Electrical Circuits Simulation Result

DEPARTMENT OF EEE EC&S LAB
LENDI I NSTI TUTE OF ENGI NEERI NG & TECHNOLOGY 1

VERIFICATION OF
SUPERPOSITION AND
RECIPROCITY THEOREMS
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Experiment no: Batch no: Date:
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION
& RECIPROCITY THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Superposition & Reciprocity theorems for the given network.
APPARATUS :
THEORY:-
I. Superposition Theorem Statement:
I n a linear network with several independent sources which include
equivalent sources due to initial conditions and linear dependent sources, the overall
response in any part of the network is equal to the sum of the individual responses due
to each independent source, considered separately, with all other independent sources
reduced to zero.
Note: 1. The sources which are considered one at a time making all other sources zero,
are the independent sources including sources due to initial conditions only. The
dependent sources are retained as they are in the network.
2. When one independent source is considered & all other independent sources
are reduced to zero means that all the other independent voltage source are replaced with
short circuit and all the other independent current sources are replaced with open circuit.
If the sources contain internal impedances, that sources are replaced by their internal
impedances.
II. Reciprocity Theorem Statement:
The Reciprocity theorem states that the ratio of response to excitation is
invariant to an interchange of the position of the excitation and response in a single
source network. However if the excitation is a voltage source, the response should be a
current and vice versa.
S. No Name of Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter PMMC 0-300V 2
2 Ammeter PMMC 0-2.5A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
WW
50O/5A
110O/2A
300O/1.7A
300O/2A
2
1
1
2
4. Fuse TCC 5A 4
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PROCEDURE:-
I. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram.
2. Close Switch S
1
on to the Supply mains & remain Switches S
2
& S
3
open and
Switch S
4
closed.
3. Note down the Voltmeter readings V
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I' in the S.No1
of Table1
4. Now close Switch S
2
1
& S
4
open and
Switch S
3
closed.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I" in the S.No2
of Table1
6. Now Close Switches S
1
& S
2
3
&
S
4
open.
1
,V
2
& Ammeter reading as I in the S.No3
of Table1
8. Finally disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by open all the Switches.
II. RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
CASE : I
2. Close Switch S
1
on to the Supply mains
3. Note down the Voltmeter V
1
& Ammeter A
1
readings in S. No. 1 of Table 2
4. Disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by opening the Switch S
1
.
CASE : II
2. Close Switch S
2
on to the Supply mains
3. Note down the Voltmeter V
2
Ammeter A
2
readings in S. No. 2 of Table 2
4. Disconnect the circuit from the Supply mains by opening the Switch S
2
.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1
S.No. Voltmeter Reading Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1. V
1
= V
2
= I' =
2. V
1
= V
2
= I" =
3. V
1
= V
2
= I =
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TABLE 2
S.No. Voltmeter Reading Ammeter Reading
1. V
1
= I
1
=
2. V
2
= I
2
=
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid Loose Connections.
2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.
3. Before switching on the supply for the circuit, ensure that all rheostats are at maximum
position and during the experiment these should not be disturbed.
RESULTS:
I. SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:
Theoretical Practical
1. I' =
2. I" =
3. I =
II. RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
1. V
1
/ I
1
=
2. V
2
/ I
2
=
CONCLUSIONS:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What are the Statements of the above theorems?
2) What is a linear network?
3) Where the above theorems are used practically?
4) What are the practical applications of the above theorems?
5) What is a bilateral network? Give examples.
6) What are the limitations of above theorems?
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VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS
NORTONS &MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREMS
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A) VERIFICATION OF THEVENINS
& NORTONS THEOREMS
AIM : To verify Thevenins & Nortons theorems for the given circuit.
