
mt vt khc c gi l h quy chiu.
Vi cng mt chuyn ng nhng trong cc h quy chiu khc nhau s xy ra
khc nhau.
V d: Xt chuyn ng ca mt im M nm trn vnh xe ang chy, nu
chn h quy chiu l xe p th ta thy chuyn ng ca im l chuyn ng
trn u, cn nu h quy chiu l mt ng th im M s tham gia mt chuyn
ng phc tp l tng hp ca hai chuyn ng: chuyn ng trn i vi xe v
chuyn ng thng ca xe i vi mt ng.
Khi xt mt chuyn ng c th ta thng chn h quy chiu sao cho chuyn
ng c m t n gin nht. m t cc chuyn ng trn mt qu t, ta
thng chn h quy chiu l qu t hoc cc vt gn lin vi qu t.
V d: Khi nghin cu chuyn ng ca qu n pho th ta chn h quy chiu
l mt t hay chnh qu pho.
Khi nghin cu chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh th h quy chiu qu t, ta
thy chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh phc tp n ni trong nhiu th k cc nh

thin vn khng th no tm c cc quy lut chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh. Mi
n u th k 17, nh s dng h quy chiu mt tri (h quy chiu Copernic),
Kepler mi tm c quy lut ng n m t chuyn ng ca cc hnh tinh trong
h mt tri.
Cn ch rng chuyn ng tuy c m t khc nhau trong cc h quy chiu
khc nhau nhng nu bit chuyn ng tng i ca cc h quy chiu i vi nhau
th c th t cch m t chuyn ng trong h quy chiu ny c th suy ra cch m
t chuyn ng trong h quy chiu kia.
V d: Khi bit chuyn ng trn u ca mt im M trn vnh xe p v bit
chuyn ng ca xe p i vi mt ng ta c th m t chuyn ng ca im
M i vi mt ng.
V chuyn ng xy ra trong khng gian v theo thi gian nn m t
chuyn ng trc tin phi tm cch nh v vt trong khng gian. Mun vy, ta
phi a thm vo h quy chiu mt h to . Trong Vt l ngi ta s dng nhiu
h to khc nhau nh h ta Descartes, h ta tr, h ta cu v h ta
cc.
a. H ta Descartes
H to Descartes, cn gi l h ta
vung gc thun, gm 3 trc Ox, Oy, Oz tng
ng vung gc vi nhau tng i mt, sao cho
mt inh c thun quay t trc x sang trc y theo
gc nh th inh c s tin theo chiu trc z.
im O gi l gc to . Trn mi trc ln
lt c cc vect n v , ,

hng dc theo
chiu tng ca trc. D thy:

.
V tr ca mt im M bt k c hon ton xc nh bi bn knh vect

, hay bi tp hp ca 3 s (x,y,z), trong x, y, z l hnh chiu

ca im mt M ca vect ln cc trc Ox, Oy, Oz tng ng, c gi l 3 to
ca im M trong h to Descartes.
b. H ta cu
Trong h to cu, v tr ca mt im M bt k c xc nh bi 3 to
r, , . Trong , r l di bn knh vect , l gc gia trc Oz v , cn l
gc trc Ox v tia hnh chiu ca trong mt phng xOy. Bit ba to cu ca
im M, ta c th tnh c to Descartes ca im M theo cng thc sau:

Hnh 1.1. H to Descartes


x r.sin .cos
y r.sin .sin
z r.cos
=

Ngc li, ta c:

2 2 2
2 2 2
r x y z
z
cos
x y z
y
arctg
x

= + +

+ +

Trong :
o
0 180 v
o
0 360 . Cc ng trn ng vi cng mt gi
tr ca gi l cc ng v tuyn, cn cc ng trn ng vi cng mt gi tr ca
gi l cc ng kinh tuyn. H to cu rt thun tin khi nh v cc a im
trn qu t.
c. H ta tr
im M c ta (x, y, z) trong h ta Descartes th trong h ta tr c
ta (, , z). Trong :
x cos
y sin
z z
=

,
Ngc li, ta c:
2 2
x y
y
arctg
x
z z

= +

| |
=

|
\

d. H ta cc
Hnh chiu ca h ta tr trn ln mt
phng (xOy) cho ta h ta cc. Trong h ta
cc, v tr ca im M c xc nh bi bn knh
cc v gc cc . Ta c:
x cos
y sin
=

1.1.3. Cht im v Vt rn

Hnh 1.2.a. H to cu.

Hnh 1.2.b H ta tr

y
x
z


O
M(,,z)


Hnh 1.2.c. H ta cc
O
x
y
M

8
m t chuyn ng ca cc ht c kch thc, cn phi bit r chuyn ng
ca mi im ca vt. Tuy nhin, khi kch thc ca vt l nh so vi khong cch
dch chuyn m ta xt th mi im trn vt dch chuyn gn nh nhau, khi c th
m t chuyn ng ca vt nh chuyn ng ca mt im. Trong trng hp ny,
ta coi vt l mt cht im, tc l mt im hnh hc nhng li c khi lng
bng khi lng ca vt (khng c kch thc nhng c khi lng).
V d: Khi xt chuyn ng ca qu t quanh mt tri ta xem chuyn ng
ca n nh l chuyn ng ca cht im. Tri li, khi xt chuyn ng t quay
quanh mnh ca qu t th ta khng th xem chuyn ng l chuyn ng ca
mt cht im.
Trong nhiu trng hp nh c khi nim cht im m vic nghin cu
chuyn ng ca cc vt tr nn n gin hn rt nhiu.
Mt tp hp cht im c gi l h cht im. Vt rn l mt h cht im
trong khong cch tng h gia cc cht im ca h khng thay i.
1.1.4. Phng trnh chuyn ng v phng trnh qu o ca cht im
a. Phng trnh chuyn ng
xc nh chuyn ng ca mt cht im chng ta cn bit v tr ca cht
im ti nhng thi im khc nhau. Ni cch khc, chng ta cn bit s ph thuc
theo thi gian ca bn knh vect ca cht im:
() (1.1a)
Phng trnh ny biu din v tr ca cht im theo thi gian v gi l phng
trnh chuyn ng ca cht im.
Trong h to Descartes, phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im l mt h
gm 3 phng trnh:

( )
( )
( )
x x t
y y t
z z t
=

(1.1b)
Tng t trong h to cu, phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im l:

( )
( )
( )
r r t
t
t
=

(1.1c)
V d: Phng trnh chuyn ng ca mt cht im trong h to Descartes:


x Acos t
y Asin t
z 0
=

b. Phng trnh qu o
Khi chuyn ng, cc v tr ca cht im cc thi im khc nhau vch ra
trong khng gian mt ng cong lin tc no gi l qu o ca chuyn ng.
Vy, qu o ca cht im chuyn ng l ng to bi tp hp tt c cc v tr
ca n trong khng gian, trong sut qu trnh chuyn ng. Phng trnh m t
ng cong qu o gi l phng trnh qu o.
( ) f x, y, z C = (1.2)
trong f l mt hm no ca cc to x, y, z v C l mt hng s.
V nguyn tc, nu bit phng trnh chuyn ng (1.1) th bng cch kh
tham s t ta c th tm c mi lin h gia cc to x, y, z tc l tm phng
trnh qu o. V vy, i khi ngi ta cn gi phng trnh chuyn ng (1.1) l
phng trnh qu o cho dng tham s.
V d: Chuyn ng ca mt cht im cho bi phng trnh:

x Acos t
y Asin t
z 0
=

Ta kh tham s thi gian t bng cch sau:

( )
2 2 2 2 2 2
x y A cos t sin t A
z 0
+ = + =

Ta suy ra qu o ca cht im l mt ng trn bn knh A v tm nm
gc to . ng trn ny nm trong mt phng xOy.
1.2. Vn tc
Vn tc l mt i lng c trng cho phng, chiu, v s nhanh chm ca
chuyn ng.
1.2.1. Khi nim vn tc
Chuyn ng ca cht im trn
qu o c th lc nhanh lc chm, do
c th m t y trng thi
nhanh hay chm ca chuyn ng ngi
ta a vo mt i lng vt l gi l
vn tc. Trong i sng hng ngy


Hnh 1.3. Vect vn tc.

+
s
A
M
M
(C)
ds
r

s
v
r

'
v
r


10
chng ta thng gp khi nim vn tc di dng thut ng tc .
Xt chuyn ng ca mt cht im trn mt ng cong (C): trn (C) ta chn
mt gc A v mt chiu dng. Gi thit ti thi im t, cht im v tr M xc
nh bi:

Sau mt khong thi gian t, ti thi im
'
t t t = + cht im v tr M xc
nh bi:

Qung ng cht im i c trong khong thi gian

s l:

Qung ng trung bnh cht im i c trong khong n v thi gian:
s
t

theo nh ngha, gi l vn tc trung bnh ca cht im trong khong thi gian t ,
v c k hiu l:

tb
s
v
t

(1.3)
Vn tc trung bnh ch c trng cho nhanh chm trung bnh ca chuyn
ng cht im trn qung ng

; trn qung ng ny nhanh chm ca

chuyn ng cht im ni chung mi ch mt khc, ngha l ti mi thi im l
khc nhau. c trng cho nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ti tng thi im, ta
phi tnh t s
s
t

trong nhng khong thi gian v cng nh. Theo nh ngha: khi
cho ( )
'
t 0 t t , t s
s
t

dn ti mt gii hn, gi l vn tc tc thi (gi tt l

vn tc) ca cht im ti thi im t, v c k hiu l:

t 0
s
v lim
t

Theo nh ngha ca o hm ta c th vit:

ds
v
dt
= (1.4)
Vy: Vn tc ca cht im c gi tr bng o hm qung ng ca cht
im i vi thi gian.
Vn tc v cho bi biu thc (1.4) l mt i lng i s c:
- Du xc nh chiu chuyn ng: v > 0, cht im chuyn ng theo chiu
dng ca qu o; v < 0, cht im chuyn ng theo chiu ngc li.

- Tr tuyt i ca v xc nh nhanh chm ca chuyn ng ti tng thi
im.
Vy: Vn tc l i lng vt l c trng cho chiu v nhanh chm ca
chuyn ng cht im.
c trng mt cch y v c phng, chiu v nhanh chm ca
chuyn ng cht im, ngi ta a ra mt vect gi l vect vn tc.
Theo nh ngha, vect vn tc ti mt v tr M l mt vect c phng nm
trn tip tuyn vi qu o ti M, c chiu theo chiu chuyn ng v c gi tr
bng gi tr tuyt i ca v (hnh 1.3).

(1.5)
1.2.2. Vect vn tc trong h ta Descartes
Gi thit ti thi im t, v tr cht im xc nh bi bn knh vect (hnh
1.4):

thi im t + dt, v tr cht im c xc nh bi bn knh vect:

R rng l khi dt v cng nh th vect chuyn ri:

c di ||

.
Ngoi ra v v cng chiu nn ta c:
(1.6)
ngha l biu thc (1.5) c th vit thnh:

(1.7)
Vy: Vect vn tc bng o hm ca bn knh
vect i vi thi gian.
Kt qu ba thnh phn

ca vect vn
tc theo ba trc s c di i s ln lt bng o
hm ca ba thnh phn tng ng ca bn knh vect theo ba trc ngha l:

(1.8)
ln ca vn tc s c tnh theo cng thc:

Hnh 1.4. S tng ng ca
hai vect v .

r
r

s
r

r r +
r r

r
r

M
N
v
r

O

12
||

(1.9)
1.3. Gia tc
Gia tc l mt i lng vt l c trng cho s bin thin ca vn tc.
1.3.1. nh ngha v biu thc ca vect gia tc
Trong qu trnh chuyn ng, vn tc ca cht im c th thay i c v
ln cng nh v phng v chiu. c trng cho s thay i ca vn tc theo
thi gian, ngi ta a vo thm mt i lng vt l mi, l gia tc.
Gi s sau mt khong thi gian t , vn tc ca cht im thay i mt lng
l v
r
, theo nh ngha gia tc trung bnh, gia tc trung bnh

trong khong thi
gian t l:

(1.10)
Ta thy rng mun c trng cho bin thin ca vect vn tc tng thi
im, ta phi xc nh t s

trong khong thi gian t v cng nh, ngha l cho

t 0 , ta c biu thc ca gia tc tc thi ti mt im trn qu o:
lim

(1.11)
Vy: Vect gia tc bng o hm ca vect vn tc i vi thi gian.
Theo (1.8) v (1.11) ta c th tnh ba to ca vect gia tc theo ba trc to
Descartes:

2
x
x
2
2
x
y
2
2
z
z
2
dv
d x
a
dt dt
d y dv
a a
dt dt
dv
d z
a
dt dt

= =

= =

= =

r
(1.12)
ln gia tc c tnh theo cng thc:

( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
x y z
2 2 2
d y
d x d z
a a a a
dt dt dt
| |
= + + = + +
|
\
r
(1.13)
1.3.2. Gia tc tip tuyn v gia tc php tuyn
Vect gia tc c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc. S bin thin ny
th hin c v phng, chiu v ln. Trong phn ny, ta s phn tch vect gia
tc ra lm hai thnh phn, mi thnh phn c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn
tc ring v mt mt no .

n gin, gi thit cht im chuyn ng trn mt ng trn tm O, ti
thi im t, cht im v tr M, c vn tc

, ti thi im t ' t t = + cht

im v tr M (

), c vn tc

+.
Theo nh ngha, vect gia tc ca cht im ti thi im t (ng vi v tr M)
s l:
lim

(1.14)
Mun tm , t M ta v vect

. Ta c:

hay

Ly trn phng ca

mt on MC =
v, theo hnh v ta c:

Thay vo (1.14) ta c:
lim

lim

+ lim

(1.15)
*) ngha c th ca tng thnh phn trong v phi ca (1.15):
- Thnh phn th nht c k hiu l:

lim

Phng ca

l phng ca

, tc l phng ca tip tuyn vi qu o ti

M: v vy

c gi l gia tc tip tuyn.

Chiu ca

l chiu ca

ngha l cng chiu vi chuyn ng khi: v>v

(vn tc tng), v ngc chiu vi chiu chuyn ng khi: v< v (vn tc gim).
ln ca

cho bi:

t
t ' t t ' t t ' t t ' t
AC MC MA v' v v
a lim lim lim lim
t t t t


= = = =


Theo nh ngha ca o hm, ta c:

t
dv
a
dt
= (1.16)
Vy: Gia tc tip tuyn c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc v gi
tr, vect ny c: Phng trng vi tip tuyn ca qu o ti im M,
chiu l chiu chuyn ng khi v tng v chiu ngc li khi v gim, v ln bng
o hm ln vn tc theo thi gian.
- Thnh phn th hai trong v phi ca (1.15) l:

Hnh 1.5. Xc nh gia tc tip tuyn
v gia tc php tuyn.

0
M

B
M
A
A
C

14

lim

Phng ca

l phng ca

khi ' t t . Mun xc nh n, ta t:

Trong tam gic cn CMB:

Khi t ' t th M' M ngha l 0 , do

.
Vy n gii hn

vung gc vi

phng ca

vung gc vi

,
ngha l vung gc vi tip tuyn ca qu o ti im M, hay ni cch khc
phng ca

l phng ca php tuyn ca qu o ti M, v vy

c gi l
gia tc php tuyn.
Chiu ca

l chiu ca

, lun lun quay v tm ca vng trn ngha l

quay v pha lm ca qu o, do

cn gi l gia tc hng tm.

ln ca

cho bi:

n
t ' t
CB
a lim
t

(1.17)
2

sin

2 sin

(MBC cn)
hay 2

(khi t ' t c nh)

Vy (1.17) tr thnh:

n
t ' t t ' t t ' t
v' s 1 s
a lim limv' lim
t.R R t


= =


nhng
t ' t
limv' v

= ;
t ' t
s ds
lim v
t dt

= =

Do ,
2
n
1 v
a v.v
R R
= = (1.18)
Vy: Vect gia tc php tuyn c trng cho s bin thin v phng ca
vect vn tc, vect gia tc ny c: Phng trng vi phng php tuyn ca qu
o ti M, chiu hng v pha lm ca qu o v c ln bng
2
n
v
a
R
= .
Tm li, ta c th phn tch vect gia tc ra lm hai thnh phn:

(1.19)
v ln
( ) ( )
2 2
2
2 2
n t
v dv
a a a
R dt
= + = + (1.20)

15
Vect gia tc tip tuyn c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc v
ln, cn vect gia tc php tuyn c trng cho s bin thin ca vect vn tc v
phng.
Mt s trng hp c bit:
- a
n
lun lun bng khng: vect vn tc khng thay i phng, cht im
chuyn ng thng.
- a
t
lun lun bng khng: vect vn tc khng thay i chiu v gi tr, cht
im chuyn ng cong u.
- a lun lun bng khng: vect vn tc khng i v phng, chiu v gi tr,
cht im chuyn ng thng u.
1.4. Mt s chuyn ng n gin ca cht im. Bi ton ng dng
Ta s p dng cc kt qu thu c cc mc trn kho st mt s dng
chuyn ng n gin ca cht im.
1.4.1. Chuyn ng thng thay i u
Chuyn ng thng thay i u l mt chuyn ng vi vect gia tc khng
i . V l chuyn ng thng nn a
n
= 0, do :

t
dv
a a const
dt
= = =
Kt qu: Sau nhng khong thi gian bng nhau, vn tc thay i nhng
lng bng nhau. Nu trong khong thi gian t 0 n t, vn tc bin thin t v
0
n
v th theo nh ngha ca gia tc ta c:

0
v v
a const
t

= = (1.21)
Suy ra:
0
v at v = + (1.22)
Ta c:
0
ds
v at v
dt
= = +
( )
0
ds at v dt = + (1.23)
Gi thit trong khong thi gian t 0 n t, cht im i c qung ng s,
tch phn 2 v ca (1.23) ta c:
( )
s t
2
0 0
0 0
1
ds at v dt s at v t
2
= + = +

(1.24)
Kh t trong (1.22) v (1.24) ta c h thc thng dng sau:

2 2
0
v v 2as = (1.25)
1.4.2. Chuyn ng trn

Trong chuyn ng trn, ta dng hai i lng l vn tc gc v gia tc gc
c trng cho chuyn ng ny.
a. Vn tc gc
Gi thit qu o l vng trn tm O bn knh R.
Trong khong thi gian t t ' t = gi s cht
im i c qung ng

ng vi gc
quay ca bn knh

(hnh 1.6). Theo

nh ngha i lng
t

gi l vn tc gc trung
bnh trong khong thi gian t v c k hiu l:
tb
t

(1.26)
Gi tr ca
tb
biu th gc quay trung bnh ca bn knh trong n v thi
gian. Nu cho t 0 theo nh ngha
t 0
lim
t

gi l vn tc gc ca cht im ti
thi im t, v c k hiu l:

t 0
lim
t

Ta c:
d
dt

= (1.27)
Vy: Vn tc gc c gi tr bng o hm ca gc quay i vi thi gian. Vn
tc gc o bng radian trn giy (rad/s).
i vi chuyn ng trn u ( const = ),
thi gian m cht im i c mt vng hay l chu
k ca cht im:

2
T

=

v tn s l chu k trong mt n v thi gian:

1
T 2

= =

Ngi ta biu din vn tc gc bng mt vect

gi l vect vn tc gc, nm trn trc ca mt
vng trn qu o, thun chiu i vi chiu quay
ca chuyn ng v c gi tr bng (hnh 1.7).
H qu 1. Lin h gia vect vn tc gc v vect vn tc di ca chuyn
ng.
Ta c:

.

Hnh 1.6. nh ngha vn tc gc

0
M

R
M
s

Hnh 1.7. Vect vn tc gc.

17
Do :
s
R
t t

=


Cho t 0 , theo (1.4) v (1.27), ta c:
v R. = (1.28)
Theo nh hnh 1.7 ta thy rng: ba vect , ,

(theo th t ny) to thnh

mt tam din thun ba mt vung, vy ta c:

(1.29)
H qu 2. Lin h gia
n
a v .
T (1.18) v (1.28) ta suy ra

( )
2
2
n
R
v
a
R R

= = hay
2
n
a R = (1.30)
b. Gia tc gc
Gi thit trong khong thi gian t t ' t = , vn tc gc ca cht im chuyn
ng trn bin thin mt lng ' = , theo nh ngha th
t

l gia tc gc
trung bnh trong khong thi gian t v c k hiu l:

tb
t

(1.31)
gi tr ca
tb
biu th bin thin trung bnh ca vn tc gc trong n v thi
gian.
Nu cho t0, khi ny gia tc gc ca cht im ti thi im t l:

t 0
lim
t

hay
2
2
d d
dt dt

= = (1.32)
Vy: Gia tc gc c gi tr bng o hm ca vn tc gc i vi thi gian v
bng o hm bc hai ca gc quay i vi thi gian. Gia tc gc o bng radian
trn giy bnh phng (rad/s
2
).
Khi >0, tng, chuyn ng ca cht im l chuyn ng trn nhanh dn.
<0, gim, chuyn ng ca cht im l chuyn ng trn chm dn.
=0, khng i, chuyn ng ca cht im l chuyn ng trn u.
=const, chuyn ng ca cht im l chuyn ng trn thay i u.
Tng t nh gia tc v vn tc di, i vi gia tc gc v vn tc gc ta cng
c cc h thc:

0
t = + (1.33)


2
0
1
t t
2
= + (1.34)

2 2
0
2 = (1.35)
Ngi ta biu din gia tc gc bng mt vect gi l vect gia tc gc, vect
ny c:
- Phng nm trn trc ca qu
o trn
- Cng chiu vi chiu ca
vect vn tc gc khi >0 v
ngc chiu vi chiu ca
vect vn tc gc khi <0.
- C ln bng .
Nh vy, ta c th vit h thc vect gia tc gc nh sau:

(1.36)
H qu: Lin h gia vect gia tc gc v vect gia tc tip tuyn.
Thay v .R = vo biu thc tnh gia tc tip tuyn ta c:

( )
t
d R
d
a R
dt dt

= =
Do , theo biu thc tnh gia tc gc (1.32) ta c:

t
a R = (1.37)
Do quy c v chiu ca cc vect

(hnh 1.8), trong mi trng hp ba

vect

, v

(theo th t ny) lun lun to thnh mt tam din thun ba mt

vung, v da vo biu thc vect gia tc gc, ta c th kt lun rng:

(1.38)
1.4.3. Chuyn ng nm xin
Thc nghim chng t rng, trong
mt phm vi khng ln lm, mi cht
im u ri vi cng mt gia tc g theo
phng thng ng hng xung di vi
gi tr khng i.
Ta s kho st chuyn ng ca mt
cht im xut pht t mt im O trn
mt t vi vect vn tc ban u (lc t =
0) l

, hp vi mt nm ngang mt gc (hnh 1.9). (bi ton nm xin).

Hnh 1.8. Vect gia tc.

O

r

R
M
t
a
r

O

r

R
M
t
a
r


Hnh 1.9. Chuyn ng ca vin n.

0
y
x M

M
v
r

0
v
r

a g =
r r

A

19
Chn mt phng hnh v l mt phng thng ng cha

; cng l mt
phng cha qu o cht im, trong h trc to xOy. Ti thi im t, cht im
v tr M c to x, y; c gia tc l vect song song vi Oy hng xung
di. Do vy, hai thnh phn ca trn hai trc l:

x
y
a 0
a
a g
=

r
(1.39)
hay
x
y
dv
0
dt
dv
g
dt

Ly nguyn hm hai v ca biu thc trn ta c:

x 1
y 2
v C
v
v gt C
=

= +

r

vi
( )
( )
1 x x ox o
2 y y oy o
C v v t 0 v v cos
C v v t 0 v v sin
= = = = =

= = = = =

vy
x o
y o
v v cos
v
v gt v sin
=

= +

r
(1.40)
Theo cng thc tnh vn tc ta c th vit (1.40) nh sau:

o
o
dx
v cos
dt
dy
gt v sin
dt

= +

(1.41)
Ly nguyn hm theo t biu thc (1.41) ta c:

o 3
2
o 4
x v tcos C
M
1
y gt v t sin C
2
= +

= + +

vi
( )
( )
3
4
C x t 0 0
C y t 0 0
= = =

= = =

Suy ra cc phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im l:

o
2
o
x v tcos
M
1
y gt v t sin
2
=

= +

(1.42)
Kh t trong h phng trnh (1.42) ta c phng trnh qu o ca im M

2
2 2
0
g
1
y x tg x
2 v cos
= +

(1.43)

20
Vy, qu o ca cht im M l mt hnh Parabol OSA, nh S, trc song
song vi trc tung, quay phn lm v pha di hnh v (hnh 1.9).
By gi ta i tnh to nh S (v tr cao nht ca cht im). T biu thc
(1.40) ta c th suy ra:
( )
( )
2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y o o o o
1
v v v v cos gt v sin v 2g gt v t.sin
2
= + = + + = +
hay
2 2
o
v v 2gy = (1.44)
Ti S vect vn tc nm ngang
y
v 0 = , nn khi ta c
x o
v v v cos = = , thay
vo biu thc (1.44) ta c:

2 2 2
o o S
v cos v 2gy = hay
2 2
o
S
v sin
y
2g

= (1.45)
Cht im n S vo lc t, ng vi
y
v 0 = cho bi

o
S
v sin
t
g

=
Khi ny honh ca S l:

2 2
o o
S o S
v sin cos v sin 2
x v .t .cos =
g 2g

= = (1.46)
T y ta c th tnh c tm xa ca chuyn ng ca cht im M (khong
cch t khi nm n lc ri)

2
o
S
v sin 2
OA 2x
g

= = (1.47)
1.4.4. Dao ng iu ha thng
Mt cht im chuyn ng thng c gi l mt dao ng iu ho thng
nu ng i x ca n l mt hm s sin (hoc cosin) ca thi gian t. Thng thng
phng trnh chuyn ng ca mt cht im dao ng iu ho c dng sau:
( ) x Acos t+ =
Vi A>0, >0 v l nhng hng s. Ta nhn thy rng
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
x t Acos t+ Acos t 2 Acos t x t

(
+ = + = + + = + =


Vy, c sau mi khong thi gian
2
T

=

qung ng i x (hay di) li

tr v gi tr c, hay ta c th ni l di x l mt hm tun hon theo thi gian
vi chu k
2
T

=

, hng s A l gi tr ln nht ca x c gi l bin dao

21
ng ( x A ). Vn tc v gia tc ca cht im dao ng iu ho c tnh theo
cc cng thc sau:

( )
( )
2
2
dx
v A sin t
dt
d x
a A cos t
dt

= = +

= = +

Ngha l
2
a x =
Gia tc a lun lun ngc chiu vi di x. Ta nhn thy v v a cng l
nhng hm tun hon ca thi gian t vi chu k
2
T

=

. Nghch o ca chu k:
1
T 2

= =

c gi l tn s ca dao ng, cn hng s c gi l tn s gc

ca dao ng.






















22
CHNG 2. NG LC HC CHT IM
ng lc hc nghin cu chuyn ng ca cc vt v mi lin h ca chng
vi tng tc gia cc vt. C s ca ng lc hc v m l cc nh lut Newton
v nguyn l Galil.
2.1. Khi nim v lc v khi lng
2.1.1. Khi nim v lc
Khi nghin cu chuyn ng, ta thy rng cc vt ch bt u chuyn ng hay
thay i trng thi chuyn ng ca chng khi chu tc ng ca vt khc. Tc dng
ca mt vt ln mt vt khc c c trng bi mt i lng vt l gi l lc.
V d: on tu ch chuyn ng khi chu tc dng ca lc ko ca u tu,
chic xe ang chuyn ng ch dng li khi chu tc dng ca lc hm,
Vy: Lc l nguyn nhn Vt l gy ra s chuyn ng cng nh s thay i
chuyn ng ca cc vt. Lc th hin mc tng tc gia cc vt.
Tng tc gia cc vt xy ra theo hai cch:
- Khi chng tip xc vi nhau. V d: lc n hi, lc ma st,
- Khi chng khng trc tip tip xc vi nhau. D vy chng vn tc dng
ln nhau thng qua trng. V d: lc hp dn, lc in t,
Lc l mt i lng vect (trong c hc thng c k hiu bng ch F
r
),
do cn lu n cc c im sau ca vect lc:
- im t ca lc nm ti vt chu tc dng ca lc.
- ln (cn gi l cng ) ca lc c biu din mt cch hnh hc
bng di ca vect lc.
- Phng ca lc.
- Chiu ca lc.
Do , nu hai lc c gi l bng nhau nu chng c cng di, cng
phng v cng chiu. Quy tc cng lc l quy tc cng vect.
2.1.2. Khi nim v khi lng
Khi lng l o v lng (nhiu hay t) vt cht cha trong vt th, c th
tnh t tch phn ton b th tch ca vt:
m dV =

(vi l khi lng ring)
n v o khi lng trong h SI l kilgam (kg).
Trong Vt l, khi lng ca mt vt l mt i lng vt l c trng cho
mc qun tnh ca vt . Vt c khi lng ln s c sc ln hn v cn c

23
lc ln hn lm thay i chuyn ng ca n. Mi lin h gia qun tnh vi
khi lng c Newton pht biu trong nh lut II Newton. Khi lng trong
chuyn ng thng u cn c m rng thnh khi nim mmen qun tnh trong
chuyn ng quay.
Khi lng ca mt vt cng c trng cho mc vt hp dn cc vt th
khc, theo nh lut vn vt hp dn Newton. Vt c khi lng ln c to ra xung
quanh trng hp dn ln.
Khi lng hiu theo ngha ln ca qun tnh, khi lng qun tnh, khng
nht thit hiu theo mc hp dn vt th khc, khi lng hp dn. Tuy nhin,
cc th nghim chnh xc hin nay cho thy hai khi lng ny rt gn nhau v mt
tin ca thuyt tng i rng ca Einstein pht biu rng hai khi lng ny l
mt.
- Khi lng tng i tnh
Trong vt l c in, coi khi lng ca mt vt l mt i lng bt bin,
khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng ca vt. Tuy nhin, vt l hin i li c cch
nhn khc v khi lng, khi lng c th thay i tu theo h quy chiu. Theo
quan im ny th khi lng gm hai phn, mt phn l khi lng ngh, c gi tr
bng vi khi lng c in khi vt th ng yn trong h quy chiu ang xt, cng
vi khi lng km theo ng nng ca vt.
- nh lut bo ton khi lng
Khi lng ton phn ca mt h vt l kn, xt trong mt h quy chiu c
nh l khng i theo thi gian.
2.2. Cc nh lut Newton
Cc nh lut Newton nu ln quan h gia chuyn ng ca mt vt vi tc
dng bn ngoi v quan h gia cc tc dng tng h ca cc vt.
2.2.1. nh lut Newton I
Pht biu: Mt cht im c lp (khng chu mt tc ng no t bn ngoi)
nu ang ng yn n s tip tc ng yn, nu ang chuyn ng th chuyn ng
ca n l thng u.
Cht im ng yn c vn tc 0; cht im chuyn ng thng u c
vn tc khng i; trong c hai trng hp , vn tc u khng thay i; ta
ni trng thi chuyn ng ca n c bo ton.
Vy: Mt cht im c lp bo ton trng thi chuyn ng ca n.
Tnh cht bo ton trng thi chuyn ng gi l qun tnh, v vy nh lut I
cn c gi l nh lut qun tnh.

