13.4 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES Various types of steel are a aila!le to "eet spe#ifi# ser i#e #o$%itio$s &e.'.

( i"pro e% resista$#e to at"osp)eri# #orrosio$*. Sele#tio$ of a$ appropriate 'ra%e of steel( or #o"!i$atio$ of type a$% stre$'t) le el( )as t)erefore !e#o"e a pri"ary #o$si%eratio$ i$ t)e %esi'$ of stru#tural steel "e"!ers. Alt)ou') t)ere is so"e aria!ility i$ t)eir "e#)a$i#al properties( stru#tural steels are 'e$erally "ore u$ifor" t)a$ "ost ot)er #o$stru#tio$ "aterials. Variatio$s i$ properties o##ur !ot) +it)i$ a$% !et+ee$ pie#es !e#ause of %iffere$#es i$ #)e"i#al #o"positio$ &%ue to se're'atio$ of #ertai$ ele"e$ts %uri$' t)e #asti$' a$% soli%ifi#atio$ pro#esses* a$% i$ "e#)a$i#al a$% t)er"al treat"e$t %uri$' t)e "a$ufa#turi$' pro#esses &%e'ree of re%u#tio$ %uri$' rolli$'( #ooli$' rates %uri$' )eat treat"e$t( et#.*. T)e %istri!utio$ of te$sile properties for a parti#ular stru#tural steel &ASTM A,-S( 'ra%e C #ar!o$ steel plate* is s)o+$ i$ .i'ure 13.1/. T)is type of aria!ility )as !ee$ re#o'$ise% !y t)e pro%u#ers a$% users of stru#tural steels a$% is ta0e$ i$to a##ou$t i$ t)e %esi'$ pro#ess.

.i'ure 13.1/ 1istri!utio$ of te$sile parties of ASTM A,23( 'ra%e C #ar!o$ steel plate &1ata represe$t all t)e as4rolle% plate &,,4 )eats for 5 steel "ills* pur#)ase% to t)is spe#ifi#atio$ !y o$e .a!ri#ator %uri$' a perio% 2 years*. &after Metals Ha$%!oo0 &1/t) e%.*. Vol. 1 Properties a$% Sele#tio$6 Iro$s( Steels( a$% Hi')4Perfor"a$#e Alloys( ASM I$ter$atio$al( 177/( p. 175*.

