Svayambhu Mahacaitya:

A survival of Indic Buddhism in Kathmandu valley

by

Min Bahadur shakya

Director

Nagarjuna Institute of Exact Methods, Kathmandu Nepal

Contents:

I.Introduction

Newar Buddhism is to be classified in the tradition of

Indian Vajrayana or Tantric Buddhism deriving its lineages
from Siddha tradition of Nalanda and Vikramashila
monastic universities. However, it has developed its
peculiar characteristics which are one of a kind in the
Buddhist history. One should not forget that Newar
Buddhism possesses quite a number of indigenous
elements, which are not to be found in Indian Mahayana
Buddhism. Now that Mahayana Buddhism has
disappeared from India, Newar Buddhism found in
Kathmandu valley represents one of the few tradition in
the world which has retained features inherited directly
from India. At one time all forms of Buddhism were
believed to have been found in the Buddhism of Nepal. At
present, there are no longer any celibate monks among
Newar Buddhist Sangha. The members of community live
in Vihara and have retained its designation (Sangha).
II.Svayambhu Mahacaitya and its environs
Listed as world Heritage Site by UNESCO, Svayambhü is one of the
world's most glorious Buddhist Caityas and one of the holiest pilgrimage
sites in Kathmandu. It is situated 3 km west, in the most pleasant hillock
about 77m above the level of Kathmandu and is visible from most parts
of the valley. It is said to be more than 2000 years old. According to the
legends, the history of the Kathmandu valley begins with Svayambhü,
the Self-existent One. The Svayambhü Puräna gives the origin myth of
the Kathmandu valley and its self existing divine light (Svayambhü Jyoti
Rüpa).
The Kathmandu valley is said to have been a sacred place for
practicing Buddhism long before the appearance of the historical
Säkyamuni Buddha as legends suggest. In Svayambhu Purana
Bodhisattva Maitreya asks the Shäkyamuni Buddha when this
Svayambhü Jotirüpa came into existence. The Buddha told him that in
the age of Vipasvi Buddha, when people had a life span of 80,000 years,
he was born as Satyadharma Bodhisattva, serving as one of the Buddha
Vipashvi‘s disciples. At that time the Nepal Valley was a lake called
Nägarhad, 14 km in diameter. The water of the lake had eight kinds of
good qualities. The lake was surrounded by high mountains with all
kinds of trees and scented flowers
After the light of Svayambhü appeared, it became the focus of Newär
Buddhist devotion. The Svayambhü Jyotirüpa is crystal in color, brilliant
like jewels, and lies on a pericarp of a lotus flower, about one and half
feet in height. It lies in a pleasant area, surrounded by trees, that is well
decorated with flowers and fruits of all seasons.
Bodhisattva Manjusri who came from China paid homage to the lotus
that emitted brilliant light, when the valley once was a lake. He was the
one to drain out all the water by cutting a gorge in the southern hill
known as Cobhär, so that he could worship and make the valley, a
habitable place.
Later on, Bodhisattva Pracanda Deva alias Shäntikara Äcarya, covered
Svayambhü with a stone slab fearing that its jewels would be stolen by
people in the coming Kaliyuga, or modern times. Then Shäntikara
Äcarya, the king who turned into a Bhiksu, a monk, raised the first stupa
on the holy site.
III.Description:
The stupa of Svayambhü is a hemispherical mound of compacted
earth, and is built to specific rules, and is replete with symbols. The
mound represents the garbha griha i.e Tathägata garbha, the embodiment
of Buddha nature.
The 13 gilded rings (skt: cakravali) of the spire symbolize the 13
stages of the Bodhisattva leading to Buddhahood. The shrine is
bedecked in colorful prayer flags.
The statues of Five Jinas or Buddhas and Four Taras are on the four
cardinal and intermediate directions of the Stupa.
The soaring central stupa is topped by a gold-colored square block
(Harmikä) from which the watchful eyes of the Buddha gaze out across
the valley in each direction. The question mark-like nose is actually the
Nepali numeral one and is a symbol of unity of wisdom and compassion
i.e. advaya or non-duality.
Set around the base of the central stupa is a continuous series of prayer
wheels which pilgrims, circumambulating the stupa spin as they pass by.
The pilgrim's progress to Svayambhü Caitya's holy premises is actually
through a sylvan path of 365 steps. The entrance is graced by a huge
Vajra on a large Dharmadhätu Mandala1.
Around the stupa you may find a beautiful Häriti temple, Karmaräja
Gompa, a Tibetan Monastery and numerous small caityas and deities.
The balconies of Svayambhü are ideal for seeing the bird's eye view of
the Kathmandu valley. You may also find many Tibetan monasteries
with large Buddha images, huge prayer wheels, fine Buddhist paintings,
and innumerable butter lamps, within and around the beautiful hill.
IV.Historical Background:
Though no one is sure how old the stupa is, lichchavi King
Vrishadeva (400-412 AD), the great grandfather of Mänadeva I, was
well known for his devotion to the stupa. A stone inscription from about
that century points out that Svayambhü had been built by that time.
In the following years the stupa went through a number of repairs after
suffering from lightning, earthquakes, war, and neglect for its upkeep.
Reported restorations were done on the stupa during the Licchavi
period (400-879), however, the first dated repair is known to have
occurred in 1129.
Svayambhü was completely destroyed in 1349 when Muslims raided
Kathmandu and left most of the Holy shrines in ruins.
During the time of King Arjunadeva and his successor, Sthiti Malla,
around 1372, the stupa was reconstructed. This time, major
modifications to the original structure's form were made to envelop Lord
Buddha's power and gave it the basic structure of Svayambhü as we see