APPARATUS:
S. No Name of Apparatus Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeters 0-300V MI 2
2 Ammeter 0-2A MI 2
3 Rheostats
50O , 5A
110 O , 2A
200 O , 2A
WW
WW
WW
2
1
1
4 1-u Variac
230V / (0-270)V,
15A
---- 1
5. SPST ---- ---- 2
6. Fuse 5A TCC 2
THEORY:-
I) Thevenins Theorem Statement:
Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources,
regardless of the connection or complexity, connected to a given load R
L,
may be
replaced by a simple two terminal network consisting of a single voltage source of V
th
volts and single resistance R
th
in series with the voltage source, across the two
terminals of the load R
L
. The V
th
is the open circuit voltage measured at the two
terminals of interest, with load resistance R
L
removed. This voltage is also called
Thevenins equivalent voltage. The R
th
is the Thevenins equivalent resistance of the
given network as viewed through the open terminals with R
L
removed and all the active
sources are replaced by their internal resistances. I f the internal resistances are not
known then independent voltage sources are to be replaced by the short circuit while
the independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit.
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II) Nortons Theorem Statement :
Any combination of linear bilateral circuit elements and active sources,
regardless of the connection or complexity, connected to a given load R
L,
can be
replaced by a simple two terminal network, consisting of a single current source of I
N
amperes and a single resistance R
N
in parallel with it, across the two terminals of the
R
L.
The I
N
is the short circuit current flowing through the short circuited path, replaced
instead of R
L
. I t is also called Nortons current. The R
N
is the equivalent resistance of
the given network as viewed through the load terminals, with R
L
removed and all the
active sources are replaced by their internal resistances. I f the internal resistances are
unknown then the independent voltage sources must be replaced by short circuit while
the independent current sources must be replaced by open circuit.
PROCEDURE:-
I) FOR CI RCUI T 1:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the Variac (with its variable position at 3C) by closing the
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter1 reads 200 V.
4. Note down the corresponding readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter2 in Table 1 with the
conditions
i) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Open
ii) SPST 1 Open & SPST 2 Open
iii) SPST 1 Closed & SPST 2 Closed
5. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter1 reads 0 volts
6. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
II) FOR CI RCUI T 2:
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the Variac (with its variable position at C ) by closing the
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads 150 V &
note down the corresponding reading of Ammeter in Table 2.
4. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads 0 volts
5. Disconnect the Variac from the supply by opening the DPST Switch
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III) FOR CI RCUI T 3:
2. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the Variac (with its variable position at C ) by closing the
DPST Switch.
3. Gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until the Voltmeter reads V
th
, as
obtained in Table 1
4. Close the SPST Switch & vary the rheostat until the Ammeter reads current I for
which V
th
/ I gives R
th
, the value as obtained in Table 2 .
5. Once the Rheostat set to R
th
, open the SPST Switch & note down the reading of the
Ammeter in Table 3
IV) FOR CI RCUI T 4:
2. Use the same Rheostat which set to R
th
as in the Circuit 3
3. Apply 230 V AC Supply to the Variac (with its variable position at C) by closing the
DPST Switch.
4. After closing the SPST switch gradually vary the variable position of the Variac until
the Ammeter1 reads current I
N
as obtained in Table 1 & note down the corresponding
reading of the Ammeter2 in Table 4.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1 (For Circuit 1)
S.No Switch conditions Voltmeter V
1
Voltmeter V
2
Ammeter
1. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
L
= I
L
=
2. SPST 1 Open
SPST 2 Open
V
S
= V
th
= I
L
= 0
3. SPST 1 Closed
SPST 2 Closed
V
S
= V
L
= 0 I
N
=
S.No Voltmeter Ammeter
R
th
= V
S
/ I
S
1.
V
S
= I
S
= R
th
=
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S.No Voltmeter Ammeter
1.
V
th
= I
L
=
S.No Ammeter I
1
Ammeter I
2
1.
I
N
= I
L
=
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax error.
3. Before switching on the supply for each circuit, ensure that all rheostats are at
maximum position and during the experiment these should not be disturbed.
4. Variable position of the Variac (auto transformer) should be at minimum position
before switching on the power supply.
RESULTS:-
1. I
L
from the Main circuit =
2. I
L
from the Thevenins Equivalent Circuit =
3. I
L
from the Nortons Equivalent circuit =
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Thevenins theorem?
3) What is a bilateral network?
4) What are Active & Passive elements?
5) What are the applications of the above theorem?