24
Khng ging nh cc nh lut khc, ta khng th kim nghim nh lut ny
mt cch trc tip bng thc nghim, v trn tri t khng th c bt k vt no
hon ton c lp (khng chu bt k mt lc no). Do vy, ta coi nh lut ny nh
mt nguyn l m khng chng minh. Ta ch c th xc nhn s ng n ca nh
lut ny khi kim nghim cc h qu ca nh lut ny m thi.
V d: Khi Ny mt vt nng trt trn sn nh ta c th thy vn tc ca vt
gim dn v cui cng dng li hn. Nhng nu sn nh nhn th vt c th trt rt
xa. S d nh vy l v, ngoi trng lc ca vt v phn lc ca sn nh l hai lc
trit tiu ln nhau th vt cn chu tc dng ca lc ma st v lc cn ca khng kh,
l hai lc ngc chiu chuyn ng ca vt v cn tr chuyn ng ca vt. Nu
bng cch no c th lm gim cc lc ny th vt s chuyn ng c rt xa
mc d ta ch Ny vt trong mt thi gian ngn. Nu lm trit tiu hon ton cc lc
ny th vt s chuyn ng thng u mi mi trn sn nh.
2.2.2. nh lut Newton II
nh lut Newton II xt cht im trng thi khng c lp, ngha l chu tc
dng ca nhng lc t bn ngoi.
Pht biu: 1. Chuyn ng ca mt cht im chu tc dng ca cc lc c
tng hp

0 l mt chuyn ng c gia tc.

2. Gia tc chuyn ng ca cht im t l vi tng hp lc tc dng

v t
l nghch vi khi lng ca cht im y:

k l mt hng s t l ph thuc vo cc n v s dng; trong h SI: k = 1, khi
ta c biu thc ca nh lut Newton II:

(2.1)
2.2.3. Phng trnh c bn ca c hc cht im
Phng trnh Newton:

(2.2)
l phng trnh c bn ca c hc cht im. Phng trnh ny l phng trnh tng
qut cho c hai nh lut Newton I v II.
Vi nh lut Newton I:

0 0
Vi nh lut Newton II:

0

25
2.2.4. H quy chiu qun tnh
chng I, chng ta bit rng, i vi cng mt chuyn ng nhng s
xy ra khc nhau trong cc h quy chiu khc nhau. Vy, t nhin s ny sinh cu
hi sau: nh lut I Newton khng nh nu mt vt khng chu tc dng ca mt
lc no th n s ng yn hay chuyn ng thng u i vi h quy chiu no?
Thc nghim chng t rng, nh lut Newton I ch nghim ng i vi
nhng h quy chiu qun tnh.
Vy: H quy chiu qun tnh l mt h quy chiu m trong nu mt vt
khng chu tc dng ca mt ngoi lc no th n hoc l ng yn hoc l chuyn
ng thng u.
2.2.5. nh lut Newton III
Thc nghim chng t rng, khng bao gi c tc dng mt pha. Khi vt A
tc dng ln vt B th ngc li vt B cng tc dng ln vt A. Ta ni chng tng
tc vi nhau.
nh lut Newton III xt mi lin h gia cc tng tc ca hai vt.
Pht biu: Khi cht im A tc dng ln cht im B mt lc

th cht im B
cng tc dng ln cht im A mt lc

: hai lc

tn ti ng thi cng
phng, ngc chiu v cng cng .
Ni cch khc, tng hnh hc cc lc tng tc gia hai cht im bng
khng:

0.
Ch : Tuy tng ca hai lc

bng khng nhng tc dng ca chng

khng kh nhau v im t ca chng khc nhau.
Trong trng hp tng qut: ta xt mt h cht im c lp, ngha l mt h
khng chu tc dng ca cc ngoi lc: trong h ch c cc ni lc tng tc gia
cc cht im ca h. Khi nu xt tng i cht im ca h th tng hai lc
tng tc gia chng bng khng. By gi nu ly tng ca tt c cc lc , ta
c kt qu:
Tng cc ni lc ca h cht im c lp (hay h kn) bng khng.
2.3. Cc nh l v ng lng
T phng trnh Newton, ta c th suy ra mt s pht biu tng ng, l
cc nh l v ng lng.
2.3.1. Thit lp cc nh l v ng lng
Theo nh lut Newton II, nu mt cht im khi lng m chu tc dng ca
mt lc

(hay ca nhiu lc, lc tng hp l

) th s c gia tc cho bi:

T biu thc ca gia tc (1.11), ta c th vit li biu thc trn nh sau:

V m khng i nn ta c th vit li l:

(2.3)
Vect

gi l vect ng lng ca cht im (hnh 2.1). Vy biu

thc (2.3) c th vit thnh:

(2.4)
nh l 1. o hm ng lng ca mt cht im i vi thi gian c gi tr
bng lc (hay tng hp cc lc) tc dng ln cht im .
T (2.4) ta suy ra:

(2.5)
Tch phn 2 v ca biu thc (2.5) trong khong thi gian t t
1
n t
2
ng vi
s bin thin ca ng lng t

ta c:

1
(2.6)
Theo nh ngha tch phn ca lc

theo t t t
1

n t
2
gi l xung lng ca

trong khong thi gian

. Vy biu thc (2.6) c th pht biu nh sau:
nh l 2. bin thin ng lng ca mt cht
im trong mt khong thi gian no c gi tr bng xung lng ca lc (hay
tng hp lc) tc dng ln cht im trong khong thi gian .
Trong trng hp

khng i theo thi gian, (2.6) tr thnh:

(2.7)
Hay

(2.8)
Theo (2.8) ta c th pht biu:
bin thin ng lng ca cht im trong n v thi gian c gi tr bng
lc tc dng ln cht im .
Cc nh l v ng lng (2.4) v (2.6) l nhng pht biu tng ng ca
phng trnh Newton, khi ra khi phm vi c hc c in Newton, cc cng thc
(2.3) v (2.4) vn ng. V vy, ta c th ni rng: v mt mt no cc nh l v
ng lng tng qut hn nh lut Newton.

Hnh 2.1. Vect ng lng.

m
v
r

K
r


27
2.3.2. ngha ca ng lng v xung lng
a. ngha ca ng lng
Nh ta bit trong chng I, vect vn tc l mt i lng c trng c bn
cho chuyn ng v mt ng hc. Nhng v mt ng lc hc, khi kho st
chuyn ng ca cc vt, ta khng th xt ring vn tc m khng n khi
lng ca chng, v vn tc c lin quan cht ch vi khi lng (i vi mt lc
tc dng nht nh). Ni cch khc, vn tc khng c trng cho chuyn ng v
mt ng lc hc. Chnh ng lng, i lng kt hp c khi lng v vn tc,
mi c trng cho chuyn ng v mt ng lc hc.
V d: Gi thit c mt qu cu khi lng m
1
chuyn ng vi vn tc

n
p thng vo mt qu cu c khi lng m
2
ban u ng yn. Gi thit sau va
chm, qu cu th hai chuyn ng vi vn tc

. Thc nghim chng t rng, ni

chung

khng nhng ph thuc vo

m cn ph thuc vo m
1
, ni
chnh xc l ph thuc vo ng lng

ca qu cu th nht. Nh th,
ngha l s truyn chuyn ng do va chm ca qu cu th nht n qu cu th
hai ph thuc vo ng lng qu th nht (

cng ln th

cng ln).
Vy: Trong cc hin tng va chm, ng lng l mt i lng c trng
cho kh nng truyn va chm.
b. ngha ca xung lng
Xung lng ca mt lc trong khong thi gian t c trng cho tc dng
ca lc trong khong thi gian . Thc vy, theo (2.6) hay (2.7) ta thy rng tc
dng ca lc khng nhng ph thuc vo cng lc m cn ph thuc thi gian
tc dng. Cng mt lc nhng thi gian tc dng lu th ng lng ca vt bin
thin nhiu v ngc li, nu thi gian tc dng rt ngn th d lc ln, ng lng
cng bin thin t.
Cc nh l v ng lng v xung lng thng dng gii quyt cc bi
ton va chm.
2.4. Cc lc c hc trong t nhin. Hai bi ton c bn ca ng lc hc
2.4.1. Cc lc c hc trong t nhin
Do lc ch xut hin thnh tng cp v mi cp c cng mt tnh cht nh
nhau (c to ra t mt tng tc) cho nn ngi ta phn chia cc loi lc thng
qua cc dng tng tc ca chng. C bn dng tng tc ch yu: 1. tng tc hp
dn, 2. Tng tc in t, 3. Tng tc mnh v 4. Tng tc yu.

Trong phm vi chng ny
lc ma st xut hin do lc t
a. Lc n hi
- iu kin xut hin l
Khi mt vt b mt lc ko dn hay nn l
thn vt tc dng mt l
n hnh dng c.
- Tnh cht
Chiu ca lc n hi lun ng
vt.
Treo mt l xo ln m
im B ca l xo mc vo v
dng ca trng lc vt M cc ph
x, chng to ra lc n h
ca n lun lun l hng s,

Cng thc ny c nh V
gi l cng thc ca nh lu
ng ny ch yu phn tch cc tnh cht ca l
c tng tc hp dn.
n lc n hi
c ko dn hay nn li lm cho vt b bin d
c n hi ln vt tc dng n buc vt ny tr
i lun ngc chiu bin dng ca
t l xo ln mt im c nh trn trn nh.
a l xo mc vo vt c khi lng M. Di tc
t M cc phn t l xo dn ra mt on
i

ca l xo v bin dng x
, hng s ny c gi l cng ca l xo.

c nh Vt l ngi Anh Rober Hooke tm ra nn cn
nh lut Hooke.


c n hi v
n dng th bn
t ny tr li cho
a l xo.
i Anh Rober Hooke tm ra nn cn c

M
x



n v ca cng l: N/m.
chiu di ca l xo.
- Phn lc
L mt dng lc n h
ln mt tip xc vi vt B lm cc phn t
b bin dng sinh ra phn l
Phng ca phn lc bao gi
mt tip xc ca hai vt.
Chiu t tm ca vt A
ln bng hnh chi
- Lc cng dy treo
Lc cng dy treo xu
nh cn u kia b ko dn (tr
ngc chiu).
Phng ca lc cng n
Chiu ngc chiu lc ko dn.
Ch : Cc lc ny c
thng rt kh xc nh tr
nh qua cc lc khc v gia t
b. Lc ma st
- iu kin xut hin
Dng th hai ca lc
Lc ma st xut hin khi c s
vi nhau. Nu hai vt chuy
kh. Nu mt hoc c hai v
- c im
c im ca cc lc ma st l lun lun c
xc ca hai vt chuyn ng t
tng i. ln ca lc ma st kh t
- Ma st ngh v ma st tr
Xt vt A t tip xc ln v
vt A. Dng mt lc F

ko v
chuyn ng. Vt A ng yn v l
ng l: N/m. cng K ph thuc vo vt liu lm l xo v
n hi xut hin khi vt A nn
t B lm cc phn t b mt B
c N

tc dng vo vt A.
c bao gi cng vung gc vi
t A i ra xa mt tip xc.
u lc nn vung gc ca A ln mt tip xc.
t hin khi hai u dy b ko dn hoc m
ko dn (trng hp c hai u u b ko phi cng ph
ng nm dc theo si dy.
c ko dn.
c ny c im t ln vt tc dng ln n.
c tip thng qua s bin dng ca dy nn n
c khc v gia tc m lc t c.

c n hi l lc ma st.
n khi c s chuyn ng tng i ca hai ho
n ng tip xc l vt rn ngi ta gi l l
t l cht lu (kh hoc lng) th c gi l ma st nh
c ma st l lun lun c phng tip tuyn v
ng tng i, chiu lun ngc vi chiu chuy
c ma st kh t l vi phn lc thng qua h s
v ma st trt
p xc ln vt B, lc N

l phn lc ca vt B tc d
ko vt A, nu ln ca F

c gi tr nh th v
ng yn v lc ma st ngh cn bng vi lc ko F

u lm l xo v
p xc.
t u dy c
i cng phng,
ng ln n. ln thng
a dy nn n c xc
a hai hoc nhiu vt
l lc ma st
i l ma st nht.
n vi mt tip
u chuyn ng
ma st.
t B tc dng ln
th vt A cha
F

.

30
Lc ma st ngh xut hin khi cha c s chuyn ng tng i ca 2 vt tip
xc nhng mt trong hai vt chu tc dng ko ca ngoi lc. ln ca lc ma
st ngh thay i theo ln ca lc ko F

, khi lc ko t n gi tr F
0
no sao
cho vt A bt u chuyn ng tng i so vi vt B. Lc ny lc ma st ngh
chuyn sang ma st trt.
- Vai tr ca lc ma st
C hi: Trong cc my ang hot ng bao gi cng xut hin ma st, cn tr
chuyn ng lm hao ph nng lng v ch. Lc phi lm gim ma st.
C li: Nh c ma st m my mc xe c ang hot ng c th dng li
c, con ngi, xe c mi di chuyn c.
V d: Mt h gm hai vt khi lng m
1

v m
2
c ni vi nhau bng mt si dy
mnh khng co dn. C hai trt khng ma st
trn mt phng nm ngang di tc dng ca lc ko

t vo m
1
. Xc nh lc
cng ca dy. B qua tc dng ca ma st.
Trc tin ta tnh gia tc a ca h. V h chuyn ng nh mt vt c khi
lng (m
1
+ m
2
) di tc dng ca lc

. Nn ta c:

1 2
F
a
m m
=
+

Mun tnh lc cng ti A, ta gi thit l ct dy ti A. m bo cho m
1
v
m
2
gi nguyn chuyn ng vi gia tc a th ti hai on dy A s chu tc dng
ca cc lc cng

.
Xt ring vt m
1
. Lc tc dng ln n gm: lc ko

v lc cng

. Do vy,
phng trnh chuyn ng ca m
1
s l:

1
ma F T =
T , suy ra:
2
1 1
1 2 1 2
F m F
T F m a F m
m m m m
= = =
+ +

Xt vt m
2
. Lc tc dng ln vt l lc cng

v do phng trnh chuyn

ng ca m
2
l:

'
2
m a T =
Hay
2
1 2
m F
T' T
m m
= =
+

2.4.2. Hai bi ton c bn ca ng lc hc
A
m
1

m
2


31
Vn dng cc nh lut Newton, chng ta c th d dng gii cc bi ton c
hc a dng theo 4 bc c bn sau:
- Bc 1: Phn tch bn cht cc lc tc dng ln tng vt (theo nh lut
Newton III cc lc ny ch xut hin thnh tng cp).
- Bc 2: Vit cc phng trnh nh lut Newton II cho tng vt c th.
- Bc 3: Chn h quy chiu qun tnh v h trc to sao cho bi ton tr
nn n gin, chn chiu chuyn ng gi nh cho h, sau chiu
phng trnh vect (vit c bc 2) ln cc trc to c cc
phng trnh i s.
- Bc 4: Gii h cc phng trnh i s tm cc nghim s theo yu cu
ca bi, sau bin lun ngha ca cc gi tr.
a. Bi ton thun ca ng lc hc
Bi ton thun ca ng lc hc l bi ton xc nh lc gy ra chuyn ng
khi bit chuyn ng ca cht im.
gii bi ton loi ny, trc tin phi xc nh gia tc ca cht im, sau
s p dng nh lut Newton II tm lc tc dng ln cht im.
V d: Ko mt gu nc t di ging ln cao nhanh dn vi gia tc l . Hy
xc nh lc ko.
Ta bit lc tc dng tng cng ln gu gm lc ko

v trng lc

ca gu. Theo nh lut Newton II v rng hai lc ny ngc chiu nhau, nn
ta c:

T :
k
F m(g a) = +
Ta thy lc ko phi ln hn trng lng ca gu, c bit l
k
F cng ln khi
gia tc a cng ln.
b. Bi ton ngc ca ng lc hc
Bi ton ngc ca ng lc hc l bi ton xc nh chuyn ng ca cht
im khi bit cc lc tc dng ln cht im v nhng iu kin ban u ca chuyn
ng.
gii bi ton ngc cn xc nh c th cc lc tc dng ln tng cht
im. Sau p dng cng thc tnh gia tc xc nh gia tc m cht im thu
c. Nu bit vn tc v v tr ban u ca cht im th bng cch ly tch phn
ca gia tc a, ta c th xc nh c vn tc v ta ca cht im theo thi gian,

ngha l c th bit c ph
cht im.
V d: Mt h gm hai v
lng m
1
v m
2
c ni v
si dy khng co dn. u kia c
vi mt si dy khc vt qua m
ni vi mt qu nng m. Gi
ng khng ma st, khi l
rng rc khng ng k
chuyn ng ca h.
Gi

l lc cng ca s
l

cn ko qu nng m l
i vi qu nng m ta c ph

Gi
1
T
r
l lc cng ca

i vi vt m
2
ta c ph

Cng ba phng trnh trn l

Cng c th tm ngay
dn nn c th xem chuyn
nht vi khi lng l (m+m
Theo nh lut Newton II ta c:
Chuyn ng ca h
chuyn ng ca h l:

2.5. Mmen ng lng
nh l v ng lng (2.3,2.4)

c phng trnh chuyn ng v phng trnh qu
m hai vt c khi
vi nhau bng mt
u kia ca m
1
ni
t qua mt rng rc v
ng m. Gi s h chuyn
i lng dy ni v
. Hy xc nh
a si dy ni qu nng m vi m
1
. Lc m s
ng m l

.
ng m ta c phng trnh :
mg T ma =
a on dy ni m
1
vi m
2
. i vi m
1
ta c ph
1 1
T T ma =
ta c phng trnh chuyn ng :
1 2
T m a =
nh trn li vi nhau, ta tm c gia tc a ca h
1 2
mg
a
m m m
=
+ +

tm ngay c gia tc a ca h nu rng do si dy khng co
n ng ca h nh l chuyn ng ca mt v
ng l (m+m
1
+m
2
) v lc duy nht tc ng ln h l mg
t Newton II ta c:
1 2
mg
a
m m m
=
+ +

l nhanh dn u vi gia tc a. Do vy, ph
2
0 0
1
s s v t at
2
= + +
ng (2.3,2.4)

nh qu o ca
i dy ko m
1

ta c phng trnh:
a h:
i dy khng co
t vt th thng
mg
r
.
y, phng trnh


l mt trong nhng nh lut c bn ca c hc cht im. Trong nhiu trng hp
(nht l khi xt chuyn ng ca mt cht im chu tc dng ca mt trng lc
xuyn tm) ngi ta din t nh lut ny di dng khc, l nh l v mmen
ng lng.
2.5.1. Momen ca mt vect i vi mt im
Cho mt vect

gc ti M v mt im
O c nh trong khng gian v

(hnh 2.3).
Theo nh ngha: mmen ca

i vi O l mt
vect k hiu l:
(O, V) OM V r V = =
ur uuuur ur ur r
r
M (2.9)
Theo nh ngha (2.9) th mmen ng lng
(O, V)
ur r
M l mt vect:
- gc ti O,
- c phng vung gc vi mt phng xc nh bi O v

,

- c chiu thun vi chiu quay t

sang

,

-

OMA
(O, V) OM.MA.sin(OM, MA) r.V.sin(r, V) 2.S

= = =
ur uuuur uuuur ur r
r
M (2.10)
Cc tnh cht ca mmen ca mt vect: t biu nh ngha (2.9) ta c th d dng
suy ra cc tnh cht ca mmen ca mt vect sau:
- Tnh cht 1: khi

0 hay

c phng qua O th (O, V) 0 =

ur r r
M
- Tnh cht 2: 1 2 1 2 (O, V V ) (O, V ) (O, V ) + = +
ur ur ur ur r r r
M M M
2.5.2. nh l v momen ng lng
Mt cht im M chuyn ng trn mt qu
o (C) di tc dng ca mt lc

(hnh bn).
Theo nh l v s bin thin ng lng ta c:

(2.11)
Nhn hu hng c hai v ca (2.11) vi

(O l gc ta ) ta c:

(2.12)
V

0

r
M
O
H A
M
V
r

r
r

Hnh 2.3
L
r

M
O
(C)
r
r

F
r

K mv =
r
r



34
Suy ra,

Hay:
d
(L) (O, F)
dt
=
r r r
M (2.13)
Trong

l mmen ng lng ca cht im M i vi im O v

(O, F) r F =
r r r
r
M l mnmen ca lc

i vi im O.
Phng trnh (2.13) cng chnh l biu thc ca nh l v mmen ng lng,
nh l c pht biu nh sau:
o hm theo thi gian ca mmen ng lng i vi im O ca mt cht
im chuyn ng bng tng mmen i vi im O ca cc lc tc dng ln cht
im.
H qu: Trong trng hp cht im chuyn ng lun lun chu tc dng ca mt
lc xuyn tm (

lun c phng i qua im O) th (O, F) 0 =

r r r
M v do :

(2.14)
T (2.14) ta thy

l khng i. Mt khc,

lun vung gc vi mt phng to bi

O v

. Do , mt phng cha O v

l mt mt phng c nh. iu c
ngha l cht im M lun lun chuyn ng trong mt mt phng c nh.
2.5.3. Trng hp chuyn ng trn
Mmen ng lng

ca cht im M chuyn
ng trn qu o trn (O,R) c th tnh nh sau:

. (

) (2.15); y
2
I mR = c gi l mmen qun tnh ca cht im i
vi im O.
Li c, vn tc gc

cng c biu din di

dng vect v c cng phng chiu vi

. Do ta c th vit mmen ng
lng ca cht im M chuyn ng trn qu o trn di dng:

.
(2.16)
Theo nh l v mmen ng lng ta c:

t n t
dL d
(I ) (O, F) (O, F ) (O, F ) (O, F )
dt dt
= = = + =
r
r r r r r r r r
r
M M M M (2.17)
Trong

lun lun hng tm v

l thnh phn lc tc dng theo

phng tip tuyn vi qu o.
Phng trnh (2.17) chnh l biu thc ca nh l v mmen ng lng ca
cht im chuyn ng trn.
O
R
r

v
r

r
M
L
r
Hnh 3

35
CHNG 3. NG LC HC H CHT IM.
NG LC HC VT RN
Khi xem xt chuyn ng ca mt vt hay mt h bt k, ta c th m hnh vt
nh l mt tp hp cc cht im v p dng cc nh lut c hc ca cht im
i vi tng cht im trong h. Vt rn l h cht im, nhng l mt h cht im
c bit trong khong cch gia cc cht im lun lun gi nguyn khng i
trong qu trnh chuyn ng ca vt rn. y l mt i tng c hc quan trng
v ph bin nn ta ch trng kho st c th chuyn ng vt rn vi phng php
lun p dng cc quy lut chuyn ng ca h cht im vo chuyn ng ca vt
rn.
Trong chng ny chng ta kho st cc nh lut c bn v chuyn ng ca
mt h cht im, c bit kho st chuyn ng ca mt vt rn.
3.1. C h. Khi tm ca c h
3.1.1. Khi nim c h
C h l tp hp cc cht im tng tc vi nhau, hay ni cch khc c h
chnh l h cht im.
3.1.2. Khi tm ca c h
a. nh ngha
Khi tm ca mt h cht im M
1
, M
2
,, M
n
ln lt c khi lng m
1
, m
2
, ..,
m
n
l mt im G xc nh bi ng thc:

++

0
hay

0 (3.1)
b. Ta khi tm: Chn h trc ta c gc ta O, chng ta tin hnh tm
ta ca G trong h ta chn. Ta c:

(3.2)
Nhn 2 v ca (3.2) vi m
i
ri cng cc phng trnh theo i t 1 ti n v s
dng biu thc (3.1) ta c:

(3.3)
t

vi ba ta X, Y, Z v

vi ba ta x
i
, y
i
, z
i
th (3.3)
tr thnh:

(3.4)

36
Hay
n
i i
i 1
n
i
i 1
m x
X ;
m
=
=
=

n
i i
i 1
n
i
i 1
m y
Y ;
m
=
=
=

n
i i
i 1
n
i
i 1
m z
Z
m
=
=
=

(3.5)
Cc ng thc (3.4), (3.5) cho php ta xc nh ta khi tm ca mt h
cht im. By gi chng ta i kho st cc tnh cht ca khi tm v mt ng lc
hc.
c. Vn tc ca khi tm
Ta c:

(3.6)
trong ,

vect vn tc ca cht im M
i
;
i i i
p mv =
r r
= ng lng ca cht
im M
i
.
Nu thay
n
i
i 1
P p
=
=

r
r
=tng ng lng ca h cht im, th biu thc (3.6) tr
thnh:

(3.7)
T biu thc (3.7), ta suy ra:

(3.8)
Vy: Tng ng lng ca h bng ng lng ca mt cht im t ti khi
tm ca h, c khi lng bng tng khi lng ca h v c vn tc bng vn tc
khi tm ca h.
d. Phng trnh chuyn ng ca khi tm
Ga thit cc cht im M
1
, M
2
, , M
n
ca h ln lt chu tc dng ca cc
lc
1 2 n
F , F ,..., F
r r r
v chuyn ng vi nhng vect gia tc
1 2 n
a , a ,..., a
r r r
, tha mn cc
phng trnh:

1 1 1 2 2 2 n n n
m a F , m a F ,..., m a F = = =
r r r
r r r

Mun tm phng trnh chuyn ng ca khi tm, ta o hm (3.6) theo t:

Hay

Hay

1
(3.9)

37
trong

l vect gia tc ca khi tm. T (3.9) ta c th kt lun rng:

Khi tm ca mt h chuyn ng nh mt cht im c khi lng bng tng
khi lng ca h v chu tc dng ca mt lc bng tng ngoi lc tc dng ln
h.
Ch : - Trong (3.9), v phi ch l tng hp cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h, v theo
nh lut Newton III, tng hp cc ni lc tng tc ca h bng khng.
- Chuyn ng khi tm ca h c gi l chuyn ng ton th ca h.
3.2. nh lut bo ton ng lng
3.2.1. Thit lp
i vi mt h cht im chuyn ng, ta c nh l v ng lng:

+ +

trong F
r
l tng cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h (theo nh lut Newton III th tng
cc ni lc tng tc trong h bng 0).
Nu h ang xt l mt h c lp ( F 0 =
r
) th:

++

0
Ngha l:

+ +

(3.10)
Pht biu: Tng ng lng ca mt h c lp l mt i lng bo ton.
Mt khc, ta bit rng vn tc chuyn ng ca khi tm ca h theo (3.7) cho
bi:

1

Vy, i vi mt h cht im c lp:
V const =
uuuuur r
(3.11)
Khi tm ca mt h c lp hoc ng yn hoc chuyn ng thng u.
3.2.2. Bo ton ng lng theo phng
Trong trng hp mt h cht im khng c lp ngha l F 0
r
nhng hnh
chiu ca F
r
ln mt phng x no lun lun bng 0, khi nu chiu phng
trnh vect

+ +

ln phng x ta c:

+. . .

38
Vy, hnh chiu ca tng ng lng ca h ln phng x l mt i lng
bo ton.
3.2.3. ng dng
a. Gii thch hin tng sng git li
Gi s c mt khNu sng c khi
lng M t trn mt gi nm ngang;
trong nng sng c mt vin n c
khi lng m. Nu khng c ma st th
tng hp ngoi lc tc dng ln h (sng + n) tc l tng hp ca trng lng
(sng + n) v phn lc php tuyn ca gi s trit tiu, do tng ng lng ca
h bo ton.
Trc khi bn tng ng lng ca h bng 0. Khi bn, n bay v pha trc
vi vn tc , sng git li v pha sau vi vn tc

. Do , ng lng ca h sau
khi bn s l: +

. V ng lng ca h bo ton nn ta c:
+

Du tr chng t

ngc chiu vi . V gi tr V t l vi m v t l nghch

vi M.
b. Chuyn ng phn lc
nh lut Newton III cng nh nh lut bo ton ng lng l c s gii
thch cc chuyn ng phn lc. Chng ta hy vn dng cc nh lut ny gii
thch chuyn ng phn lc ca cc tn la.
Gi thit c mt vt cha mt hn hp kh nng, ban u ng yn. Nu hn
hp kh c pht ra pha sau th theo nh lut bo ton ng lng vt s tin ln
pha trc. l nguyn tc ca tn la.
Ta gi khi lng tng cng ban u ca tn la l M
0
. Trong qu trnh
chuyn ng, tn la lun lun pht kh ra sau, khi lng ca n gim dn, vn tc
ca n tng dn. Ta hy tnh vn tc ca tn la khi khi lng ca n l M. ng
lng ca tn la lc l:

.
Qua mt khong thi gian dt, tn la pht ra sau mt khi lng kh bng
dM
1
. Nu vn tc pht kh i vi tn la lun lun khng i v bng th vn tc
pht kh i vi h quy chiu ang quan st bng + v ng lng ca kh pht
ra l:

+ . Sau khi pht kh khi lng tn la bng M+dM (vi dM=-dM

1
),
vn tc ca n tng ln thnh +. Vy, ng lng ca tn la sau khi pht kh
l: + + . ng lng ca h sau khi pht kh l:
m
M
v
r
V
r

39

+ + + + (vi dM=-dM
1
)
Gi s khng c thnh phn lc tc dng theo phng chuyn ng, theo nh
lut bo ton ng lng ta c:

Hay + + + +
Khai trin cc php tnh trong biu thc trn v b qua s hng v cng b bc
hai ta c:
(v v ngc chiu)

ln

(3.12)
Cng thc (3.12) gi l cng thc Xincpxki. Theo cng thc ny, mun cho
vn tc tn la ln th vn tc pht kh (i vi tn la) phi ln v t s

cng
phi ln.
3.3. Chuyn ng ca vt rn quanh mt trc c nh
Vt rn l mt h cht im trong khong cch gia cc cht im lun
lun khng i. Chuyn ng ca mt vt rn ni chung phc tp, nhng ngi ta
chng minh c rng, mi chuyn ng ca vt rn bao gi cng c th quy v
tch ca hai chuyn ng c bn: chuyn ng tnh tin v chuyn ng quay.
3.3.1. Bc t do ca vt rn
Khi m t chuyn ng ca mt vt rn, ta phi xc nh c chuyn ng
ca bt k im no ca vt. xc nh v tr ca vt rn ta cn phi xc nh v tr
ca ba im bt k khng thng hng ca n, ngha l cn v ch cn xc nh v tr
ca mt tam gic bt k gn lin vi vt rn. xc nh v tr ca mt im trong
khng gian cn phi xc nh ba ta , do v tr ca ba im bt k c xc
nh bi chn ta . Tuy nhin, do tnh cht ca vt rn, ba im chnh l ba
nh ca mt tam gic xc nh nn chn ta khng c lp i vi nhau m
lin h vi nhau bng ba phng trnh xc nh di khng i ca ba cnh tam
gic, thnh th ch cn c 6 ta l c lp. Do , xc nh v tr ca vt rn
ch cn 6 ta hay 6 tham s c lp. Vy, s tham s c lp cn thit xc
nh hon ton v tr ca vt rn gi l s bc t do ca n.
Vt rn hon ton t do c 6 bc t do. Nu vt rn khng hon ton t do th
bc t do ca n gim xung. V d, vt rn c mt im hon ton c nh th ba
ta ca im l hon ton xc nh v vt rn ch cn ba bc t do. Vt rn c
hai im hon ton c nh ch c mt bc t do: n ch c th quay quanh trc i

qua hai im trn v bc t
.
Nghin cu chuyn
vt rn ti mi thi im, ni cch khc c
theo thi gian ca cc tham s
bng s tham s c lp hay l b
Vy, bc t do ca v
phi bit c th hon ton xc
3.3.2. Chuyn ng tnh ti
Khi mt vt rn chuy
nhng qu o ging nhau.
m trong

xc nh b
chnh n.
Ti mi thi im cc ch
tin u c cng vect vn t
Vy, trong chuyn
qu o ca mi im l nh
nhau.
Gi thit l vect gia t
rn, cc cht im ny ln l
ngoi lc tc dng l

,

Cc phng trnh ny ch

, ,

song song v cng chi

ng tnh tin. Cng cc ph

y l phng trnh chuy
trnh chuyn ng ca mt ch
vt rn v chu tc dng m
chnh l phng trnh chuy
do cn li ca n s xc nh v tr ca v
ng ca vt rn tc l phi xc nh hon ton v
m, ni cch khc cn phi xc nh c quy lu
a cc tham s c lp. R rng l s phng trnh c
p hay l bc t do ca vt rn.
t rn cho bit s phng trnh chuyn ng
hon ton xc nh chuyn ng ca vt rn.
nh tin
n ng tnh tin mi cht im ca n chuy
ng nhau. Vy, chuyn ng tnh tin ca vt rn l chuy
i hai im bt k A v B ca vt rn lun song song v
m cc cht im ca vt rn tnh
n tc v gia tc.
ng tnh tin ca vt rn,
m l nhng ng cong nh
gia tc chung ca cc cht im M
1
, M
2
, , M
n lt c khi lng l m
1
, m
2
, , m
i
, v ln l
,

