International Aquafeed January February 2014 - FULL EDITION

I N C O R P O R AT I N G F i S H Far M ing t E c H no L og Y
Successful moisture control in aquatic feeds Current challenges and opportunities in amino acid nutrition of salmonids Whisky by-products:
a sustainable protein source for aquaculture
Closing the food waste loop:

a new angle for insect-based feeds
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JA N UA RY | F E B R UA RY
FEED
AQUA
CONTENTS
Aqua News
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AN INTERNaTIONaL MaGaZINE FOR THE aQUaCULTURE FEED INDUSTRY - INCORPORATING FISH FaRMING TECHNOLOGY
Volume 16 / Issue 6 / January-February 2014 / Copyright Perendale Publishers Ltd 2014 / All rights reserved
Multi-million dollar fund focuses on aquaculture New knowledge on salmon immune defences calls for new feed ingredients Andritz strengthens in Asia Pacific Omega Protein streamlines operations UK scientists make Omega-3 plant progress Finding Netherland The Darling International acquisition Alternative additive trial shows shrimp improvement
Features
12 16 20 24 28 34 36 40 Successful moisture control in aquatic feeds Current challenges and opportunities in amino acid nutrition of salmonids Whisky by-products a sustainable protein source for aquaculture Production of farmed turbot and Senegalese sole in Portugal Closing the food waste loop: a new angle for insect-based feeds X-ray microtomography: a new tool in assessing the properties of aquatic feed Microalgae: an indispensible feed for bivalves SAFETY FIRST Chain approach in feed safety control is crucial
Regular items
7 32 42 56 THE AQUACULTURISTS PHOTOSHOOT EXPERT TOPIC - SHRIMP INDUSTRY EVENTS WAS to bring new forum to Korea Aquaculture Europe 2014 call for abstracts International Aquafeed magazine supports EMS Forum Aquaculture hits the British Isles CLASSIFIED ADVERTS THE AQUAFEED INTERVIEW INDUSTRY FACES
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International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom. All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. Copyright 2014 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058
www.perendale.co.uk
Editor Professor Simon Davies Email: simond@aquafeed.co.uk Deputy Editor Richard Sillett Email: richards@perendale.co.uk Associate Editors Dr Albert Tacon Email: albertt@perendale.co.uk Dr Yu Yu Email: yuy@perendale.co.uk Dr Kangsen Mai (Chinese edition) Email: mai@perendale.co.uk Editorial Advisory Panel Abdel-Fattah M. El-Sayed (Egypt) Dr Albert Tacon (USA) Professor Antnio Gouveia (Portugal) Professor Charles Bai (Korea) Colin Mair (UK) Dr Daniel Merrifield (UK) Dr Dominique Bureau (Canada) Dr Elizabeth Sweetman (Greece) Dr Kim Jauncey (UK) Eric De Muylder (Belgium) Dr Pedro Encarnao (Singapore) Dr Mohammad R Hasan (Italy) Circulation & Events Manager Tuti Tan Email: tutit@aquafeed.co.uk Design & Page Layout James Taylor Email: jamest@aquafeed.co.uk International Marketing Team (UK Office) Darren Parris Email: darrenp@aquafeed.co.uk Lee Bastin Email: leeb@aquafeed.co.uk Tom Blacker Email: tomb@perendale.co.uk Latin American Ivn Marquetti Email: ivanm@perendale.com Pablo Porcel de Peralta Email: pablop@perendale.com India Raj Kapoor Email: rajk@perendale.com Africa Nathan Nwosu Email: nathann@perendale.com More information: International Aquafeed 7 St George's Terrace, St James' Square Cheltenham, GL50 3PT, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1242 267706 Website: www.aquafeed.co.uk
Croeso a Blwthyn Newydd dda
e now begin another sequence of editions, carrying news reports, articles and features underpinning developments in aquafeed and related businesses from around the world. For me, this edition marks five years as Editor-in-Chief of this prestigious trade magazine, with an ever-expanding impact and circulation throughout the world, as well as a growing presence at all the major trade events, scientific symposia and meetings. The magazine is now translated into Spanish and Chinese, with plans to cover more languages in the future, to reach an even bigger readership. Rapid developments in IT have enabled Aquafeed to provide online editions, up-to-the-minute blogs and news items to complement the hard copy of the magazine. The latter is highly appealing to many in the industry on both the technical and academic sides some of our research reports are actually cited in scientific papers and research reports!
It is indeed a credit to the Perendale teams skills in marketing and sales, not to mention its quests for industrial contacts, reports and feature articles, that make this such a quality magazine. I know my students and many others in universities greatly value International Aquafeed and eagerly await each copy. As editor I thank each member of the team, and especially CEO Roger Gilbert for his inspiration and support over the last five years.