6) What are the limitations of application of this theorem?
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B) VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
AIM : To verify Maximum Power transfer theorem for the given circuit.
APPARATUS:
1
Voltmeter
MC
MC
0-300V
0-150V
1
1
2 Ammeter MC 0-2A 1
3 Rheostat
WW
WW
WW
100O/5A
50O/5A
200O/2A
2
1
1
4. Fuse TCC 5A 2
THEORY:
Statement: The Maximum Power transfer theorem states that A Resistance load R
L
,
being connected to a DC network, receives maximum power when it is
equal to the internal resistance of the source network as seen from the
load terminals i.e. R
th
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LENDI I NSTITUTE OF ENGI NEERI NG & TECHNOLOGY 20
With reference to Fig (B)
L th
th
L
R R
V
I
+
=
While the power delivered to the resistive load is
( )
( )
L
L th
th
L L L
R
R R
V
R I P
+
= =
2
2
2
P
L
can be maximized by varying R and hence, maximum power can be delivered when
(dP
L
/dR
L
) = 0
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
4
2 2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th
L
L th L th
L
L th
R R
R R
dR
d
R V R V
dR
d
R R
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
0
2
4
2 2 2
=
+
+ +
L th
L th L th th L th
R R
R R R V V R R
( ) 0 2 = +
L L th
R R R
th L
R R =
Hence it has been proved that power transfer from a dc source network to a resistive
network is maximum when the load resistance of the network is equal to the internal
resistance of the dc source
Again with R
L
=R
th
, the system being perfectly matched for load and source,
power transfer becomes maximum and this amount of power (P
max
) can be obtained as
( )
th
th
th th
th th
R
V
R R
R V
P
4
2
2
2
max
=
+
=
The total power supplied is thus
th
th
th
th
in
R
V
R
V
P
2 4
2
2 2
= =
During maximum power transfer the efficiency of the circuit becomes,.
% 50 100
max
= =
in
P
P
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PROCEDURE:-
I) TO FIND POWER VARI ATI ONS WI TH R
L
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram 1.
2. Apply 220 V DC Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 1 which are connected
across the load after keeping the load rheostat, R
L
at its minimum value.
4. Increase the load resistance in steps and for each step, note down the corresponding
Ammeter and Voltmeter readings in Table 1.
5. Disconnect the circuit from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
II) TO FIND R
th
1. Connect the circuit as per the Circuit diagram 2.
2. Apply 220 V DC Supply to the circuit by closing the DPST Switch.
3. Note down the readings of Ammeter & Voltmeter in Table 2.
4. Disconnect the circuit from the supply by opening the DPST Switch.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
TABLE 1
S No V
L
(volts) I
L
(amps) R
L
= V
L
/ I
L
() P
L
= I
L
2
R
L
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
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TABLE 2
S No V
S
(volts) I
S
(amps) R
th
= V
S
/I
S
1.
MODEL GRAPH:-
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Avoid loose connections.
2. Avoid Parallax error.
3. Take more number of readings for a better plot
RESULTS:-
1. P
max
= ----------
2. R
L
= ---------
3. R
th
= ---------
4. = ---------
CONCLUSIONS:-
VIVA QUESTIONS:-
1) What is the Statement of Maximum Power Transfer theorem?
3) What is a bilateral network?
4) What are the applications of the above theorem?
5) What are the advantages & disadvantages of the above theorem?
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DETERMINATION OF TWO
PORT NETWORK PARAMETERS
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DETERMINATION OF TWO PORT
NETWORK PARAMETERS
AIM: To determine Z, Y, ABCD and H parameters of a given two port Network.
APPARATUS:
S.No Specification Range Type Quantity
1 Voltmeter (0-300)V PMMC 2
2 Ammeter (0-5)A PMMC 2
3 Rheostat (50 O , 5A) Wire Wound 3
4 Switches ------ DPDT 2
5 Fuses 5A
Tin Coated
Copper
2
6 Connecting Wires 1 Square mm
Insulated
copper
As per
Requirement
THEORY:
A network containing two pairs of terminals is called as two port network.