1
Recently Golden Vajra was renovated by Ven. Tarthang Tulku Rinpoche through Ye she de Project-2009
today, a dome shape achieved with a central beam. Further restorations
followed and each project added to the changes of its appearance.
Pratap Malla (1641-1674) repaired the whole stupa, and placed a huge
vajra mandala, a bronze vajra on a stone mandala, at the top of the stair
at the East side. Most of the sculptures at the vicinity of Svayambhü are
from the Malla period as the earlier images must have been destroyed
during the Muslim raid in the fourteenth century.
Along with the renovation of the Svayambhü, other smaller stupas,
caityas, temples, and rest houses were built around the hilltop.
Around the platform are dharmasäläs, secular houses, gompas,
monasteries, and five special shrines which are likely to have been made
during the transitional period (879-1300).
Pratap Malla created a colorful sculpture of Aksobhya at the foot of
the eastern slope of the hill and Prithvi Bir Bikram Shah established
three similar images on the slope. Pratap Malla also established two tall
çikharas dedicating to Vajrayäna deities.
V.Svayambhu Purana as the source of Nepalese Buddhist practice
and tradition
The Svayambhū Purāna2 is one of the oldest texts of Newar Buddhism.
As the title suggests, its main purpose is to glorify the sacred Buddhist
shrines of the Kathmandu Valley, and the Svayambhū Mahācaitya in
particular.
It seems that the Svayambhū Purāna (hereafter SvP) was created by
Newar Buddhists in order to integrate the teachings of the Mahāyāna
with the older avadana stories. The text has been handed down to us
mostly in Sanskrit and partly in Newari versions. Most of the Newari
manuscripts contain the ten chapter version of the story.