Professor Simon Davies
In the past five years I have seen plenty of change and evolution in fish nutrition and feed technology. Great emphasis is now being directed towards fish and shrimp health management through prophylactic approaches, with advances in the application of functional feed ingredients and natural additives including beta-glucans, various mannan oligosaccharides, yeast extracts, protein hydrolysates, probiotics and a host of plant-derived phytobiotics (to name a few).The list is endless, but we need to provide credible information on their efficacy and capabilities in practice. As you might expect, the last five years has also seen a huge increase in the potential for alternative protein sources and lipids to offset our dependence on fishmeal and fish oil in aquafeeds. The use of animal byproducts and the renewed interest in algae, as well as the traditional inclusion of soybean meal and protein concentrates from other grains and cereals continue to be explored for numerous fish and crustacean species. Indeed, a welcome addition to our magazine has been our species focus, which demonstrates the wide diversity of fish being farmed globally. The magazine has also evolved to include more information on the engineering and technological side not just for the milling industry, but also the holding and containment facilities for aquaculture including recirculation systems (RAS) and feed delivery and management equipment. And so on to our current issue! Claudia Silva of Evonik reports on the challenges and opportunities in amino acid nutrition of salmonids, and Vukasin Draganovic of Skretting ARC takes us through the analysis of feed pellets with X-ray microtomography, an important new tool in quality control and application in feed formulation. We have two new reports on novel protein sources for fish feeds. Brad Marchant of Enterra discusses the exciting new possibilities for insect-based ingredients, and Julio Traub of Heriot-Watt University in Scotland advocates the use of whisky distillers by-products for salmon feeds. With the New Year celebrations currently going on around me as I write this, a highly relevant topic! We also have an overview of flatfish production in Portugal, contributed by my good friend and Aquafeed editorial panel member Antnio Gouveia, who is a long-established Professor of Fish Nutrition at Porto University. Our Issue Focus this time round is shrimp, a major provider of farmed seafood today all over the world. We therefore have an article from Dong Qiufen of Hinter Biotechnology on Chinas success producing shrimp in greenhouses, and a report from Tzachi Samocha of Texas A&M Universitys mariculture lab on the institutions success testing superintensive, biofloc-based shrimp cultivation over the past few years. Of course we also carry our regular columns from Dominique Bureau, Alistair Lane, Ioannis Zabetakis and Roy Palmer, who will keep us fully abreast of the latest trends as they unfold in 2014. I hope to see many of our readers this year, starting this February in Seattle at Aquaculture America. No doubt as both professor and editor I will be kept very busy with visits and meetings. Good health permitting, and with your continued help and support, I should be able to do another five years!
Nathan Nwosu joins the team as business development manager for Nigeria. See the full story in our industry faces section on page 64 of this edition
Meet the latest addition to the International Aquafeed team
Aqua News
Multi-million dollar fund focuses on aquaculture
The functionality dimension
new investment fund has taken on the challenge of finding ways to feed 9 billion people by 2050. Netherlands-based investor group Aqua-Spark launched this November with the aim of identifying and funding small and medium enterprises that demonstrate a commitment to environmental and social sustainability, as well as significant potential for growth. In addition to its six-person investment team, AquaSpark draws upon an extensive network of experts including leading professionals in aquaculture and entrepreneurship, an advisory board and the resources of international non-profit research organisation WorldFish. The group, which will make its first investments in 2014, is an evergreen fund, gradually providing capital to businesses as they develop as opposed to an upfront lump sum. Aqua-Spark will also provide advice and guidance from its network of aquaculture and entrepreneurship experts, synergies from fellow investees, and help in monetising the intellectual property they develop. Initial investments will be between 250,000 and 5 million US dollars, and after a five-to-seven year period of portfolio-building, Aqua-Spark expects initial cash returns of 12 percent. Weve spent almost three years exploring financial models, and emerging aquaculture and related technologies, and this is a market with ample opportunity, said managing partner Mike Velings. These long-term investments offer a return not only for investors, but for the sustainable growth of a food source on which billions depend. Most aquaculture businesses have revenues below US$100 million, and many market experts believe venture capital is critical for the development of aquaculture outside of cash crops like salmon and shrimp. Co-founder Amy Novogratz started Aqua-Spark with Velings following a meeting at 2010s TED Mission Blue voyage to the Galapagos, which aimed to draw public attention to the protection of the oceans. Novogratz, a former director of the TED Prize, has worked with global luminaries including oceanographer and explorer Dr Sylvia Earle, former US President Bill Clinton and Bono. We were on a boat with the worlds foremost ocean and fish experts, so it was impossible not to get sucked into the enormity of the challenge, said Novogratz. Weve heard time and again about overfishing, yet global appetites for seafood are only growing. Our oceans could become virtual deserts in less than 35 years, but the light at the end of the tunnel is aquaculture. Aqua-Spark aims to ensure the world can meet its future demand for fish sustainably with a threefold investment strategy. Firstly, it will support niche and mainstream production platforms including hatcheries, farms and service providers to aquaculture smallholders. Secondly, the fund will invest in promising technologies in fields including the development of alternative protein sources, disease prevention, traceability and the reduction environmental impact. Finally, Aqua-Spark will fund whole-value-chain initiatives including the distribution and branding of seafood products and the improvement of Asian, African and South American producers access to major consumer markets in China, Europe and the USA.