Normally one pair of terminals coming together to supply power or to withdraw power or
to measure the parameters, are called as port. To achieve simplicity, the whole network is
shown with a single block.
A typical two port network is as shown below in fig (a)
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OPEN CIRCUIT IMPEDANCE PARAMETERS (Z-parameters):
Z-parameters can be defined by the following equations
V
1
= Z
11
I
1
+ Z
12
I
2
(1)
V
2
= Z
21
I
1
+ Z
22
I
2
(2)
Matrix form:
( ) 3 . .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
I
I
Z Z
Z Z
V
V
If port 2-2
1
is open circuited, i.e. I
2
= 0 then
Z
11
= V
1
/I
1
& Z
21
= V
2
/I
1
If port 1-1
1
is open circuited, i.e. I
1
= 0, then
Z
12
= V
1
/I
2
& Z
22
= V
2
/I
2
.
Here,
Z
11
is the driving point impedance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
open circuited. It can
also be called as open circuit input impedance.
Z
21
is the transfer impedance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
open circuited. It can also be
called as open circuit forward transfer impedance.
Z
12
is the transfer impedance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
open circuited. It can also be
called as open circuit reverse transfer impedance and
Z
22
is the driving point impedance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
open circuited. It can also
be called as open circuit output impedance.
Z-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as
shown below in fig (b)
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If the
Network is
a) Reciprocal then V
1
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) = V
2
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) i.e. Z
12
= Z
21
b) Symmetrical then V
1
/I
1
(where I
2
= 0) = V
2
/I
2
(where I
1
= 0) i.e. Z
11
= Z
22
SHORT CIRCUIT ADMITTANCE PARAMETERS (Y-parameters):
Y-parameters can be defined by the following equations
I
1
= Y
11
V
1
+ Y
12
V
2
. (1)
I
2
= Y
21
V
1
+ Y
22
V
2
. (2)
In matrix form
( ) 3 . .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
V
Y Y
Y Y
I
I
If port 2-2
1
is short circuited, i.e. V
2
= 0 then
Y
11
= I
1
/V
1
& Y
21
= I
2
/V
1
If port 1-1
1
1
= 0 then
Y
12
= I
1
/V
2
& Y
22
= I
2
/V
2
1
2
1
I
2
I
1
Z
11
+
_
Z
22
Z
12
I
2
Z
21
I
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig (b) Open circuit impedance parametric representation of a two port net work.
+
_
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Here, Y
11
is the short circuit driving point admittance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
short circuited. It will also be called as short circuit input admittance.
Y
21
is the Transfer admittance at port 1-1
1
with 2-2
1
short circuited. It will
also be called as short circuit forward transfer admittance.
Y
12
is the Transfer admittance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
short circuited. It will
also be called as short circuit reverse transfer admittance and
Y
22
is the driving point admittance at port 2-2
1
with 1-1
1
short circuited. It
can also be called as short circuit output admittance.
Y-parameter representation for a two port network, shown above, will be as
shown below
If the network is
a) Reciprocal then I
2
/V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
1
/V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
21
= Y
12
b) Symmetrical then I
1
/ V
1
(where V
2
= 0) = I
2
/ V
2
(where V
1
= 0) i.e. Y
11
= Y
22
Hybrid Parameters (h-Parameters):
h-parameters can be defined by the following equations
) 2 .....( .......... .......... ..........
) 1 ......( .......... .......... ..........
2 22 1 21 2
2 12 1 11 1
V h I h I
V h I h V
+ =
+ =
1
2
1
I
2 I
1
Y
11
Y
22
Y
12
V
2
Y
21
V
1
2
1
1
V
2
V
1
Fig(c) Short circuit admittance parameter representation of a two port net work.
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In matrix form
) 3 ( .......... .......... ..........
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
V
I
h h
h h
I
V
If port 2-2
1
2
= 0 then
1
2
21
1
1
11
&
I
I
h
I
v
h = =
h
11
is called input impedance and h
21
is called forward current gain.
If port 1-1
1
is open circuited, i.e., I
1
=0 then
2
2
22
2
1
12
&
v
I
h
v
v
h = =
h
22
is called output admittance and h
12
is called reverse voltage gain.