2 13.4.1 Stress4Strai$ -e)a ior 8$%er $or"al #o$%itio$s( t)e respo$se of stru#tural steels to applie% loa% or stress #a$ !e %es#ri!e% as !ei$' %u#tile( i$ t)at su!sta$tial plasti# %efor"atio$ o##urs !efore fra#ture( a$% i$%epe$%e$t of ti"e. T)is type of !e)a ior )as !ee$ %es#ri!e% i$ 'e$eral ter"s i$ C)apter 3( !ut t)e parti#ular aspe#ts of t)e !e)a ior of t)ese "aterials are #o$si%ere% )ere. T)e follo+i$' #)ara#teristi#s of t)e !e)a ior of a steel are s)o+$ !y t)e stress4strai$ #ur e for u$ia9ial te$sile loa%i$' #o$%itio$s &.i'. 13.11*6 1. Elastic deformation. T)e first se#tio$ of t)e #ur e i$%i#ates t)at t)e i$itial !e)a ior is li$early elasti# &i.e.( t)e relatio$s)ip !et+ee$ stress a$% strai$ is li$ear a$% t)e strai$ is #o"pletely re#o ere% +)e$ t)e stress is re"o e%*. T)is se#tio$ is #)ara#teri:e% !y t)e follo+i$' para"eters6 elasti# "o%ulus( t)e proportio$al li"it &t)e )i')est alue of stress at +)i#) t)e stress4strai$ relatio$s)ip is li$ear*( a$% t)e yiel% stre$'t) &t)e stress at +)i#) plasti# or per"a$e$t strai$( or yiel%i$'( is #o$si%ere% to !e'i$*. T)e yiel% stre$'t) is t)e "ost i"porta$t #riterio$ for e$'i$eeri$' %esi'$( si$#e it "ar0s t)e $or"al %esi'$ li"it or useful e$'i$eeri$' stre$'t). Ho+e er( for "ost "aterials( t)e stress at +)i#) yiel%i$' o##urs is $ot rea%ily appare$t fro" t)e stress4strai$ #ur e( a$% se eral "ore or less ar!itrary #riteria or i$%i#ators of yiel% stre$'t) are #o""o$ly use% &e.'.( spe#ifie% offset strai$* &.i'. 13.11&a**. Plai$ #ar!o$ or "il% steels )a e a %ou!le yiel% poi$t &.i'. 13.11&!**( si$#e i$ t)ese steels )i')er stress is re;uire% to start yiel%i$' t)a$ to #o$ti$ue it o$#e it )as starte%. 2. Uniform plastic deformation. I$ t)is se#tio$ of t)e #ur e( t)e strai$ i$ t)e spe#i"e$ is per"a$e$t a$% its #ross se#tio$ is %e#reasi$' u$ifor"ly. I$ so"e "aterials( yiel%i$' %oes $ot !e'i$ 'ra%ually( !ut #o"es su%%e$ly a$% results i$ a lar'e plasti# %efor"atio$ at a "ore or less #o$sta$t stress< t)is p)e$o"e$o$ is 0$o+$ as =%is#o$ti$uous yiel%i$'= &.i'. 13.11&!**. If a$ e er4i$#reasi$' stress is re;uire% to pro%u#e furt)er yiel%i$' or strai$( t)e pro#ess is 0$o+$ as strai$ )ar%e$i$'. T)is se#tio$ of t)e #ur e is #)ara#teri:e% !y t)e ulti"ate stre$'t)( or "a9i"u" stress t)at t)e "aterial #a$ +it)sta$%. 3. Localized plastic deformation (necking). At t)e "a9i"u" loa% poi$t( a se'"e$t of t)e spe#i"e$ t)at is +ea0er t)a$ all ot)er se'"e$ts alo$' its le$'t) %efor"s "ore a$% %e#reases i$ #ross se#tio$ "ore( lea%i$' to a #o$%itio$ of plasti# i$sta!ility. T)is #o$%itio$ is t)us #o$#e$trate% i$ a lo#ali:e% se#tio$ of t)e spe#i"e$ a$% is 0$o+$ as $e#0i$'. It e$%s +)e$ fra#ture or failure of t)e spe#i"e$ o##urs.

13.4., .ra#ture E$er'y &Tou')$ess* As $ote% i$ C)apter 5( fra#ture e$er'y &tou')$ess* is t)e a!ility of t)e "aterial to a!sor! e$er'y( i$ parti#ular u$%er su%%e$ly i"pose% stresses &i"pa#t #o$%itio$s*( !y %efor"i$' plasti#ally prior to fra#ture. Tou')$ess is $ot $or"ally #o$si%ere% %ire#tly i$ e$'i$eeri$' %esi'$( !ut it is a$ i"porta$t property i$ t)e sele#tio$ of a stru#tural steel for use u$%er loa%i$' a$%>or e$ iro$"e$tal #o$%itio$s +)i#) "ay result i$ !rittle fra#ture.

.i'ure 13.11 &a* Typi#al e$'i$eeri$' stress4strai$ #ur e for a %u#tile "aterial< &!* %is#o$ti$uous yiel%i$'. T)e tou')$ess of a "aterial #a$ !e e aluate% i$ se eral +ays6 1. As t)e area u$%er t)e stress4strai$ #ur e i$ t)e u$ia9ial te$sio$ test. T)is "et)o% is $ot $or"ally a%e;uate( !e#ause it is $ot represe$tati e of "aterial !e)a ior u$%er !rittle fra#ture #o$%itio$s. ,. T)rou') t)e use of i"pa#t tests &i.e.( C)arpy or l:o% $ot#)e%4!ar tests*. T)is "et)o% is prefera!le to t)e pre#e%i$' test !e#ause t)e test #o$%itio$s are "ore represe$tati e of t)ose resulti$' i$ !rittle fra#ture( alt)ou') t)e tests are esse$tially e"piri#al i$ $ature. 3. T)rou') t)e use of fra#ture "e#)a$i#s tests +)i#) pro i%e a "easure of t)e stress or e$er'y re;uire% to propa'ate a s)arp #ra#0 i$ t)e "aterial. I$ pra#ti#e( t)e C)arpy V4$ot#) i"pa#t test &.i'. 5.13* is t)e "et)o% "ost #o""o$ly use% to assess t)e tou')$ess of stru#tural steels. I$ parti#ular( t)is test is use% to %eter"i$e t)e tra$sitio$ te"perature +)ere t)e failure !e)a ior of a steel #)a$'es fro" %u#tile to !rittle &.i'. 5.14*.

