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2
=
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Solution
MoM and FDTD both use perfectly
conducting materials.
To introduce finite conductivity, we can
use lumped impedance elements.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Modelling process
1. Enter the model
2. Pre-processing: Divide the model into
segments/pixels/voxels. You need to know the
coordinates of very line and corner.
3. Apply the solver
4. Post-processing: Extract the important
parameters (gain, front to back ratio, beam
width, bandwidth, input impedance, radiation
pattern, near-field strength etc)
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Numerical Modelling Procedure
Select/write your numerical modelling
code.
Find a simple analytical model and divide
into segments/pixels/voxels.
Solve the simple model analytically and
numerically.
Compare your solutions.
Alter the segments/pixels/voxel size and
recalculate the numerical model.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Standard numerical modelling test
Recalculate use different sized
segments/pixels/voxels.
Do not use a factor of 2, 5 or 10.
Why?
To ensure that your modelling routine is robust
To assess what accuracy is needed to get good
results
To minimize the number of segments/pixels/voxels in
the model to reduce the computational time and the
memory requirements.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Numerical Modelling Procedure
Enter your full model and check results.
Alter the segments/pixels/voxel size and
recalculate the numerical model.
Only when you have robust answers can
you conclude that the model is correct.
It is often a good idea to re-enter the
model to ensure conductor connectivity,
no air gaps, etc.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Reducing the model size
Look for one or more lines of symmetry
and apply a boundary (perfect conductor
or perfect magnetic conductor).
One line of symmetry can halve the
computational effort.
For circular or cylindrical symmetry, you
can change a 3D problem to a 2D or 1D
problem.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Topic 2
The Method of Moments
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Background
Numerical technique used to solve integral
equations.
The model common code is the Numerical
Electromagnetics Code (NEC) developed at
Lawrence Livermore Laboratories to check the
effect of EMP on antennas.
Originally created in the 1980s, NEC2 is freely
available.
Now commercially available in more user-
friendly form.
The method is always in 3D.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
MoM Basics (1)
The model is constructed of infinitely thin,
perfectly conducting wires.
To construct a plane, you need a 2D
intersecting grid of wires.
To construct a volume, you need a 3D
intersecting grid of wires.
To add loss, each segment must contain a
lumped impedance resistance.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
MoM Basics (2)
To account for finite radius, a perturbation
technique is used in the code BUT, the
current on the wire is always axially
symmetric.
If this approximation is not good enough,
you need to construct a cylindrical grid of
wires to represent the conductor of finite
diameter.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
MoM Basics (3)
You must add at least one source (voltage or
current) to one of the conducting segments to
provide energy to the system.
NEC2 provides an option for calculations in free
space or calculations in the vicinity of a ground
plane (infinite extent but finite or infinite
conductivity).
The ground plane calculation is done using
image theory and the Sommerfeld surface wave
(if selected).
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
MoM Basics (4)
The MoM computational engine places all
conductive segments in a matrix and calculates
the induced current in every segment using
mutual coupling equations.
The current on a single straight wire is fitted by a
basis function which smooths the current
transition between segments
The near electric field, the near magnetic field
and the electromagnetic far field (radiated field)
is calculated using the standard Hertzian dipole
formulation.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Pitfalls: Inaccurate results if
Wire segments are too long then incorrect
results (phase errors).
Wire segments are too short then incorrect
results (truncation errors).
Wire segments are too close and not
connected (axial symmetry is not a valid
approximation).
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Pitfalls: Inaccurate results if
The feed point(s) is not on a conducting
segment.
The wires do not exactly meet. An air gap
is a major problem.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
NEC code
The code was designed for computer card
entry.
Each line contains one piece of
information.
Most codes have a user-friendly interface
and the codes are created semi-
automatically.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
NEC Coordinate System
x
y
z
u
|
The xoy plane (z = 0) is where the ground plane is located if used.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Coding Examples
Comment Cards
CM comments - can only be at the start of
the program
CE end comments - only one required.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Coding Examples
Structure Geometry Cards
GA wire arc specification
GE end geometry - 0 means no ground plane
GF use numerical Green's function
GM shift and duplicate structure
GR generate cylindrical structure (symmetry)
GS scale structure dimensions - 0, 0, 1
GW specify wire - number, number of segments in
wire, x1,y1,z1, x2, y2, z2, radius
GX reflect structure
SP specify surface patch
GH generate helix
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Coding Cards
Program control cards
FR frequency specification - 0, # of steps, 0, 0, start f, Df
GN ground parameter specification - 0 for free space, 1 for
perfect gnd, 2 finite gnd
LD structure impedance loading - 0 series RLC or 1
parallel RLC, wire #, start seg #, end seg #, R, L, C
EX structure excitation - 0, wire #, segment #, 00, volts
real, volts imag
NT two-port network specification
TL transmission line specification
EN end of data flag
GD additional ground parameter specification
NE near electric field request
NH near magnetic field request
RP radiation pattern - 0, # of q steps, # of | steps, 1000, u
start, | start, Du, D|
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Coding Example
NEC Coding example: Dipole antenna in free space
CM Simple dipole antenna in Free Space
CM Optimized for resonance at 300 MHz
CE
GW 1, 9, 0, -.2418, 0, 0, .2418, 0, .0001
GS 0, 0, 1
GE 0
EX 0, 1, 5, 0, 1, 0
FR 0, 1, 0, 0, 300, 1
RP 0, 181, 1, 1000, -90, 0, 1, 1
RP 0, 1, 360, 1000, 90, 0, 1, 1
EN
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
NEC Activity
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
MMANA
http://www.smeter.net/antennas/mmana-
tutorial.php
This is based on Mininec a preNEC
program which is very efficient
computationally.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
References
Iskander, M.F., 1992. Electromagnetic fields and
waves, Prentice Hall. (Section 4.9)
Harrington, R.F., 1993. Field computation by
moment methods, IEEE Press.