ABCD Parameters:
ABCD parameters can be defined by the following equations
) 2 ..( .......... .......... )......... (
) 1 .( .......... .......... )......... (
2 2 1
2 2 1
I D CV I
I B AV V
+ =
+ =
In matrix form
) 3 .........( .......... ..........
2
2
1
1
I
V
D C
B A
I
V
h
22
1
I
1
h
11
+
-
h
12
V
2
1
1
V
1
Fig (d) Hybrid parametric representation of a two port net work.
2
1
I
2
h
21
I
1
2
V
2
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If port 2-2
1
is open circuited i.e., I
2
=0 then
2
1
2
1
&
V
I
C
V
V
A = =
A is called reverse voltage ratio and C is known as transfer admittance.
If port 2-2
1
is short circuited i.e., V
2
=0 then
2
1
2
1
&
I
I
D
I
V
B
=
B is called transfer impedance and D is called reverse current ratio.
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.
2. With the Switches S
2
open, S
3
close to 11' and S
4
open, note down the
corresponding readings of voltmeter and ammeter in S.No 1 in Tabular form after
closing the Switch S
1
to supply mains
1
open, S
4
close to 33' and S
3
open, note down the
corresponding readings of voltmeter and ammeter in S.No 2 in Tabular after
2
to supply mains
2
open, S
3
close to 11' and S
4
close to 44', note down the
1
to supply mains
1
open, S
3
close to 22' and S
4
close to 33 ', note down the
2
to supply mains
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.NO Test Condition V
1
(V) I
1
(A) V
2
(V) I
2
(A)
1
Port 2 Open
(I
2
= 0) and
Port-1 Active
2
Port 1 Open
(I
1
=0) and
Port-2 Active
3
Port 2 Short (4 - 4)
(V
2
=0) and
port-1 active
4
Port 1 Short (2 - 2)
(V1=0) and
Port-2 active
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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter without parallax error.
2. The current through a particular element should be maintained below its current
rating.
3. The conditions of switches should be thoroughly checked before making the
circuit live
RESULTS:
Name of the
Parameter
Theor Pract Theor Pract Theor Pract Theor Pract
Z-parameter Z
11
= Z
12
= Z
21
= Z
22
=
Y-parameter Y
11
= Y
12
= Y
21
= Y
22
h-parameter h
11
= h
12
= h
21
= h
22
ABCD-
parameters
A= B= C= D=
CONCLUSIONS:
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What is the significance of the two port parameters?
2) How you know the admittance parameters from impedance parameters?
3) What are the application of Z& Y parameters?
4) What is the condition for reciprocal network?
5) What is the condition for symmetrical network?
6) What is a Lattice network?
7) What is a Ladder network?
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DETERMINATION OF
SELF, MUTUAL
INDUCTANCES AND
COEFFICIENT OF
COUPLING
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DETERMINATION OF SELF, MUTUAL AND
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING
AIM:
To determine the self inductance of a given transformer windings.
To determine the mutual inductance and coefficient of coupling of a given transformer.
APPARATUS:
S.NO
COMPONENTS
REQUIRED
RATING TYPE QUANTITY
1. Voltmeter (0-300)V PMMI 2
2. Ammeter (0-5)A PMMI 2
3. Switches ---- DPST 2
4. Fuse 10A Tin coated copper 2
5. Connecting wires 1mm
2
---- As per required
THEORY:
The property of the coil which opposes any change in the current passing
through it is called self inductance or only inductance. It is analogous to electrical inertia
or electromagnetic inertia.
MAGNITUDE OF SELF INDUCED EMF: From Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, self induced emf can be expressed as
E= - Nd4/dt
Negative sign indicate the direction of emf opposing change in current due to which it
exists.
The flux can be expressed as
4 = (flux/ampere)*ampere = (4/I)*I
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Now as long as permeability is constant, ratio of flux to current remains constant.
Rate of change of flux= (4/I)*rate of change of current
d4/dt= (4/I)*(dI/dt)
e= (-N4/I)*(dI/dt)
e= - (N4/I) dI/dt
The constant N4/I in this expression is nothing but the quantitative measure of the
property due to which coil opposes any change in current. So this constant is called
coefficient of self inductance and denoted by L.
