CELL MEMBRANE The 'cell membrane' (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological membrane that

separates the interior of all cells from theoutside environment. he cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells.[3]

NUCLEAR MEMBRANE A nuclear membrane, also known as the nuclear envelope,[1] nucleolemma[2] or karyotheca,[3] is the double lipid bilayer membrane which surrounds the genetic material and nucleolus in eukaryotic cells. The nuclear membrane consists of two lipid bilayersthe inner nuclear membrane, and the outer nuclear membrane. The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space, a region contiguous with the lumen (inside) of theendoplasmic reticulum. It is usually about 2040 nm wide.[4 INTERPHASE CHROMOSOMES Cellular DNA is never bare and unaccompanied by other proteins. Rather, it always forms a complex with various protein partners that help package it into such a tiny space. This DNA-protein complex is called chromatin, wherein the mass of protein and nucleic acid is nearly equal. Within cells, chromatin usually folds into characteristic formations calledchromosomes. Each chromosome contains a single double-stranded piece of DNA along with the aforementioned packaging proteins. CHROMATIDS chromatid is one copy of a duplicated chromosome, which generally is joined to the other copy by a centromere,[1] for the process of nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis). They are normally identical ("homozygous") but may have slight differences in the case of mutations, in which case they are heterozygous. They are called sister chromatids so long as they are joined by the centromeres. When they separate (during anaphase of mitosis and anaphase 2 of meiosis), the strands are called daughter chromosomes (although having the same genetic mass as the individual chromatids that made up its parent, the daughter "molecules" are still referred to as chromosomes much as one child is not referred to as a single twin). Before replication, one chromosome is composed of one DNA molecule and after there are two DNA molecules. This is because DNA replication increases the amount of DNA and does not increase the number of chromosomes.

CENTROMERE The centromere is the part of a chromosome that links sister chromatids. During mitosis,spindle fibers attach to the centromere via the kinetochore.[1] Centromeres were first defined as genetic loci that direct the behavior of chromosomes. Their physical role is to act as the site of assembly of the kinetochore - a highly complex multiprotein structure that is responsible for the actual events of chromosome segregation - e.g. binding microtubulesand signalling to the cell cycle machinery when all chromosomes have adopted correct attachments to the spindle, so that it is safe for cell division to proceed to completion (i.e. for cells to enter anaphase).[2] SPINDLE APPARATUS In cell biology, spindle apparatus refers to the subcellular structure that segregateschromosomes between daughter cells during cell division. It is also referred to as themitotic spindle during mitosis or the meiotic spindle during meiosis. While the spindle apparatus is composed of hundreds upon hundreds of proteins,[1]the fundamental machinery are the spindle microtubules. Attachment of microtubules to chromosomes is mediated by kinetochores, which actively monitor spindle formation and prevent premature anaphase onset. Microtubule polymerization and depolymerization dynamics drive chromosome congression. Depolymerization of microtubules generates tension at kinetochores;[2] CENTRIOLE A centriole is a cylindrical cell structure[1] composed mainly of tubulinthat is found in most eukaryotic cells. Centrioles are absent fromPinophyta, flowering plants and most fungi and are only present in the male gametes of charophytes, bryophytes, seedless vascular plants,Cycads, and Gingko.[2][3] An associated pair of centrioles, surrounded by an amorphous mass of dense material, called the pericentriolar material, or PCM, makes up a compound structure called a centrosome.[1]

CYTOKINE Cytokines (Greek cyto-, cell; and -kinos, movement) are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~520 kDa) that are important in cell signaling - they are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells, and sometimes the releasing cell itself. Cytokines include chemokines, interferons, interleukins, lymphokines, tumour necrosis factor but generally not hormones or growth factors. Cytokines are produced by broad range of cells, including immune cells like macrophages, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, and various stromal cells; a given cytokine may be produced by more than one type of cell.