. Theo nh lut II Newton, ta c:

1 1
2 2
i i
m a F
m a F
.............
ma F
=
=
=
r
r
r
r
r
r

nh ny chng t rng cc ngoi lc tc dng ln v
song song v cng chiu, y l mt iu kin cn m
ng cc phng trnh (3.13) v theo v ta c:
(

nh chuyn ng ca vt rn tnh tin, n ging nh
t cht im c khi lng bng khi lng t
t lc bng tng ngoi lc tc dng ln vt r
n ng ca khi tm ca vt rn.
t quanh trc
nh hon ton v tr ca
lut bin thin
nh cn phi bit
ng c lp cn
n ng theo
l chuyn ng
n lun song song vi
, , M
i
, ca vt
n lt chu cc
(3.13)
ng ln vt rn
t vt chuyn
(3.14)
ng nh phng
ng cng ca
n. y cng

Nh vy, mun kho st
chuyn ng ca khi tm c
3.3.3. Chuyn ng quay
Xt mt vt rn quay quanh tr
ca vt rn ch cn bng m
nht l gc quay . Ta c nh
- Mi im ca vt r
.
- Trong cng mt kho
gc nh nhau.
- Ti cng mt thi
cng vn tc gc :

v gia t
- Ti mt thi im, vect
tuyn ca mt cht
vn tc gc v gia t


y l nhng tnh ch
ca vt rn xung quanh mt tr
3.4. Phng trnh c bn c
Trong phn ny, ta s
quay ca vt rn xung quanh m
3.4.1. Momen lc
a. Tc dng ca lc trong chuy
Gi thit c mt lc F
r
im M. Trc ht ta phn tch

trong
1
F
r
trc v
2
F
r
tr
qua M li c phn tch thnh hai thnh ph

o st chuyn ng tnh tin ca mt vt rn ta ch
ca n.

n quay quanh trc quay vi vn tc gc
0
, khi
ng mt. V tr ca vt rn c xc nh bi m
. Ta c nhng nhn xt sau :
n vch nn nhng vng trn c tm nm trn tr
t khong thi gian, mi im ca vt rn u quay
i im, mi im ca vt rn u c
v gia tc gc

m, vect vn tc di v gia tc tip
t im bt k ca vt rn lin h vi
c gc v gia tc gc bi cc h thc sau:

ng tnh cht ng hc ca chuyn ng quay
t trc c nh.
n ca chuyn ng quay ca vt rn
thit lp nhng phng trnh c bn m t
n xung quanh mt trc c nh.
c trong chuyn ng quay
F
r
tc dng ln mt vt rn quay quanh trc
t ta phn tch F
r
ra hai thnh phn:
1 2
F F F = +
r r r

c. Lc
1
F
r
nm trong mt phng vung gc v
c phn tch thnh hai thnh phn:
1 t n
F F F = +
r r r

ta ch cn xt
, khi bc t do
t ta duy
m trn trc quay
u quay c mt
chuyn ng
, t ti mt
ng vung gc vi trc i

trong
t
F
r
bn knh OM, ngha l nm theo tip tuyn ca vng trn tm O bn
knh OM, cn
n
F
r
nm theo bn knh OM. Kt qu ta c:

t n 2
F F F F = + +
r r r r

Trn hnh (3.1) ta thy rng:
- Thnh phn
2
F
r
khng gy ra chuyn
ng quay, ch c tc dng lm vt rn
trt dc theo trc quay, chuyn ng
ny khng th c v theo gi thit, vt
rn ch quay xung quanh trc .
- Thnh phn
n
F
r
khng gy ra chuyn
ng quay, ch c tc dng lm vt rn
ri khi trc quay, chuyn ng ny
cng khng th c.
- Nh vy, trong chuyn ng quay, tc
dng ca lc F
r
tng ng vi tc
dng ca thnh phn
t
F
r
ca n.
Kt lun: Trong chuyn ng quay ca mt vt rn xung quanh mt trc ch
nhng thnh phn lc tip tuyn vi qu o ca im t mi c tc dng thc s.
V vy trong cc phn sau, n gin, ta c th gi thit rng, cc lc tc
dng ln vt rn chuyn ng quay u l lc tip tuyn.
b. Mmen ca lc i vi trc quay
Xt tc dng ca mt lc tip tuyn
t
F
r
t ti mt im M ng vi bn knh
OM = r. Thc nghim chng t rng, tc dng ca lc
t
F
r
khng nhng ph thuc
cng ca n m cn ph thuc khong cch r, khong cch ny cng ln th tc
dng ca lc cng mnh. c trng cho tc dng ca lc trong chuyn ng
quay, ngi ta a ra mt i lng gi l mmen lc.
nh ngha: Mmen ca lc
t
F
r
i vi trc quay l mt vect M
uur
xc nh
bi (hnh 3.1):

t
r F M =
uur r
r
(3.15)
Theo nh ngha ny, vect M
uur
c phng vung gc vi mt phng cha r
r

v
t
F
r
, ngha l phng ca trc quay, c chiu thun vi chiu quay t r
r
sang
t
F
r
,
c tr s:

Hnh 3.1. Tc dng ca lc
trong chuyn ng quay.

M
M
uur

2
F
uur

F
r

1
F
ur

t
F
ur

n
F
uur

O

r
r



t t
r.F .sin(r, F ) =
r
r
M (3.16)
Ch : - V trong chuyn ng quay tc dng ca lc F
r
tng ng vi tc
dng ca lc
t
F
r
nn ngi ta cng nh ngha M
uur
l vect mmen ca
t
F
r
i vi
trc . Ta c th d dng chng minh c rng: Mmen ca mt lc F
r
i vi trc
s bng khng khi lc bng khng hoc khi n ng phng vi .
- Ta cng thy rng mmen M
uur
ca
t
F
r
i vi trc l mmen ca
t
F
r
i vi
im O, giao im ca v mt phng cha
t
F
r
vung gc vi .
3.4.2. Thit lp phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay
Thc nghim chng t rng: tc dng
ca cc ngoi lc lm thay i trng thi
chuyn ng ca vt rn quay, c th l lm
cho n quay c gia tc. Chng ta s thit lp
phng trnh nu ln mi lin h .
Gi M
i
l mt cht im bt k ca vt
rn, cch trc mt khong l r
i
ng vi bn
knh vect i
i
OM r =
uuuur
r
c khi lng m
i
v chu
tc dng ca ngoi lc tip tuyn

(tng hp
cc ni lc tc dng ln cc cht im ca vt
rn bng khng, do vy chng khng nh
hng g n chuyn ng quay).
Cht im M
i
s chuyn ng vi vect
gia tc tip tuyn

cho bi:

Nhn hu hng hai v ca biu thc trn vi bn knh vect i
i
OM r =
uuuur
r
, ta
c:
i
i i ti i ti
m .r a r F M = =
uur r
r r r
(3.17)
Ta li c:
( )
i ti i i
r a r r =
r
r r r r
(3.18)
Khai trin ngoi tch kp hai v ca (3.17) ta c:
( )
( )
2
i ti i i i i i i
r a r .r . r . .r r . 0 = =
r r r
r r r r r r r
(v
i
r
r
r
)
Vy (3.18) tr thnh:

2
i
i i
m .r . M =
uur r
(3.19)

Hnh 3.2.
Thit lp phng trnh c bn
ca chuyn ng quay.

Mi
M
uur

r

ti
F
uur

ti
a
uur

O

i
r
r


Cng cc phng trnh (3.19) v vi v theo i (cng theo tt c cc cht im
ca vt rn) ta c:

2
i
i i
i i
m .r . M
| |
=
|
\

uur r
(3.20)
Trong phng trnh (3.19) i
i
M M =

uur uur
= tng hp mmen cc ngoi lc tc
dng ln vt rn;
2
i i
i
m .r I =

= gi l mmen qun tnh ca vt rn i vi trc

(bng tng mmen qun tnh ca cc cht im ca vt rn). Vy, ta c th vit li
biu thc (3.20) nh sau:
I. =
uur r
M (3.21)
Phng trnh (3.21) gi l phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay ca vt
rn xung quanh mt trc. T (3.21) ta cng c th vit li nh sau:

I
M
=
uur
r
(3.22)
v c th pht biu nh sau: Gia tc gc trong chuyn ng quay ca vt rn xung
quanh mt trc t l vi tng hp mmen cc ngoi lc i vi trc v t l nghch
vi mmen qun tnh ca vt rn i vi trc.
Phng trnh (3.21) nu ln mi lin h gia tc dng ngoi lc i vi vt rn
quay, c trng bi vect mmen M
uur
v s thay i trng thi chuyn ng ca vt
rn quay, c trng bi vect gia tc gc
r
. Phng trnh ny tng t nh phng
trnh ca nh lut II Newton i vi chuyn ng tnh tin ma F =
r
r
, trong I c
ngha tng t nh khi lng m. Vy, I l i lng c trng cho mc qun tnh
ca vt rn trong chuyn ng quay.
3.4.3. Tnh momen qun tnh
Mmen qun tnh I ca vt rn i vi mt trc
c tnh theo cng thc:

(3.23)
trong

l mmen qun tnh ca cht im M

i

ca vt rn i vi trc
0
v php cng ly cho tt
c cc cht im ca vt rn.
Nu khi lng ca vt rn phn b mt cch lin tc, mun tnh mmen qun
tnh I, ta chia vt rn thnh nhng phn t v cng nh, mi phn t c khi lng

Hnh 3.3.
Tnh mmen qun tnh ca thanh.

0

G x
dx
l

vi phn dm v cch trc mt khong r, khi php cng v phi ca (3.23) tr
thnh php ly tch phn:

(tch phn cho ton b vt rn) (3.24)

V d 1: Tnh mmen qun tnh I ca mt thanh ng cht chiu di l, khi
lng M i vi trc
0
i qua trung im G ca thanh v vung gc vi thanh.
Ta xt mt phn t ca thanh khi lng dm, chiu di dx cch G mt on x.
Mmen qun tnh ca dm i vi trc
0
l:

(3.25)
V thanh l ng cht nn khi lng ca cc on trn thanh t l vi chiu
di ca cc on :

hay

Do , (3.25) tr thnh:

Mmen qun tnh I ca thanh i vi trc
0
l:

/
/

(3.26)
V d 2: Tnh mmen qun tnh ca mt a ng cht bn knh R, khi lng
M i vi trc
0
ca a (hnh 3.4).
Ta phn tch a thnh nhng phn t hnh vnh khn bn knh x, b rng dx.
din tch vnh khn l:
( )
2
dS d x 2xdx = =
Gi khi lng ca phn t hnh vnh khn l
dm, mmen qun tnh ca n l:

(3.27)
V a ng cht nn khi lng ca cc phn
t trn a t l vi din tch ca cc phn t:

Suy ra,

Do , (3.27) tr thnh:

(3.28)
Mmen qun tnh I ca a i vi trc
0
bng:

(3.29)

Hnh 3.4.
Tnh mmen qun tnh ca a

G

0

x dx

Ch : Biu thc ca I trong (3.29) khng ph thuc chiu dy ca a, v vy,
cng thc (3.29) cng p dng c tnh I ca mt vt ng cht hnh tr trn
khi lng M, bn knh R.
Bng nhng php tnh tng t, ta c th tm c mmen qun tnh ca
nhng vt ng cht c hnh dng i xng i vi trc ca chng.
nh l Stein-Huygen:
trn ta tm c mmen qun tnh ca cc vt i vi trc i xng
0
i
qua khi tm G ca chng. Trong nhiu trng hp ta phi tm mmen qun tnh
i vi mt trc bt k. Khi ta c th p dng nh l Stein-Huygen sau:
Mmen qun tnh ca mt vt rn i vi
mt trc bt k bng mmen qun tnh ca vt
i vi trc
0
song song vi i qua khi tm
G ca vt, cng vi khong cch d gia hai trc:

2
0
I I Md = + (3.30)
Di y, ta s chng minh nh l ny
cho mt trng hp n gin: trng hp ca thanh ng cht chiu di l khi
lng M. Gi thit hai trc v
0
cng vung gc vi thanh (hnh 3.6). Ly mt
phn t chiu di dx, khi lng dm ca thanh, cch G mt khong x (x > 0 nu dm
bn phi G v x < 0 nu dm bn tri G). Mmen qun tnh ca dm i vi trc
l (d+x)
2
dm; mmen qun tnh ca thanh i vi trc l:
( )
2
I dm x d = +

(tch phn theo cc phn t ca thanh)

Khai trin cc php tnh ta c:
( )
2 2 2 2
I dm x 2d.x d x dm 2d xdm d dm = + + = + +



Hnh 3.5. Mmen qun tnh ca mt s vt rn.

0

R
I=MR
2

a) vnh trn

0

R
2 2
I MR
5
=

b) Khi cu

0

a
b
( )
2 2 1
I a b
12
= +

c) Mt ch nht

Hnh 3.6. Chng minh nh l Huyghen.

0

G
d
dx x

47
Nhng
2
0
x dm I = =

mmen qun tnh ca thanh i vi trc

0
; dm M = =

khi lng ca thanh; xdm 0 =

, v trong tng c mi phn t bn phi dx (c

x>0) li ng vi mt phn t i xng bn tri dx (c x<0), do hai s hng tng
ng c x ngc du nn kh nhau. Cui cng ta c:

2
0
I I Md = +
3.5. Mmen ng lng ca mt h cht im
3.5.1. nh ngha
Mt h cht im M
1
, M
2
, , M
i
, ln lt c khi lng m
1
, m
2
, , m
i
,
v chuyn ng vi nhng vn tc
1 2 i
v , v , ..., v ,...
uur uur uur
i vi mt h quy chiu gc O.
Ti thi im t v tr nhng cht im y c xc nh bi cc vect bn knh
1 2
r , r ,
ur ur
,
i
r ,...
r

Mmen ng lng ca h cht im i vi im O c nh ngha bi:

i i i
L L r mv = =

ur uur r uur
(3.31)
bng tng cc mmen ng lng ca cc cht im trong h vi O.
Mt s trng hp ring:
a. H cht im quay xung quanh mt trc c nh
Khi , theo chng minh phn trc ta c mmen ng lng ca mt cht
im (m
i
,
i
r
r
):

i i i
L I =
uur uur
(3.32)
trong
2
i i i
I m r = l mmen qun tnh ca cht im i vi trc quay ,
i

uur
l vn
tc gc ca cht im trong chuyn ng quay xung quanh .
Khi mmen ng lng ca h c xc nh bi:

i i i
i i
L L I = =

ur uur uur
(3.33)
b. Trng hp vt rn quay xung quanh mt trc c nh
Khi mi cht im ca vt rn quay u c cng vn tc gc.

1 2 i
... ... = = = = =
uur uur uur ur
(3.34)
Vy
i i i
i i
L I I I
| |
= = =
|
\

ur uur ur ur
(3.35)
trong
2
i i i
i i
I I m r = =

l mmen qun tnh ca vt rn i vi trc quay .
3.5.2. nh l v mmen ng lng ca mt h cht im

48
i vi cht im (m
i
,
i
r
r
) ca h khi p dng nh l v mmen ng lng ta
c:

i
i
dL
(O, F)
dt
=
uur
uur ur
M (3.36)
i
(O, F )
uur ur
M l tng mmen i vi gc O ca cc lc tc dng ln cht im (m
i
).
Cng cc phng trnh trn theo I ta c :

i
i
i i
dL
(O, F)
dt
=

uur
uur ur
M (3.37)
V tri (3.37) =
d
L
dt
ur
l o hm theo thi gian ca mmen ng lng ca h.
V phi ca (3.37) biu th tng mmen i vi gc O ca cc lc tc dng ln cc
cht im ca h. Cc lc tc dng ln cc cht im ca h bao gm cc ngoi lc
tc dng v cc ni lc tng tc ca cc cht im trong h. Ch rng cc ni lc
tng tc ca cc cht im trong h tng i mt i nhau (cng phng, ngc
chiu v cng ln), do , tng mmen i vi O ca nhng lc ny s bng 0.
Vy v phi ca (3.37) ch cn l tng mmen i vi O ca cc ngoi lc tc dng
ln h. Kt qu ta thu c cng thc sau:

i
i
d
L (O, F)
dt
= =

ur uur ur uur
M M (3.38)
nh l: o hm theo thi gian ca mmen ng lng ca mt h cht im
bng tng mmen cc ngoi lc tc dng ln h (i vi mt im gc O bt ki)
Trng hp ring: h cht im l mt vt rn quay xung quanh mt trc c nh .
C: L I =
ur ur
, do nh l v mmen ng lng c th vit:

dL d(I )
dt dt

= =
ur ur
uur
M (3.39)
trong
uur
M l tng mmen cc ngoi lc tc dng ln vt rn quay.
Tch phn phng trnh (3.39) t thi im t
1
n thi im t
2
tng ng vi
s bin thin ca L
ur
t
1
L
uur
n
2
L
uur
ta c:

2
1
t
2 1
t
L L L dt = =

ur uur uur uur

M (3.40)
i lng
2
1
t
t
dt

uur
M c gi l mmen xung lng ca mmen lc
uur
M trong
khong thi gian t = t
2
t
1


49
Nu
uur
M l khng i th ta c:
L t =
ur uur
M (3.41)
Ch : i vi vt rn quay xung quanh mt trc c nh, mmen qun tnh I =
const. V vy, ta c th vit

dL d(I ) d
I I
dt dt dt

= = =
ur ur ur
r
I =
r uur
M (3.42)
trong
d
dt

=
ur
r
l gia tc gc v phng trnh (3.42) l phng trnh c bn ca
chuyn ng quay ca vt rn xung quanh mt trc m ta bit.
3.6. nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng
3.6.1. Thit lp
Gi s c mt h cht im khng chu tc dng ca cc ngoi lc (h cht
im c lp) hoc c chu tc dng ca cc ngoi lc nhng tng mmen ca cc
ngoi lc y i vi im gc O bng 0. Khi theo nh l v mmen ng lng
ta c:

dL
0
dt
= =
ur
uur
M L const =
ur uuuuur
(3.43)
Vy: i vi mt h cht im c lp hay chu tc dng ca cc ngoi lc
nhng tng mmen ca cc ngoi lc y i vi im gc O bng 0, th tng
mmen ng lng ca h l mt i lng bo ton
3.6.2. Trng hp h quay xung quanh mt trc c nh
nh l v mmen ng lng i vi h trong trng hp ny:

1 1 2 2 i i
d
(I I ... I ...)
dt
+ + + + =
uur uur uur uur
M (3.44)
Cn ch rng cc vect vn tc gc v vect mmen lc u nm trn trc
quay. Khi 0 =
uur r
M ta c kt qu:
1 1 2 2 i i
I I ... I ... const + + + + =
uur uur uur uuuuur

3.6.3. Mt vi ng dng ca nh lut bo ton mmen ng lng
i vi mt h quay xung quanh mt trc vi vn tc gc , nu tng hp
mmen ngoi lc tc dng bng khng th mmen ng lng ca h bo ton:
I = const
Nu v mt l do no mmen qun tnh I ca h tng th gim, h quay
chm li; ngc li nu I gim th tng, h quay nhanh ln. Ta c th nu mt vi
th d minh ha tnh cht .


CH
4.1. Cng v cng sut
4.1.1. Cng
Xt mt vt nm yn trn bn. N ch
lc ca mt bn, tng hnh h
bo ton ng lng th
trng thi nm yn trn bn.
Li xt mt t chuy
ko ca ng c, lc cn c
t, phn lc ca mt ng. V t chuy
Newton th tng hnh hc c
theo nh lut bo ton ng l
gian. Nh vy, trng thi chuy
Tuy nhin, ng c ca t ph
ra lc ko nhm duy tr tr
gian, tri li vt nm trn m
Nghin cu k, ta thy c s
l: im t ca cc lc tc d
cn im t ca lc ko c
Vy, ta c th ni rng:
Th nghim chng t r
tch s ca lc ko F

v qung
(qung ng dch chuyn c
i lng c o bng
t ca lc gi l cng.
V d trn cho thy r
trong nhin liu khi b t chy trong
chuyn thnh cng c hc lm cho t chuy
Vy, cng chnh l i l
lng chuyn i t dng n
nng lng khc, hay chnh l
gia cc vt.

CHNG 4. NNG LNG
trn bn. N chu tc dng ca hai lc: trng l
ng hnh hc ca cc ngoi lc bng khng. Do , theo
ng lng ca vt bo ton. Suy ra, vt ph
m yn trn bn.
n ng thng u trn ng. t chu tc d
a khng kh, lc ma st ca mt ng, trng l
ng. V t chuyn ng thng u, nn theo
c ca tt c cc lc tc dng ln t phi bng 0. Do
ng lng th ng lng ca t khng thay
ng thi chuyn ng ca t v vt nm trn mt bn l nh
a t phi hot ng lin tc, tiu tn nhin liu
ng thi chuyn ng c hc khng thay
m trn mt bn li khng cn tiu tn mt t nng l
y c s khc nhau rt c bn gia hai v d nu ra
c tc dng ln vt nm trn mt bn khng d
a ng c t lin tc dch chuyn cng t.
ng: mt lc sinh cng khi im t ca n chuy
rng, lng nhin liu tiu th bi ng c t t
v qung ng dch chuyn x ca im t c
n ca t).
ng tch s ca lc v qung ng dch chuy
y rng nng lng nhit cha
t chy trong ng c t
c lm cho t chuyn ng.
ng c trng cho phn nng
ng nng lng ny sang dng
khc, hay chnh l phn nng lng trao i
Hnh 4.1
ng lc v phn
, theo nh lut
i gi nguyn
u tc dng ca lc
ng lng ca
u, nn theo nh lut I
ng 0. Do ,
a t khng thay i theo thi
t bn l nh nhau.
u sn sinh
c khng thay i theo thi
ng no c.
nu ra trn,
t bn khng dch chuyn,
n cng t.
chuyn di.
t t l vi
t ca lc ko
ch chuyn ca im

Hnh 4.1

Di tc dng ca lc
vi phn ds

. Cng vi phn dA m l
v hng ca hai vect:

T biu thc (4.1), ta c:
Nu: < /2 th dA > 0:
= /2 th dA = 0: l

> /2 th dA < 0: cng c
n v ca cng l Jun (J): 1J =
Biu thc ny ch
trng hp lc F

khng
chuyn di ca s

l th
trng hp tng qut im
F

chuyn di t im P
trn qu o (hnh 4.2), trong qu
trnh ny lc thay i.
trong trng hp ny ta chia
cng thc (4.1) tnh cng vi phn dA trn
phn li ta s tnh c cng m l
dA F.ds A dA F.ds
Nu phn tch vect F

to Descartes th ta c th

4.1.2. Cng sut
Khi nh ngha cng m
khng tnh n thi gian th
nhanh hay chm ca mt my sinh cng (v d
i lng vt l mi gi l cng su
Cng sut trung bnh P
gian t thc hin cng , ta c:
c F

gi s cht im dch chuyn c mt

. Cng vi phn dA m lc F

thc hin c trn on ng

dA F.ds F.ds.cos

= =
c (4.1), ta c:
/2 th dA > 0: cng hu ch
/2 th dA = 0: lc tc dng vung gc vi chuyn ng
nn khng sinh cng.
/2 th dA < 0: cng cn (v d cng ca lc ma st)
a cng l Jun (J): 1J = 1Nm.
ng cho
khng i v
ng. Trong
m t ca lc
m P n im Q
, trong qu
tnh cng
p ny ta chia on ng PQ thnh nhiu on con ds

c (4.1) tnh cng vi phn dA trn on ds

, ri cng tt c
c cng m lc F

thc hin c trn on ng PQ:

Q Q
P P
dA F.ds A dA F.ds = = =




F

v ds

thnh cc thnh phn theo cc trc to

th ta c th biu din cng A di dng:
Q
x y z
P
A (F dx F dy Fdz) = + +

a cng m lc F

thc hin c trn mt on

i gian thc hin cng. c trng cho kh nng sinh cng
t my sinh cng (v d: mt ng c) ngi ta
cng sut.
bnh P
tb
ca mt my sinh cng l t s ca cng
n cng , ta c:

Hnh 4.2
t on ng
ng ds

l tch
(4.1)
ng
ds

, ri p dng
cc cng vi
ng PQ:
(4.2)
c to ca h
(4.3)
ng no ta
ng sinh cng
i ta a vo mt
a cng A v thi



tb
A
P
t

(4.4)
V mt ngha, cng sut trung bnh c gi tr bng cng trung bnh ca lc
sinh ra trong n v thi gian.
tnh cng sut ti tng thi im, ta cho t 0 . Gii hn ca
A
t

khi
t 0 , theo nh ngha gi l cng sut tc thi (gi tt l cng sut) ca lc,
c k hiu l:

t 0
A dA
P lim
t dt

= =

(4.5)
Vy, cng sut c gi tr bng o hm ca cng theo thi gian.

dA ds
P F F v
dt dt
= = =

(4.6)
Vy, cng sut bng tch v hng ca lc tc dng vi vect vn tc ca
chuyn di.
n v ca cng sut l Watt (W), 1W = 1J/s = 1 Nm/s.
4.1.3. Cng v cng sut ca lc tc dng trong chuyn ng quay
Trong trng hp mt vt rn quay xung quanh
mt trc cc lc tc dng u l lc tip tuyn (hnh
4.3). Cng vi phn ca mt lc tip tuyn
t
F

cho bi:

t
dA F.ds =
(gi s F
t
hng theo chiu chuyn ng) nhng
ds = rd, d l gc quay ng vi chuyn ri ds

, vy:

t
dA rFd =
Theo nh ngha:
t
rF =M= mmen ca lc
t
F

i
vi trc quay , do :
dA d = M (4.7)
T y, ta c th suy ra biu thc ca cng sut:

dA d
P
dt dt

= = M
Hay P . =
uur
r
M (4.8)
4.2. Nng lng
4.2.1. Khi nim nng lng v nh lut bo ton nng lng

Hnh 4.3

O

r
ds
d
t
F

uur
M

53
Tt c cc dng c th ca vt cht vn ng u c nng lng. Nng lng
l mt i lng c trng cho mc vn ng ca vt cht.
Mt vt trng thi nht nh th c mt nng lng xc nh. Khi mt vt
khng c lp ngha l c tng tc vi mi trng bn ngoi th vt s bin i
trng thi v trao i nng lng vi cc vt bn ngoi. S trao i ny c th thc
hin bng nhiu cch. Nu ch xt chuyn ng c, th s trao i nng lng thc
hin nh sau: vt ang kho st tc dng nhng lc ln cc vt bn ngoi v nhng
lc ny sinh cng. Nh vy, cng l mt i lng c trng cho qu trnh trao i
nng lng gia vt ny v vt khc. Ni cch khc, khi mt h thc hin cng th
nng lng ca n bin i. Ta s xem xt c th cc qu trnh trong chng
ny.
Gi thit trong mt qu trnh no h bin i t trng thi 1 (c nng lng
W
1
) sang trng thi 2 (c nng lng W
2
); qu trnh ny h nhn t bn ngoi mt
cng A (cng A l mt lng i s c th dng hay m tu theo h thc s nhn
cng t bn ngoi hay thc s sinh cng cho bn ngoi). Thc nghim chng t
rng bin thin nng lng W
2
W
1
ca h c gi tr bng cng A:

2 1
W W A = (4.9)
Ta c th pht biu: bin thin nng lng ca mt h trong qu trnh no
c gi tr bng cng m h nhn c t bn ngoi trong qu trnh .
Nu h thc s nhn cng t bn ngoi, A > 0 nng lng ca h tng, nu
thc s sinh cng cho bn ngoi, A < 0 nng lng ca h gim.
Trong trng hp mt h c lp (tc khng tng tc vi bn ngoi, khng
trao i nng lng vi bn ngoi) ta c A = 0, khi (4.9) cho ta:

2 1
W W const = = (4.10)
Nng lng ca mt h c lp c bo ton.
Cc pht biu (4.9) hay (4.10) chnh l ni dung ca nh lut bo ton nng
lng; nh vy c ngha l: Nng lng khng t mt i m cng khng t sinh ra,
nng lng ch chuyn t h ny sang h khc.
Cn phn bit hai khi nim cng v nng lng. Mt trng thi ca h tng
ng vi mt gi tr xc nh ca nng lng ca h; ta ni rng nng lng l mt
hm trng thi, cn cng c trng cho bin thin nng lng ca h trong mt
qu trnh no . Cng bao gi cng tng ng vi mt qu trnh c th. Ta ni
rng cng l hm qu trnh.
Mi hnh thc vn ng c th tng ng vi mt dng nng lng c th.
Chng hn nh: vn ng tng ng vi c nng; vn ng nhit tng ng vi ni

nng; vn ng in t tng ng vi nng lng in t. Tuy nng lng c
bo ton v s lng nhng do tng tc gia cc h, do s trao i nng lng
gia h ny v h khc, nn nng lng lun lun chuyn ho t dng ny sang
dng khc.
nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng l s phn nh v mt khoa hc
t nhin tnh khng th tiu dit c s vn ng ca vt cht. nghen gi nh
lut l quy lut c bn v i ca s vn ng.
T nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng chng ta c th rt ra mt kt
lun c tnh thc tin. Theo (4.9) ta thy rng mt h khi sinh cng thc s th nng
lng ca h gim i. V nng lng ca h l hu hn nn bn thn h khng th
t sinh cng mi mi c. Mun cho h tip tc sinh cng, nht thit phi cung
cp thm nng lng cho h b li phn nng lng b gim trong qu trnh
lm vic. Nh vy, theo nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng khng th c
mt h sinh cng mi mi v khng nhn thm nng lng t ngun bn ngoi.
Mt h sinh cng mi mi m khng cn nhn thm nng lng t bn ngoi
gi l mt ng c vnh cu. nh lut bo ton v chuyn ho nng lng khng
nh s khng tn ti ca ng c vnh cu.
4.2.2. ng nng
a. nh l v ng nng
ng nng l phn c nng tng ng vi
s chuyn ng ca cc vt. Mun xc nh
biu thc ca ng nng ta hy tnh cng ca
lc ngoi tc dng ln vt.
Xt mt cht im khi lng m, chu tc
dng ca mt lc F

, v chuyn ri t v tr 1 sang v tr 2 (hnh 4.4). Cng ca lc

F

trong chuyn ri t 1 sang 2 l:

(2)
(1)
A F ds =

M ta li c:
dv
F ma m
dt
= =

, thay vo biu thc ca A ta c:

( )
(2) (2) (2) (2)
2
(1) (1) (1) (1)
dv ds mv
A m ds m dv mv dv d
dt dt 2
= = = =

Trong v
1
v v
2
l vn tc ca cht im ti cc v tr 1 v 2, thc hin php
tch phn ta c:

Hnh 4.4

(1)
(2)
v

ds

55

2 2
2 1
mv mv
A
2 2
= (4.11)
Theo (4.9) cng A c tr s bng bin thin c nng ( y l ng nng).
Vy ta c nh ngha:
2
1
mv
2
=ng nng cht im ti v tr 1 = W
d1

2
2
mv
2
=ng nng cht im ti v tr 2 = W
d2

Tng qut, biu thc ng nng ca cht im c khi lng m, vn tc v cho
bi:

2
d
mv
W
2
= (4.12)
Biu thc (4.11) tr thnh:
d2 d1
W W A = (4.13)
nh l v ng nng: bin thin ng nng ca mt cht im trong mt
qung ng no c gi tr bng cng ca tng ngoi lc tc dng ln cht im
sinh ra trong qung ng .
Kt lun: khi ng nng ca mt vt gim th tng ngoi lc tc dng ln vt
sinh mt cng cn; nh th ngha l vt tc dng ln vt khc mt lc v lc
sinh cng dng.
b.ng nng trong trng hp vt rn quay
Phng trnh biu th nh l v ng nng trn ch p dng i vi mt cht
im hay mt vt rn chuyn ng tnh tin. Cn i vi mt vt rn quay quanh
trc , phng trnh biu th nh l v ng nng c mt dng khc.
Trong chuyn ng quay quanh mt trc, biu thc ca cng vi phn l:
dA Fds . dt = =
uur uur r
r
M
theo phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng quay

d
I
dt

=
uur
M
2
d
dA I dt I d d I
dt 2
| |
= = =
|
\
uur
r
uur
r r

Hay
2
dA d I
2
| |
=
|
\
r

Tch phn hai v ca biu thc trn trong mt khong thi gian hu hn, trong
vn tc gc bin thin t
1
n
2
, ta c cng ca cc ngoi lc tc dng
ln vt rn quay trong khong thi gian l:

2 2
2 1
I I
A
2 2
= (4.14)

Ta suy ra biu thc sau ca ng nng ca vt rn quay l:

2
d
I
W
2
= (4.15)
Ch : Trong trng hp tng qut vt rn va quay, va chuyn ng tnh
tin, ng nng ton phn ca vt rn bng tng ng nng quay v ng nng tnh
tin:

2 2
d
1 1
W mv I
2 2
= + (4.16)
Trng hp ring: vt rn i xng trn xoay, ln khng trt; khi vn tc
tnh tin lin h vi vn tc quay bi h thc v R = (vi R l bn knh tit din vt
rn im tip xc vi mt phng trn vt rn ln khng trt). Vy, ta c th
vit biu thc ng nng ton phn nh sau:

( )
2
d
2
1 I
W m v
2 R
= +
4.2.3. Trng lc th
Mt cht im c gi l chuyn
ng trong mt trng lc nu ti mi v tr
cc cht im u xut hin lc F

tc dng
ln cht im y.
Lc F

tc dng ln cht im ni
chung ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im: ni cch khc F

l mt hm ca cc to
ca cht im v cng c th l mt hm ca thi gian t. Trong bi ny, ta khng
xt trng hp F

l hm ca t. Vy ni chung ta c:
( ) ( ) F F r F x, y, z = =

(4.17)
Khi cht im chuyn ng t v tr M n v tr N bt k (hnh 4.5) th cng
ca lc F

bng:

MN
MN
A F ds =

Nu cng A
MN
ca lc F

khng ph thuc ng dch chuyn MN m ch ph

thuc vo v tr im u M v im cui N th ta ni rng: ( ) F r

l lc ca mt
trng lc th.
Ta c th d rng chng minh c trng trng u v trng tnh in
Coulomb l nhng trng lc th.
4.2.4. Th nng

Hnh 4.5

M
N
v

ds

m

57
a. nh ngha
Khi mt cht im dch chuyn t v tr M sang v tr N trong trng lc th
th cng A
MN
ca trng lc ch ph thuc vo hai v tr u v cui M, N. Tnh
cht ny ta c th nh ngha:
Th nng ca cht im trong trng lc th l mt hm W
t
ph thuc vo v
tr ca cht im sao cho
A
MN
= W
t
(M) W
t
(N) (4.18)
T nh ngha ta thy rng: nu ng thi cng W
t
(M) v W
t
(N) vi cng mt
hng s th h thc nh ngha trong (4.18) vn c nghim ng, ni cch khc:
th nng ca cht im ti mt v tr c nh ngha sai khc mt hng s cng.
V d 1: Trong trng trng u, biu thc cng trong trng lc ny l: A
MN

= mgz
1
mgz
2
, ta suy ra biu thc ca th nng cht im ti v tr c cao z l:
W
t
(z) = mgz + C (4.19)
V d 2: Trong in trng Culng, biu thc cng trong trng lc ny l:

0 0
MN
M N
q q q q
A k k
r r
=
Suy ra biu thc tnh th nng ca in tch q
0
ti v tr cch q mt on r l:

0
t
q q
W(r) k C
r
= + (4.20)
b. Tnh cht
- Th nng ti mt v tr c xc nh sai khc mt hng s cng nhng hiu
th nng gia hai v tr th hon ton xc nh.
- Gia trng lc v th nng c h thc sau:

MN t t
MN
A F ds W(M) W(N) = =

(4.21)
Nu cho cht im dch chuyn theo mt vng kn (M N) th h thc trn
y tr thnh
F ds 0 =

(4.22)
c. ngha ca th nng
Th nng l dng nng lng c trng cho tng tc.
V d 1: Dng th nng ca cht im trong trng trng ca qu t l nng
lng c trng cho tng tc gia qu t vi cht im; ta cng ni l th
nng tng tc gia qu t v cht im.