2
Alexander Von Rospatt suggests that Svayambhu Myth ws developed and popularized in the wake of the raid of
Nepal by Shamsuddin in 1349 C.E. when the situation for introducing new elements into Buddhism may have
particularly favourble.
 A study of the sources of the SvP and the way in which they are
adapted shows the sophistication of Newar Buddhist Sanskrit writings
during the 14th and 15th centuries. In the aftermath of the collapse of
Indian Buddhism, Newar Buddhists had to adapt and localize the great
tradition, which was now bereft of its pilgrimage sites, its great
universities, its oceanic trade routes, and its political patronage.3 When
Buddhism lost most of its material foundation in India, the valley of
Nepal became a safe haven for the continued practice of Sanskrit-based
Buddhism. It is now accepted that a number of Newar Buddhist texts,
such as the SvP, Gunakarandavyuha, Vrihat Jatakamala and so on,4
were written to consolidate the vanishing tradition.
The SvP gives the origin myth of the Kathmandu Valley and its self-
existing divine light (svayambhū jyotirūpa). The Kathmandu Valley is
said to have been a sacred place for practicing Buddhism from the very
beginning, long before the appearance of the historical Buddha
Śākyamuni. After the light of Svayambhū appeared, it became the center
of Newar Buddhist devotions. The earliest version of the Svayambhū
myth focuses only on the importance of this divine light, but later
versions give prominence to Dharmadhātu Vāgīśvara (Mañjuśrī).
The shortest version of the SvP, containing 280 verses,5 begins like a
typical buddhavacana Sūtra (Evam maya srutam…). The tradition of
this Svayambhū Purāna was handed down from Buddha Śākyamuni to
Maitreya, and continued as follows: Maitreya→ Bhikshu Upagupta→
King Aśoka→ Bhikshu Jayaśrī→ Jinaśrī Raj Bodhisattva.
In my own humble opinion the shortest version (280 verses) can be
regarded as the original version of SvP. Over a long course of time later
versions were created, like the Atthakathās of the Pali sūtras. They can
be considered as commentaries on the original text, because in the later
versions the main thread of the original version is consistently retained,
with few exceptions.
In particular, the unabridged thread of the account of the Svayambhū
jyotirūpa’s originthe draining of the lake by Mañjuśrī, the visit of the
past seven Buddhas, the origin of the eight vitaraga sites, the twelve
3 [
See William B. Douglas, ‘Literary sources of the Gun_ākarandavyuha’, paper presented at
Nepal Mandal Seminar, Kathmandu, 1998.
4
These include the Svayambhū Purāna in its various versions, the Bhadrakalpavadana
(recently discussed in a 1998 Oxford dissertation by Joel Tatelman) and the Sŗngabheri
Avadana.
5
According to Hubert Decleer, this shortest rescension is believed to be the most authentic text. He has also
completed an English translation of the Tibetan version. This Tibetan is in close agreement with a Sanskrit
manuscript in the collection of Pandit Badri ratna Vajracharya.
tīrthas, Dharmaśrīmitra’s meeting with Mañjuśrī, Śāntaśrī’s activities on
formation of Svayambhū caitya and so forth are consistently retained in
later versions, with increasing detail.
VI.Triple Refuge in Newar Buddhism
The SvP offers a new model of Buddhist practice for lay people who live
the lifestyle of an Adikarmika Bodhisattva, as advocated by Ācārya
Anupamavajra as long ago as the 11th century. It is a devotional work
rather than a historical treatise, which has countless important details
about the formation of Newar Buddhism. In this sense it is a wholly
authentic source.
In their version of the three refuges, Newar Buddhists adopted the Adi–
Buddha (or Buddha Nature/Five Buddhas) as the representative of the
Buddha jewel.
The Newar Buddhists, like Buddhists everywhere, take refuge in the
Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. In the Mahayana and Vajrayana
context, the Buddha is of course, Sakyamuni Buddha. But in Mahayana
and Vajrayana Buddhism, the Five Tathagatas 6 (Panch Buddhas are:
1. Vairochana,
2. Akshobhya,
3. Ratnasambhava,
4. Amitabha and
5. Amoghasiddhi
They are well known in ritual than the historical Buddha.

6
Tantric origin of these five Buddhas are described in Guhyasamaja tantra ( 8-9th century) .But the images of
Amitabha and Aksobhya seemed to have appeared in early centuries of Christian era.
The Dharma is realization of Prajnopaya namely unity of wisdom and
skilful means. These nine texts are:
1. Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita7,
2. Gandavyuha,
3. Dasabhumikasutra,
4. Saddharmapundarika,
5. Suvarnaprabhasa,
6. Lankavatara,
7. Samadhiraja,
8. Lalitavistara and
9. Tathagataguhyaka Sutra.
These texts are recognized as the official texts. They are recited at
various times, and the books are worshipped. In fact, worship is favored
than scholarly study.

The Sangha is of course the Bodhisttva Sangha. Much of the devotional

life of the people revolve around the worship of eight Bodhisattvas,
especially Avalokiteshvara and Manjushree. Avalokiteshvara is
recognized as the head of eight Bodhisattvas. He is the representative of
Sangha of Bodhisattvas. Just as in Theravada Buddhist tradition the
Bodhisattva Sangha is excluded, similarly in Newar Buddhist tradition
Shravaka Sangha is excluded. Since the emphasis is laid on
Mahayana/Vajrayana tradition of Buddhist Sangha it would be unwise to
expect Buddhist Sangha of Newar Buddhists in Theravada context.

7
According to the findings of Prof. Lewis Lancaster, this is the oldest Mahayana sutra.
VII.Newar Buddhism as a Lay Bodhisattva Practice

It seems that there had been a provision for lay Buddhist monkhood
which became very popular in the valley of Kathmandu. The validity of
this tradition was also corroborated by the text "Siksasamuccaya" of
Acharya Shanti Deva. It runs thus:

Punara aparma kulaputra bhavisyanti anagata

adhavani grahstha pravajita adikarmika bodhisattva.

