Chapter-7Control and Coordination

A system of control and coordination is essential in living organisms sothat the different body parts can function as asingle unit to maintain homeostasis as well as respond to various stimuli.(

Human homeostasis

refers to the body's ability to regulate physiologically its inner environment to ensure its stability inresponse to fluctuations in the outside environment and the weather. Homeo=same and stasis=standing still)

To carry out a simple function such as picking up an object from the ground there has to be coordination of the eyes,hands, legs and the vertebral column. The eyes have to focus on the object, the hands have to pick it up and grasp it, thelegs have to bend and so does the back bone (vertebral column). All these actions have to be coordinated in such amanner that they follow a particular sequence and the action is completed. A similar mechanism is also needed forinternal functions of the body.In animals, the nervous system, hormonal system and muscular system are responsible for control and coordination.

Neurons

are specialized cells of the nervous system. They use electrical and chemical signals for transferringinformation. They specialise in conducting information.

Nerve cell or neuron is the fundamental unit of thenervous system.

Stimulus

: a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment.

Response

: A reaction of an organism to a specific stimulus.

Receptors

: Receptors are specialized tips of the nerve fibres that collect the information to be conducted by the nerves.They are usually present in the sense organs. For e.g. Gustatory receptors help us to detect taste and olfactory receptorshelp us to detect smell.

Reflex action

: It is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous response to a stimulus.

Nerve Impulse

: The information passing through a neuron in the form of electrical and chemical signals is known as aNerve Impulse.

How is information conducted through neurons?

The information is acquired at the end of dendritic tip of the neuron that are present in the sense organs / receptors.This sets of a chemical reaction in the at the dendrites generating an electrical impulse.The electrical impulse thentravels from the dendritic tip to cyton and then to the axon of that neuron. When it reaches the nerve endings certainchemicals are released in response to the electrical impulse.

These chemicals cross the gap or synapse and start asimilar electrical impulse in a dendrite of the next neuron. A similar synapse finally allows the delivery of such impulse from neurons to other cells such as muscles or glands.

What is reflex action? Explain with an example. Define reflex arc.

A. It is an accurate, unconscious, involuntary and instantaneous response to a stimulus.e.g.: Hand is withdrawn when it accidentally touches a hot object.The pathway taken by a stimulus to travel from receptor organ to effector organ is known as reflex arc.

Schematic pathway:

STIMULUS



RECEPTOR ORGAN



(sensory neuron)



SPINAL CORD



(motor neuron)



EFFECTORORGAN



RESPONSE

Advantages of Reflex Action:

1) enables the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli, thus protecting the body.

2) Minimises overloading of brain. 3) Efficient way of functioning in the absence of true thought processes.

Types of nerves

: A nerve is formed by the union of several nerve fibres. Nerve fibres are axons and they are envelopedby a covering made of lipid. Based on the property of nerve fibres, the nerves are classified into several types.

Sensory Nerve

: it is formed by the union of sensory nerve fibres. It carries sensory impulses from the receptors to brainor spinal cord.

Motor Nerve: It is f

ormed by the union of motor nerve

fibres.

It carries

motor impulses from brain or spinal cord todifferent parts of the body.

What’s the role of control and coordination in an organism?

A. Multicellular organisms consists of a number of components i.e. organs or tissues, each specialised to perform aparticular function.Most activities need simultaneous and sequential functioning of number of organs e.g. feeding- 1. Eyes locate food. 2.Nose smells it. 3. Hands pick up food 4. Mouth opens to receive food 5. Teeth and muscle masticates food. 6. Salivamoistens the food. 7. Tongue perceives taste and pushes crushed food. All these work is possible through a system of control and coordination.

What is a synapse? What happens at a synapse between two neurons?

A Synapse is a gap between two neurons.At the end of the axon the electrical impulse sets off the release of some chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap orsynapse and start a similar electrical impulse

in a dendrite of the next neuron.

What is the role of the brain in reflex action?

Reflex actions take place without the conscious involvement of the brain.Quick responses are given through the governing centre i.e. spinal cord but the information is also sent to the brain.

How are the brain and spinal cord protected?

The brain is protected by the bony box

–

Cranium of the skull. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column. Inaddition to this, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by membranes (meninges) which form a fluid filled areaaround the brain. This fluid is known as cerebrospinal fluid. This provides further shock absorption.

How do animal muscles move?(How does nervous tissue cause action)

The movements of muscle tissues are brought about by the contraction and relaxation of the contractile proteins inresponse to nerve impulses. When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, at the cellular level, the electrical impulsecauses the release of some chemicals at the neuro-muscular junction. In response to this chemical signal the musclecells move by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have special contractile proteins that change boththeir shape and arrangement

in the cell in response to nervous electrical impulses. When this happens, a newarrangement of the proteins gives the muscle a shorter form causing movement of muscles.

