10/8/2002

ENGG 167 - F02

MEDICAL IMAGING
Lecture 4: Tuesday, Oct. 8

Chapter 5: X-ray prod., tubes & generators

Chapter 6: Film-Screen Radiography

References: Bushberg text

The Physics of Medical Imaging, Webb, IOP Publ.
1

X-Ray tubes

Ref: Bushberg 2

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Bremsstrahlung production

Ref: Bushberg 3

Bremsstrahlung energy spectrum

What does kVp mean ? Ref: Bushberg 4

2
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Characteristic X-rays

Ref: Bushberg 5

Bremsstrahlung & Characteristic radiation spectrum

Ref: Bushberg 6

3
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Modern x-ray tubes

Ref: Bushberg 7

Cathode filaments

Ref: Bushberg 8

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Electron beam focusing

Ref: Bushberg 9

Anode Geometry

Ref: Bushberg 10

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Bevelled anode design

Ref: Webb 11

Modular system schematic

Ref: Bushberg 12

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Current and voltage supplies for x-ray tube

Ref: Bushberg 13

High frequency rectifier

Ref: Bushberg 14

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High Frequency generator schematic

Ref: Bushberg 15

Descriptors of X-ray beams

Quality – penetrability of an x-ray beam, which is determined by the

kVp, the target material and the filtration of the beam.
(higher energy has higher HVL and higher penetration)

Quantity – number of photons which is proportional to tube current

times the exposure time
(the higher the mAs, the higher the quantity)

Exposure – proportional to the energy fluence (mR/min)

Ref: Bushberg 16

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Factors affecting X-ray emission

1) Target material - affects quality and quantity of radiation emitted
2) Tube voltage – kVp - determines maximum energy of photons emitted in the
bremsstrahlung spectrum, thus affecting quality of the beam and the overall
exposure.
Rule of thumb 1 : Exposure α (kVp)2
Rule of thumb 2: for a fixed exposure (kVp1/kVp2)5 = mAs2 / mAs1
3) Tube current (mA)
4) Exposure time (s)– duration of x-ray production. Often the current and exposure
time are expressed together as a product, in mAs.
5) Beam filtration – modifies the x-ray energy spectrum and the overall number of
photons in the beam.
6) Generator waveform – affects the spectrum and quantity of photons emitted. Single
phase system provides lower average energy and number of photons than does a
three phase system.
7) Focal spot size – affects the number of photons being produced.

Ref: Bushberg 17

Tradeoffs between kVp, mAs and time

Ref: Bushberg 18

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Power Rating of a X-ray system

Power = 100 kVp x Amax for a 0.1 second exposure

Ref: Bushberg 19

X-ray generator focal spot versus power

Ref: Bushberg 20

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Signal to Noise estimates

E - Photon energy E
S(x,y,E,Ω) - Number of scattered photons
ε(Ε,θ) – energy absorption efficiency of the receptor

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 21

Average Scatter

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 22

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Contrast

Figure 2.6
Ref: Webb, chapter 2 23
I1 I2

Contrast (combine eqn.s 2.2 and 2.6)

Therefore factors affecting contrast are:

- Target tissue thickness
- Linear attenuation coefficient difference
- scatter-to-primary ratio, R.

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 24

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Transmission & beam hardening

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 25

Noise level versus dose

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 26

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Noise level versus dose

A rule of thumb is that humans can perceive objects when SNR is 5 or greater
(ref. A. Rose, Vision: human and electronic, (Plenum: New York) 1973.)

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 27

Noise level versus dose

(ref. A. Rose, Vision: human and electronic, (Plenum: New York) 1973.) Ref: Webb, chapter 2 28

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Noise level versus dose

Ref: Webb, chapter 2 29

Radiography – Bushberg Chapter 6

Ref: Bushberg 30

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Half Value Layers (HVL) for “tissue” versus kVp

Ref: Bushberg 31

Magnification in Radiography
Focal spot size, F, and edge of gradient, f, observed.
f = F (M-1), where M = I/O = SID/SOD

Ref: Bushberg 32

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Loss of resolution due to film screen system

Ref: Bushberg 33

Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)

Ref: Bushberg 34

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H & D curve - Exposure versus film optical density (OD)

Ref: Bushberg 35

H & D curve - Exposure versus film optical density (OD)

Ref: Bushberg 36

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Film Screen contrast versus exposure

Ref: Bushberg 37

Dose and Contrast versus kVp

Ref: Bushberg 38

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Scatter to primary beam ratio

Ref: Bushberg 39

Contrast versus S/P ratio

Ref: Bushberg 40

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Antiscatter grids in radiography

Ref: Bushberg 41

Antiscatter grids in radiography

Ref: Bushberg 42

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Bucky factor for antiscatter grids

Ref: Bushberg 43

Artifacts

Ref: Bushberg 44

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Digital Radiography

Ref: Bushberg 45

Computed Radiography
– photostimulable phosphor detector systems for radiography

Gd2O2S phosphors absorb x-rays and emit light instantly

BaFBr and BaFI phosphors retain most of the absorbed energy
(barium fluorohalide) This energy can be read out by stimulation
with red light, resulting in emission in the blue-green.
Ref: Bushberg 46

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Computed Radiography
– photostimulable phosphor detector systems for radiography

Ref: Bushberg 47

Computed Radiography
– photostimulable phosphor detector systems for radiography

Ref: Bushberg 48

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CCD detectors coupled to image intensifiers

Ref: Bushberg 49

CCD detectors coupled to image intensifiers

Ref: Bushberg 50

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Flat panel detectors – latest technology

Ref: Bushberg 51

Flat panel detectors – indirect versus direct detection

Ref: Bushberg 52

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Correction for dark image effects at each pixel

_
G = avg. gray scale value
D(x,y) = dark image
without x-rays

Ref: Bushberg 53

Windowing down to improve contrast & reversal

Ref: Bushberg 54

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Image processing – edge enhancement

Matrix smoothing
filter:
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Matrix edge
enhancement filter
1 1 1
1 9 1
1 1 1

Ref: Bushberg 55

Image processing – edge enhancement

Matrix smoothing
filter:
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Matrix edge
enhancement filter
1 1 1
1 9 1
1 1 1

Ref: Bushberg 56

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Resolution of different systems – MTF

Ref: Bushberg 57

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