58
V d 2: Th nng ca in tch q
0
trong in trng Coulomb ca in tch q
l th nng tng tc gia q
0
v q.
4.2.5. nh lut bo ton c nng
Khi cht im khi lng m chuyn ng t v tr M n v tr N trong mt
trng lc th th cng ca trng lc cho bi:
A
MN
= W
t
(M) W
t
(N)
Nu cht im ch chu tc dng ca trng lc th th theo nh l v ng
nng, ta c:
A
MN
= W
d
(N) W
d
(M)
Vy: W
t
(M) W
t
(N) = W
d
(N) W
d
(M)
Hay W
d
(M) + W
t
(M) = W
d
(N) + W
t
(N) (4.23)
Vy tng: W
d
(M) + W
t
(M) = const (4.24)
Tng ny c gi tr khng i, khng ph thuc vo v tr ca cht im.
Tng ng nng v th nng ca cht im c gi l c nng ca cht
im. Khi cht im chuyn ng trong mt trng lc th (khng chu tc dng
ca mt lc no khc) th c nng ca cht im l mt i lng bo ton. y
chnh l nh lut bo ton c nng trong trng lc th.
V d: Khi cht im khi lng m chuyn ng trong trng trng u th:

2
mv
W mgh const
2
= + = (4.25)
H qu: V W = W
d
+ W
t
= const nn trong qu trnh chuyn ng ca cht
im trong trng lc th, nu ng nng W
d
tng th th nng W
t
gim v ngc
li; ch no W
d
t gi tr cc i th W
t
cc tiu v ngc li.
Ch : Khi cht im chuyn ng trong trng lc th cn chu tc dng ca
mt lc F

khc (v d lc ma st) th ni chung c nng ca cht im khng bo

ton: bin thin ca c nng cht im s bng cng ca lc F

.
4.3. Bi ton va chm
Ta hy kho st bi ton va chm ca hai qu cu nh chuyn ng trn ng
thng ni lin hai tm ca chng (va chm xuyn tm).
Gi thit hai qu cu c khi lng ln lt l m
1
v m
2
. Trc va chm chng
c vect vn tc l
1
v

v
2
v

(cng phng); sau va chm, chng c vect vn tc

l
'
1
v

v
'
2
v

.
Trc ht ta hy vit phng trnh biu din s bo ton ng lng ca h
trc v sau va chm:


' '
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
mv m v mv m v + = + (4.26)
(ta ch vit phng trnh i vi tr i s ca cc vect vn tc v chng cng
phng).
tm c vn tc
'
1
v

v
'
2
v

ta phi tm thm mt phng trnh na, mun

vy ta phi xc nh iu kin va chm. Ta xt hai trng hp:
4.3.1. Va chm n hi
ng nng ca h (m
1
+ m
2
) trc v sau va chm bo ton. Khi ta c:

(4.27)
T (4.26) v (4.27) ta rt ra:

( )
1 2 1 2 2 '
1
1 2
m m v 2m v
v
m m
+
=
+
(4.28)

( )
2 1 2 1 1 '
2
1 2
m m v 2m v
v
m m
+
=
+
(4.29)
Theo kt qu (4.28) ta thy rng:
trong trng hp c bit
1 2
m m = th
'
1 2
v v = v
'
2 1
v v = ; ta ni rng hai qu
cu trao i vn tc vi nhau.
Nu ban u qu cu 2 ng yn (
2
v 0 = ), ta s c:

' 1 2
1 1
1 2
m m
v v
m m

=
+


' 1
2 1
1 2
2m
v v
m m
=
+
(4.30)
Trong trng hp
1 2
m m = th
'
1
v 0 = v
'
2 1
v v = , nh ni trn chng trao
i vn tc vi nhau, qu cu 1 s ng yn, qu cu 2 s chuyn ng vi vn tc
bng vn tc ca qu cu 1 trc va chm.
Trong trng hp
1 2
m m , theo (4.30) ta c:

'
1 1
v v

2
v 0
ngha l qu cu 2 vn ng yn, qu cu 1 bn ngc tr li vi vn tc bng vn
tc tc thi (v gi tr) ca n trc va chm.
4.3.2. Va chm mm

Hnh 4.6. Va chm ca 2 qu cu.

m
1
m
2

1
v

2
v

60
Sau va chm hai qu cu dnh vo nhau chuyn ng cng vn tc. Khi ta
c:

' '
1 2
v v v = =
Vy (4.26) tr thnh:
( )
1 2 1 1 2 2
m m v m v m v + = +
T y ta suy ra:

1 1 2 2
1 2
m v m v
v
m m
+
=
+
(4.31)
Trong va chm mm, ni chung ng nng khng c bo ton m b gim
i. gim ng nng ca h c tr s bng:
( )
2 2 2
d 1 1 2 2 1 2
1 1 1
W m v m v m m v
2 2 2
= + +
( )
2
1 2
d 1 2
1 2
m m
1
W v v
2 m m
=
+
(4.32)
gim ng nng ny c gi tr bng cng lm bin dng hai qu cu.





















CHNG 5. TRNG HP DN
Nhiu hin tng trong t nhin chng t rng cc vt c khi lng lun lun
tc dng ln nhau nhng lc ht. Trng lc l lc ht ca qu t i vi cc vt
xung quanh n. Qu t quay xung quanh mt tri l do lc ht ca mt tri; Mt
trng quay xung quanh qu t l do lc ht ca qu t. Gia cc v sao trong v
tr cng c lc ht ln nhau v.v Cc lc ht gi l lc hp dn v tr. Gia
nhng vt xung quanh ta cng c lc hp dn v tr nhng gi tr ca nhng lc
ny qu nh nn ta khng th quan st c. Nh bc hc Newton l ngi u tin
nu ln nh lut c bn v lc hp dn v tr.
5.1. nh lut vn vt hp dn
5.1.1. nh lut vn vt hp dn nh lut Newton
Pht biu: Hai cht im khi lng m v
m t cch nhau mt khong r s ht nhau bng
nhng lc c phng l ng thng ni hai cht
im , c cng t l thun vi hai khi
lng m v m v t l nghch vi bnh phng
khong cch r:

'
'
2
mm
F F G
r
= = (5.1)
Trong cng thc trn, G l mt h s t l, ph thuc vo vic chn cc n v
v gi l hng s hp dn v tr.
Trong h n v SI, thc nghim cho ta tr s ca G l:

11 2 2 9 2 2
1
G 6, 67.10 Nm / kg 10 Nm / kg
15

= (5.2)
V d: Cho m = m = 1kg; r = 0,1m, ta tnh c:

' 11 9
2
1,1
F F 6, 67.10 6, 67.10 N
0,1

= = =
Tr s ny nh qu khng pht hin c.
Ch :
+ Cng thc (5.1) ch p dng cho trng hp nhng cht im. Mun tnh lc
hp dn v tr gia cc vt c kch thc ln, ta phi dng phng php tch phn.

Hnh 5.1

m
m
r
F
r

'
F
r


62
+ Ngi ta chng minh rng v l do i xng cng thc (5.1) cng p
dng c cho trng hp hai qu cu ng cht, khi r l khong cch gia hai
tm ca qu cu .
5.1.2. Mt vi ng dng
a. S thay i ca gia tc trng trng theo cao
Lc ht ca qu t i vi mt cht im khi lng m (lc trng trng)
chnh l lc hp dn v tr.
Nu m ngay trn mt t th theo (5.1), lc hp dn do qu t tc dng ln
m bng:

0 2
Mm
P G
R
= (R l bn knh tri t) (5.3)
trong M l khi lng ca qu t. Nhng lc trng trng P
0
cng bng:

0 0
P mg = (5.4)
vi g
0
l gi tr ca gia tc trng trng ngay trn mt t. So snh (5.3) v (5.4) ta
c:

0 2
M
g G
R
= (5.4a)
Ti mt im cch mt t cao h (hnh 5.2), lc trng trng tc dng ln
cht im khi lng m tnh bi:

( )
2
Mm
P G mg
R h
= =
+
(5.5)
Suy ra gi tr ca gia tc trng trng cao h l:

( )
2
M
g G
R h
=
+
(5.6)
T (5.4a) v (5.6), ta c:

2
0
R
g g
R h
| |
=
|
+
\

Nhng
2 2
2
R 1 h
1
R h R
h
1
R

| | | |
= = +
| |
+
\ \
| |
+
|
\

Ta ch xt cc cao h<<R, do
h
1
R
<< , v ta c th vit gn ng:

2
h h
1 1 2
R R

| |
+
|
\


63
V biu thc (5.6) tr thnh:
0
h
g g 1 2
R
| |
=
|
\
(5.7)
(5.7) l s ph thuc ca gia tc trng trng theo cao h. Theo (5.7) th
cng ln cao, g cng gim.
b. Tnh khi lng ca cc thin th
T biu thc (5.3), ta c th tnh khi lng M ca tri t:

2
g.R
M
G
=
Vi R l bn knh tri t, c gi tr trung bnh l 6370km = 6,370.10
6
m; g l
gia tc trng trng trn mt t, ly gi tr trung bnh bng 9,8m/s
2
. Vy:

6 2
24
11
9, 8.(6, 371.10 )
M 6.10 kg
6, 67.10

=
Nh cng thc v lc hp dn v tr, ta cng c th tnh c khi lng mt
tri. Tri t quay xung quanh mt tri l do lc hp dn ca mt tri i vi tri
t, lc ny ng vai tr lc hng tm:

(5.8)
trong M l khi lng Mt tri, R l khong cch t qu t n mt tri; nu
qu o ca qu t quay xung quanh Mt tri coi nh qu o trn (R coi nh
khng i v ly bng khong cch trung bnh t qu t n Mt tri) th lc
hng tm F
r
cho bi cng thc:

2
v
F M
R'
= (5.9)
v l vn tc chuyn ng ca qu t trn qu o. Vn tc v ca qu t c lin h
vi chu k quay T ca n:

2 R'
v
T

= (5.10)
Thay (5.10) vo (5.9) ri so snh vi (5.8) ta c:

( )
2
' 2 2
2 R' MM'
G M
R R' T

=
T suy ra khi lng Mt tri

2 '3
2
4 R
M'
T G

=
Tnh c th bng s ta tm c
30
M' 2.10 kg
5.2. Tnh cht th ca trng hp dn

gii thch lc hp dn, ngi ta cho rng xung quanh mt vt c khi
lng, tn ti mt trng hp dn. Biu hin c th ca trng hp dn l: bt k
mt vt no c khi lng t ti mt v tr trong khng gian ca trng hp dn
u chu tc dng ca lc hp dn.
5.2.1. Bo ton mmen ng lng trong trng hp dn
Ta kho st chuyn ng ca mt cht im khi lng m trong trng hp
dn ca mt cht im khi lng M t c nh ti mt im O. Chn O lm gc
ta , nh l v mmen ng lng p dng i vi cht im m cho ta:

d
(L) (O, F)
dt
=
r r r
M
Nhng lc F
r
l lc lun hng tm O nn
(O, F) 0 =
r r
M v
d
(L) 0
dt
=
r
hay L const =
uuuuur r
.
Vy, khi mt cht (m) chuyn ng trong trng
hp dn ca mt cht im (M) th mmen ng lng
ca (m) l mt i lng bo ton.
H qu: (m) chuyn ng trn mt qu o phng,
mt phng qu o ca (m) vect L
r
(c phng
khng i).
5.2.2. Tnh cht th ca trng hp dn
Ta hy tnh cng ca lc hp dn F
r
tc dng
ln cht im (m) chuyn ng trong trng hp
dn ca cht im (M), khi (m) chuyn di t mt
im A n mt im B trn qu o ca n.
Cng ca lc F
r
trong chuyn di vi phn
ds PQ =
uuur
r
l:
dA F.PQ F.PQcos = =
uuur r

Nu ta v QH OP th theo hnh v ta c: PQcos =-PH ( PH l di i s
vi quy c chiu dng l chiu O P ).
Vy, dA F.PH =
Nhng v PQ
uuur
l mt chuyn di vi phn nn nu ta t OP r = th
OH OQ r dr = + v PH OH OP r dr r dr = = + = .
L
r

M
O
(C)
r
r

F
r

K mv =
r
r


A
B O
P
H
Q
ds
r
F
r

r
r+dr

65
Vy,
2
Mm
dA Fdr G dr
r
= =
Cng ca lc F
r
trong chuyn di ca (m) t A n B cho bi tch phn:

B B
A A
r r
AB 2
r r
AB
B A
Mm
A Fdr G dr
r
Mm Mm
A G G
r r
= =
=


Hay
AB
B A
Mm Mm
A G G
r r
| | | |
=
| |
\ \
(5.12)
Cng ca lc hp dn F
r
khng ph thuc ng dch chuyn AB m ch
thuc v tr im u A v im cui B.
Vy, trng hp dn ca cht im (M) l mt trng lc th.
Tng qut, ngi ta chng minh c rng: trng hp dn Newton l mt
trng th.
H qu: Ta c th nh ngha th nng ca cht im (m) trong trng hp dn
ca cht im (M). Th nng ca (m) ti v tr A:
( )
t
A
Mm
W A G C
r
= +
Ti v tr B: ( )
t
B
Mm
W B G C
r
= +
Tha mn h thc ( ) ( )
BA t t
A W A W B =
Tng qut: th nng ca (m) ti v tr cch O mt khong r:
( )
t
Mm
W r G C
r
= + (5.13)
C l mt hng s ty chn, c gi tr bng th nng ti v cng:
( )
t
W C = (5.14)
5.2.3. Bo ton c nng trong trng hp dn
V trng hp dn l mt trng th nn khi cht im (m) chuyn ng trong
trng hp dn, c nng ca n c bo ton

2
d t
mv Mm
W=W W G const
2 r
| |
+ = + =
|
\
(5.15)
(chn C = 0)
H qu: khi r tng, th nng tng th ng nng gim v ngc li.

66
5.3. Chuyn ng trong trng hp dn ca qu t
Nu t mt im A no trong trng hp dn ca qu t, ta bn i mt
vin n khi lng m vi vn tc u l v
0
th l thuyt v thc nghim chng t
rng ty theo tr s ca v
0
c th xy ra mt trong nhng trng hp sau:
- Vin n ri tr v mt t;
- Vin n bay vng quanh qu t theo mt qu o kn (trn hay elip);
- Vin n bay ngy cng xa qu t.
Tr s vn tc ban u v
0
cn thit bn vin n bay vng quanh qu t
theo mt qu o trn gi l vn tc v tr cp I.
Tr s ti thiu ca vn tc ban u v
0
cn thit bn vin n bay ngy cng
xa qu t gi l vn tc v tr cp II.
5.3.1. Vn tc v tr cp I
Ta tnh vn tc v tr cp I khi vin n
chuyn ng trn xung quanh qu t. Gi
thit vin n bay cch mt t khng xa lm
ta c th coi bn knh qu o ca n
bng bn knh R ca qu t. Vn tc v
I
ca
vin n trong chuyn ng trn c lin h
vi gia tc hng tm (gia tc trng trng)
bi:

2
0 0
v
a g
R
= =
T suy ra:

I 0
v g R = (5.16)
Tnh c th bng s ta c:
I
v 7, 9km/ s 8km/ s =
Nu bn vi vn tc ban u
0
v 8km/ s < , vin n s ri tr v qu t, nu
bn vi vn tc ban u
0 II
8km/ s v v < < th vin n chuyn ng xung quanh qu
t theo qu o hnh elip.
5.3.2. Vn tc v tr cp II
Gi s vin n xut pht t A cch tm ca qu t mt khong bng bn
knh qu t R, vi vn tc ban u v
0
v bay ngy cng xa qu t n . nh lut
bo ton c nng p dng i vi vin n cho ta:
0
v
r
M
v
0
<v
I
v
0
v
II
v
I
<v
0
<v
II
v
0
= v
I

67

2 2
0
2 2
0
mv mv Mm GMm
G
2 R 2
mv mv Mm
G 0
2 R 2

| | | |
+ = +
| |

\ \
| |
+ = +
|
\

V
2
mv
0
2

Nn
2
0
mv Mm
G
2 R

Hay
0
GM.2
v
R

Nhng ta li c:
0 2
GM
g
R
=
Vy,
0 0
v 2g R
Gi tr ti thiu ca v
0
chnh l vn tc v tr cp II:

II 0
v 2g R = (5.17)
Gi tr c th l:
II
v 11, 2km/ s =

















CHNG 6. THUYT TNG I HP EINSTEIN
6.1. Khng gian v thi gian theo c hc c in. Nguyn l Galille
6.1.1. Khng gian v thi gian theo c hc c in
C hc c in xy dng trn c s nhng quan im ca Newton v khng
gian, thi gian v chuyn ng.
c th, chng ta hy xt hai h
ta : mt h Oxyz ng yn, mt h
Oxyz chuyn ng so vi O; n
gin ta gi thit chuyn ng ca h O
thc hin sao cho Ox lun lun trt
dc theo Ox; Oy song song v cng
chiu vi Oy, Oz song song v cng
chiu vi Oz (hnh 6.1). Vi mi h ta
gn thm mt ng h ch thi
gian. Ta hy xt mt im M bt k: ti thi im t ch bi ng h ca h O, M c
ta trong h O l x, y, z; cc ta thi gian v khng gian tng ng ca M
trong h O l t, x, y, z. Theo cc quan im ca Newton:
- Thi gian ch bi cc ng h trong hai h O v O l nh nhau: t = t (6.1)
Ni cch khc: thi gian c tnh tuyt i khng ph thuc h quy chiu.
- V tr ca M trong khng gian c xc nh ty theo h quy chiu: c th
l cc ta khng gian ca M ph thuc h quy chiu; ta c:
x x' OO' = + , y = y, z = z (6.2)
Nh vy: v tr khng gian c tnh cht tng i ph thuc h quy chiu. Do
: chuyn ng c tnh tng i, ph thuc h quy chiu.
- Khong cch gia hai im bt k trong khng gian l mt i lng
khng ph thuc h quy chiu. Gi thit c mt ci thc AB t dc theo
trc Ox, gn lin vi h O. Chiu di ca thc o trong h O cho bi:

' '
0 B A
l x x =
Chiu di ca thc o trong h O cho bi:

B A
l x x =
Nhng theo (6.2), ta c:

'
A A
'
B B
x OO' x
x OO' x
= +
= +

Hnh 6.1. Bin i Galille.

0
0
x
x
y y
z
z
A B
M

69
Do :
' '
B A B A
x x x x = hay
0
l l =
Ni cch khc: khong khng gian c tnh tuyt i, khng ph thuc h quy
chiu.
Xt trng hp ring: chuyn ng ca h O l chuyn ng thng u. Nu
ti t = 0, O trng vi O, th:
OO' vt =
v l vn tc chuyn ng ca h O. Theo (6.1) v (6.2) ta c:
x x' vt ' = + , y = y, z = z, t = t (6.3)
V ngc li
x' x vt ' = , y = y, z = z, t = t (6.4)
Cc cng thc (6.3) v (6.4) gi l cc php bin i Galille: chng cho ta
cch chuyn cc ta trong khng gian, thi gian t h quy chiu O sang h quy
chiu O v ngc li.
6.1.2. Tng hp vn tc v gia tc
V chuyn ng c tnh cht tng i, nn vn tc v gia tc chuyn ng
ca mt cht im ph thuc h quy chiu. Chng ta hy tm nhng cng thc lin
h vn tc, gia tc ca mt cht im M i vi hai h ta Oxyz v Oxyz
khc nhau. Gi thit h Oxyz chuyn ng tnh tin i vi h Oxyz sao cho ta
lun lun c
O' x' Ox ; O' y' Oy ; O' z' Oz
t OM r =
uuuur
r
; O' M' r ' =
uuuuuur
r
, theo hnh (6.1) ta c:
OM OO' O' M' = +
uuuur uuuur uuuuuur

Hay r r ' OO' = +
uuuur
r r
(6.5)
o hm hai v ca (6.5) theo thi gian t, ta c:

( )
d OO'
dr dr '
dt dt dt
= +
uuuur
r r
(6.6)
M:
dr
v
dt
= =
r
r
vect vn tc ca M i vi h O;

dr ' dr '
v'
dt dt '
= = =
r r
r
vect vn tc ca M i vi h O;

( )
d OO'
V
dt
= =
uuuur
r
vect vn tc tnh tin ca h O i vi h O.
Nh vy, biu thc (6.6) tr thnh:

70
v v' V = +
r
r r
(6.7)
Vect vn tc ca mt cht im i vi mt h quy chiu O bng tng hp
vect vn tc ca cht im i vi h quy chiu O chuyn ng tnh tin i
vi h quy chiu O v vect vn tc tnh tin ca h quy chiu O i vi h quy
chiu O.
Ly o hm hai v ca biu thc (6.7) theo thi gian t ta c:

dv dv' dV
dt dt dt
= +
r
r r

Hay a a ' A = +
r
r r
(6.8)
Trong : a
r
l gia tc ca M i vi h O;
a '
r
l gia tc ca M i vi h O;
A
r
l gia tc tnh tin ca h O i vi h O.
Vy: Vect gia tc ca mt cht im i vi mt h quy chiu O bng tng
hp vect gia tc ca cht im i vi h quy chiu O chuyn ng tnh tin
i vi h quy chiu O v vect gia tc tnh tin ca h quy chiu O i vi h quy
chiu O.
Hai cng thc (6.7) v (6.8) gi l cng thc tng hp vn tc v gia tc.
6.1.3. Nguyn l tng i Galille
Trong mc ny chng ta hy xt chuyn ng ca mt h cht im trong hai
h quy chiu khc nhau: h Oxyz quy c l ng yn, h Oxyz chuyn ng
tnh tin i vi h Oxyz. Ta gi thit rng h O l mt h qun tnh, trong cc
nh lut Newton c nghim ng. Nh vy, phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht
im trong h O cho bi nh lut Newton l:
ma F =
r
r
(6.9)
a
r
l gia tc chuyn ng ca cht im i vi h O, F
r
l tng hp lc tc
dng ln cht im.
Gi a '
r
l gia tc chuyn ng ca cht im i vi h O, theo (6.8) ta c:
a a ' A = +
r
r r

Trong A
r
l gia tc chuyn ng ca h O i vi h O.
Nu h O chuyn ng thng u i vi h O th A 0 =
r
v
a a ' =
r r
(6.10)
Vy, (6.9) c th vit thnh:
ma ' F =
r
r
(6.11)

71
l phng trnh chuyn ng ca cht im trong h O, phng trnh ny
cng mt dng nh (6.9). Ni cch khc nh lut Newton cng tha mn trong h
O, kt qu h O cng l mt h quy chiu qun tnh. Ta c th pht biu nh sau:
Mi h quy chiu chuyn ng thng u i vi mt h quy chiu qun tnh
cng l mt h quy chiu qun tnh; hay l: Cc nh lut Newton c nghim
ng trong h quy chiu chuyn ng thng u i vi h quy chiu qun tnh.
iu c ngha l:
Cc phng trnh ng lc hc trong cc h quy chiu qun tnh c dng
ging nhau.
l nhng cch pht biu khc nhau ca nguyn l tng i Galille. V cc
phng trnh ng lc hc l c s m t v kho st cc hin tng c hc nn
ta cng c th pht biu:
Cc hin tng, cc qu trnh c hc trong cc h quy chiu quan tnh khc
nhau u xy ra ging nhau.
Do nu c ngi quan st v th nghim cc hin tng, cc qu trnh c
hc trong mt h quy chiu qun tnh no th ngi s khng th pht hin
c h quy chiu ng yn hay chuyn ng thng u, v trong c hai trng
hp nhng kt qu thu c nh nhau.
- Nguyn l Galille v php bin i Galille:
Chng ta bit rng php bin i Galille (6.3) v (6.4) thc hin s chuyn cc
ta khng gian thi gian t h quy chiu O sang h quy chiu O chuyn ng
thng u i vi O. By gi chng ta hy xt s lin h gia php bin i Galille
v nguyn l tng i Galille.
Theo nguyn l Galille, nh lut Newton trong h O c biu din bng
phng trnh:
ma ' F =
r
r

Hay, nu chiu ln ba trc Ox, Oy, Oz ta c:

' ' '
x x y y z z
ma F ; ma F ; ma F = = =
Hay, theo cc h thc trong chng ng hc:

2 2 2
x y z 2 2 2
d x ' d y' d z '
m F ; m F ; m F
dt ' dt ' dt '
= = =
Nhng phng trnh ny c cng dng nh nhng phng trnh biu din nh
lut Newton trong h quy chiu qun tnh O:
ma F =
r
r


72
nhng ta nhn thy h cc phng trnh (6.9) c th suy ra (6.11) qua php bin i
Galille (6.3) v (6.4).
Vy phng trnh biu din nh lut Newton gi nguyn dng qua php bin
i Galille. Ni cch khc: cc phng trnh c bn bt bin i vi php bin i
Galille.
Pht biu ny tng ng vi nguyn l Galille. Qu vy, nu h O l h
qun tnh th h O chuyn ng thng u i vi h O, cng l h qun tnh. Nh
vy, php bin i Galille thc hin s chuyn cc ta khng gian thi gian t h
qun tnh ny sang h qun tnh khc. Kt qu qua php bin i Galille, cc
phng trnh biu din nh lut Newton gi nguyn dng khi chuyn t h qun
tnh ny sang h qun tnh khc. chnh l ni dung ca nguyn l tng i
Galille.
6.1.4. Lc qun tnh
By gi ta hy xt cc nh lut ng lc hc trong mt h quy chiu O
1
tnh
tin c gia tc A
r
i vi h quy chiu qun tnh O. Gi
1
a
r
l gia tc chuyn ng
ca cht im i vi h O
1
th:

1
a a A = +
r
r r

nhn hai v vi m:

1
ma ma mA = +
r
r r

V O l h qun tnh nn trong nh lut Newton nghim ng
ma F =
r
r

Do :
1
F ma mA = +
r r
r

Hay
( ) 1
ma F mA = +
r r
r
(6.12)
Ta thy phng trnh ny khng cng dng nh (6.9), ni cch khc: khi kho
st chuyn ng cht im trong mt h O
1
tnh tin c gia tc i vi h qun tnh
O, ngoi cc lc tc dng ln cht im phi k thm lc:
qt
F mA =
r r
.
Lc
qt
F mA =
r r
gi l lc qun tnh. H quy chiu O
1
gi l h khng qun
tnh. Phng trnh ng lc ca cht im trong h O
1
c vit l:

1 qt
ma F F = +
r r
r
(6.13)
Nh vy, lc qun tnh l mt lc o ch quan st c trong h quy chiu
khng qun tnh. Lc qun tnh lun lun cng phng v ngc chiu vi gia tc
chuyn ng ca h quy chiu khng qun tnh.