Parts of Nervous System:Central

Nervous System

: Consists of Brain and Spinal cordIn animals, all life activities are under the control of the brain. Spinal cord controls the reflex actions and conductsmessages between different parts of the body and brain.

Peripheral Nervous System

: Consists of nerves arising from the brain (Cranial nerves) and Nerves arising from the spinalcord (spinal nerves).It assists in transmitting information between central nervous system and rest of the body.

Autonomous Nervous System:

(Parasympathetic and sympathetic system)

Involuntary activities like breathing and beating of the heart take place by the coordinated efforts of themedulla oblongata and autonomous nervous system.

Parts of BrainForebrainCerebrum

Has sensory areas, motor areas and areas of association. Centre of consciousness,thought, imagination, memory,analytical thinking. Awareness of vision, hearing,smell, taste, touch, heat etc. Control of voluntary actions.

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis by regulating the body temperature, water level etc.Centre of thirst, hunger etc. Controls the secretion of pituitary hormones. Helps tomaintain the normal constitution of blood.

OlfactoryLobes

They contain the endings of the olfactory nerves (the first pair of cranial nerves)and are concerned with the sense of smell.

Midbrain

Acts as the coordinating centre between forebrain and hindbrain; also controls certain involuntarymovements

HindbrainCerebellum

Responsible for precision and fine control of voluntary movements as well asmaintaining posture and equilibrium of the body

Pons

Functions as the centre through which impulses travel to and from thecerebellum, spinal cord and other parts of the brain. Also regulates respiration

Medullaoblongata

Contains vital centres for controlling blood pressure, respiration, swallowing,salivation, vomiting, sneezing and coughing.

Types of movement by our body:

Voluntary actions like walking, writing etc. Mostly governed by the fore brainInvoluntary actions like beating of the heart and breathing Controlled by mid brain and hind brainReflex actions Controlled by spinal cord.

Coordination in Plants:

Plants lack nervous and muscular system.

Plants respond to stimuli by showing 2 types of movements

–

growth independent and growth dependent.

Growth independent movements are usually quicker than growth dependent ones, and involve the use of electrochemical signals by the plant. To achieve this movement, the plant cells change shape by altering their watercontent.Eg. drooping of leaves of a touch-me-not plant when it is touched.

Q-What happens when the leaves of a touch-me-not plant are touched?

A-When the leaves of a touch-me-not plant are touched, the plant uses electrical-chemical means to convey thisinformation from cell to cell. Plant cells at the leaf base change their shape by changing the amount of water in them.This results in folding and drooping of leaves.Growth dependent movements or tropic movements are slow, occurring either towards or away from the stimulus. Themovement of plants in the direction of stimulus is known as

'tropism'

. Tropic movements are shown in response toenvironmental factors such as light, gravity, water and chemicals. Plant roots are positively geotropic and negativelyphototropic whereas plant shoots are usually negatively geotropic and positively phototropic. Pollen tubes showchemotropism by growing towards the ovules.

Conduction of Information by electro-chemical means in Plants and AnimalsIn Plants In Animals

No specialised tissue for conduction of information Specialised tissue for conduction of informationCells change their shape by changing the amount of water in themCells change their shape due to the presence of specialised proteinsMovements due to growth:1.

Growth of tendrils

: When a tendril comes in contact with a support, then the part of the tendril away from thesupport grows more rapidly than the part of the tendril that is in contact with the object, thus the tendril circlesaround the object and appears to cling to it.2.

Phototropism

: Directional movement of a plant/plant part in response to light, for example: shoots showpositive phototropism.3.

Geotropism

: Directional movement of a plant/plant part in response to gravity, for example: roots showpositive geotropism.4.

Chemotropism

: Directional movement of a plant/plant part in response to chemicals, for example- growth of the pollen tube towards the ovule.5.

Hydrotropism

: Movement of a part of a plant in response to water, for example: roots

Plant hormones or phytohormones

: These are chemical substances produced naturally by plants; they are capable of being translocated and regulate one or more physiological processes when present in low concentrations.

Hormone Function

Auxins They are released in response to light, promote cellelongation, also promote the development of seedless fruits.Gibberellins Growth of stem, seed germination, flowering.Cytokinins Cell division (in fruits and seeds) , breaking of seed dormancyAbscisic Acid Inhibits growth, promotes wilting of leaves.Ethylene Promotes fruit ripening processes.

How is the movement of the leaves of the sensitive plant different from the movement of a shoot towards light?

Leaves of the sensitive plant move very quickly in response to touch. There is no growth involved in this movement. Thedirectional movement of shoot towards light is slow and is caused by growth. If it is prevented from growth, it will notshow the movement. In the movement of the leaves of sensitive plant, the stimulus is touch. In phototropism, thestimulus is light. Also, in sensitive plant, the movement is caused by the sudden loss of water from the swellings at thebase of leaves. In phototropism the bending is caused by unequal growth on two sides of the shoot.