L= N4/I where its units are henry (H)
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE: The mutual inductance between the two circuits is
defined as the flux linkage of one circuit to the current in the other circuit. Thus the
inductance M
12
is given by
M
12
=flux linkage in circuit 1/current in circuit 2= (N
1
4
21
)/I
2
Similarly mutual inductance M
21
is given by M
21
=flux linkage in circuit 2/current in
circuit 1= (N
2
4
12
)/I
1
If the medium surrounding two circuits in linear without ferromagnetic material, then
mutual inductance represented in equation are equal, thus for linear medium around, two
circuits we can write
M
12
=M
21
=M where units are Henry (H)
COEFFICIENT OF COUPLING: When two magnetic circuits kept closed to each
other interact with each other magnetically through flux linkage in the circuit, due to
current in other circuit then the circuits are called magnetically coupled circuits.
M=K*[\ (L
1
*L
2
)]
Where K is called coefficient of coupling between two coils.
When two magnetic circuits are coupled together in series aiding and if M is the mutual
inductance between them, then effective inductance of system is given by
L
eq
= (L
1
+L
2
+2M) H
Similarly two magnetic circuits with inductance L
1
and L
2
are magnetically coupled in
series opposing then effective inductance is given by
L
eq
= (L
1
+L
2
-2M) H
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APPLICATIONS:
Transformer being a static with full load efficiency around 98% are
extensively used in various applications. The various applications may cause under any
one of the following categories.
(1)Steeping up of voltage: Electrical energy in generating like hydro power stations,
situated fart away from consumers, is generating at a voltage around 11kv.For
transmitting the power from generating stations to the place of use by long transmission
lines, it is more economical to raise the level of voltage of transmission of 230kv or
400kvs.This steeping up of voltage is carried by installing transformer.
(2) Steeping down of voltage: High tension consumers are provided with electrc powers
at 11kv or 6.6kv, 3-phase.The consumers at his/her cost has to install transformer to step
down the voltage to 415v,3-phase to shift their requirement.
(3)Instrument extension: To measure high current in the order of several hundreds ampere
and voltage of several kilowatt measurements transformers are used along with ammeter
and voltmeter of lower range.
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PROCEDURE:
SELF INDUCTANCE:
2. Give the supply and connect switch to 1-1 and note down the readings of
V
1
and I
1
which gives Z
1
.
3. Connect switch to z-z
1
and note down the readings of V
2
and I
2
which gives Z
2
.
4. By using the multimeter calculate the resistance of primary and secondary.
5. Using the formula Z=R+jX
c
, calculate L
1
and L
2
.
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE:
2. Adjust the variac voltage 230v and note the readings of voltmeter and ammeter and
find mutual inductance.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
SELF INDUCTANCE:
S.NO
SWITCH S
POSITION
VOLTMETER
READING(V)
AMMETER
READING(A)
RESISTANCE(O)
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE:
S.NO
VOLTMETER
READING(V)
AMMETER
READING(A)
RESISTANCE(O)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Note down the readings from ammeter and voltmeter without parallax errors.
2. Care should be taken that the ammeter reading should not exceed the rated value.
RESULT:
Hence the mutual inductance of a given transformer is verified.
Hence the self inductance of a given transformer is verified.
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DETERMINATION OF
FORM FACTOR OF A
NON-SINUSOIDAL
WAVEFORM
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DETERMINATION OF FORM FACTOR OF NON-
SINUSOIDAL WAVEFORM
AIM:To determine the form factor of a non-sinusoidal waveform.
APPARATUS:
S.NO Name of Apparatus RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 Voltmeter (0-300)V PMMI 1
2 Ammeter (0-5)A PMMI 1
3 Rheostat 12O/5A WW 1
4 Fuse 5A TCC 2
5 CRO 20MHZ 1
6 Connecting wires 1mm
2
As required
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
S.NO RATING TRANSFORMER
AUTO
TRANSFORMER
1 KVA 2 2.7
2 Voltage 115/230V (0-270)V
3 Current 17.4A/8.7A 10A
4 Frequency 50HZ 50HZ
THEORY:
AVERAGE VALUE: In a.c circuit applications we are interested in finding out value of a
waveform, that wave could be sinusoidal, triangular or any other shape.