73
Nh khi nim lc qun tnh ta c th gii thch nhiu hin tng trong thc
t, chng hn nh gii thch hin tng tng trng lng trong con tu v tr lc
xut pht.
6.2. Nhng tin ca thuyt tng i hp Einstein
xy dng nn thuyt tng i ca mnh, nm 1905 Einstein a ra hai
nguyn l sau:
6.2.1. Nguyn l tng i
Mi nh lut Vt l u nh nhau trong cc h quy chiu qun tnh.
6.2.2. Nguyn l v s bt bin ca vn tc nh sng
Vn tc nh sng trong chn khng u bng nhau i vi mi h qun tnh.
N c gi tr bng c = 3.10
8
m/s v l gi tr vn tc cc i trong t nhin.
y cn phn bit vi nguyn l tng i Galille trong c hc c in.
Theo nguyn l ny ch cc nh lut c hc l bt bin khi chuyn t mt h qun
tnh ny sang mt h qun tnh khc. iu c ngha l phng trnh m t mt
nh lut c hc no , biu din qua ta v thi gian, s gi nguyn dng trong
tt c cc h qun tnh. Nh vy, nguyn l tng i Einstein m rng nguyn
l Galille t cc hin tng c hc sang cc hin tng Vt l ni chung.
Trong c hc c in Newton, tng tc c m t da vo th nng tng
tc. l mt hm ca cc ta nhng ht tng tc. T suy ra cc lc tng
tc gia mt cht im no vi cc cht im cn li, ti mi thi im, ch ph
thuc vo v tr ca cc cht im ti cng thi im . S tng tc s nh hng
ngay tc thi n cc cht im khc ti cng thi im. Nh vy, tng tc c
truyn i tc thi. Nu chia khong cch gia hai cht im cho thi gian truyn
tng tc t (t = 0, v l truyn tc thi) ta s thu c vn tc truyn tng tc.
T suy ra rng trong c hc c in vn tc truyn tng tc ln v hn.
Tuy nhin, thc nghim chng t, trong t nhin khng tn ti nhng tng
tc tc thi. Nu ti mt cht im no ca h cht im c xy ra mt s thay
i no , th s thay i ny ch nh hng ti mt cht im khc ca h sau mt
khong thi gian t no (t > 0) . Nh vy, vn tc truyn tng tc c gi tr
hu hn. Theo thuyt tng i ca Einstein vn tc truyn tng tc l nh nhau
trong tt c cc h qun tnh. N l mt hng s ph bin. Thc nghim chng t
vn tc khng i ny l cc i v bng vn tc truyn nh sng trong chn khng
(c = 3.10
8
m/s). Trong thc t hng ngy chng ta thng gp cc vn tc rt nh so
vi vn tc nh sng (v << c) do trong c hc c in ta c th coi vn tc truyn
tng tc l v hn m vn thu c nhng kt qu chnh xc. Nh vy, v mt

74
hnh thc c th chuyn t thuyt tng i Einstein sang c hc c in bng cch
cho c trong cc cng thc ca c hc tng i tnh.
6.3. Php bin i Lorentz
6.3.1. S mu thun ca php bin i Galille vi thuyt tng i Einstein
Theo cc php bin i Galille, thi gian din bin ca mt qu trnh Vt l
trong cc h quy chiu qun tnh K v K u nh nhau.
t = t
Khong cch gia hai im 1 v 2 no trong cc h K v K u bng nhau

' '
2 1 2 1
l x x l ' x x = = =
(cc i lng c du phy u c xt trong h K).
Vn tc tuyt i v ca cht im bng tng vect cc vn tc tng i v v
vn tc theo V ca h qun tnh K i vi K
v = v + V
Tt c cc kt qu u ng i vi cc chuyn ng chm (v<<c). Nhng
r rng l chng mu thun vi cc tin ca thuyt tng i Einstein. Thc vy,
theo thuyt tng i, thi gian khng c tnh cht tuyt i, khong thi gian din
bin ca mt qu trnh Vt l ph thuc vo cc h quy chiu. c bit cc hin
tng xy ra ng thi trong h qun tnh ny s khng xy ra ng thi trong
h quy chiu qun tnh khc.
6.3.2. Php bin i Lorentz
Qua trn ta nhn thy, php bin i Galille khng tha mn cc yu cu ca
thuyt tng i Einstein. Lorentz tm ra php bin i cc ta khng gian v
thi gian khi chuyn t h quy chiu qun tnh ny sang h quy chiu qun tnh
khc tha mn cc yu cu ca thuyt tng i, v c gi l php bin i
Lorentz.
Xt hai h quy chiu qun tnh K v K nh trn. Gi s lc u hai gc O v
O ca hai h trng nhau, h K chuyn ng so vi h K vi vn tc V theo
phng x. Gi xyzt v xyzt l cc ta khng gian v thi gian ln lt xt
trong cc h K v K. V theo thuyt tng i thi gian khng c tnh cht tuyt
i m tri li ph thuc vo h quy chiu nn thi gian tri i trong hai h s khc
nhau, ngha l :
t t
Gi s ta x lin h vi x v t theo phng trnh :
x = f (x,t) (6.14)

75
tm dng ca phng trnh f (x,t) chng ta vit phng trnh chuyn ng
ca cc gc ta O v O trong hai h K v K. i vi h K, gc O chuyn
ng vi vn tc V. Ta c :
x Vt = 0 (6.15)
trong x l ta ca gc O xt vi h K. Cn i vi h K gc O l ng yn.
Ta x ca n trong h K bao gi cng bng khng. Ta c :
x = 0
Mun cho phng trnh (6.14) p dng ng cho h K, ngha l khi thay x =
0 vo (6.14) ta phi thu c (6.15), th f (x,t) ch c th khc (x - Vt) mt s nhn
no
x = (x - Vt) (6.16)
i vi h K gc O chuyn ng vi vn tc V. Nhng i vi h K gc O
l ng yn. Lp lun tng t nh trn ta c:
x = (x + Vt) (6.17)
trong l h s nhn.
Theo tin th nht ca Einstein mi h qun tnh u tng ng nhau,
ngha l t (6.16) c th suy ra (6.17) v ngc li bng cch thay th V-V, x
x, t t. Ta rt ra c: = .
Theo tin th hai, ta c trong h K v K: nu x = ct th x = ct, thay cc
biu thc ny vo trong (7.16) v (7.17) ta thu c :

2
2
1
v
1
c
=

(6.18)
Nh vy, ta c :

2
2
x Vt
x '
V
1
c

,
2
2
x ' Vt '
x
V
1
c
+
=

V
2
2
2
V
t x
c
t '
V
1
c

2
2
2
V
t ' x '
c
t
V
1
c
+
=

V h K chuyn ng dc theo trc x nn r rng l y = y v z = z. Tm li,
ta thu c cng thc bin i Lorentz nh sau:

76

2
2
x Vt
x '
V
1
c

; y = y ; z = z ;
2
2
2
V
t x
c
t '
V
1
c

(6.19)
Cho php bin i ta v thi gian t h K sang h K v

2
2
x ' Vt '
x
V
1
c
+
=

; y = y ; z = z ;
2
2
2
V
t ' x '
c
t
V
1
c
+
=

(6.20)
Cho php bin i ta v thi gian t h K sang h K. Cc cng thc
(6.19), (6.20) c gi l php bin i Lorentz. Qua ta thy c mi lin h
mt thit gia khng gian v thi gian.
T cc kt qu trn ta nhn thy rng khi c hay khi
V
0
c
th cc cng
thc (6.19) v (6.20) s chuyn thnh:
x = x Vt ; y = y ; z = z ; t = t ;
x = x + Vt ; y = y ; z = z ; t = t
ngha l chuyn thnh cc cng thc ca php bin i Galille. iu kin
c tng ng vi quan nim tng tc tc thi, iu kin th hai
V
0
c
tng
ng vi s gn ng c in.
Khi V > c, trong cc cng thc trn cc ta x, t tr nn o, iu chng t
khng th c cc chuyn ng vi vn tc ln hn vn tc nh sng c. Cng khng
th dng h quy chiu chuyn ng vi vn tc bng vn tc nh sng, v khi
mu s trong cc cng thc (6.19), (6.20) s bng khng.
6.4. Cc h qu ca php bin i Lorentz
6.4.1. Khi nim v tnh ng thi v quan h nhn qu
Gi s rng trong h qun tnh K c hai hin tng (hoc cn gi l bin
c) ; hin tng A
1
(x
1
y
1
z
1
t
1
) v hin tng A
2
(x
2
y
2
z
2
t
2
) vi
2 1
x x . Chng ta hy
tm khong thi gian t
2
t
1
gia hai hin tng trong h K, chuyn ng vi
vn tc V dc theo trc x. T cc cng thc bin i Lorentz ta thu c :

( )
2 1 2 1 2
' '
2 1
2
2
V
t t x x
c
t t
V
1
c

=

(6.21)

77
T suy ra rng cc hin tng xy ra ng thi trong h K (t
2
= t
1
) s
khng ng thi h K v
' '
2 1
t t 0 ch c mt trng hp ngoi l l khi c hai
bin c xy ra ng thi ti nhng im c cng gi tr ca x (ta y c th khc
nhau).
Nh vy, khi nim ng thi ch l mt khi nim tng i, hai bin c c
th ng thi trong mt h quy chiu ny ni chung c th khng ng thi
trong mt h quy chiu khc.
Biu thc (6.21) cng chng t rng i vi cc bin c ng thi trong h K,
du ca
' '
2 1
t t c xc nh bi du ca biu thc ( )
2 1
x x V . Do , trong cc h
qun tnh khc nhau (vi cc gi tr khc nhau ca V), hiu
' '
2 1
t t s khng nhng
khc nhau v ln m cn khc nhau v du. iu c ngha l th t ca cc
bin c A
1
v A
2
c th bt k (A
1
c th xy ra trc A
2
hoc ngc li).
Tuy nhng iu va trnh by trn khng c xt cho cc bin c c lin h
nhn qu vi nhau. Lin h nhn qu l mt lin h gia nguyn nhn v kt qu.
Nguyn nhn bao gi cng xy ra trc kt qu, quyt nh s ra i ca kt qu.
Th t ca cc bin c cso quan h nhn qu bao gi cng c bo m trong mi
h qun tnh. Nguyn nhn xy ra trc, kt qu xy ra sau.
6.4.2. S co ngn Lorentz
By gi da vo cc cng thc (6.19) hoc (6.20) chng ta so snh di ca
mt vt v khong thi gian ca mt qu trnh trong hai h K v K.
Gi s c mt thanh ng yn trong h K t dc theo trc x, di ca n
trong h K bng

' '
0 2 1
l x x =
Gi l l di ca n o trong h K. Mun vy, ta phi xc nh v tr cc u
ca thanh trong h K ti cng thi im. T php bin i Lorentz ta vit c:

2 2 1 1 2 2
' '
2 1
2 2
2 2
V V
x t x t
c c
x ; x
V V
1 1
c c

= =


Tr hai biu thc trn v vi v v t
2
= t
1
ta c:

' ' 2 1
2 1
2
2
x x
x x
V
1
c

Suy ra:
2
0 2
V
l l 1
c
= (6.22)

78
Vy: di (dc theo phng chuyn ng) ca thanh trong h quy chiu m
thanh chuyn ng ngn hn di ca thanh trong h m thanh ng yn.
Ni mt cch khc, khi vt chuyn ng, kch thc ca n b co ngn theo
phng chuyn ng.
Nh vy, kch thc ca mt vt s khc nhau ty thuc vo ch ta quan st
n trong h ng yn hay chuyn ng. iu ni ln tnh cht ca khng gian
trong cc h quy chiu thay i. Ni mt cch khc, khng gian c tnh cht
tng i, n ph thuc vo chuyn ng. Trng hp vn tc ca chuyn ng
nh (V << c), t cng thc (6.22) ta tr li kt qu trong c hc c in, y
khng gian c coi l tuyt i, khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng.
Cng t cc cng thc bin i Lorentz chng ta tm c khong thi gian
ca mt qu trnh trong hai h K v K. Gi s c mt ng h ng yn trong
h K. Ta xt hai bin c xy ra ti cng mt im A c cc ta xyz trong h
K. Khong thi gian gia hai bin c trn trong h K bng
' '
2 1
t ' t t = . By gi
chng tm khong thi gian gia hai bin c trn h K. Ta vit c:

' '
2 1 2 2
2 1
2 2
2 2
V V
t x ' t x '
c c
t ; t
V V
1 1
c c
+ +
= =


T rt ra:

' '
2 1
2 1
2
2
t t
t t t
V
1
c

= =

Hay
2
2
V
t ' t 1
c
= (6.23)
Kt qu ny c pht biu nh sau: Khong thi gian t ' ca mt qu trnh
trong h K chuyn ng bao gi cng nh hn khong thi gian t xy ra ca
cng qu trnh trong h K ng yn. Nu trong h K chuyn ng c gn mt
ng h v trong h K cng gn mt ng h, th khong thi gian ca cng mt
qu trnh xy ra c ghi trn ng h ca h K nh hn khong thi gian ghi trn
ng h ca h K. Ta c th ni: ng h chuyn ng chy chm hn ng h
ng yn. Nh vy, khong thi gian xy ra mt qu trnh s khc nhau ty
thuc vo ch ta quan st qu trnh trong h ng yn hay chuyn ng.
iu ni ln tnh cht ca khong thi gian trong cc h qun tnh thay
i. N ph thuc vo chuyn ng . TRng hp vn tc ca chuyn ng rt nh
V << c, t cng thc (6.23) ta c t ' t , ta tr li kt qu trong c hc c in,

79
y khong thi gian c coi l tuyt i khng ph thuc vo chuyn ng.
Nhng nu v cng ln th t ' cng nh so vi t .
6.5. Phng trnh ng lc hc tng i tnh ca cht im
6.5.1. Phng trnh c bn ca chuyn ng cht im
Theo thuyt tng i, phng trnh biu din nh lut Newton th hai:
dv
F m
dt
=
r
r
khng th m t chuyn ng ca cht im vi vn tc ln c.
m t chuyn ng, cn phi c phng trnh khc tng qut hn. Theo
thuyt tng i, phng trnh c dng:
( )
d
F mv
dt
=
r
r
(6.24)
trong khi lng m ca cht im bng:

0
2
2
m
m
v
1
c
=

(6.25)
m l khi lng ca cht im trong h m n chuyn ng vi vn tc v c
gi l khi lng tng i; m
0
l khi lng cng ca cht im do trong h m
n ng yn (v = 0) c gi l khi lng ngh.
Ta thy rng theo thuyt tng i, khi lng ca mt vt khng cn l mt
hng s na; n tng khi vt chuyn ng; gi tr nh nht ca n ng vi khi vt
ng yn. Cng c th ni rng: khi lng c tnh tng i; n ph thuc h quy
chiu.
Phng trnh (6.24) bt bin i vi php bin i Lorentz v trong trng
hp v << c n tr thnh phng trnh biu din nh lut th hai ca Newton (khi
m = m
0
= const).
6.5.2. ng lng v nng lng
ng lng ca mt vt bng:

0
2
2
m v
p mv
v
1
c
= =

r
r r
(6.26)
Khi v << c, ta thu c biu thc c in:
0
p m v =
r r
. Nh vy, phng trnh c
bn (6.24) c th vit di dng khc:

dp
F
dt
=
r
r


80
Ta hy tnh nng lng ca vt. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng, tng
nng lng ca vt bng cng ca ngoi lc tc dng ln vt:
dW=dA
n gin, gi s ngoi lc F
r
cng phng vi chuyn di ds
r
. Khi :
dW=dA=F.ds=F.ds
r
r

Theo (6.24) ta c:

0
2
2
m v d
dW= [ ].ds
dt
v
1
c

2
0 0
3/ 2
2 2
2
2 2
m v m v dv dv
dW=[ . + . ].ds
dt dt
v v
1 c 1
c c
| |

|
\

Nhng:

dv ds
ds dv. v.dv
dt dt
= =
Do :

2
0 0
3/ 2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
m vdv m vdv v
dW= [1+ ]=
v
v v
c 1
1 1
c
c c
| |
| |

|
|
\
\

Mt khc, t (6.25) ta c:

0
3/ 2
2
2
2
m vdv
dm=
v
c 1
c
| |

|
\

So snh hai biu thc trn ta rt ra c:

2
dW=c .dm
Hay
2
W=mc (6.27)
H thc ny thng c gi l h thc Einstein.
6.5.3. Cc h qu
a. T h thc Einstein ta tm c nng lng ngh l nng lng lc vt ng yn
(m = m
0
):

2
0
W=m c
Lc vt chuyn ng, vt c thm ng nng W
d


81

2 2 2
d 0 0
2
2
1
W mc m c m c 1
v
1
c
| |
|
|
= =
|
|
\
(6.28)
Biu thc ny khc vi biu thc ng nng ca vt thng gp trong c hc
c in. Trong trng hp v << c:

2
2
2
2
1 1 v
1
2 c
v
1
c
+

Do :
2 2
2 0
d 0 2
m v 1 v
W m c 1 1
2 c 2
| |
+
|
\
ta li tm c biu thc ng nng
trong c hc c in.
b. Khi bnh phng biu thc
2
0
m c ta c:

2 2 2
2 4 2 2
0 2 2
v W v
m c W 1 W
c c
| |
= =
|
\

Thay
2
0
W = m c vo biu thc trn ta s c:

2 2 4 2 2
0
W m c p c = + (6.29)
Vi p mv =
r r
.
l biu thc lin h gia nng lng v ng lng ca vt.
c. Ta hy ng dng cc kt qu trn vo hin tng phn r ht nhn. Gi s mt
ht nhn phn r thnh hai ht thnh phn. Theo nh lut bo ton nng lng:

1 2
W=W+W
Vi W l nng lng ca ht nhn trc khi phn r, W
1
v W
2
l nng lng
ca ht nhn thnh phn.
Thay (6.27) vo biu thc trn ta s c:

2 2
2 1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
m c m c
mc
v v
1 1
c c
= +

(6.30)
Trong , ta xem ht nhn nh khng chuyn ng trc khi phn r, cn
m, m
1
, m
2
l khi lng ngh ca cc ht. V
2
2 1
1
2
2
m c
m c
v
1
c
>

v
2
2 2
2
2
2
m c
m c
v
1
c
>

, nn

82
t (6.30) ta rt ra: m > m
1
+ m
2
, ngha l khi lng ca ht nhn trc khi t phn
r ln hn tng khi lng ca cc ht nhn thnh phn.
Theo cng thc Einstein, phn nng lng tng ng vi ht nng lng
ca khi lng ny bng:
( )
2 2
1 2
W= m- m m c m.c + = (


Phn nng lng ny thng c ta ra di dng nhit v bc x.



























83
PHN 2: NHIT HC
M U
1. Thuyt cu to phn t ca cc cht
Vt cht c cu to bi cc nguyn t v phn t. Ngy nay ta bit rng
phn t gm nhiu nguyn t, nguyn t gm cc in t v ht nhn.
Cc ht nhn li gm cc proton v neutron.
Cc proton v neutron li c cu to t cc ht "quack".
T th k IV trc cng nguyn Demcrit cho rng vt cht c cu to
t cc nguyn t v phn t. ng quan nim rng: Cc nguyn t, phn t ca cc
cht khc nhau c hnh dng kch thc khc nhau nhng c cng bn cht.
n th k XIIX Lmnxp phc ho: nguyn t, phn t l nhng qu
cu, v ngoi sn si v lun chuyn ng tnh tin, hn lon, khi va chm vo nhau
chng sinh ra chuyn ng quay.
Khi cht kh ng trong mt bnh cha, cc phn t kh va p khng ngng
ln thnh bnh. Nh vy, nhit v ni nng ca kh phi lin quan n ng nng
ca cc phn t kh. Thuyt ng hc cht kh bt ngun t nhng lun im ny.
2. i tng, nhim v v phng php nghin cu ca Vt l phn t v
nhit hc
Thc t c nhiu hin tng lin quan n cc qu trnh xy ra bn trong vt;
th d: vt c th nng ln do ma st, c th nng chy hoc bc hi khi b t nng,
Nhng hin tng ny lin quan n mt dng chuyn ng mi ca vt cht,
l chuyn ng nhit. Chuyn ng nhit chnh l i tng nghin cu ca nhit
hc.
nghin cu chuyn ng nhit ngi ta dng hai phng php: phng
php thng k ng dng trong phn vt l phn t. Phng php nhit ng c
ng trong phn nhit ng hc.








84
CHNG 7. NHNG C S CA THUYT
NG HC PHN T KH L TNG
7.1. Mu kh l tng
T cc thuc tnh c bn ca phn t v nguyn t ngi ta a ra m hnh
c hc ca cht kh l tng bao gm cc ni dung sau:
- Cht kh l mt tp hp rt nhiu ht, chng chuyn ng hn lon khng
ngng.
- Vn tc chuyn ng trung bnh ca cc phn t t l vi
T
.
- cng mt nhit (T), ng nng trung bnh ca cc ht l nh nhau v
bng
2
d i i
E m v / 2 const = = .
- Cc phn t v nguyn t u tham gia chuyn ng nhit.
l m hnh c hc ca cht kh l tng. Chng tun theo cc nh lut c
bn v cht kh nh: Boiler Mariotte, Gay Luytsac....
C th hiu cht kh l tng l cht kh hon ton tun theo cc nh lut
Boiler Mariotte, Gay Luytsac. Cc phn t ca chng c coi nh mt cht
im v khng tng tc vi nhau.
7.2. p sut cht kh
p sut l mt i lng vt l c gi tr bng lc nn vung gc ln mt n
v din tch. Nu k hiu F l lc nn vung gc ln din tch S th p sut p cho
bi:

F
p
S
=

(7.1)
Trong h SI n v p sut l Newton trn mt vung (N/m
2
), hay pascal (Pa).
Ngoi ra o p sut ngi ta cn dng cc n v sau:
- atmtphe (at) l p sut bng 9,80665.10
4
9,81.10
4
N/m
2

- milimet thy ngn (mmHg, cn gi l Torr) bng p sut to bi trng lng
ct thy ngn cao 1mm.
i cc n v ta dng h thc sau:
1at = 736mmHg = 9,81.10
4
N/m
2

Gi s c mt cht kh cha trong bnh kn, n s tc dng ln thnh bnh mt
p sut (p). p sut ny do cc phn t kh chuyn ng va chm vo thnh bnh
vi vn tc (v) gy nn. C th tnh p sut theo biu thc sau:

2
0 i
1
p m.n .v
3
= (7.2)

85
Vi m l khi lng ca mi phn t cht kh, n
0
l mt phn t kh, v v
i

l vn tc ca cc phn t kh.
7.3. Nhit
Nhit l i lng Vt l c trng cho mc chuyn ng hn lon phn
t ca cc vt.
xc nh nhit ngi ta dng nhit biu. Nguyn tc ca nhit biu l
da vo bin thin ca mt i lng no khi t nng hoc lm lnh ri suy
ra nhit tng ng.
Nhit biu thng dng l nhit biu thy ngn. Trong nhit biu ny nhit
c xc nh bi th tch mt khi thy ngn nht nh.
chia mt nhit biu thy ngn ngi ta nhng n vo hi nc ang si
p sut 1,033at (bng p sut kh quyn iu kin bnh thng) v ghi mc thy
ngn l 100. Sau nhng vo nc ang tan (cng p sut 1,033at) v ghi
mc thy ngn l 0. em chia on trn thnh 100 phn bng nhau, mi phn chia
tng ng vi mt . Nh vy, ta c mt thang nhit gi l thang nhit bch
phn (hay thang nhit Celcius). Trong thang ny, nhit c k hiu l C.
Ngoi thang bch phn, cn dng thang nhit tuyt i (cn gi l thang
nhit Kelvin); mi chia ca thang tuyt i bng mt chia ca thang bch
phn nhng khng ca thang tuyt i ng vi -273,16 ca thang bch phn.
Trong thang ny, n v nhit l Kelvin, k hiu l K.
Gi T l nhit trong thang tuyt i, t l nhit trong thang bch phn, ta
c cng thc:
T = t + 273,16
Trong cc tnh ton n gin ta thng ly:
T = t + 273
7.4. Cc nh lut thc nghim v kh l tng
7.4.1. Mt s khi nim
- H nhit ng l mt h vt l bao gm mt s cc ht ln-cc ht nguyn t
2 phn t. Cc ht ny lun chuyn ng hn lon v trao i nng lng cho nhau
khi tng tc. Khi kh c th coi l h nhit ng n gin nht.
Mi h u c th chia thnh h c lp v khng c lp.
- Thng s trng thi
Trng thi ca h hon ton xc nh c nu ta xc nh c cc tnh cht
vt l ca h. Nhng mi tnh cht c trng bi i lng vt l nh nhit T,

khi lng m, th tch V ... => Nh vy trng thi ca h c xc nh bi tp hp
cc i lng vt l. Cc i lng ny gi l thng s trng thi ca h.
Phng trnh biu mi lin h gia cc thng s c lp v thng s ph
thuc gi l phng trnh trng thi ca h.
V d: trng thi ca khi kh c xc nh bi f(P,V,T)=0.
7.4.2. Cc nh lut thc nghim v kh l tng
Nghin cu tnh cht ca cc cht kh bng thc nghim, ngi ta tm ra
cc nh lut nu ln s lin h gia hai trong ba thng s p sut, th tch v nhit
. C th ngi ta xt cc qu trnh bin i trng thi ca mt khi kh trong
mt thng s c gi tr c gi khng i, l cc qu trnh:
- ng nhit: nhit khng i;
- ng tch: th tch khng i;
- ng p: p sut khng i.
a. nh lut Boiler Mariotte
Boiler v Mariotte nghin cu qu trnh
ng nhit ca cc cht kh, tm ra nhng
nh lut nh sau:
Trong qu trnh ng nhit ca khi kh,
th tch t l nghch vi p sut hay tch ca th
tch v p sut ca khi kh l khng i.
P.V = const
Trn th PV ng ng nhit l nhng
ng Hypecbol, nhit cng cao th cc
ng ny cng xa mc.
b. Cc nh lut Gay Luytsac
Gay-Luyxac nghin cu qu trnh ng p v ng tch v tm ra cc quy lut
sau:
* Trong qu trnh ng tch ca mt khi kh, p sut t l vi nhit tuyt
i
P/T = const
* Trong qu trnh ng p ca mt khi kh, th tch t l vi nhit tuyt
i
V/T = const
Hnh 7.1. H ng ng nhit.

T
1

T
2

T
3

T
1
< T
2
< T
3

P
V
O

87
Cc nh lut Boiler-Mariot v Gay-Luytxac ch ng khi cht kh nhit
v p sut thng thng ca phng th nghim. Khi p sut khi kh qu ln hay
nhit ca khi kh qu thp th cc cht kh khng tun theo cc nh lut na.
7.5. Phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng
7.5.1. Phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng
p sut ln v gii hn rng ca nhit , cc cht kh hon ton khng tun
theo nh lut Boiler-Mariotte v Gay-Luytsac. Tuy nhin, khi P khng qu ln v
T khng qu thp th cc qu trnh tun theo kh ng 2 nh lut . Hay ni cch
khc kh l tng hon ton tun theo cc nh lut Boiler-Mariotte v Gay-
Luytsac.
Cc nh lut thc nghim trn y cho mi lin h gia 2 thng s. Da
vo cc nh lut , ta c th tm mi lin h ca 3 thng s: P, V, T, ngha l tm
c phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng.
i vi 1 kilomol kh Claperon v Mendleep tm ra phng trnh sau:
P.V = R.T (7.3)
Trong P, V, T l p sut, th tch v nhit ca 1 kilomol kh trng thi
bt k. R gi l hng s kh l tng.
i vi mt khi kh c khi lng m, nu V l th tch ca n th: V .v
m

=
( l khi lng phn t) t (7.3) s suy ra c:

(7.4)
Phng trnh (7.4) c gi l phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng.
7.5.2. Gi tr ca hng s kh R
Theo nh lut Avgaro, cng nhit v p sut, 1 kilmol cc cht kh
khc nhau u chim cng mt th tch. Khi T
o
= 273,16 K, p
o
= 1,033at =
1,013.10
6
N/m
2
th 1 kilmol kh chim th tch l V
o
= 22,41 m
3
. Trng thi ny
chung cho mi cht kh gi l trng thi tiu chuNn. Vi trng thi tiu chuNn ny ta
c:

5 3 3
o o
o
p V 1, 043.10 N/ m 22, 41.10 m / kmol
R
T 273,16K

= =

3
Jun J
R 8, 31.10 8, 31
kmol.K mol.K
= =
+ Nu p o bng atmtphe

88

3
m .at
R 0, 0848.
kmol.K
=
+ Nu xt mt mol kh vi th tch o bng m
3
v p sut o bng N/m
2
th

Jun
R 8, 31.
mol.K
=
+ Nu xt mt mol kh vi th tch o bng lit v p sut o bng atmotphe th

lit.at
R 0, 0848.
mol.K
=
* Khi lng ring ca kh l tng
T phng trnh trng thi kh
m
pv RT =

ta c th suy ra khi lng ring

ca kh l tng. Thay m = v v = 1 th ta thu c:

.p
R.T

=
7.6. nh lut phn b phn t theo vn tc ca Maxwell. ng nng trung
bnh ca phn t
7.6.1. ng nng trung bnh ca phn t
Xt mt phn t kh chuyn ng ring l trong bnh, tc ca n b thay i
khi va chm vi cc phn t khc. ng nng chuyn ng ca phn t ti bt k
thi im no u l:
E

=
2
1
mv
2
(7.5)
Vi m l khi lng mt phn t kh.
Nu tnh ng nng trung bnh theo s phn t trong sut thi gian quan st th
:
E =
2
t
1
mv
2
(7.6)
Nu thi gian quan st chuyn ng ca cc phn t di v do tng nng
lng cc phn t trong cht kh l khng i th:
E E

(7.7)
Thay gi tr
2
t
v =
3RT

vo phng trnh (7.6) ta c

E =
2
t
1 1 3RT 1 m 3 m
mv m 3RT RT
2 2 2 2
= = =

(7.8)
Bit rng = mN
A
, m = /N
A
nn phng trnh (7.8) c th vit:

89
E =
B
A A A
3 3 RT 3 R 3
RT T k T
2 N 2 N 2 N 2

= = =

(7.9)
Vy ng nng trung bnh chuyn ng tnh tin ca phn t l:
d E =
B
3
k T
2
(7.10)
y k
B
l hng s Boltzmann, l thng ca hng s kh R v s Avgar
(N
A
). Gi tr ca k
B
l:
k
B
=
A
R
N
= 1,38.10
-23
J/K
Nhn xt: Phng trnh E =
B
3
k T const
2
= cho thy: mt nhit (T) cho
trc, tt c cc phn t kh u c cng mt ng nng trung bnh c gi tr l
B
3
k T
2
v khng ph thuc vo khi lng ca chng. Nh vy khi ta xc nh nhit
ca cht kh, ng thi ta cng xc nh gi tr ng nng trung bnh ca cc
phn t ca cht kh .
7.6.2. nh lut phn b phn t theo vn tc ca Maxwell
Thc nghim cho thy: vn tc phn t ca khi kh c th ly trong khong 0
v . Do vn tc cc phn t c th bin thin lin tc cho nn khng th xc
nh chnh xc vn tc ca mt phn t m ch xc nh c vn tc phn t nm
trong mt khong xc nh no . c mt quy lut chung, ta xt mt khi kh c
n phn t. Trong , gi dn l s phn t c vn tc nm trong khong xc nh (v,
v + dv) th dn/n l s % phn t c vn tc nm trong khong xc nh (v, v + dv).
V vy ta c th vit:

dn
F(v)dv
n
= (7.11)
F(v) c gi l hm phn b, n ph thuc vo tc chuyn ng v nhit
ca cc phn t kh.
Vy: t s dn/n c th coi l xc xut tm thy mt phn t kh c vn tc
nm trong khong xc nh (v, v + dv ) v hm F(v) trong phng trnh (7.11) phi
tho mn iu kin:
dn = nF(v)dv (7.12)
Vy mun tnh s phn t c gi tr vn tc nm trong khong xc nh (v
1
, v
2
)
bt k ta ch cn
2
1
v
v
dn

theo dv. Ngha l:

90
n =
2
1
v
v
dn n F(v)dv =

(7.13)
Nu ly tch phn t 0 n ca phng trnh (7.13)
0
nF(v)dv

ta c tng
s phn t l n:

0
n F(v)dv n

(7.14)
Suy ra:

0
F(v)dv 1

(7.15)
Phng trnh (7.14) v (7.15) c gi l iu kin chuNn ho ca hm xc
sut F(v).
Hm F(v) tho mn cc iu kin trn y c gi l hm phn b phn t
theo vn tc Maxwell. Cc tnh ton l thuyt cho thy hm phn b ny c dng
sau:
F(v) =
2
3
v
2
2
2RT
4 .e .v
2 RT

| |

\
(7.16)
Vi l khi lng 1 mol cht kh.
Hm phn b Maxwell (7.16) hon ton ph
hp vi kt qu thc nghim o vn tc
chuyn ng ca cc phn t kh.
Mun bit hm phn b Maxwell F(v)
ph thuc vo vn tc chuyn ng ca cc
phn t nh th no. Ta kho st hm phn
b trong phng trnh (7.16).
Bng kho st hm phn b F(v) theo v c trnh by di y.
Bng 8: S ph thuc ca hm phn b F(v) vo v
v
0

m
T k
B
2



F(v) 0 + 0

0

F(v)


max

v
max
F(v)

v

0

Hnh 7.2. Hm phn b Maxwell

0 0

Vy F(v) t cc i khi v =
m
T k
B
2
. Vn tc ny c gi l vn tc xc
sut cc i. C th biu din hm F(v) theo v bng mt parabol khng i xng
nh hnh 7.2. Vn tc cc i ng vi a s cc phn t trong s n phn t kh m
ta xt.
S dng hm phn b phn t theo vn tc Maxwell vi
2
3
.v
2
2
2RT
F(v) 4 .e .v
2 RT

| |
=
|

\
v thay gi tr F(v) vo cc biu thc tch phn ta c th
tnh c 3 loi vn tc khc, l:
+ Vn tc trung bnh s hc:

0
8RT
v vF(v)dv

= =

(7.17)
+ Vn tc cn qun phng:
2
2
0
3RT
v v F(v)dv

= =

(7.18)
+ Vn tc xc sut cc i:
v
XS
(max) =
B
2k T 2RT
m
=

(7.19)
Ch : v
XS
< v <
2
v , vn tc xc
sut ph thuc vo nhit cho nn khi thay
i nhit th vn tc v
XS
cng thay i
theo. Gi s rng T tng dn th nh ca
ng cong Maxwell dch v bn phi v
thp hn. Tuy nhin din tch di ng
cong lun lun l 100% s phn t kh nn
khi nh F(v) dch chuyn v phi th hm F(v) phi gim xung, m bo cho din
tch di ng cong bng nhau S
1
= S
2
v chnh l s phn t kh n (hnh 7.3).
7.7. Nhit dung ca kh l tng. S phn b u nng lng theo bc t do
7.7.1. Khi nim bc t do ca cc phn t kh
Mun xy dng mt l thuyt v nhit dung cn phi a vo m hnh cu to
nguyn t v phn t ca h. Da vo ta tnh c ni nng v t ni nng c
th tnh c nhit dung.
Tc (m/s)
P
(
v
)

(
1
0

s
/
m
)

Hnh 7.3. Hm phn b Maxwell
khi nhit thay i.