The meaning of the text is as follows:

"Again, oh, Sons of the family, there will be the householder beginner
(Skt: adikarmika) and ordained bodhisattvas in the future".

Concerning Adikarmika Bodhisattva Acharya Anupamavajra stands

prominent. His work had a great influence on Nepalese Buddhist
tradition. It is surprising and interesting to note that Adikarmapradipa
which was composed in 1098 A.D. by Anupamavajra had profound
impact on the daily practice of Newar Buddhist society even till today.
In this context it is befitting to cite the verses of Adikarmapradipa.

To state briefly, it deals with the following practices of Newar

Buddhists.
1. Taking Refuge in Triple Gems
2. Reciting Namasangiti
3. To recite Bhadracarya Pranidhan
4. To offer Preta bali
5. To circumambulate Caitya, Buddha statues etc.
6. To perform Gurumandala rite
7. To meditate on tutelary deity
8. To recite Prajnaparamita and other Mahayana Sutras
9. To recite danagatha (stories of Dana)
10. To perform Bodhisattva practices joyfully
11. To study Buddhist scriptures
12. Offering food to Triple Gems and tutelary deity before eating
13. Offer fivefold prostration to Buddha of ten directions
14. Sleeping in a lion's posture after meditating on Deity Yoga

According to Newar Buddhist tradition, even after disrobing ceremony

of Cudakarma, the Shakyas and Vajracharyas do not cease to be bhikshu
or Buddhist monks, but passing from the state of celibate bhikshu to that
of grihasthi bhikshu, a fact underlined by the term Sakyabhikshu used to
refer to them down ages.

In disrobing ceremony the following lines are met with about the status
of bhikshu.
"You have gone through Sravakayana and now come to Mahayana, the
greatest of the Buddhist Yanas. You have participated in some Vajrayana
rituals and after going through some higher ordinations you will know
what Cakrasamvara is8.
VIII.Uposadhavrata practice of Avalokiteshvara 9
Amoghapasa Lokeshvara is a multi-armed form of Avalokiteshvara that
seems to have been popular in Nepal since the middle ages.
The name suggests that he is the lord of the world with infallible noose
which leads suffering sentient beings to enlightenment.