DEFINITION: The value of a cycle of a waveform in the area under the waveform
divided by length of one cycle.
Mathematically v
avg
= (1/T)
0
}
T
Vdt where T is time period
V
avg
= (v
1
+v
2
+v
3
++v
n
)/n
THEORITICAL VALUE: V
avg
= RV
m
/n = 0.6366v
m
for sine waveform
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE (RMS VALUE): In mathematics, the root mean
square also known as quadratic mean. It is a statistical measure of the magnitude of a
varying quantity especially useful when variants are positive and negative.
Eg: sinusoid
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It can be calculated for a series of discrete values or continuously varying function. The
name comes from the fact that it is the square root of the mean of the square of the value.
It is a special case of power mean with the exponent, p=2.
DEFINITION: The rms or effective value of a wave is defined as that dc value which
allowed to flow through a particular resistance for a certain time would produce the same
heating effect as that produced by the wave.
Mathematically

= =
T
eff rms
dt t V
T
I I
0
2
) (
1
The rms of collection of n values is given by
n
V V V
V
n
rms
) (
2 2
2
2
1
+ + +
=
L L L
=0.707v
m
(sinusoidal wave)
The RMS value of a periodic function is equal to the rms of one period of one function.
The RMS value of a continuous function or signal can be approximately calculated by
taking the rms of a series of equally spaced samples. It is used to get average electric
power. It is used to find RMS value of a given waveform.
FORM FACTOR: The form factor of an alternating current waveform (signal) is the
ratio of rms values to the average value (mathematically) mean of absolute value of all
points on the waveform.
In case of sinusoidal waveform, the form factor is approximately equal to 1.11
Mathematically form factor = V
rms
/V
avg
Theoretical value: 1107 . 1
2
2
=
m
m
V
V
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PROCEDURE:
2. Plot the graph that appears on CRO connected to the resistor i.e., non sinusoidal wave
form.
3. Divide the waveform into n-parts.
4. Calculate the V
rms
using the formula
( )
volts
n
V V V
V
n
rms
2 2
2
2
1
+ + +
=
L L L L
5. Calculate the form factor as
avg
rms
V
V
PRECAUTIONS:
1.Note down the readings from ammeter and voltmeter without parallax errors.
2.Care should be taken that the ammeter reading should not exceed the rated value.
3.Trace the waveform carefully from CRO.
RESULT:
The theoretical and practical values for form factor are
Theoretical value Practical value
CONCLUSION: Theoretical and practical values of a form factor are found to be
approximately equal.
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VERIFICATION OF
COMPENSATION
THEOREM
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VERIFICATION OFCOMPENSATION THEOREM
AIM:-To verify compensation theorem.
APPARATUS:-
S.No APPARATUS RANGE TYPE QUANTITY
1 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1
2 Ammeter 0-1A MI 1
3 Rheostats
290O/2.8A WW 1
55O/1.7A WW 1
4 1-4 Variac 230/0-270V,8A ----- 1
THEORY:-
In a linear, network N, if the current in the branch is I and the impedance Z
of the branch is increased by oZ, then the increment of voltage and current in each branch
of network is that voltage and currents that would be produced by an opposing voltage
source of value V
C
= IoZ introduced into the altered branch after the modification.
EXPLANATION:-
Consider network N in figure (A), having branch impedance Z. Let the
current through Z be I and its voltage be V.
Let oZ be the change in Z. Then I
i
(the new current) can be written as,
I
i
= V
OC
/ (Z+ oZ+Zs)
oI = I
i
I = V
0C
/ (Z+ oZ+Zs) - V
OC
/ (Z+ Zs)
= - (V
OC
/ (Z+ Zs)) (oZ/ (Z+ oZ+Zs))
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= -IoZ/ (Z+ oZ+Zs)
= - V
c
/ (Z+ oZ+Zs)
Where, V
c
= IoZ
The equation shown above follows the shown below in which oI has the
same direction as I
i
.