T = 80K
T = 300K

92
C th nh ngha: Bc t do ca mt vt l s ta c lp cn thit xc
nh v tr ca vt trong khng gian. Bc t do c k hiu l: f.
Bc t do ca n nguyn t: Mt phn t c cu to bi mt hoc nhiu
nguyn t. Nu phn t c mt nguyn t th coi nh mt cht im, n ch c
chuyn ng tnh tin, mun xc nh v tr ca n trong khng gian ta cn 3 to
(x,y,z). Vy n c 3 bc t do (f = 3).
y bc t do biu hin cho kh nng tch tr nng lng c lp do chuyn
ng tnh tin theo 3 chiu Ox,Oy,Oz. Tng ng nng l:

B B B B
x y z
3 1 1 1
k T k T k T k T
2 2 2 2
| | | | | |
= + +
| | |
\ \ \
(7.20)
Bc t do ca phn t c 2 nguyn t: Ngoi chuyn ng tnh tin ca khi
tm ng vi 3 bc t do cn c 2 bc t do ca chuyn ng quay ng vi hai trc
vung gc tch tr nng lng quay. Vy bc t do ca n l: f = 3 + 2 = 5.
Bc t do ca phn t a nguyn t ( 3): Bc t do ca cc phn t ny s l:
f = 3 +3 = 6 (3 bc t do ng vi chuyn ng tnh tin v 3 bc t do ng vi
chuyn ng quay). S bc t do c minh ho trong hnh 7.4.

Bng 9: a ra v d v s bc t do ca cc phn t cu to khc nhau:
S bc t do (f) Nhit dung mol d on
Cu to phn t V d Tinh tin Quay Tng C
V
C
P
= C
V
+ R
n nguyn t He 3 0 3 3R/2 5R/2
Lng nguyn t O
2
3 2 5 5R/2 7R/2
x
z
y
a
x
z
y
b
x
z
y
c
H
H
H
H
H
H
Hnh 7.4. Bc t do ca cc nguyn t: a) n nguyn t; b) lng nguyn t; c) a nguyn t.

93
a nguyn t CH
4
3 3 6 3R 4R


7.7.2. S phn b u nng lng theo bc t do
a. nh ngha Ni nng
Ni nng l phn nng lng ng vi chuyn ng bn trong ca vt. Nng
lng bao gm tng ng nng ca cc phn t v th nng tng tc gia
chng.
Kh l tng: Ni nng ca kh l tng bng tng ng nng ca cc phn t
(v cc phn t khng tng tc vi nhau nn th nng bng khng).
tnh ni nng, ta phi tnh ng nng trung bnh ca cc phn t. Ta tnh
c ng nng tnh tin trung bnh ca mt phn t bng 3kT/2. Nhng trong thc
t, cc phn t cu to t hai nguyn t tr ln, nn khng nhng chuyn ng tnh
tin m cn chuyn ng quay. V vy, ng nng trung bnh ca mi phn t s
ln hn 3kT/2. tnh ng nng ca mt phn t bt k, ta phi tnh nh lut phn
b u nng lng theo cc bc t do.
b. nh lut phn b u nng lng theo cc bc t do
ng nng chuyn ng tnh tin ca mt phn t c khi lng m v vn tc
v trong khng gian l:
E

=
2 2 2 2
x y z B
1 1 1 1 3
mv mv mv mv k T
2 2 2 2 2
= + + = (7.21)
Nu cc vn tc chuyn ng theo mi phng nh nhau: v
x
= v
y
= v
z
th ng
nng ca phn t chuyn ng c phn b u cho mi phng. Ngha l:

2 2 2
x y z B
1 1 1 1
mv mv mv k T
2 2 2 2
= = = (7.22)
Nh vy, nng lng ca nguyn t c phn b u cho cc bc t do v
ng vi mi bc t do s l k
B
T/2. T y c th rt ra nh lut nh sau: ng
nng trung bnh ca phn t c phn b u theo cc bc t do (f) v nng lng
ng vi mi bc t do l k
B
T/2.
nh lut ny l nh lut phn b u nng lng theo cc bc t do (hay cn
gi l nh lut Maxwell). Biu thc ca nh lut l:
E =
B
f
k T
2
(7.23)
T phng trnh (7.23) c th suy ra:

94
- Vi cht kh n nguyn t: ng nng trung bnh E =
B
3
k T
2
.
- Vi cht kh lng nguyn t: ng nng trung bnh E =
B
5
k T
2
.
- Vi cht kh a nguyn t: ng nng trung bnh E =
B
6
k T
2
.
c. Biu thc ni nng ca kh l tng
Gi U
0
l ni nng ca kh l tng c N phn t, N l s Avgar, theo nh
ngha ni nng U
0
bng tng ng nng ca cc phn t ca h

0 B
f
U N. .k T
2
=
Nhng k
B
= R/N nn:
0
f
U RT
2
=
i vi khi lng m (kg) kh l tng, ni nng ca n s bng:

o
m m f
U U . .RT
2
= =

(7.24)
Vy, ni nng ca kh l tng ch ph thuc vo nhit ca khi kh.
7.7.3. Nhit dung ca kh l tng
T phng trnh (7.24) c th tnh nhit dung mol cht kh cho cc trng hp
ng tch v ng p.
Nhit dung 1 mol kh (ng tch) l:
V
U f
C R
T 2

= =

Nhit dung 1 mol kh (ng p) l: C
P
= C
V
+ R =
f f 2
R R R
2 2
+
+ =
p dng cc biu thc tnh nhit dung C
V
v C
P
cho cc cht kh l tng.
Vi kh n nguyn t nh He, Ar c f = 3 th:
C
V
= 3R/2 = 12,5 kJ/kmol.; C
P
= 5R/2 = 20,8 kJ/kmol.
Vi kh 2 nguyn t nh CO, H
2
c f = 5
C
v
= 5R/2 = 20,8 kJ/kmol., C
p
= 7R/2 = 29,1 kJ/kmol.
Vi kh a nguyn t c f = 6
C
v
= 3R = 24,95 kJ/kmol., C
p
= 4R = 33,3 kJ/kmol.
Thc nghim chng minh cc kt qu ny tnh cho phn t n nguyn t
v lng nguyn t l ph hp cn i vi phn t a nguyn t l qu thp.


95




CHNG 8. NGUYN L TH NHT CA NHIT NG HC
Nhit ng hc nghin cu cc iu kin v quan h bin i nh lng ca
nng lng t dng ny qua dng khc. C s ca nhit ng hc l hai nguyn l
rt ra t thc nghim. Trong nhit ng hc, ngi ta thit lp nhng h thc gia
cc i lng v m ca h Vt l m khng quan tm n vic gii thch vi m ca
cc i lng .
Nhng nguyn l ca nhit ng hc c tnh cht rt tng qut, nn ngy nay
ngi ta ng dng c hiu qu ln trong vic nghin cu cc qu trnh Vt l v ha
hc, cc tnh cht ca Vt liu v bc x.
8.1. Ni nng ca mt h nhit ng. Cng v nhit
8.1.1. H nhit ng
Mi tp hp cc vt c xc nh hon ton bi mt s cc thng s v m,
c lp i vi nhau, c gi l h v m hay h nhit ng (hay vn tt gi l h).
Tt c cc vt cn li, ngoi h ca ta l ngoi vt i vi h hay mi trng
xung quanh ca h.
Mi h u c th chia thnh h c lp v h khng c lp. H khng c lp
nu n tng tc vi mi trng bn ngoi. Trong nhng tng tc ny, ni chung
s c trao i cng v nhit. Nu h v mi trng khng trao i nhit th h l h
c lp i vi ngoi vt v phng din nhit. Trong trng hp , ta ni rng
gia h v ngoi vt c mt v cch nhit. Nu h v ngoi vt trao i nhit nhng
khng sinh ra cng do s nn hoc gin n th h l c lp v phng din c hc.
8.1.2. Ni nng ca h nhit ng
Ta bit vt cht lun lun vn ng v nng lng ca mt h l mt i
lng xc nh mc vn ng ca vt cht trong h . mi trng thi, h c
cc dng vn ng xc nh v do , c mt nng lng xc nh. Khi trng thi
ca h thay i th nng lng ca h c th thay i v thc nghim xc nhn rng
bin thin nng lng ca h trong mt qu trnh bin i ch ph thuc vo
trng thi u v trng thi cui m khng ph thuc vo qu trnh bin i. Nh
vy, nng lng ch ph thuc vo trng thi ca h. Ta ni rng nng lng l mt
hm trng thi.

96
Nng lng ca mt h gm ng nng ng vi chuyn ng c hng
(chuyn ng c) ca c h, th nng ca h trong trng lc v phn nng lng
ng vi vn ng bn trong h tc l ni nng ca h:
W = W

+ W
t
+ U (8.1)
Ty theo tnh cht ca chuyn ng v tng tc ca cc phn t cu to nn
vt, ta c th chia ni nng thnh cc phn sau y:
- ng nng chuyn ng hn lon ca cc phn t (tnh tin v quay);
- Th nng gy bi cc lc tng tc phn t;
- ng nng v th nng chuyn ng dao ng ca cc nguyn t trong
phn t;
- Nng lng cc v in t ca cc nguyn t v ion, nng lng trong ht
nhn nguyn t.
Trong nhit ng hc, ta gi thit rng chuyn ng c hng ca h khng
ng k v h khng t trong trng lc no, do nng lng ca h ng bng
ni nng ca h. Cng ging nh nng lng, ni nng U ca h l mt hm trng
thi. Gc tnh ton ni nng, ngha l trng thi ca h m ta coi U l bng
khng, c chn rt ty , ging nh gc tnh th nng trong c hc. Nhng trong
nhit ng hc iu quan trng khng phi l chnh ni nng U, m l bin thin
U ca n, khi h bin i t trng thi ny sang trng thi khc. Do , vic chn
gc tnh ni nng khng quan trng. Thng thng, ngi ta gi thit rng ni nng
ca h bng khng nhit khng tuyt i (T = 0K).
8.1.3. Cng v nhit
Tip theo khi nim v ni nng, cng v nhit l hai khi nim quan trng
trong nhit ng hc.
Th nghim chng t rng khi cc h khc nhau tng tc vi nhau th chng
trao i vi nhau mt nng lng no . C hai dng truyn nng lng:
Mt l dng truyn nng lng lm tng mc chuyn ng c trt t ca
mt vt. iu ny xy ra khi c tng tc gia cc vt v m (cc vt c kch thc
ln hn kch thc ca tng phn t rt nhiu). Trong nhit ng hc cng nh
trong c hc, ngi ta gi dng truyn nng lng ny l cng.
Hai l, nng lng c trao i trc tip gia cc phn t chuyn ng hn
lon ca nhng vt tng tc vi nhau. Khi h c trao i nng lng nh vy
mc hn lon ca cc phn t ca h v do ni nng ca h tng ln hay gim
i. Trong nhit ng hc, ngi ta gi dng truyn nng lng ny l nhit.

97
Nh vy, ta thy rng cng v nhit u l nhng i lng o mc trao
i nng lng gia cc h. S khc nhau su sc gia cng v nhit l ch, cng
lin quan ti chuyn ng c trt t, cn nhit lin quan n chuyn ng hn lon
ca cc phn t ca h. Nhng chng c mi lin h cht ch vi nhau v c th
chuyn ha ln nhau: cng c th bin thnh nhit v ngc li. V d: khi c st
hai vt, chng nng ln tng t nh chng nhn nhit; khi t nng mt vt,
ngha l truyn nhit cho vt th vt nng ln, ni nng ca vt tng ln nhng ng
thi vt dn n, ngha l mt phn nhit bin thnh cng lm vt dn n.
Thc nghim chng t rng, s chuyn ha gia cng v nhit lun lun tun
theo mt h thc nh lng xc nh. Jun l ngi u tin, vo nm 1845, xc
nh c rng c tn mt cng bng 4,18J th s c mt nhit lng 1cal. Vic
tm ra s tng ng gia nhit v cng l mt s kin quan trng i vi khoa
hc v k thut, c bit l i vi vic thit lp nh lut bo ton v chuyn ha
nng lng.
Cn ch rng cng v nhit u l nhng i lng dng o mc trao
i nng lng, nhng chng khng phi l mt dng ca nng lng. Do , tht
l sai lm nu ta dng khi nim lng nhit d tr trong vt.
Cng v nhit ch xut hin trong qu trnh bin i trng thi ca h. mi
trng thi, h ch c mt gi tr xc nh ca nng lng, ch khng th c cng v
nhit nu h bin i t mt trng thi ny qua mt trng thi khc theo nhng con
ng khc nhau th cng v nhit trong qu trnh bin i s c nhng gi tr
khc nhau. Vy cng v nhit khng phi l nhng hm trng thi m l nhng hm
ca qu trnh.
8.2. Nguyn l th nht ca Nhit ng lc hc
8.2.1. Pht biu
Nguyn l th nht l mt trng hp ring ca nh lut bo ton v bin i
nng lng vn dng vo cc qu trnh v m (gi tt l qu trnh nhit ng).
bin thin nng lng ton phn W ca h trong mt qu trnh bin i
v m c gi tr bng tng ca cng A v nhit Q m h nhn c trong qu trnh
.
W=A+Q (8.2)
Trong biu thc ny, cc i lng u o bng cc n v ging nhau.
trn ta gi thit rng c nng ca h khng i (W

+ W
t
= const), do
theo (8.1), W= U v h thc (8.2) tr thnh:
U A Q = + (8.3)

98
Ngha l: Trong mt qu trnh bin i, bin thin ni nng ca h c gi
tr bng tng ca cng v nhit m h nhn c trong qu trnh .
y chnh l pht biu ca nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc.
Trong mt s trng hp, tnh ton thun tin, ngi ta cn dng cc k
hiu v pht biu sau:
- Nu A v Q l cng v nhit m h nhn c, th A = -A v Q = -Q l
cng v nhit m h sinh ra.
- T biu thc (8.3) c th vit:
Q U A' = + (8.3)
V nguyn l th nht c th pht biu nh sau: nhit truyn cho h trong mt
qu trnh c gi tr bng bin thin ni nng ca h v cng do h sinh ra trong
qu trnh .
Cc i lng U, A, Q c th dng hay m.
Nu A > 0 v Q > 0 th U > 0, ngha l khi h thc s nhn cng v nhit t
bn ngoi th ni nng ca h tng.
Nu A < 0 v Q < 0 th U < 0, ngha l khi h thc s sinh cng v ta nhit
ra bn ngoi th ni nng ca h gim.
8.2.2. H qu
T nguyn l th nht c th suy ra mt s h qu sau y:
a. i vi h c lp, tc l h khng trao i cng v nhit vi bn ngoi: A = Q =
0, theo (8.3), ta c:
U 0 U const = =
Vy: Ni nng ca mt h c lp c bo ton.
Nu h c lp gm hai vt ch trao i nhit vi nhau v gi s Q
1
, Q
2
l nhit
lng m chng nhn c th

1 2 1 2
Q Q Q 0 Q Q = + = =
Nu
1
Q 0 < (vt 1 ta nhit) th
2
Q 0 > (vt 2 thu nhit) v ngc li.
Vy: trong mt h c lp gm hai vt ch trao i nhit, nhit lng do vt
ny ta ra bng nhit lng m vt kia thu vo.
b. Mt trng hp rt quan trng: H l mt my lm vic tun hon, ngha l n
bin i theo mt qu trnh kn hay chu trnh. Sau mt dy cc bin i, h li
tr v trng thi ban u. Nh vy, sau mt chu trnh U 0 = v t (8.3) ta c:
A Q =

99
Nu A > 0 th Q < 0 v ngc li, A < 0 th Q > 0, cn v gi tr tuyt i:
A Q = . Vy, trong mt chu trnh, cng m h nhn c c gi tr bng nhit do
h ta ra bn ngoi hay cng do h sinh ra c gi tr bng nhit m h nhn vo t
bn ngoi.
Khi h thc hin mt qu trnh bin i v cng nh, biu thc ca nguyn l
th nht s c dng:
dU A Q = + (8.3)
Trong dU l bin thin ni nng ca h, A v Q l cng v nhit m
h nhn c trong qu trnh bin i .
Cch vit trn c mt ngha Vt l su sc v ni nng U l mt hm trng
thi, bin thin ca n khng ph thuc qu trnh nn vi phn dU ca n l mt
vi phn ton phn, cn cng v nhit l nhng hm ca qu trnh nn vi phn A v
Q ca chng l nhng vi phn khng ton phn.
8.2.3. ngha ca nguyn l th nht
Nguyn l th nht ng vai tr rt quan trng trong vic nhn thc t nhin
cng nh trong khoa hc v k thut.
Nguyn l ny c pht hin t lu, nhiu ngi nghin cu n, nhng
ch c nghen l ngi u tin nu ln tnh tng qut ca nguyn l . Vi
quan nim cho rng nng lng l thc o mc ng vi mt hnh thc vn
ng nht nh ca vt cht, nghen khng nh: nguyn l th nht chnh l nh
lut bo ton v bin i vn ng, mt c s ca ch ngha duy vt bin chng.
ng vit bt c mt dng vn ng no cng u c th v bt buc phi bin sang
mt dng vn ng khc. Nh nhng pht minh mi, ta c th lm c nhng
chng minh mi v phong ph hn cho nh lut ni trn nhng v bn thn nh
lut pht biu th ta khng th thm vo mt iu g. ng kt lun: Nguyn
l th nht l mt quy lut tuyt i ca thin nhin.
Thc t, lch s chng t rng mi hin tng v m u tun theo nguyn
l th nht v nguyn l gip cho cc nh khoa hc gii quyt ng n cc
vn gi l khng hong ca khoa hc v nhn thc.
Mt khc, t h qu th hai ca nguyn l, ta thy rng khng th c mt my
no lm vic tun hon sinh cng m li khng nhn thm nng lng t bn ngoi
hoc sinh cng ln hn nng lng truyn cho n. Nhng my ny c gi l ng
c vnh cu loi mt.
Nh vy, nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng hc khng nh rng: khng th
no ch to c ng c vnh cu loi mt.

100
8.3. Dng nguyn l th nht kho st cc qu trnh cn bng ca kh l
tng
8.3.1. Trng thi cn bng v qu trnh cn bng
a. nh ngha
Trng thi cn bng ca h l trng thi khng bin i theo thi gian v tnh
bt bin khng ph thuc cc qu trnh ca ngoi vt.
Mt trng thi cn bng c xc nh bng mt s thng s nhit ng no
. Nu h l mt khi kh nht nh, mi trng thi cn bng ca n c xc nh
bng hai trong ba thng s p, V, T. Do ngi ta biu din trng thi cn bng ca
h trn th Clapayron (p, V) bng mt im.
Qu trnh cn bng l mt qu trnh bin i gm mt chui lin tip cc
trng thi cn bng.
b. Cng ca p lc trong qu trnh cn bng
Gi s khi kh c bin i theo mt
qu trnh cn bng, trong th tch bin i t
V
1
n V
2
. Ngoi lc tc dng ln pitton l F.
Khi pitton dch chuyn mt on dl, th khi kh
nhn c cng t bn ngoi l:
A = - Fdl ((-): kh nn)
V qu trnh cn bng nn ngoi lc F c
gi tr lun lun bng lc do khi kh tc dng
ln pitton. Nu gi p l p sut ca kh ln pitton
v S l din tch ca pitton th gi tr ngoi lc
bng:
F = pS
Do , ta c:
A = - pSdl = -pdV
trong dV = Sdl l bin thin th tch ca khi kh ng vi dch chuyn dl.
Cng m khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh nn t th tch V
1
n V
2
l:

2
1
V
V
A A pdV = =

(8.4)
c. Nhit trong qu trnh cn bng nhit dung
(i,T
i
)
(f,T
f
)
Hnh 8.1. Cng ca mt khi kh lm
dch chuyn pitton l din tch di
ng cong PV.
dA

Nhit dung ring c ca mt cht l mt i lng vt l, v tr s bng lng
nhit cn thit truyn cho mt n v khi lng nhit ca n tng thm mt
.
Nu gi m l khi lng ca vt, Q l nhit lng truyn cho vt trong qu
trnh cn bng no v dT l bin thin nhit ca vt trong qu trnh , th:

Q
c
m.dT

= hay Q m.cdT = (8.5)

Ngoi ra, nhit dung mol C ca mt cht:
C = .c
trong l khi lng ca mt mol cht .
Trong h SI, n v ca c l J/kg.K, cn n v ca C l J/mol.K.
Suy ra:
m
Q C.dT =

Nhit dung h nhn c ph thuc vo tnh cht ca qu trnh nhn nhit:
Trong qu trnh ng tch:
V
m
Q C .dT =

, vi C
v
l nhit dung ng tch.
Trong qu trnh ng p:
P
m
Q C .dT =

, vi C
p
l nhit dung ng tch.
8.3.2. Qu trnh ng tch
Qu trnh ng tch l qu trnh bin i trong
th tch ca h khng i:
V = const
V d: Qu trnh h nng hoc lm lnh mt khi
kh trong mt bnh ln kn c h s dn n khng ng
k.
Xt qu trnh ng tch biu din l mt on thng
song song vi trc Op:
on 1-2: qu trnh h nng ng tch. on 2-1-2': qu trnh lm lnh ng
tch (hnh 8.2). Theo nh lut Gay-Luytxc:

1 2
1 2
p p p
const hay
T T T
= =
Phng trnh ny cho php ta xc nh p sut v nhit ca khi kh lc u
v lc cui ca qu trnh ng tch.

Hnh 8.2. Biu din qu trnh
ng tch.

0
p
V
p
1

V
p
2

1
2
2

By gi ta tnh cng, nhit m khi kh nhn c v bin thin ni nng
ca kh trong qu trnh ng tch.
V V = const do dV = 0 nn theo (8.4) ta c:

2
1
V
V
A A pdV 0 = = =

(8.8)
- bin thin ni nng trong qu trnh ng tch:
Theo thuyt ng hc phn t, nng lng ca kh l tng bng:
m f
U RT
2
=

Do , bin thin ni nng bng:
m f
U . R T
2
=

Trong : T = T
2
-T
1
Vi T
1
: nhit khi kh lc u
T
2
: nhit khi kh lc cui
- Nhit lng khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng p l:
p dng nguyn l th nht nhit ng lc hc, ta c: +
Nhng A=0 nn:

p dng cng thc thc nghim:

( )
2
1
T
V V 2 1 V
T
m m m
Q Q C dT C T T C T = = = =



Vi C
V
l nhit dung mol ng tch ca cht kh.
So snh hai kt qu trn ta c:
V
V
m f
U R T
2 f
C R
m 2
Q C T

8.3.3. Qu trnh ng p
Qu trnh ng p l qu trnh trong p sut ca khi kh khng i.
p = const
V d: Qu trnh t nng hoc lm lnh khi kh ng trong mt xylanh vi
pitton c th di chuyn t do sao cho p sut ca khi kh lun bng p sut khng
i ca kh quyn bn ngoi.
Xt qu trnh ng p biu din bng mt on
thng song song vi trc honh OV. on 1-2: qu trnh
gin ng p. on 1-2': qu trnh nn ng p
Theo nh lut Gay-Luytxc, ta c:
Hnh 8.3. Biu din qu trnh
ng p.

0
p
V V
1

p
V
2

1 2 2

103

1 2
1 2
V V V
const
T T T
= =
- Cng khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng p (p = const):

2
1
V
1 2
V
A pdV p(V V ) = =

- bin thin ni nng trong qu trnh ng p:
Theo thuyt ng hc phn t, ni nng ca kh l tng bng:
m f
U RT
2
=

Do , bin thin ni nng bng:
m f
U . R T
2
=

Trong : T = T
2
-T
1
Vi T
1
: nhit khi kh trng thi u
T
2
: nhit khi kh trng thi cui
- Nhit khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng p:
p dng nguyn l th nht nhit ng lc hc, ta c:

( )
1 2 p
m
Q p V V C T = +

T phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng:
m
pv RT =

, i vi qu trnh
ng p, ta c: ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
m m
p V V R T T R T = =


Do :
m m f m f
Q R T R T ( R R) T
2 2
= + = +


Theo cng thc thc nghim: T
p
C
m
T
T
dT
p
C
m
Q Q = = =

2
1

Vi C
p
l nhit dung mol ng p ca kh.
So snh hai cng thc tnh nhit lng trn ta c
f 2
Cp R
2
+
=
Vi R = C
p
- C
v
l cng thc Mayer
Trong nhit ng lc hc ta thng gp t s:
p
v
C
C
=
Vi gi l h s Poisson
p
v
C
f 2
C 2
+
= =
8.3.4. Qu trnh ng nhit

Qu trnh ng nhit l qu trnh bin i trong nhit ca khi kh khng
i (T = const).
V d: Qu trnh nn hoc dn mt khi kh tip xc vi mt mi trng ln
c nhit khng i hay bnh iu nhit.
Theo nh lut Bil- Marit ta c:
pV = const p
1
V
1
= p
2
V
2

Phng trnh ny cho php ta xc nh p sut
v th tch ca khi kh lc u v lc cui ca qu
trnh ng nhit.
Xt qu trnh ng nhit biu din bng mt
on hypecbol. on 1-2: qu trnh gin ng nhit.
on 1-2': qu trnh nn ng nhit.
- Cng khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng
nhit

2
1
V
V
A pdV =

Theo phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng:

m RT
p .
V
=

Suy ra:

2
1
V
1 2
2 1 V
V p m dV m m
A Rt RTln RTln
V V p
= = =

- bin thin ni nng trong qu trnh ng nhit
V ni nng ca kh l tng ph thuc vo nhit nn trong qu trnh ng
nhit, ni nng ca khi kh khng i, do : U = 0
- Nhit khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng nhit:
Theo nguyn l th nht: U = A + Q
Suy ra, nhit lng m khi kh nhn c trong qu trnh ng nhit:

2 1
1 2
V p m m
Q A RTln RTln
V p
= = =


Nu A > 0 th Q < 0 v ngc li A < 0 th Q >0.
8.3.5. Qu trnh on nhit

Hnh 8.4. Biu din qu trnh
ng nhit.

2
V2
1
P
V
O
2
p2
V1
p1

105
Qu trnh on nhit l qu trnh bin i trong h khng trao i nhit vi
bn ngoi: Q = 0 hay Q = 0
V d: qu trnh nn hoc gin kh trong mt bnh c v cch nhit l tng.
- Phng trnh ca qu trnh
Theo nguyn l th nht:
i vi qu trnh bin i v cng nh: dU = A + Q m trong qu trnh
on nhit Q = 0 => dU = A
m f
U A R T
2
= =

hoc
p
m f m
dU RdT C dT
2
= =

vi
V
f
C R
2
=
M A = - pdV nn
V
m
pdV C dT =

T phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng ta c:

m RT
p
V
=

V
V
dV dT R dV
RT C dT 0
V T C V
= + = (*);
M

1. Tch phn hai v phng trnh (*) ta c:

lnT + (-1)lnV = const
Hay
( )
1
ln TV const

=
Do
1
T.V const

= (mi lin h gia T v V)

Tng t, ta cng s tm c mi lin h gia p v V.
T phng trnh trng thi kh l tng:

m pV
pV RT T
m R

= =

Thay vo
1
TV const

=
Ta c: pV const

=
Nu t
m m RT
pV RT V
p
= =

thay vo
1
TV const

=
Ta c mi lin h gia T v p trong qu trnh on nhit:

1
Tp const

=
- bin thin ni nng trong qu trnh on nhit
Theo thuyt ng hc phn t bin thin ni nng bng:

106

m f
U R T
2
=

- Cng m h nhn c trong qu trnh on nhit:
V Q = 0 nn theo nguyn l th nht U = A + Q
Vy:
m f
A R T
2
=

- Ch : Ta c th tnh cng m h nhn c trong qu trnh on nhit theo
cng thc tng qut:
2
1
V
V
A pdV =

Ta s tm c cc cng thc:
2 2 1 1
p V p V
A
1

=



1 2 1 1 2 1
1 1
mRT T p V (T T )
A 1
( 1) T ( 1)T
(
= =
(



p dng nguyn l th nht kho st cc qu trnh
cn bng ca kh l tng.
Qu trnh
Phng trnh
ca qu trnh
A Q
ng tch const
T
p
= 0
T C
m
V

T C
m
V

ng p const
T
V
= ( )
2 1
V V p T C
m
p

T C
m
V

ng nhit
const pV =
1
2
ln
V
V
RT
m

1
2
ln
V
V
RT
m

0
on nhit const pV =

T C
m
V

0
T C
m
V

107




CHNG 9. NGUYN L TH HAI CA NHIT NG LC HC
9.1. Nhng hn ch ca nguyn l th nht ca nhit ng lc hc
Bn cht ca nguyn l I chnh l nh lut bo ton v bin i nng lng.
Mi qu trnh v m u phi tun theo nguyn l I. Ngc li: mt qu trnh v m
ph hp vi nguyn l I vn c th khng xy ra trong thc t: hy xt mt vi v
d:
a) t 2 vt nng v lnh tip xc vi nhau. H qu l chng truyn nhit
lng cho nhau. Theo nguyn l I: nhit lng vt ny to ra bng nhit lng vt
kia thu vo, qu trnh truyn nhit ngng li khi hai vt c s cn bng nhit vi
nhau. Bn trong h xy ra s truyn nhit t vt nng sang vt lnh hoc t vt lnh
sang vt nng u ph hp vi nguyn l I. Nhng trong thc t: nhit ch truyn t
vt nng sang vt lnh hn m thi.
b) Mt hn c khi lng m a ln cao h, ti y n c th nng

. Th hn ri xung t do, th nng bin thnh ng nng

. Khi chm t, do va chm vi t, ng nng

bin

thnh nhit nng
(Q) v sinh cng (A). Ngc li, xt qu trnh chy ngc chiu: hn c khi
lng m nm trn mt t. Ta cho n mt nhit lng Q v cng A ng bng

nh lc hn chm t th theo nguyn l I, hn c th nhy ln cao h ban
u vi vn tc l v. Trong thc t qu trnh ny khng xy ra.
c) Mt thanh kim loi c nhit hai u khc nhau, sau mt khong thi gian
truyn nhit, thanh kim loi c nhit ng u. Hin tng ny tun theo nguyn
l I. Ngc li, nu thanh kim loi c nhit ng u nhau, khng bao gi t
nhin mt u nng ln cn u kia lnh i. Ngha l chiu ngc li khng th xy
ra trong thc t mc d nguyn l th I ca nhit ng lc hc vn cho php.
Cc v d trn a n mt kt lun l:
1. Nguyn l th I khng cho bit chiu din bin ca mt qu trnh nhit
ng, m trong thc t nhiu qu trnh ch din bin theo mt chiu duy nht m
thi.