Guru, B.S., and Hiziroglu, H.R., 1998.
Electromagnetic field theory and fundamentals.
PWS Publishing Company. pp. 530-533.
NEC manual. (on the web)
Sadiku, N.O., 1992. Numerical Techniques in
Electromagnetics, CRC Press. (Section 3.8,
Chapter 5)
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Topic 3
Finite-Difference Time-Domain
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Background
Method was developed by Yee in 1966 to
perform a direct solution of Maxwells
equations.
Using a Finite-difference scheme for
Maxwells equations, the method
calculates the magnetic and then the
electric field components through space
containing the objects(s) after each time
step.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Background
By directly calculating electric and
magnetic fields through space, the
technique inherently includes all EM
phenomena including:
Surface waves
Far field values (Radiated waves)
Near field values
Mutual coupling
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Background
By recording the time dependent field
strength at various places in the solution
space, it is possible to calculate
parameters such as:
Input impedance
Radiation pattern
Reflection coefficients
Effective dielectric constant
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Background
The system of equations can be solved in
1D (a line), 2D (a surface) and 3D.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Applications
All electromagnetic systems including
EM Couplers
Antennas
UWB systems
Radar crossection
Discontinuities in transmission lines
(microstrip lines, waveguides, etc)
electromagnetic geophysics
etc
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Basic formulation
The differential form of Maxwells
equations are solved using the central
difference formulation of the partial
differential operator.
If u is a field (H or E), then
x
x x u x x u
dx
x du
A
A A +
~
2
) ( ) ( ) (
0 0 0
( )
2
0 0 0
2
0
2
) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) (
x
x x u x u x x u
dx
x u d
A
A + A +
~
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
3D PDE equations
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
x
z
y
x
H
y
E
z
E
t
H
'
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
y
x z
y
H
y
E
z
E
t
H
'
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
z
y
x z
H
y
E
z
E
t
H
'
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
x
y
z x
E
z
H
y
H
t
E
o
c
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
y
z x
y
E
x
H
z
H
t
E
o
c
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
z
x
y
z
E
y
H
x
H
t
E
o
c
1
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
2D equations
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
z
x
y
z
y
z
y
x
z x
E
y
H
x
H
t
E
H
x
E
t
H
H
y
E
t
H
o
c
1
'
1
'
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
z
y
x z
y
z
y
x
z x
H
x
E
y
E
t
H
E
x
H
t
E
E
y
H
t
E
'
1
1
1
o
c
o
c
TM case TE Case
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
1D equations
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
z
y
z
y
z
y
E
x
H
t
E
H
x
E
t
H
o
c
1
'
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
c
c
z
y
z
y
z
y
H
x
E
t
H
E
x
H
t
E
'
1
1
o
c
TM case TE case
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
1D Difference Equations
(
=
A
=
A
+
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
H
x
H H
t
E E
H
x
E E
t
H H
o
c
1
1
1
1
1
'
1
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Time step equations
( )
( )
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
H
t
E E
x
t
H
E
t
H H
x
t
E
|
|
.
|
\
| A
+
A
A
=
|
.
|
\
|
A
+
A
A
=
c
o
c
'
1
1
1
1
1
1
Copyright: David Thiel 2009
The E and H fields are not calculated at exactly
the same point so the time at which the
calculations are performed must reflect this.
Chose E and H to be offset by Dx/2 and so the
time spacing between the E and H calculations
must be Dt/2. We must therefore write the
equation as:
( )
( )
1
2 / 1
2 / 1 2 / 1
1
1
2 / 1
2 / 1
2 / 1 2 / 1
2 / 1
1
'
1
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
A
+
A
A
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
+
A
A
=
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
E
t
H H
x
t
E
H
t
E E
x
t
H
c
o
c
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
|
.
|
\
|
A
+
A
A
=
|
|
.
|
\
| A
+
A
A
=
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
n
i
E
t
H H
x
t
E
H
t
E E
x
t
H
c
o
c