This shows that the change in current oI due to change in any branch in a linear
network can be can be calculated by determining the current in that branch in a network
obtained from the original network, by nulling all the independent sources and placing a
voltage source called the compensation source in series with the branch whose value is V
c
= IoZ, where I is the current through the branch before its impedance is changed and oZ
is the change in the impedance. The direction of V
c
is opposite to that of I.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM -1:-
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TABULAR FORM 1:-
S.NO. Voltage (V) Current I (Amps)
TABULAR FORM -2:-
S.No. Voltage (V) Current I
i
(Amps)
TABULAR FORM-3:-
S.No. Voltage (V) Current AI (Amps)
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. With the help of 1 - O Variac apply 200V to the circuit.
3. Note down the corresponding ammeter readings (I).
4. Apply 200V to the circuit 2 and note the corresponding ammeter readings(I
i
).
5. Apply compensating Voltage (V
C
) to the circuit 3 and note down the
corresponding ammeter readings (AI).
PRECAUTIONS:-
1. Before switching on the supply for each circuit it should be ensured that all
rheostats at maximum position and during the experiment this should not be
disturbed.
2. It is also to be ensured that the auto transformer should be at minimum position
before switching on the power supply.
RESULT:-
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MEASUREMENT OF 3-PHASE
POWER BY 2-WATTMETER
METHOD
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Measurement of 3-phase Power by two Wattmeter Method
AIM: To measure 3-phase power by two wattmeter method for the given load.
APPARATUS :
THEORY:-
In a three phase three wire system we require 3 elements, but if we make the
common points of the pressure coils coincide with one of the lines, then we will require
only n-1=2 elements.
Let us consider two wattmeters connected to measure power in three phase circuit
as shown in figure. The sum of the two wattmeter readings is equal to the power
consumed by the load. This is irrespective of the load is balanced or unbalanced.
Total Active power is given by P = W
1
+W
2
Total Reactive power is given by Q = \3 (W
1
-W
2
)
Power factor is given by
Where W
1
& W
2
are two wattmeter readings, they can be expressed mathematically as
W
1
= V
L
I
L
cos (30-4)
o
W
2
= V
L
I
L
cos (30+4)
o
When power factor is unity both the wattmeter show same reading. As the power
factor decreases, up to 0.5 both the meters read positive values but unequal. If the power
factor decreases below 0.5 one of the wattmeter shows negative reading. In such case we
have to inter change either current coil or pressure coil connections.
1 Voltmeter PMMC 0-600V 1
2 Ammeter PMMC 0-10A 1
3 Rheostat WW 50O/5A 3
4 Wattmeter -- 600V, 10A, UPF 2
5 Fuse TCC 10A --
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0 - 6 0 0 V
M I
50 / 5A
5
0
/
5
A
5
0
/
5
A
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0 - 6 0 0 V
M I
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0 - 6 0 0 V
M I
R B Y
C B Y
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0 - 6 0 0 V
M I
R B Y
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PROCEDURE:-
2. Initially variac should be in minimum position.
3. Close the TPST switch and slowly vary the variac until voltmeter reads line voltage of
415 V.
4. Note down the readings of Wattmeter, Voltmeter and Ammeter and tabulate.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
S.NO. V
L
(V) I
L
(A) W
1
(watt) W
2
W
T
=W
1
+W
2
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Avoid Loose Connections.
2. Readings must be taken without parallax error.
3. Before switching on the supply for the circuit, ensure that all rheostats are at maximum
position and during the experiment these should not be disturbed.
RESULTS:
CONCLUSIONS:
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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is active power?
2. What are the different powers available?
3. What is the difference between balanced load & un balanced load?
4. Draw the Phasor diagram.
5. What is the active power consumed for a purely inductive and capacitive loads.
6. What is the apparent power for a resistive load.
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DEPARTMENT OF EEE EC&S LAB

LENDI I NSTI TUTE OF ENGI NEERI NG & TECHNOLOGY 1

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