108
2. Nguyn l th I cho bit qu trnh chuyn ho cng v nhit l tng ng
v c th chuyn ho ln nhau (Q = A). Nhng thc t: cng c th bin hon ton
thnh nhit nhng nhit khng th bin hon ton thnh cng.
3. Nguyn l th I khng cp n cht lng nhit ca ngun nhit. Trong
thc t, nhit lng ly mi trng c nhit cao c cht lng cao hn nhit
lng ly mi trng c nhit thp (v d: 1kJ nhit lng ly t than khc
1kJ nhit lng ly t g).
Nh vy: Nu ch da vo nguyn l th I th rt nhiu vn trong thc t
khng gii thch c. Nguyn l II s b sung nhng hn ch trn y. Nguyn l
II cho bit qu trnh no c th xy ra theo chiu thun v qu trnh no c th xy
ra theo chiu nghch. Nguyn l II cng vi nguyn l I to thnh mt h thng l
lun cht ch lm c s cho vic nghin cu cc hin tng trong lnh vc nhit
ng lc hc.
Trong k thut: Nguyn l II ng vai tr cc k quan trng trong vic ch to
my c bit l cc ng c nhit, my lnh v.v
9.2. Qu trnh thun nghch v bt thun nghch
Trong cc v d trn ta thy rng trong thc t rt nhiu trng hp, cc hin
tng nhit ng hc ch xy ra theo mt chiu duy nht l chiu thun. Chiu
ngc li c gi l chiu nghch. Nhng cng c mt s hin tng c th xy ra
theo c hai chiu nh nhau. Vt l hc phn ra lm 2 qu trnh: Qu trnh thun
nghch l cc qu trnh nhit ng hc xy ra c hai chiu hon ton nh nhau,
v qu trnh bt thun nghch l qu trnh nhit ng ch xy ra theo mt chiu
duy nht. Tng qu trnh ny mang nhng c trng ring m ta s xt sau y.
9.2.1. Qu trnh thun nghch
C th nh ngha qu trnh thun nghch
nh sau: Mt qu trnh nhit ng m h bin i
t trng thi 1 sang trng thi 2, sau h c th
tin hnh theo chiu ngc li v trong qu trnh
ngc h i qua tt c cc trng thi trung
gian nh trong qu trnh thun.
Qu trnh thun nghch c m t trn gin
p V nh hnh 9.1. Ngi ta thng quy c:
Chiu thun l chiu din bin qu trnh theo chiu quay ca kim ng h v gi l
chiu dng (+). Cn chiu nghch l chiu ngc chiu quay ca kim ng h v
gi l chiu m ().
Hnh 9.1. Qu

trnh thun nghch.


A


1

2

P

0

v
Chiuthun
Chiu nghch

P
2
P
1
V
1
V
2

109
Trn hnh 9.1 ta thy: ng biu din hai qu trnh thun nghch hon ton
trng nhau. y: Cng (A l din tch gch cho trn gin PV) m h nhn
c trong qu trnh nghch bng cng (A) do h cung cp cho bn ngoi trong qu
trnh thun. Cng ny c nh du di ng cong 1 2 v cng l din tch
(12V
2
V
1
1).
Kt thc qu trnh thun nghch, h tr li nguyn v tr ban u ngha l
trng thi u v trng thi cui trng nhau cho nn ni nng ca h khng thay i.
Do : nhit lng m h nhn vo trong qu trnh thun bng nhit lng to ra
trong qu trnh nghch (hay
thu toa
(2 1) (1 2)
Q Q

= ), v cng m h nhn vo trong qu trnh
thun bng cng h sinh ra trong qu trnh nghch.
Ta nhn thy: Sau mt qu trnh thun nghch, h tr li v tr ban u, cng
v nhit trong qu trnh c bo ton. V vy mi trng xung quanh khng
xy ra mt bin c no. Ni cch khc: sau khi hon thnh mt qu trnh thun
nghch, mi trng xung quanh khng b bin i g.
Trong thc t: Rt kh thc hin cc qu trnh cn bng nn qu trnh thun
nghch cng rt kh xNy ra.
9.2.2. Qu trnh bt thun nghch
Thng thng, khi mt h thay i trng thi, mt s trng thi cn bng b
ph v v khng th to li c trng thi ging hon ton nh ban u, nhng qu
trnh nh vy thuc loi qu trnh bt thun nghch. C th nh ngha qu trnh bt
thun nghch nh sau:
Mt qu trnh nhit ng c gi l bt
thun nghch khi m h tin hnh theo chiu
ngc li, h khng i qua tt c cc trng thi
trung gian nh trong qu trnh thun.
Hnh 9.2 m t qu trnh bt thun nghch
trn gin PV.
Trong qu trnh bt thun nghch cng v
nhit gia qu trnh thun v qu trnh nghch
khng c bo ton: Cng m h nhn vo t bn ngoi trong qu trnh nghch (t
trng thi cui tr v trng thi u) khc cng m h sinh ra cho bn ngoi trong
qu trnh thun t trng thi u n trng thi cui.

ra to vo nhn
) 2 1 ( 1) (2
A A .
Trn hnh 9.2: Cng m h sinh ra cho mi trng bn ngoi trong qu trnh
thun l din tch di ng cong 1a2, A
1
= din tch (1a2V
2
V
1
1) cn cng m h
Hnh 9.2. Qu

trnh thun nghch.


A


1

2

P

0

v
Qu trnh thun
Qu trnh nghch

P
1
P
2
V
1 V
2

110
nhn vo t bn ngoi l din tch di ng cong (2b1), A
2
= din tch
(2b1V
1
V
2
2). Cng thc hin trong c chu trnh l tng cng A
1
+ A
2
nhng chiu
ca qu trnh thun (A
1
) l dng v cng ca qu trnh ngch (A
2
) l m nn cng
ca c chu trnh chnh l:
2 1
A A = din tch (1a2b1) (c nh du trn hnh
9.2). y chnh l nng lng m h trao i vi mi trng trong qu trnh bin
i trng thi t 1 n 2. Nng lng ny lm cho mi trng b bin i.
Tng t nh vy, khi thc hin qu trnh thun nghch:
Nhit m h nhn t bn ngoi trong qu trnh nghch (2 1) khc vi nhit
m h cung cp cho bn ngoi trong qu trnh thun (1 2).
ra sinh vo nhn
) 2 1 ( 1) (2
Q Q v
tng nhit lng trao i gia h v mi trng s l:
Q
2
Q
1
= Q 0.
Tm li: sau khi hon thnh mt qu trnh bt thun nghch, mi trng xung
quanh b bin i v n chu tc dng bi qu trnh . Cng v nhit m h thc
hin c trong qu trnh ny chnh l tng cng ca qu trnh thun v qu trnh
nghch. V hai qu trnh thun nghch l ngc chiu nn tng cng m h thc
hin chnh l phn nh du trn hnh 9.2.
9.2.3. ngha ca vic nghin cu cc qu trnh thun nghch v bt thun
nghch
Cc qu trnh thun nghch u l cc qu trnh l tng. Trong thc t ch xy
ra cc qu trnh bt thun nghch. Cc qu trnh ny ng vai tr quan trng trong
vic xy dng nguyn l th II ca nhit ng lc hc.
Trong qu trnh bt thun nghch, c mt chiu xy ra t pht, qu trnh ny
a h n trng thi cn bng. Khi h trng thi cn bng th khng th xy ra
qu trnh t pht a h sang trng thi khng cn bng.
So vi qu trnh bt thun nghch th qu trnh thun nghch l qu trnh c li
nht v phng din cng v nhit. V cng m h sinh ra khng b mt do ma st
v nhit m h nhn vo cng khng b tiu hao v phi to ra cho mi trng xung
quanh.
Trong cng nghip ch to my, ngi ta ng dng qu trnh thun nghch
ch to cc ng c nhit v qu trnh ny c li nht v cng v nhit. Ngha l mt
ng c nhit hot ng cng gn ti qu trnh thun nghch bao nhiu th hiu sut
ca ng c cng ln by nhiu. t c iu cn phi thc hin cc qu
trnh c gi l: Qu trnh cn bng thun nghch to thnh mt chu trnh cn
bng thun nghch. V d: khng c nhit truyn t nng sang lnh cn phi iu

111
bin theo qu trnh ng nhit. Khi mun nhit thay i phi thc hin qu trnh
on nhit. Mun cng khng bin thnh nhit h phi khng c ma st v.v
9.3. Nguyn l th hai ca nhit ng lc hc
Nguyn l II c pht biu di hai dng khc nhau gn lin vi cc qu
trnh nghin cu v ng c nhit v my lnh.
9.3.1. My nhit l tng
Cu to: gm mt xilanh c pitton cha kh l tng tip xc vi cc ngun
nhit T
1
v T
2
. Thnh xilanh c cch nhit. Gi thit l my nhit khng c ma
st, dng xoy v khng mt nhit. Cc qu trnh khi hot ng nh dn kh, nn
kh, thay i nhit , thay i p sut xy ra rt chm v cc qu trnh l thun
nghch. Ngha l my nhit c th hot ng theo c hai chiu: chiu thun (ng c
nhit) v chiu nghch (my lnh). Trong khi thc hin hai chiu thun nghch,
cng v nhit ch i du m khng thay i gi tr. Ni tm li my nhit l mt h
c th bin cng thnh nhit v bin nhit thnh cng.
9.3.2. ng c nhit v cch pht biu nguyn l 2 ca Thomson
C th hiu ng c nhit: l loi my bin nhit lng thnh cng khi thc
hin chu trnh. V d nh my hi nc, ng c t trong v.v ng c nhit l
loi my nhit chy theo chiu thun.
Mt ng c nhit c m t nh sau:
ng c nhit ly nhit lng Q
1
t ngun
nng c nhit T
1
v nh nhit lng Q
2
cho
ngun lnh nhit T
2
(Hnh 9.3). Nhit lng
tng cng l
2 1
Q Q Q + = . Khi thc hin chu
trnh n sinh cng A . Theo nguyn l I: Trong
mt chu trnh E = 0 nn cng sinh ra A bng
nhit lng nhn vo Q ngha l: E Q A 0 = =
; Q = A. Vy: Q A = . Mc ch ca ng c l
bin nhit lng thnh cng cng nhiu cng tt.
i lng c trng cho kh nng sinh cng ca mt ng c nhit c gi l
hiu sut ca ng c nhit v c nh ngha bng t s gia cng sinh ra A v
nhit lng nhn vo Q
1
.

1
A
Q
= (9.1)
Thay gi tr
1 2
A Q Q = + vo phng trnh (9.1) ta c:
A
Ngun nng T
1
Ngun lnh T
2
Q
1
Q
2
Hnh 9.3. M hnh ng c nhit

112

1 2 2
1 1
Q Q Q
1
Q Q

= = (9.2)
Theo phng trnh (9.2) gi tr = 1 ch khi 0
2
= Q tc l ng c khng thi
nhit tha ra cho ngun c nhit thp hn. Ni cch khc, nhit lng bin
hon ton thnh cng. ng c nh vy gi l ng c vnh cu loi II. ng c
ny ch trao i nhit lng vi ngun nhit v sinh cng.
* Nhn xt: Trong thc t nhit lng khng th bin hon ton thnh cng
nhng cng c th bin hon ton thnh nhit. Vy c th pht biu cch th nht
ca nguyn l th II l: Khng th ch to c ng c vnh cu loi II. Hoc cch
pht biu ca Thomson nh sau: Khng th tn ti trong t nhin mt qu trnh m
hu qu duy nht l bin nhit lng hon ton thnh cng m khng li du vt
g cho mi trng xung quanh.
9.3.3. My lnh v cch pht biu nguyn l 2 ca Claudius
My lnh l loi my tiu th cng (A) vn chuyn nhit (Q) t ngun lnh
sang ngun nng hn. Nh vy trong qu trnh hot ng my lnh tiu th cng.
M hnh my lnh c minh ho trn hnh 9.4:
Khi thc hin chu trnh, tc nhn lnh nhn
nhit lng Q
2
t ngun lnh c nhit T
2
v
nhn cng A t bn ngoi. Cng A v nhit lng
Q
2
c tng hp thnh dng nng lng nhit
(nhit lng) Q
1
truyn cho ngun nng c nhit
T
1
: Hy ly v d hot ng ca mt t lnh nh
hnh 9.5.
Hot ng :
My nn kh (1) lm nhit kh tng ln, kh
nn c a qua b phn trao i nhit (2) y
nh nc lm lnh ly i nhit lng Q
1
lm cho
nhit kh nn lnh n nhit T = T
phng
, nh
p sut (p) cao, kh nn ho lng hon ton v cht lng i qua van (3). Cht lng
qua van b dn n v bc hi lm nhit T gim n T
C
, hi cht lng lm lnh
chy quanh vt cn c lm lnh ly nhit lng Q
2
truyn cho mi trng (4).
Sau kh li c tr v my nn (1) v tip tc qu trnh nh trn.
Nu gi A = cng tiu th cho my, Q
2
l nhit lng ly t ngun lnh truyn
cho ngun nng th h s lm lnh (hay h s thc hin) ca my lnh s l:
Q
1
Q
2
Ngun nng T
1
Ngun lnh T
2
A

Hnh 9.4. M hnh my lnh.

113

2 2
1 2
Q Q
K
A Q Q
= =

(9.3)
H s ny khc v K > 1. H s lm lnh cng cao, my cng tt. i vi t
lnh K 5 v iu ho nhit c K 2 3.
* Trong biu thc trn nu K th A = 0 ngha l khng tn cng (A) m
vn truyn c nhit lng Q t ngun lnh sang ngun nng. Ngi ta gi l
my lnh vnh cu. V vy, Claudiut pht biu nguyn l II nh sau:
Khng th c mt qu trnh m hu qu duy nht l truyn nhit lng t
ngun lnh hn sang ngun nng hn m khng li du vt g mi trng xung
quanh. Hoc: khng th ch to c my lnh vnh cu hay nhit khng th t
ng truyn t mi trng lnh sang mi trng nng hn.
y l cch pht biu th hai ca nguyn l th II nhit ng hc.
Ngi ta chng minh c rng hai cch pht biu trn y v nguyn l II
ca nhit ng lc hc l tng ng nhau.
9.3.4. ng dng ca nguyn l 2 nhit ng hc
Ngi ta ng dng nguyn l th hai ch to cc thit b trao i nhit v cng
phc v cho i sng. Ngoi cc dng c bit nh my nhit, t lnh mt thit
b cng c s dng rng ri khc l bm nhit.
4
1
Nc lm lnh
3
Cht lm lnh lu chuyn
van
My nn

Q
2

Q
1

B phn trao i nhit
2
Hnh 9.5. S hot ng ca t lnh

114
Bm nhit l mt loi my lnh t trong nh, n c th lm lnh vo ma h
v si m vo ma ng. Hnh 9.6a v 9.6b m t mt s bm nhit.
y l mt loi thit b hot ng theo hai chiu, thit b l my lnh vo ma
h. N chuyn nhit lng ra mi trng bn ngoi v lm lnh bn trong nh. Vo
ma ng n hot ng ngc li l bm nhit lng vo nh si m khng
gian bn trong nh. Cng s dng cho bm nhit l nng lng in.
9.4. Chu trnh Ccn v nh l Ccn
Mt chu trnh m mi qu trnh to nn n u l thun nghch c gi l:
Chu trnh thun nghch.
Chu trnh thun nghch tu c cu to do nhiu on ng ng nhit v
on nhit k tip nhau. Chu trnh thun nghch n gin nht l chu trnh Ccn.
Chu trnh Ccn gm 2 qu trnh ng nhit thun nghch v 2 qu trnh
on nhit thun nghch k tip nhau. Chu trnh ny c biu din trn hnh 9.7
Hot ng ca chu trnh Ccn c m t vn tt theo 4 bc nh sau:
a) Qu trnh t A n B: p sut gim t P
A
n P
B
, ng thi th tch tng t
V
A
n V
B
v nhit khng i. y l qu trnh dn n kh ng nhit nhit
T
1
. Trong qu trnh ny h nhn nhit lng t bn ngoi l Q
1
.
b) Qu trnh t B n C: p sut tip tc gim t P
B
n P
C
v th tch tip tc
tng t V
B
n V
C
mt cch chm hn. y l qu trnh dn n kh on nhit. H
khng nhn nhit lng bn ngoi nn nhit ca n gim xung t T
1
B n T
2

C.
c) Qu trnh t C n D: p sut bt u tng chm t P
C
n P
D
v th tch
ca h gim mnh t V
C
n V
D
. Qu trnh ny nhit ca h khng thay i nn
y l qu trnh nn kh ng nhit nhit T
2
. Trong qu trnh ny, nhit lng
ca h to ra cho mi trng l Q
2
.
d) Qu trnh t D n A: qu trnh ny p sut tng rt mnh t P
D
n P
A
cn
th tch th gim rt chm t V
D
n V
A
. y l qu trnh nn kh on nhit, h
Bm
nhit
Q
C
Q
H
A

Hnh 9.6a. Bm nhit lm mt
nh vo ma h.
Bm
nhit
Q
C
Q
H
A

Hnh 9.6b. Bm nhit lm m
nh vo ma ng.

115
khng nhn nhit lng t bn ngoi, nhit ca h tng t nhit T
2
D n
nhit T
1
A.
C nh vy tip tc cc qu trnh lp li t u to thnh chu trnh Ccn.
Nu gi Q
1
l nhit lng h nhn c t ngun nng c nhit T
1
. Q
2
l nhit
lng to ra cho ngun lnh c nhit T
2
, th hiu sut ca chu trnh Ccn c
nh ngha l:

1 2 2
1 1
Q Q Q
1
Q Q

= = (9.4)
Mun tnh Q
1
v

Q
2
ta s dng kt qu tnh nhit lng m khi kh nhn
c trong cc qu trnh ng nhit (AB) v (CD) l:

B
A
V
A
1 1 1 1
B V
V dV
Q A RT RT ln
V V
= = =

(9.5a)

D
C
V
D
2 2 2 2
C V
V dV
Q A RT RT ln
V V
= + = + =

(9.5b)
Theo chng minh trong phn trc, phng trnh on nhit c dng: P
1
V
1

=
P
2
V
2

. p dng phng trnh ny cho trng hp mt mol kh ta c:

Q
1
Dn n ng nhit T
1
(thu nhit
Q
1
)
Dn n on nhit t T
1
xung
T
2

Nn ng nhit T
2
(to nhit Q
1
)
Nn on nhit t T
2

T
1


Q
2

V
A

P


P
A

P
B

P
D

P
C

A

B

C

D

V
D
V
B
V
C
V

T
1
T
2
Hnh 9.7. Chu trnh Ccn l tng.

116

1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
1 2 1 2
RT RT RTV RT V
p ; p TV T V
V V V V


= = = = (9.6a)
Vi cc qu trnh on nhit BC v DA ta c:

1 1
1 B 2 C
TV T V

= (9.6b)

1 1
1 A 2 D
TV T V

= (9.6c)
Chia phng trnh (9.6.a) cho phng trnh (9.6b) ta c:

1 1
A D
B C
V V
V V

| | | |
=
| |
\ \
hay
C A
B D
V V
V V
= (9.7)
Thay phng trnh (9.5a) v (9.5b) vo phng trnh (9.4) kt hp vi phng
trnh (9.7) ta c:

B B
1 2
A A
B
1
A
V V
RT ln RT ln
V V
V
RT ln
V

= (9.8a)

1 2 2
1 1
T T T
1
T T

= = (9.9b)
Phng trnh (9.9) cho thy:
Hiu sut ca chu trnh Ccn ch ph thuc vo nhit ca ngun nng v
ngun lnh m thi.
Ch : Chu trnh Ccn thun nghch c th chy theo hai chiu. Khi chy
theo chiu thun, n nhn nhit ngun nng, nh nhit cho ngun lnh v sinh
cng. Khi chu trnh ng vai tr l ng c nhit. Khi chu trnh Carnot chy theo
chiu ngc, ta phi cung cp cng cho h h chuyn nhit lng t ngun lnh
sang ngun nng hn, khi n tr thnh my lnh.
Lin quan n hiu sut ca chu trnh Ccn ta c nh l sau:
Hiu sut ca cc ng c thun nghch chy vi hai ngun nhit cho trc
th bng nhau, n khng ph thuc vo h dng sinh ra cng v cch ch to
my. Hiu sut ca ng c bt thun nghch nh hn hiu sut ca ng c thun
nghch.
Theo cch pht biu ny th: khng c ng c no chy vi hai ngun nhit
cho trc li c hiu sut ln hn hiu sut ca ng c chy theo chu trnh Ccn
vi cng hai ngun nhit y. V nh phn trn trnh by: Chu trnh Ccn

117
c gi nh l gm cc qu trnh ng nhit thun nghch v on nhit thun
nghch.
9.5. Biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l th hai nhit ng lc hc
T biu thc hiu sut ca ng c nhit thun nghch chy theo chu trnh
Cacn ta c:

'
2 2
1 1
T Q
T Q
=
T biu thc ca hin sut ca chu trnh Cc-n
2
ktn
1
T
1
T
<

'
1 2 1 2
1 1
Q Q T T
Q T

- y l biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l th hai.
Thit lp biu thc nh lng tng qut ca nguyn l th hai:

'
1 2 1 2
1 1
Q Q T T
Q T


'
2 2
1 1
Q T
Q T

trong Q
2
: nhit lng m h tc nhn nh cho ngun lnh.
Q
2
: nhit lng m h nhn ca ngun lnh th Q
2
= - Q
2
.
Khi :
1 2
1 2
Q Q
0
T T
+ (9.10)
(9.10) c thit lp i vi h bin i theo mt chu trnh gm hai qu trnh
ng nhit v hai qu trnh on nhit.
Trong trng hp tng qut hn, h bin i gm v s qu trnh ng nhit
v on nhit k tip nhau. Ta c:
i
i i
Q
0
T

Nu trong chu trnh ca h bin thin lin tc, ta c th coi h tip xc ln lt
vi v s ngun nhit c nhit T v cng gn nhau v bin thin lin tc; mi
qu trnh tip xc vi mt ngun nhit l mt qu trnh vi phn trong h nhn
nhit Q, ta c:

Q
0
T

y chnh l biu thc nh lng tng qut ca nguyn l th hai.
Du = ng vi chu trnh thun nghch, du < ng vi chu trnh khng
thun nghch.
9.6. Khi nim Entropy v nguyn l tng Entropy. nh l Nernst
9.6.1. Hm Entropy

118
Khi mt h bin i theo mt chu trnh thun nghch th:

Q
0
T

=


Xt mt h bin i t trng thi (1) n trng thi (2) theo hai qu trnh thun
nghch khc nhau 1a2 v 1b2. V 1b2 l thun nghch nn ta c th tin hnh theo
qu trnh ngc 2b1 qua nhng trng thi trung gian nh c. Kt qu l ta c chu
trnh thun nghch 1a2b1. Do ta c:

1a2b1
Q
0
T

=

hay
1a2 2b1 1a2 1b2
Q Q Q Q
0 0
T T T T

+ = + =


Do :
1a2 1b2
Q Q
T T

=


Tch phn
Q
T

theo cc qu trnh thun nghch t trng thi (1) n trng
thi (2) khng ph thuc qu trnh m ch ph thuc trng thi u v trng thi
cui.
- nh ngha hm trng thi S ca h sao cho bin thin ca S t (1) n (2) c
gi tr bng
Q
T

t (1) n (2) theo mt qu trnh thun nghch no :

(2)
2 1
(1)
Q
S S S
T

= =

(9.11)

Hm S gi l hm entrpy ca h.
Vi phn ca hm S cho bi:
Q
dS
T

=
a
b
1
2
p
V
Hnh 9.8a. Chu trnh thun nghch.

p
V
Hnh 9.8b. Mt chu trnh thun nghch bt k c
th chia thnh mt tp hp cc chu trnh Ccn
lin k nhau.
f
i

- Tnh cht ca hm Entropy S cng tng t tnh cht ca ni nng:
* S l mt hm trng thi ngha l mi trng thi ca h n c mt gi tr xc
nh v n khng ph thuc vo qu trnh ca h t trng thi ny qua trng thi
khc.
* S l mt i lng c tnh cng c ngha l Entropy ca mt h cn bng
bng tng cc Entropy ca tng phn ring bit.
* Entropy c xc nh sai km mt hng s cng:
0
Q
S S
T

= +

trong S
0
: gi tr Entropy ti gc tnh ton. S
0
= 0 trng thi c T = 0K.
- n v ca Entropy: (J/K)
- Nh c hm trng thi Entropy biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l th hai
c th vit di dng khc.
Xt mt qu trnh khng thun nghch ca h t trng thi (1) n trng thi
(2) ta c th thc hin mt qu trnh thun nghch cng c trng thi u v trng
thi cui. Cho h bin i theo mt chu trnh gm mt qu trnh khng thun nghch
(1a2) v mt qu trnh thun nghch 2b1. Nh vy chu trnh ny khng thun
nghch, do :

Q
0
T

<


Ta c:
1a2 2b1
Q Q
0
T T

+ <


V qu trnh 2b1 l thun nghch nn tin hnh theo chiu ngc 1b2, ta c:

Ta c:
1a2 1b2
Q Q
T T

<


V 1b2 l qu trnh thun nghch ta p dng c
(2)
2 1
(1)
Q
S S S
T

= =

cn 1a2 l qu trnh khng thun nghch nn ta c:
ktn
Q
S
T

<

Khi ta c:
trong du = ng vi qu trnh thun nghch, du > ng vi qu trnh
khng thun nghch.

=
2 1 1 2 b b
T
Q
T
Q
S
T
Q
ktn

120
Dng vi phn:
Q
dS
T

- biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l th hai
9.6.2. Nguyn l tng Entropy
Biu thc nh lng ca nguyn l th hai di dng vi phn ng cho mi
h d l c lp hay khng c lp. i vi h khng c lp th tu theo du v gi tr
ca nhit nhn vo trong mt qu trnh thun nghch S c th c gi tr dng hoc
m hoc bng khng ngha l Entropy ca h c th tng hoc gim hoc khng i.
Nhng i vi h c lp, v khng trao i nhit vi bn ngoi nn Q = 0, do
bin thin Entropy ca n l:

S 0
Nh vy trong mt h c lp qu trnh din bin nu l thun nghch th
Entropy ca h khng i (S = 0) v nu khng thun nghch th Entropy tng ln
(S > 0).
Trong thc t cc qu trnh nhit ng u l khng thun nghch nn ta c
nguyn l tng Entropy sau y:
Vi qu trnh nhit ng thc t xy ra trong mt h c lp, Entropy ca h
lun tng. Tc l mt h c lp khng th hai ln i qua cng mt trng thi (v gi
tr S ca n khng tr li gi tr ban u).
Nguyn l tng Entropy l mt cch pht biu khc ca nguyn l th hai.
So snh Entropy S vi ni nng U: Tuy chng u l nhng hm trng thi
nhng khi xt mt qu trnh xy ra trong mt h c lp th nu ch da vo nguyn
l th nht, ta thy ni nng khng bin thin (U = 0) do khng bit c chiu
din bin ca qu trnh. Nhng nu dng nguyn l tng Entropy (S > 0) th d
dng bit c chiu .
9.6.3. nh l Nernst
Nh ta bit cng thc (9.11) khng xc nh entropy m xc nh hiu s
entropy hai trng thi, Nernst chng minh mt nh l cho php tnh entropy
bt k trng thi no.
nh l Nernst (hay cn gi l nguyn l th 3 nhit ng lc hc) pht biu
nh sau: Khi nhit tuyt i ca h tin ti 0 th entroopy ca bt k vt no
cng tin ti 0

T 0
limS 0

=
Nh nh l Nernst ta c th tnh entrpy ca h bt k nhit no

121

T
0
Q
S
T

Chng hn nu bit nhit dung ng p cu mt vt no l hm ca nhit
, entroopy c th tnh theo cng thc

T
p
0
C (T)dT
S
T
=

CHNG 10. KH THC
Nhng nh l i vi cht kh l tng ch gn ng cho cc kh thc. Cho
nn cn nghin cu tnh cht ca kh thc v thit lp phng trnh trng thi ca
n.
10.1. Lc tng tc phn t v th nng tng tc
10.1.1. Lc tng tc phn t
Cc phn t cu to t cc nguyn t. Mi nguyn t gm ht nhn mang in
tch dng (+) v cc electron mang in tch m () quay xung quanh ht nhn.

122
Do tng tc gia cc in tch (tri du hoc cng du) nn gia cc phn t
sinh ra lc tng tc ht hoc Ny
nhau. Nhng lc ny ph thuc vo
khong cch (r) gia chng. Nu quy
c lc Ny l dng (+) nh hm f
1
,
lc ht l m () nh hm f
2
trn hnh
10.1, th khi cc phn t gn nhau (r
nh), lc Ny f
1
chim u th
1 2
f f > .
Khi cc phn t xa nhau (r ln) th
lc ht chim u th
1 2
f f < . Vy lc
tng hp tng tc gia hai phn t s
l:
f (r) = f
1
+ f
2

Lc tng hp ny c dng
Parabol khng i xng v ct trc
honh ti r
o
. Gi tr ca r
o
xc nh c
3.10
10
m. ng vi n, lc tng tc
tng hp (f) bng khng. Ti v tr ny
cc phn t trng thi cn bng. Hnh
10.1 cn cho thy:
Khi r = r
0
3.10
-10
m th f = 0:
r < r
0
, lc Ny (f
1
) chim u th v vy lc tng hp f > 0.
r > r
0
, lc ht (f
2
) chim u th v vy lc tng hp f < 0.
10.1.2. Th nng tng tc gia cc phn t
Nu bit lc tng tc gia cc phn t ta tm c th nng tng tc gia
chng.
Gi A l cng ca lc tng tc gia hai phn t khi chng dch chuyn mt
on r th:
A = f.r (10.1a)
i lng ny chnh bng gim th nng E
t.