8
Allen, f.n. no. 3, pp. 1-10.
9
For details see John Locke on "Uposadhavrata of Amoghpasa Lokeshvara in Nepal, in l'ethnographie ,publiee par
la Society d'ethnographie,Paris 1987.
In Nepal as much as 360 forms of Avalokiteshvara are found in hymns
or stavas but only 108 forms of Lokesvara can be found in pictures with
iconographic details.
The SvP frequently describes the benefits of Uposadha vrāta, and the
image of Amoghpash Lokeshvara, the patron deity of this rite, can be
seen everywhere in Nepalese Bahās and Bahis.
IX. Recitation of Namasangiti Text
This has been one of the most favorite devotional practices among
Newar Buddhist. The subject matter of this text basically focuses on the
five wisdoms of the enlightened state of Perfect Buddhahood.
X.The Cult of Manjusri
Stories of Manjusri are found across the Mahayana
Buddhist world. In Nepal, a distinctive tradition of
Manjusri stories is preserved within the several texts
collectively known as the Svayambhu Purana. The
legends of Bodhisattva Manjusri—according to
Svayambhu Purana—date back to pre-historical period,
an epoch previous to the present Iron Age. It is
impossible, on the basis of these sources, to write an
account of some historical figure from whom the stories
of Manjusri might be derived.
However, according to the Svayambhu Purana the
Bodhisattva Manjusri came from China where he is
traditionally said to live on the Five-Peaked Mountain, Wu-
ta’i shan i.e Panch sirsa parvat. He came to the
Kathmandu valley during the time of Buddha
Krakuchchanda in order to drain the Nagahrad Lake and
thus make the Kathmandu valley a habitable land.
In the same cycle of stories, we encounter the
Buddhist pandit Dharmasrimitra. He was a teacher at the
great monastic university Vikramashila, in India. In order
to learn the secret meaning of twelve letters or mantras
within the Manjusrinamasangiti, he set out for Nepal to
ask for Manjusri’s own teaching. We may presume the
dates of the 9th century for Vikramashila Monastery,
because it was in the time of King Dharmapala that
Vikramashila monastery was built under the direction of
Master Haribhadra, a great commentator of
Prajnaparamita texts. King Dharmapala appears to have
endowed the monastery with support for a faculty of 108
panditas, one of whom would have been Dharmasrimitra.
Vikramashila closed as a result of political instability in
the later 12th and early 13th centuries, and never
reopened.
From this we may deduce that the cult of Manjusri at
Svayambhu was already well established by the time of
Dharmasrimitra, sometime between the 9th and 12th
centuries. The growth of Manjushri legends in Svayambhu
Purana from 13th and15th centuries may reflect the fact
that Nepal was cut off from its southern neighbor, India,
traditionally the source of Nepalese Buddhism, and
looked instead to northeastern Asia. It was during this
period that the relation between Nepal and China was at
its height.
XI. Integration of Saiva and Buddhist tradition in Newar Buddhism
The development of the SvP text shows how Hinduization took place.
In the sixth chapter of the present text we read: The mind of those who
offer prayers to the Eight Vitaragas while bathing in the Vāgmatī will be
pure. They will be prosperous. They will be fit for entering Śivaloka [the
realm of Śiva] after enjoying worldly pleasures. Those who wash the
vitaraga of Svayambhū with ghee will be entitled to Śivaloka. Those
who wash it with honey will have access to Brahmamandira [the
temple of Brahma]. Those who wash it with curds will have access to
Vaishnavaloka [the realm of Vishnu]. Those who anoint it with scent,
milk, and cool liquids will attain Gandharvaloka [the realm of heavenly
musicians] and Candraloka [the realm of Moon]. 10
Mr. Hubert Decleer adds: “in this instance, a Buddhist text has clearly
been tampered with, bowdlerized beyond recognition, so that however
ancient the earliest dated manuscript may be, this version just cannot
be the original.
Mr. Decleer, on the other hand, suggests an alternative cause of this
inclusivism. He says that this integrative style was adopted as auto-
defensive measure from within the Buddhist camp. It is said that
when Śankar Ācārya, in the course of pillaging Buddhist scriptures,
confronted a Buddhist text containing the name of Ganesh or Mahādeva,
that text was spared from destruction.”
The solution was quite different from those chosen in
other Buddhist countries. The veneration of Svayambhū,
Mañjuśrī/Sarasvati, Guhyeśvari/Parvati, and the eight
vitaragas/eight sites of lingeśvaras was a powerful
syncretic strategy on the part of Newar Buddhists.
Besides, they never abandoned such basic Buddhist
practices as the triple refuge and the various vrātas
(namely, the uposadha vrāta as well as the Bodhivrāta),
as the text relates.
The lifestyle of an “Adikarmic Bodhisattva” (who performs
basic rituals such as vrāta) provides a strong basis for
the retention of Vajrayānic traditions in a situation where
monasticism is declining.

(H.Decleer, in History of the Naturally formed Great stupa in Nepal,

10

unpublished monograph -p.183)

Mr. Decleer observes that “eventually, the Vajrayāna
became a closed system, accessible only to high caste
Buddhists.” Vajrācāryas became the parallel of Brahmanic
priests.
However, Dr. John K. Locke points out that caste-based
Vajrayāna practices, although untenable from a strictly
Buddhist viewpoint, worked well for centuries in a Hindu
setting, preventing them from vanishing altogether.
Whereas in India and other countries, the rejection of
syncretic approaches to Hinduism, along with the
pressure of Hindu or Afghan fundamentalism, led to the
complete disappearance of Mahāyāna Buddhism.
“In Southeast Asia, the Śiva-Buddhist syncretism, as
witnessed in Java and Bali, resulted in only Śaivism
surviving, with only a few Buddhist names and symbols
remaining. On the other hand, Southeast Asian countries
such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Myanmar abandoned the
Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna altogether in favor of an
exclusively Theravāda tradition, which places major
emphasis on the Vinaya. By contrast, Newar Buddhism
survived relatively intact, preserving secret Mantra, even
maintaining the language and the styles of the
Sanskritic world.”

IX.Conclusion
Here we have presented briefly how Indic Buddhism was transformed in
Nepal especially in Kathmandu valley.
As we have described, the very concept of triple refuge has been
changed. It regards Adi-buddha as Buddha jewel, dharma as nine
scriptures and Sangha as eight bodhisattvas.
Among them Aryavalokiteshvara became the chief of all the
bodhisattvas. That‘s why he was called Jewel of Sangha. In Newari
terms Sangha Ratna Karunamaya.
Concerning Hindu-buddhist syncretism my own humble opinion is
that Newar Buddhists must have prepared a series of
survival strategies or policies of amalgamation –
technically speaking, skill in means (upāyakausalya) – for
the survival of their own form of Buddhism.