4 If a steel is to resist !rittle fra#ture u$%er i"pa#t loa%i$'( it "ust )a e t)e a!ility to a!sor! #o$si%era!le e$er'y +)e$e er stress #o$#e$tratio$s o##ur. -rittle fra#ture #a$ o##ur at stress le els !elo+ $or"al %esi'$ le els +)e$ steel is su!?e#te% to i"pa#t loa%s at #o"parati ely lo+ te"peratures. 8$%er su#) #o$%itio$s( steel u$%er'oes a tra$sitio$ fro" %u#tile &)i')4e$er'y a!sorptio$* fra#ture !e)a ior at t)e )i')er te"peratures to $o$%u#tile( or !rittle &lo+4e$er'y a!sorptio$* fra#ture !e)a ior at lo+er te"peratures. 1iffere$t steels ary +i%ely i$ t)e te"perature at +)i#) t)e tra$sitio$ fro" %u#tile to !rittle fra#ture o##urs. Hi') e$er'y4a!sorptio$ alues are asso#iate% +it) a %u#tile( s)ear4type( fi!rous appeari$' fra#ture +it) plasti# %efor"atio$< lo+ e$er'y4a!sorptio$ alues are asso#iate% +it) a !rittle( 'ra$ular4appeari$' fra#ture< a$% i$ t)e tra$sitio$ :o$e( t)e fra#ture surfa#e of t)e spe#i"e$ e9)i!its a "i9e% "o%e &.i'. 13.1,*. .or %esi'$ a'ai$st !rittle fra#ture( t)ree fa#tors "ust !e #o$si%ere% si"ulta$eously6 &1* t)e prese$#e of stress raisers( or $ot#)es( i$ t)e stru#tural "e"!er< &,* t)e stress #o$%itio$s( parti#ularly te$sile stresses( i$ t)e stru#ture< a$% &3* t)e $ot#) tou')$ess of t)e steel at t)e operati$' te"peratures. @oo% %esi'$ #a$ eli"i$ate 'eo"etri#al %is#o$ti$uities a$% )e$#e "i$i"i:e t)e %etri"e$tal effe#t of $ot#)es or stress raisers a$% re%u#e te$sile stresses t)at "ust !e prese$t for !rittle fra#ture to

.i'ure 13.1, Typi#al C)arpy V4$ot#) fra#ture surfa#es6 &a* #o"pletely !rittle fra#ture< &!* "i9e% "o%e fra#ture &part %u#tile( part !rittle*< &#* #o"pletely %u#tile fra#ture. &.. Larso$( 8.S. Ar"y Materials Resear#) A'e$#y*.

5 o##ur. @oo% $ot#)4tou')$ess !e)a ior of t)e steel is pro"ote% !y &1* lo+ #ar!o$ #o$te$t( &,* a!se$#e of s"all oi%s( &3* 'rai$ si:e re%u#tio$( a$% &4* eli"i$atio$ of i$ter$al stresses !y )eat treat"e$t.