A = f.r = E
t
(10.1b)
E
t
gi l th nng tng tc gia cc phn t.
th E
t
(r) ph thuc khong cch (r) trong hnh 10.1 cho thy: khi r th
f(r) 0. Vy nu ta chn E
t
(r = ) = 0, t r = gim dn v pha gc to th f
0
f
1
(lc Ny)
f = f
1
+ f
2

0
r
0
f
2
(lc ht)
r
E
t
E
t
min
t
E
r

E
t
E
t1
E
2
r
1 0

r

Chiu dch chuyn r

r
2
r
0
r
2
r
1
r
Hnh 10.1. Lc v th nng tng tc ca
cc phn t kh thc

123
l lc ht (< 0) cng chiu vi dch chuyn r. Do , A > 0 ngha l s thay i
th nng gia hai im r
1
v r
2
l gim dn:
A = E
t
=
1 2
t t
E E 0 >
Tip tc gim khong cch r cho n khi r = ro ta thu c gi tr th nng
tng tc l thp nht. Ti y ng vi trng thi cn bng, nng lng tng tc
ca cc phn t l cc tiu. Nu tip tc gim r th f s l lc Ny (> 0) (ngc chiu
dch chuyn r) nn A < 0 ngha l: E
t
< 0 do th nng tng dn. Ti y tng
hp lc f tng rt nhanh, nn E
t
cng tng nhanh. V vy xung quanh v tr cn bng
(r
o
) ca cc phn t ng vi nng lng cc tiu hnh thnh mt h c dng parabol
khng i xng: h su c gi l h th nng. Ngi ta c th da vo mc
thay i ca h th nng gii thch mt s hin tng chuyn ng nhit v s
tn ti ca vt cc dng rn, lng, kh. Chng hn nh:
vt rn: nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca phn t c k
B
T < E
t(min)
, v vy
cc phn t nm nhng v tr cn bng bn. Chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t
ch dao ng quanh cc v tr .
Vi cht lng: Nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca phn t vo c k
B
T E
t(min)
,
nn cc phn t va dao ng quanh v tr cn bng li va c th dch chuyn trong
c khi cht lng.
Vi cht kh: Nng lng chuyn ng nhit ca phn t l k
B
T > E
t(min)
, v
vy cc phn t kh chuyn ng t do trong c khi kh.
Nh vy: Nghin cu lc tng tc v th nng tng tc ca phn t gip ta
hiu r cu to v chuyn ng phn t trong cc cht. ng thi c th thit lp
phng trnh trng thi ca chng.
10.2. Kh thc v phng trnh trng thi ca kh thc
10.2.1. Kh thc v kh l tng
Phng trnh trng thi ca kh l tng cho 1 mol l: pV = RT. Phng trnh
ny c th p dng cho kh thc iu kin bnh thng khi m khong cch gia
cc phn t r 10.r
0
= 3.10
-9
m, ti y lc tng tc gia cc phn t f (r) 0 v
th tch ring ca cc phn t kh bng c 10
-3
ln th tch ca c khi kh.
Nhng nu ta nn kh hoc h nhit th khi th tch khi kh gim, lm
cho cc phn t c khong cch gn nhau hn, lc f (r) 0, ng thi th tch
ring phn t (v) chim phn ng k so vi th tch (V) ca c khi kh.
Nh vy: Phng trnh pV = RT khng th p dng cho kh thc vi mi gii
hn ca p v T. V vy, cn thit lp phng trnh trng thi ca kh thc.

124
10.2.2. Phng trnh Vandervan
a. Cc hng s hiu nh a v b
Vi kh l tng ta gi thit kch thc phn t l khng ng k v coi cc
phn t nh nhng cht im. Ngha l chng khng chim mt khong khng gian
no. V vy: th tch dnh cho chuyn ng t do ca cc phn t chnh l th tch
(V) ca c bnh cha khi kh .
Vi kh thc: Kch thc ca cc phn t khng th b qua c, mi phn t
chim mt khong khng gian no . Theo tnh ton v th nghim p = 500 atm
th khi lng ring (v) ca phn t chim V/2 ca bnh cha. V vy: Th tch dnh
cho chuyn ng t do ca phn t s nh hn th tch (V) ca bnh cha. Nu gi
V
t
l th tch dnh cho chuyn ng t do ca cc phn t th:
V
t
= V b (10.2a)
b: l s hng hiu chnh v th tch ph thuc vo bn cht ca tng cht kh
v c gi l cng tch
(

kmol
m
3

Theo tnh ton l thuyt: Gi tr cng tch b bng 4 ln tng th tch ring ca
phn t trong bnh cha. Ngha l:

3
1
b 4N d
6
| |
=
|
\
(10.2b)
d: ng knh phn t.
N: s Avgar.
V p sut ca cc phn t trong kh
thc cng khc vi p sut trong cht kh l
tng. Vi kh l tng: gi thit cc phn
t khng tng tc nhau. Do , p sut o
c trn thnh bnh m t ng trng thi
chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t v p
sut ny nghim ng phng trnh:
pV = RT
Trong khi vi kh thc: tn ti lc
tng tc gia cc phn t (f (r)), nhng
tng hp lc tc dng ln cc phn t trong
lng khi kh b trit tiu nn n khng gy
nh hng n chuyn ng ca cc phn
t.
thnh bnh
n
0
P
f
(b) (a)
lp kh
Hnh 10.2. M t p sut ca kh thc
tc dng ln thnh bnh.

125
Hy tng tng mt khi kh chia thnh nhiu lp. Khi phn t kh lp
ngoi cng (st thnh bnh) va chm vo thnh bnh (gy ra p sut p) th chnh lc
chng li b cc phn t lp bn trong ko li (v c lc tng tc gia cc phn
t kh) v gia chng sinh ra mt p sut ni. Do , p sut o c trn thnh
bnh khng biu hin ng trng thi chuyn ng nhit ca cc phn t. Nh vy:
so vi kh l tng th lc tng tc do cc phn t kh thc tc dng ln thnh bnh
s nh hn (Hnh 10.2).
Nu gi p
t
l p sut kh thc v p l p sut kh l tng th p
t
= p +p
i
. Vi p
i

l s hng hiu nh kh thc v kh l tng v c gi l ni p.
S phn t cng ln th p
i
cng ln.
Ni cch khc: p
i
t l vi mt phn t gn thnh bnh (n
0
) (lp a). Ngoi
ra p
i
cn ph thuc vo cc phn t lm nhim v ko cc phn t gn thnh bnh
li. S phn t ny cng nhiu th lc ko cng ln. Do , p
i
n
0
trong lp kh
ko li (lp b), kt qu l:
Lc tc dng ln cc phn t nm st thnh bnh s t l vi
2
0
n v hng vo
trong cht kh. Vy: lc ht (f) ny ng vi mt n v din tch, chnh l ni p
p
i
. Gi tr ca p
i
= a/V
2
(v p
i
t l vi
2
2
0 2
N
n
V
= ) vi a l h s t l v l hng s ph
thuc vo bn cht ca tng cht kh. n v ca a l:
[ ] a =
2
4
.
Kmol
m N

b. Phng trnh trng thi Vandervan i vi kh thc
Thit lp phng trnh trng thi Vandervan i vi kh thc trn c s l lun
trn y khi bit th tch V
t
v p sut p
t
ca kh thc:
V
t
= V b
p
t
= p + p
i
= p +
2
V
a
(10.3)
Vy: phng trnh trng thi ca kh thc c dng:
( ) RT b V
V
a
P = |

\
|
+ .
2
(10.4)
Phng trnh ny c gi l phng trnh trng thi Vandervan i vi mt
mol ca kh thc (n c thit lp nm 1873).
i vi mt khi lng kh thc bt k (m) v th tch (v) th phng trnh
Vandervan c bin i nh sau:

126
V v
m

= , mN = l khi lng mt mol kh. Thay V vo phng trnh trn v

nhn hai v vi
m

ta c:

2
2 2
m a
P v b RT
v m m
| | | |
+ =
| |

\
\
(10.5)
y l phng trnh trng thi Vandervan thit lp cho mt khi kh thc bt
k.
10.3. ng ng nhit Vandervan v ng ng nhit thc nghim Andrews.
So snh ng ng nhit thc nghim v l thuyt
10.3.1. ng ng nhit Vandervan
T phng trnh trng thi (10.4) Vandervan tnh cho 1 mol kh thc rt ra:

2
RT a
P
V b V
=

(10.6)
y l hm p = p(V).
Ta biu din hm s ny trn gin P V trong qu trnh ng nhit: (T =
const) bng cch ng vi mt gi tr ca V ta c mt gi tr ca p (Hnh 10.3). Nh
vy:
Trong h to POV ta v c cc ng cong ng nhit gi l: ng
ng nhit Vandervan. ng vi mi nhit (T) khc nhau ta v c mt ng
ng nhit khc nhau. Tp hp cc ng ny gi l h ng ng nhit
Vandervan.
T th trn hnh 10.3 nhn thy:
Khi T ln: ng ng nhit
Vandervan c p tng n iu theo s
gim ca V v l ng hypepol, ging
vi ng cong ca kh l tng.
Khi T nh: ng ng nhit c
on li lm v c cc i, cc tiu (v
trong vng ny ng vi mt gi tr p c 3
gi tr V. V d: V
1
, V
2
, V
3
).
Gia T ln v T nh: Tn ti mt
ng ng nhit ng vi T = T
K
, ng
ny c im un ti K v ti K tip tuyn ca n song song vi trc honh.
Hnh 10.3. ng ng nhit Vandecvan
(ng l thuyt i vi kh thc).
P
T
k
T
2

T
1

0
V
P
K

K
T >T
K

P
v
3

v
2

v
1

127
Tm li: T > T
K
ng ng nhit ca kh thc ging nh kh l tng: T <
T
K
ng ng nhit c cc i, cc tiu, c on li lm v khi T = T
K
ng
dng nhit c im un ti K.
10.3.2. ng ng nhit thc nghim Andrews
a. Thc nghim v gii thch
Nm 1866 Andrews lm th nghim: ly mt kmol kh CO
2
c nhit ti hn
T
K
= 304 K nn ng nhit ti nhng
nhit xc nh nghin cu s ph
thuc ca p vo V theo phng trnh
VI.6. Kt qu: Andrews v c mt
h ng ng nhit thc nghim, gi l
h ng ng nhit thc nghim
Andrews (hnh 10.4).
Cc hin tng vt l gn vi cc
ng ng nhit biu din trn hnh
10.4 c m t nh sau:
Khi T < T
K
: Xt tng on trn
ng ng nhit ABCD lm v d ta c:
Khi bt u nn kh CO
2
th tch
gim v p sut tng (on AB), v n
0
tng. Khi nn kh n mt p sut nht nh P
= P
B
(ti im B) ng vi V
B
, nu tip tc nn kh th p sut khng tng na v qu
trnh ho lng kh bt u. Cng nn, th tch kh cng gim v lng kh CO
2
ho
lng cng nhiu. n khi V = V
C
th ton b kh CO
2
ho lng (on BC). Mi
im trn on BC biu din mt trng thi hn hp l: kh CO
2
va tn ti th
lng v th hi. Hi CO
2
lc ny gi l hi bo ho (v n
0
khng tng c na).
Ngha l: ti y c hin tng cn bng ng (s phn t kh ho lng do nn bng
s phn t bay hi).
Khi ton b kh ho lng, do tnh cht ca cht lng l kh nn, v vy nu tip
tc nn th th tch gim rt t v p sut tng rt nhanh. ng biu din p = p (V)
gn nh thng ng (on CD).
Nu nn kh ng nhit nhng nhit cng gn nhit T
K
th thy rng p
sut hi bo ho cng tng v on nm ngang (BC) cng ngn li.
n khi T = T
K
nu nn kh ng nhit th on BC thu v mt im chnh
l im un (K) ng vi mt trng thi c bit ca kh CO
2
c gi l trng thi
P
Q
P
K

0
V
B

C B
P
B
=P
C

Kh co
2

(1)
A
K
V
K
V
C

V
(3)
D
(4)
2)
T
K=300K
Q R
Hnh 10.4. H ng ng nhit
thc nghim Andrews.

128
ti hn. ng vi trng thi ti hn (ti K) c cc thng s (T
K
, V
K
, P
K
) c gi l
nhit , th tch v p sut ti hn.
nhit T > T
K
khi nn ng nhit kh khng ho lng c, v ng ng
nhit c dng hyperbol.
b. Trng thi ti hn v s phn vng
Tr li hnh 10.4, nu ta ni tt c u cc on nm ngang trn cc ng
ng nhit thc nghim vi im K ta s thu c mt ng cong dng hnh
chung (QKR). Hnh chung v ng ng nhit ti hn (T
K
) chia mt phng POV
lm bn vng.
Vng 1: ng vi cc trng thi T > T
K
, c gii hn bng ng ng nhit
T
K
. Ti y khng th lm kh ho lng bng cch nn kh ng nhit, ta gi l vng
kh.
Vng 2: ng vi cc trng thi T < T
K
, c gii hn bng na hnh chung
KR v na ng ng nhit T
K
. Trong vng ny c th nn kh theo qu trnh ng
nhit lm cho kh ho lng c. Vng ny gi l vng hi.
Vng 3: ng vi cc trng thi hn hp bao gm hi bo ho v cht lng
c gii hn bi hnh chung QKR, c gi l vng hn hp (hoc l vng trung
gian).
Vng 4: ng vi cc trng thi lng gii hn bi mt na hnh chung QK v
ng ng nhit T
K
. Ti y cht kh ho lng hon ton v c gi l vng lng.
Ch : Vi mi loi kh khc nhau ta c mt ng ng nhit (T
K
) khc
nhau. Trng thi ti hn mang c trng thuc c 4 vng trn y.
c. ngha thc tin ca h ng ng nhit Vandervan
Sau khi nghin cu ng cong thc nghim Angdriu ta c th nhn thy
ngha thc tin c th suy ra t h ng ng nhit Vandervan nh sau:
a, Trong vng nhit cao (T > T
K
): D nn kh p sut cao cng khng ho
lng kh c. Nu mun ho lng kh cn phi h nhit ca khi kh xung
di nhit ti hn ca n (T<T
K
).
b, p sut cc i ca hi bo ho khng th ln hn p sut ti hn (P
K
) (v
P
K
ng vi T
K
).
c, Th tch ca mt cht kh trng thi lng khng th ln hn th tch ti
hn (V
K
) (v cht lng trng thi ti hn c th trc tip chuyn thnh kh m
khng cn qua trng thi trung gian).
d. So snh ng ng nhit thc nghim v l thuyt

129
Xt h ng ng nhit Vandervan trn hnh 10.3 v h ng ng nhit
thc nghim Andrews trn hnh 10.4, nhn thy:
a, cc nhit T > T
K
, cc
ng ng nhit l thuyt v thc
nghim u ph hp nhau chng l
cc hyperbol ging vi ng ng
nhit ca kh l tng.
b, Vi mi loi kh ta v c
mt ng ng nhit ti hn (T
K
) c
mt im un K. Tip tuyn ti im
un song song vi trc honh.
c, cc nhit T < T
K
ng
ng nhit l thuyt c on li, lm
(c gi tr cc i ti b v cc tiu ti
c), cn ng ng nhit thc nghim
c on nm ngang (Hnh 10.5). Vy phng trnh Vandervan cha m t c
nhng trng thi trung gian m thc nghim pht hin c. Tuy nhin nhiu trng
thi ng vi mt s im ca on li, lm c th quan st c bng th nghim (v
d i vi cc cht kh tinh khit).
d, cc ng ng nhit l thuyt khi nn n P > P
HBH
l p sut hi bo
ho (ti B) m kh vn cha ho lng. Nu tip tc nn, th p sut s tng ln (on
Bb). Trng thi ny c gi l hi qu bo ho v hin tng ny gi l hin tng
chm ho lng. Mun lm mt hin tng ny ta a vo hi qu bo ho nhng
tm ngng t (nh rc bt, mui...vv). Khi hi qu bo ho s bt u ngng t
v ho lng. Ngc li khi dn n kh ng nhit t trng thi lng ti p sut P
P
HBH
(ti C) m cht lng vn cha bc hi. Nu tip tc dn, p sut ca cht lng
tip tc gim xung. Hin tng ny c gi l hin tng chm bay hi (on
Cc). Cc trng thi ny l gn bn.
e, Cc trng thi ng vi on (bc) khng quan st c, l cc trng thi
khi p sut tng th th tch tng theo. Ngi ta cho rng cc trng thi ny l hon
ton khng bn.
Tm li: Phng trnh Vandervan m t c tnh cht ca cht kh, hi v
lng, c bit l cc trng thi gn bn ca vt cht (on Bb v Cc). Phng trnh
ny m t c tnh chu nn ca cht kh v tnh kh nn ca cht lng. N gii
thch c trng thi ti hn ca cc cht kh ti im K.
10.4. Ni nng ca kh thc. Hiu ng Joule Thomson
Hnh 10.5. So snh ng ng nhit l thuyt v
thc nghim trong vng nhit T < T
k
V
c
C
D
P
P
HBH
A
0
B
b
Chm bay hi
Chm ho lng

130
10.4.1. Ni nng ca kh thc
i vi kh l tng, ni nng cht kh bng tng ng nng chuyn ng tnh
tin v chuyn ng quay ca cc phn t v cc phn t khng tng tc vi nhau
nn:

i
n
d d
i 1
U E E
=
= =

(10.11)
i
d
E : l ng nng ca phn t th i trong s n phn t kh. Nh vy ni nng
ca kh l tng khng ph thuc vo p sut v th tch m ch ph thuc vo nhit
. (V d: nh l phn b u theo cc bc t do
B
f
U k T
2
= ).
i vi kh thc, cc phn t c tng tc ln nhau do ni nng phi bao
gm c ng nng v th nng tng tc. Ngha l:
U = E
d
+ E
t
(10.12)
E
t
y l th nng tng tc gia cc phn t. Ta cn phi tnh gi tr ny.
Theo phng trnh Vandecvan (10.4), p
i
chnh l lc tng tc gia cc phn
t cho 1 kmol kh v c gi tr l: p
i
=
2
a
V

Vy th nng tng tc gia cc phn t kh ng vi mt kmol kh l:

t i 2
adV a
E p dV const
V V
= = = +

(10.13)
Trong biu thc (10.13) khi V th hng s c coi nh bng khng nn
t
a
E
V
= . Vy ni nng cho 1 kmol kh thc l:
U =
d
a
E
V
(10.14)
p dng phng trnh (10.14) cho mt khi lng kh thc (m) bt k ta c:

t
a m
E
V
=

(10.15a)
: khi lng 1 kmol
Vy ni nng ca mt khi lng kh thc (m) bt k l:

d
a m
U E
V
=

(10.15b)
S dng phng trnh (10.14) tnh cho 1 kmol kh thc ta c ni nng l:

v
a
U C T
V
=

131
10.4.2. Hiu ng Joule Thomson
Xt mt h c lp (khng trao i cng v nhit vi bn ngoi). Ngha l h c
ni nng U = const (hay bin thin ni nng ca h U = 0).
Thng thng ni nng ca kh thc bng ni nng ca kh l tng v th
nng tng tc. S dng nh lut phn b nng lng u theo cc bc t do ta c:
U
t
= U + E
t
=
2
1
fRT + E
t
(10.16a)
Nu U
t
ph thuc vo th tch (V) th khi dn n kh bin thin U
t
= 0, do
:
U
t
=
2
1
fRT + E
t
= 0 (10.16b)
V nhit ca khi kh l khng i (hay T=0) nn E
t
= 0.
Nhng theo phng trnh (10.4) chng minh E
t
=
a
V
ngha l U
t
ph
thc vo th tch (V) ca khi kh. Cho nn khi dn n kh nhit ca n phi
thay i vy 0 T .
Hin tng nhit khi kh thay i (nng ln hay lnh i do th nng tng
tc trao i) gi l hiu ng Joule Thomson.
















132











CHNG 11. CHUYN PHA
11.1. Khi nim pha v chuyn pha
Mi mt cht u c thnh phn ho hc xc nh, tu theo iu kin p sut,
nhit m chng c th nhng trng thi khc nhau, c cc tnh cht vt l khc
nhau (v d nh nc c th tn ti cc trng thi rn, lng v kh). Nh vy khi
nim v pha trong vt l c th c hiu l: cc trng thi khc nhau m vt cht
c th tn ti vi cng mt cu trc v cng mt tnh cht vt l.
Vt cht khi tn ti trng thi kh thng c s pha l 1. c bit, trng
thi lng mt s cht nh He lng c s pha l 2. Cc cht tn ti trng thi
trng thi rn c s pha thng thng ln hn 2.
Khi cc thng s trng thi thay i (nh T, p) vt cht c th chuyn t pha
ny sang pha khc, qu trnh gi l s chuyn pha.
C hai loi chuyn pha thng xy ra l chuyn pha loi I v chuyn pha loi
II.
Nu chuyn pha i km theo s thu hay to mt lng nhit no th chuyn
pha c gi l chuyn pha loi I.
V d: qu trnh bay hi (chuyn t trng thi lng sang trng thi kh), qu
trnh nng chy (chuyn pha t trng thi rn sang trng thi lng), hai qu trnh ny
vt thu nhit lng (nhit ho hi v nhit nng chy). Cc qu trnh chuyn ngc
li: vt to nhit lng, l cc qu trnh chuyn pha t hi sang lng, chuyn pha
t lng sang rn.
Vy: c trng ca qu trnh chuyn pha loi I l trao i nhit lng, nhng
nhit ca vt khng tng.

133
Nu chuyn pha m khng thu hay to nhit, nhng km theo s thay i v
nhit dung v cc tnh cht vt l khc th c gi l chuyn pha loi II.
V d: chuyn pha st t sang phn st t; chuyn pha t trng thi dn in
thng sang trng thi siu dn, chuyn pha t cht lng He
I
sang He
II
lm nht
thay i. Sau y ch xt mt s tnh cht chung ca loi chuyn pha n gin l
chuyn pha loi I.
11.2. Gin pha v mt s gin pha in hnh
Nghin cu cc qu trnh chuyn pha ta thng s dng th m t p sut
ph thuc vo nhit trong qu trnh bin i trng thi ca mt h nhit ng.
Cc ng cong m t s ph thuc ny gi l gin pha.
11.2.1. Gin pha m t s ph thuc nhit ca p sut hi bo ha
Xut pht t phng trnh
( )
II I
T V V dT
dp L

= , ta c:

) (
l
V V T
L
dT
dp
bh
bh

= (11.1)
Trong L l nhit ho hi.
bh
V l th tch ca mt n v khi lng hi bo ho.
l
V l th tch ca mt n v khi lng cht lng.
Gi thit rng nhit ha hi khng ph thuc nhit ,
l
V V
bh
>> . Nh vy
l
V
c th b qua, theo phng trnh Menlep Clapayrong vit cho mt n v khi
lng hi bo ho l:

bh bh
RT
p V =

(11.2)

Vi l khi lng ca 1kmol.
T hai phng trnh (11.1) v (11.2) vi gi thit
l
V V
bh
>> ta c:

2
RT
dT
L
p
dp
bh
bh
=
(11.3)
Tch phn hai v ca phng trnh (11.3)
ta c:
L
RT
bh
p A.e

= (11.4)
Hnh 11.1 S ph thuc p sut hi bo
ho vo nhit ca cht lng.
lng
hi
T
k
T
P
K
P
bh
K


134
Gin pha c m t bng phng trnh (11.4) l mt ng cong c dng
nh hnh 11.1. ng cong ny kt thc ti im ng vi trng thi ti hn:
p = p
k

v T = T
k

Ti im ti hn ny ta khng phn bit c s khc nhau gia hai pha lng
v hi. ng cong trong hnh 85 chia mt phng [p
bh
T] thnh hai phn: phn trn
l ca pha lng, phn di l ca pha hi.
Khi nhit tng ln p sut hi bo ho trn mt cht lng cng tng.
11.2.2. Gin pha ng tn ti 3 pha. im ba
Hnh 11.2 l gin pha m t trng thi cn bng ca mt cht lng vi hi
bo ho ca n. Khi lm lnh, p sut hi
bo ho gim xung, qu trnh ng vi
ng cong (MK) gi l ng cong bay
hi. Qu trnh ny kt thc khi cht lng bt
u kt tinh. Khi kt tinh, nhit v v p
sut hi bo ho hon ton xc nh l p
M

v
T
M
.
Nu tip tc lm lnh, nhit cht rn
kt tinh gim dn lm cho p sut hi bo
ho cng gim xung, ta thu c ng
cong thng hoa (2).
Nu t im M nung nng cht rn, th n s nng chy. Khi p sut hi bo
ho trn mt cht rn thay i, nhit nng chy ca n cng s thay i theo, ta
thu c ng cong nng chy (3).
th biu din ba ng cong (1), (2), (3) trn mt phng [pT] gi l gin
pha ng tn ti 3 pha. Gin ny chia mt phng [pT] lm 3 phn: phn I bao
gm trng thi ca cc vt khi bay hi, phn II vt trng thi lng, phn III vt
trng thi rn.
im M l giao im ca 3 ng cong (1), (2) v (3) gi l im ba. Ti y
c s cn bng ln lt gia cc pha: lng v kh, kh rn, rn lng. Vy im 3
l im m ti c s cn bng ca 3 pha rn, lng v kh. V d: im 3 ca nc
c cc gi tr p sut p
a
= 609,1 Pa v nhit t
a
= 0,0098
0
C
Nu bit gin pha ca mt cht ta c th suy ra cc vn sau:
ng vi cc gi tr cho trc ca p sut v nhit ta c th xc inh c
vt ang tn ti trng thi rn, lng hay kh.
Hnh 11.2. Gin ng tn ti 3 pha
ca mt cht.
T
M
T
III
P
M
P
I
II
(1)
(2)
(3)
P
Q
M
K

135
Mun vt tn ti mt trong 3 trng thi rn, lng hoc kh ti mt nhit
xc nh th p sut tng ng phi bng mt gi tr xc nh.
C th xc nh c s thay i trng thi ca mt vt khi cc thng s
trng thi thay i. V d: Nu ta un nng ng p mt vt rn n s chuyn t
trng thi rn sang hi m khng cn qua trng thi lng (ng vi im P chuyn
sang im Q trn gin 11.2).
Ch : ng cong bay hi (1) gii hn ti im ti hn K. Vy c th thc
hin qu trnh chuyn t trng thi lng sang kh hay hi m khng gp ng cong
bay hi, nhng khng th thc hin qu trnh chuyn t trng thi rn sang trng
thi lng m khng gp ng cong nng chy hoc chuyn trng thi t rn sang
hi m khng gp ng cong thng hoa. Bn cht vt l ca cc hin tng ny l
do cht lng v cht kh l nhng cht ng hng nn c th chuyn qua nhau m
khng cn thu hay to nhit ( trng thi ti hn). Cn cht rn kt tinh l cht bt
ng hng do khng th chuyn trng thi t t qua lng hay kh m n phi
thu vo hay to ra nhit lng thc hin bc chuyn pha nhy vt.
Mt s cht rn trng thi kt tinh c th
c nhng cu trc tinh th khc nhau: cu trc
tinh th a nh hnh. Trng hp ny dng ca
gin pha tr nn phc tp v chng c nhiu
im ba. V d gin pha ca lu hunh c 3
im pha (hnh 11.3). Bi v lu hunh c hai cu
trc tinh th khc nhau: mt vng c cu trc tinh
th n t, vng kia c cu trc tinh th theo h
trc thoi. ng cong BC ng vi qu trnh
chuyn pha gia hai trng pha rn c cu trc tinh
th khc nhau.
11.3. Chuyn pha loi I v chuyn pha loi II
11.3.1. Chuyn pha loi I
a. S thay i ca Entropy khi chuyn pha
Nu trong qu trnh chuyn pha, khi lng vt cht chuyn t pha ny sang
pha khc l m. Nhit lng cung cp (hoc ly i) t h chuyn pha ht mt n
v khi lng l L (gi l nhit chuyn pha ring), th nhit lng cn thit lm
chuyn pha m khi lng vt cht l:
Q mL =
Hnh 11.3. Gin pha ca
lu hunh.
T
III
P
I
A
B
C
II
IV
D

136
Trong qu trnh chuyn pha nhit ca h khng i nn s bin thin
entropy (S) ca h l:

Q mL
S
T T

= = (11.5)
Nu qu trnh chuyn pha phi cung cp nhit (nh nng chy, bay hi) th Q
> 0 do S > 0, v vy entropy ca h tng.
Nu qu trnh chuyn pha gii phng nhit lng (nh kt tinh, ngng t) th
Q < 0 do S < 0, v vy entropy ca h gim.
Ta thy entropy tng hay gim ty theo chiu ca qa trnh chuyn pha lm
cho cc phn t hay nguyn t trong h tr nn hn lon hay trt t hn. Nh vy,
xt theo qu trnh chuyn pha ca mt h nhit ng, entropy cng l i lng
o mc chuyn ng nhit hn lon ca vt cht.
b. S ph thuc ca nhit chuyn pha vo p sut
Nhit chuyn pha l nhit m ti c s chuyn pha t trng thi ny
sang trng thi khc. Thng thng trong mt h nhit ng khi p sut thay i th
nhit cng thay i theo. Hy xem xt qu trnh ph thuc ny: khi lm chuyn
pha mt h c khi lng vt cht l m t pha th I sang pha th II.
Hy thc hin mt chu trnh Ccn
vi h gm hai pha I v II. Trong V
I
l
th tch ca mt n v khi lng pha I
v V
II
l th tch ca mt n v khi
lng pha II. Trng thi ban u ca h
c nhit l T, c xc nh bng im
A trn gin PV (hnh 11.4). Cho h dn
n ng nhit t A n B, khi s c mt
phn vt cht chuyn t pha I sang pha II.
S thay i th tch ca mt n v khi
lng trong qu trnh ny l (V
II
V
I
).
Nu qu trnh ny lm chuyn pha m khi lng vt cht th s thay i th
tch s l m(V
II
V
I
) v nhit lng cn cung cp cho h l: Q = L m. ng thi
h phi sinh mt cng l: A
1
= m(V
II
V
I
)p
AB

Cho h dn n on nhit t trng thi B ti trng thi C, khi nhit ca
h gim i mt lng l dT, v s thay i p sut l dp. Tip tc chu trnh bng
qu trnh nn ng nhit t C ti D. Qu trnh ny cn tn mt cng cho h l A
2
=
A B
C D
m(V
II
- V
I
)
V V
C
V
D
V
II
V
I
p
AB
dp
P
CD
Hnh 11.4 S ph thuc ca nhit
chuyn pha vo p sut.

137
m(V
C
V
D
)p
CD
. Cui cng nn on nhit h t D vi nhit ca h l (T dT),
h tr v trng thi ban u ti A vi nhit l T.
Cng sinh ra khi thc hin chu trnh ny bng hiu cng sinh ra trong qu trnh
dn n ng nhit T v nn ng nhit nhit T dT ng vi qu trnh AB v
CD. l: A
1
A
2
= m(V
II
V
I
)(p
AB
p
CD
) = m(V
II
V
I
)dp ( chnh l din tch
hnh ch nht ABCD) hoc:
A = m(V
II
V
I
)dp (11.6)
Hiu sut ca chu trnh ny l:

( )
II I
V V dp dT A
T Q L

= = =

(11.7)
Suy ra:
( )
II I
T V V dT
dp L

= (11.8)
Phng trnh ny cho bit s ph thuc ca nhit chuyn pha ca mt cht
vo p sut, gi l phng trnh Clapyrng Claodiut. T phng trnh (11.8) suy
ra:
Nu (V
II
V
I
) > 0, ngha l th tch ca mt n v khi lng vt cht pha
II ln hn pha I, phng trnh (11.8) c gi tr dng th khi p sut tng, nhit
chuyn pha cng tng. V d: qu trnh si, th tch hi lun ln hn th tch lng,
khi p sut tng, nhit si cng tng.
Nu V
II
V
I
< 0, ngha l th tch ca mt n v khi lng vt cht pha II
b hn pha I phng trnh (11.8) c gi tr m, th khi p sut tng, nhit chuyn
pha gim. V d: qu trnh kt tinh ca nc , th tch ca nc ln hn th
tch ca nc, do khi p sut tng nhit kt tinh ca nc gim.
11.3.2. Chuyn pha loi II
Nh ni trn, chuyn pha loi II l chuyn pha khi trng thi ca h bin
i lien tc, v th chuyn pha loi II cn gi l chuyn pha lin tc. Nhng s bin
i trng thi lin tc khng th m t chuyn pha loi II. V th m t chuyn
pha loi II chng ta ch n c im l ti im chuyn pha o hm bc hai ca
cc hm th nhit ng c bc nhy m cc o hm ny cng li xc nh cc i
lng vt l biu th tnh cht ca h nh nhit dung, h s gin n, h s nn v.v
Cc i lng vt l ny li lin quan ht sc cht ch vi tnh i xng (hoc
tnh trt t) ca h.