Basics of

Communications
Elements of Communication
System
 Signals
 Analog Signals
 Digital Signals
 Pulse Code Modulations
 ItConverts Analog signal to Digital
Signal
 Why PCM ?

 Practical implementation

– Sampling
– Quantizing
– Encoding
Sampling
Quantizing
Encoding
 Contd..
 PCM uses non-linear encoding, i.e., amplitude
spacing of levels is non-linear.
– There is a greater number of quantizing steps for low
amplitude.
– This reduces overall signal distortion.
 This introduces quantizing error (or noise).
 PCM pulses are then encoded into a digital bit
stream.
 8000 samples/sec x 8bits/sample = 64 Kbps for
a single voice channel.
 DATA TRANSMISSION
 ParallelTransmission
 Serial Transmission

– Synchronous Transmission
– Asynchronous Transmission
Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
Synchronous Transmission
 Multiplexing

 Multiplexing Techniques:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Time Division Multiplexing
Frequency Division Multiplexing
 Why 4KHz
 In Practical Communication Allotted
0-4KHz
 In Frequency shifting process two
new Frequency Bands will be added
1.Lower Side Band (LSB)
2.Upper Side Band (USB)
 Time Division Multiplexing
 PCM Sampling in Time
 The Samples are taken in Higher rates

i.e. 8 Samples/Cycle in 1KHz.

So its 8KHz
Must Provided Synchronizing Mechanism
TDM in T1 Carrier
Error Detection and Correction
ERROR DETECTION
– errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
– receiver detects presence of errors
ERROR CORRECTION
receiver identifies and corrects bit error's
without resorting to retransmission
Types Of Error
Single bit error
Multi bit error
Burst error
Single-bit error
Multiple-bit error
Burst error
 Error Detection
 EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits
(redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking,
may include header fields

 Error detection not 100% reliable!

– protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
– larger EDC field yields better detection and
correction
Contd..
CRC
Binary Division
NAT
 NAT
 Theoretically,
you could have
4,294,967,296 unique addresses
 i.e.3.2 to 3.3 millions
explosion of the Internet and the increase in
home networks and business networks
number of available IP addresses is simply not
enough
The Solution is Redesign the IP Addresses
NAT Router
 Static Router

In static NAT, the computer with the IP address of

192.168.32.10 will always translate to 213.18.123.110.
 Dynamic Router

In dynamic NAT, the computer with the IP address

192.168.32.10 will translate to the first available address in the
range from 213.18.123.100 to 213.18.123.150.
 Overloading (PAT)

In overloading, each computer on the private network is translated to the

same IP address (213.18.123.100), but with a different port number
assignment
 Stub Domain Table
Source Source Source NAT NAT Router's
Computer Computer' Computer's Router's Assigned
s Port IP Address Port Number
IP Address

A 192.168.32. 400 215.37.32. 1

10 203

B 192.168.32. 50 215.37.32.2 2
13 03

C 192.168.32. 3750 215.37.32.2 3

15 03

D 192.168.32. 206 215.37.32.2 4

18 03
Virtual Private
Networks
 VPN
 The popularity of the Internet grew.
 Intranets (password-protected sites)

 Accommodate the needs of remote

employees and distant offices
 "virtual" connections routed through

the Internet from the company's

private network to the remote site or
employee
Typical VPN
 Makes of VPN
 Extend geographic connectivity
 Improve security
 Reduce operational costs versus traditional WAN
 Reduce transit time and transportation costs for
remote users
 Improve productivity
 Simplify network topology
 Provide global networking opportunities
 Provide telecommuter support
 Provide broadband networking compatibility
 Provide faster ROI (return on investment) than
traditional WAN
 Features of VPN
 Security

 Reliability

 Scalability

 Network management
 Policy management
 Types of VPN
 Three types
 Remote VPN
 Intranet VPN

 Extranet VPN

Examples of Three types

IPv6
 IPv6
 IPv6 is also called IPng
 It is decided on IETF on July 25, 1994.
 It is a 128 bits Addresses
 IPv6 Addresses Format

 Three types of Addresses

 UNICAST Addresses
 ANY CAST Addresses
 MULTICAST Addresses
Abbreviated address
Abbreviated address with consecutive zeros
 Example of the Addresses
 1080:0:0:0:8:800:200C:417A - a uni cast
address FF01:0:0:0:0:0:0:101- a multicast
address 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 - the loop back address
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 - the unspecified addresses

This Addresses may be represented as:

1080::8:800:200C:417A - a uni cast address
FF01::101 - a multicast address
::1 - the loop back address
:: - the unspecified addresses
 CIDR (Class-less Interdomain
Routing) address
 ipv6-address/prefix-length
 Where

ipv6-address - is an IPv6 address in any of

the notations listed
prefix-length - is a decimal value specifying
how many of the leftmost
contiguous bits of the
address comprise the prefix
Address structure
Provider-based address
Address hierarchy
 Unspecified address

 8 bits – Source Addresses

 Destination Addresses not specified
 Loop back address

 The Unicast address 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1 is called

the loop back address

 It may be used by a node to send an IPv6

packet to itself
 To never be assigned to any physical interface
 Compatible address
 The IPv6 transition mechanisms [TRAN]
include a technique for hosts and routers
to dynamically tunnel IPv6 packets over
IPv4 routing infrastructure.
 Mapped address
 This address is used to represent the addresses of
IPv4-only nodes (those that *do not* support
IPv6) as IPv6 addresses
 Aggregatable Global Unicast
Addresses (AGUR)
 Thisaddresses designed to support to
both the current provider based
aggregation and a new type of
aggregation called exchanges.
3 13 8 24 16 64 bits

FP TLA RES NLA SLA

Interface ID ID
ID ID
 Contd..
 Where
001 - Format Prefix (3 bit) for
Aggregatable Global Unicast
Addresses
TLA ID -Top-Level Aggregation
Identifier
RES - Reserved for future use
NLA ID - Next-Level Aggregation
Identifier
SLA ID - Site-Level Aggregation
Identifier
INTERFACE ID - Interface Identifier
 Link local address
 Local addresses are designed to be
used for addressing on a single link for
purposes such as auto-address
configuration, neighbor discovery, or
when no routers are present.
 Site Local Addresses
 Site-Local addresses are designed to
be used for addressing inside of a site
without the need for a global prefix
 Subnet Addresses

N bits 128-n bits

Subnet prefix 00000000000000

Subnet Prefix – Anycast address is

the prefix which identifies a
specific link
Multicast address