13.4.3

Ael%a!ility

Ael%i$' is $o+ t)e "a?or fa!ri#atio$ "et)o% use% to ?oi$ se#tio$s or pie#es of steel to for" #i il e$'i$eeri$' stru#tures. .usio$ +el%i$' is t)e !est a$%( )e$#e( t)e "ost #o""o$ly use% of t)e %iffere$t +el%i$' pro#esses a aila!le. I$ t)is pro#ess( part of t)e pare$t "etal of ea#) pie#e !ei$' ?oi$e% is )eate% to a suita!le te"perature a!o e t)e re#rystalli:atio$ or "elti$' ra$'e( +it) or +it)out t)e appli#atio$ of pressure a$%>or t)e i$tro%u#tio$ of filler "etal( a$% soli%ifie% to for" a ?oi$t. .usio$ pro#esses +)i#) i$ ol e )eati$' !y a$ ele#tri# ar# are #o""o$ly use% to fa!ri#ate a$% ?oi$ stru#tural "e"!ers. I$ t)ese pro#esses( t)e filler ele#tro%e #o"positio$ s)oul% !e #)ose$ to 'i e a ?oi$t +it) satisfa#tory "e#)a$i#al a$% #orrosio$ properties. 1uri$' +el%i$'( a te"perature 'ra%ie$t is esta!lis)e% +)i#) aries fro" t)e fusio$ te"perature at t)e +el% "etal to roo" te"perature at so"e poi$t i$ t)e pare$t "etal a+ay fro" t)e +el% &.i'. 13.13*. T)is pro%u#es #)a$'es i$ t)e "etallur'i#al #o$%itio$ a$% properties of t)e pare$t "etal i$ t)e i#i$ity of t)e +el%( t)e so4#alle% )eat4 affe#te%4:o$e &HAB*. T)e "i#rostru#tural #)a$'es i$ t)is re'io$ #a$ !e #o$si%era!le a$% are 'e$erally a##o"pa$ie% !y a %eterioratio$ of its "e#)a$i#al properties. T)ese #)a$'es %epe$% o$ &1* t)e #o"positio$ of t)e pare$t "etal( &,* its ori'i$al #o$%itio$( a$%( possi!ly( &3* t)e #ooli$' rate after t)e +el%. Ael%a!ility "ay !e %efi$e% as t)e #apa#ity of a "etal to !e ?oi$e% !y +el%i$' i$to a stru#ture t)at #a$ perfor" i$ a satisfa#tory "a$$er for a$ i$te$%e% ser i#e. T)e +el%a!ility of a steel is a #o"ple9 properly< it #o ers !ot) t)e se$siti ity to +el% #ra#0i$' a$% t)e tou')$ess i$ !ot) t)e +el% a$% t)e HAB re;uire% !y ser i#e #o$%itio$s a$% te"peratures.

.i'ure 13.13 S#)e"ati# %ia'ra" of a fusio$ +el%( s)o+i$' te"perature %istri!utio$ a$% #orrespo$%i$' #)a$'es i$ 'rai$ stru#ture i$ t)e )eat affe#te%4:o$e &HAB* i$ t)e pare$t "etal &a%apte% fro" C. M. Illsto$( C. M. 1i$+oo%ie( a$% A. A. S"it)( Concrete, Timber, and Metals, the Nat re and !eha"io r of #tr ct ral Materials, Va$ Nostra$% Rei$)ol% Co. Lt%.( 17D7*.

6 Ael%a!ility %e#reases as t)e #ar!o$ a$% alloy #o$te$t of steel is i$#rease%. A #o$ e$ie$t +ay to assess +el%a!ility a$% to e aluate t)e effe#t of alloyi$' ele"e$ts o$ +el%a!ility is to use a =#ar!o$4e;ui ale$t= &CE* for"ula( su#) as CE E FC G &1>5*&FM$* G &1>3*&FCr G FMo G FV* G &1>H13*&FCu G FNi*( &13.1*

+)ere FM$( et#.( are t)e per#e$ta'es of "a$'a$ese( et#.( i$ t)e steel !ei$' +el%e%. T)e alue of CE s)oul% $ot e9#ee% a!out /.,3 for )ea y stru#tural steels< if it is lar'er t)a$ t)is( #o$trolle% #ooli$' of t)e +el% is $e#essary to a oi% ris0s of e"!rittle"e$t. Ael%i$' )as a ery stro$' i$flue$#e o$ fati'ue stre$'t) %ue to asso#iate% stress #o$#e$tratio$s +)i#) result fro" t)e %esi'$ of t)e +el%e% ?oi$t( surfa#e effe#ts( sla' i$#lusio$s or oi%s i$ t)e +el%( "e#)a$i#al properties of t)e +el% "etal a$%>or )eat4affe#te% :o$e( a$% resi%ual stresses. A)e$ %iffere$t 'eo"etries a$% types of +el%e% ?oi$ts are #o"pare% o$ steels +it) %iffere$t stre$'t) le els( it is usually fou$% t)at t)e fati'ue stre$'t) is "ore %epe$%e$t o$ t)e 'eo"etry of t)e ?oi$t( t)e type of +el%( a$% t)e free%o" fro" $ot#) effe#ts t)a$ o$ t)e stre$'t) le el of t)e steel.