Ioannis Zabetakis, assistant professor of food chemistry, university of Athens, Greece
hirty years after the Seven Countries Study into the relationship between diet and lifestyle and the risk of stroke and coronary heart disease, unanswered questions remain. Ancel Keyss major 1984 study took in cohorts from the USA, the Netherlands, Finland, Italy, Greece, Yugoslavia and Japan, and famously established a link between blood cholesterol level and cardiovascular disease. But why did some cohorts have low frequencies of coronary heart disease but high levels of serum cholesterol? Why do people in Japan (fish eaters) and in the Mediterranean (olive oil eaters) have a lower incidence of heart disease irrespective of serum cholesterol levels? Do we, after all, really need to lower serum cholesterol to prevent atherosclerosis and cardiac malfunctions? In 2014, cardiovascular diseases, although preventable, remain the top global cause of death and stroke, and cutting-edge research should focus on suggesting ways to sustainably increase food functionality against this threat.The prevention of cardiovascular diseases, and atherosclerosis in particular, is a major objective for life sciences research and the focal point in biochemistry and functional food chemistry, which aims to find out how specific food components participate in the atherosclerotic mechanisms involved, and how we can ensure their sustainable production. From the point of view of aquaculture, the term Food Security has a double dimension: enough food must be sustainably produced to feed the growing human population in the long-term, but this food also has to be nutritious. In other words, food security includes sustainability and functionality. With these dimensions in mind, it is rather surprising that aquaculture research has not yet focused on the nutritional value of farmed fish. A Scopus search on aquaculture feeds returns 342 papers from 2013 and 354 papers from 2012, but very few of them actually focus on the products nutritional value for humans. However, there are projects afoot to provide promising insight on this subject. For instance, the whisky and salmon industries in Scotland are about to embark on an innovative new partnership which will
convert by-products from whisky products into feed for farmed salmon. The by-products of the olive oil industry have been valourised in producing functional fish feeds in a similar way. In our global quest for novel functional aquatic feeds, a fresh approach is urgently needed. Today, omega-3 pills (containing ethyl esters of EPA and DHA) are produced in Scandinavia by shipping sardine oil from Chile, leaving a big carbon footprint. On the other hand, olive by-products in Mediterranean countries could be used by UK and Scandinavian feed companies at a much lower carbon cost. Olive pomace could easily be shipped to Northern Europe and used as a raw ingredient to produce functional and sustainable fish feeds. Concerted actions to co-ordinate aquaculture nutrition research with the availability of sustainable raw ingredients are therefore being sought not only to decrease pollution, but also to identify new sources for aquaculture feed ingredients. The use of genetically modified organisms is not a one-way research avenue and a rather more holistic approach could be feasible. Finally, from the consumers point of view, we need to remember that the global fish price index of the UNs Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) hit a record high in 2013 the result of increased demand and a surge in oil prices (affecting the operating cost for fish boats and transporting the catch). The sharpest price hike has been seen in wild fish, nearly doubling between 1990 and 2012, whereas the index for farmed fish rose by only a fifth. For now, some eco- (and wallet-) friendly options are farm-raised striped bass or farm-raised rainbow trout, which sell for around seven euros a pound and have a relatively light impact on the environment. Thats significantly lower than wild-caught fish offering a similar taste in texture, such as cod, which ranges from 12 to 22 euros a pound Dr Ioannis Zabetakis is an assistant professor at the Laboratory of Food Chemistry at the University of Athens. Share your opinions by emailing him at izabet@chem. uoa.gr www.zabetakis.net
January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 3
Aqua News
New knowledge on salmon immune defences calls for new feed ingredients
Feeding our image
Alistair Lane, executive director, European Aquaculture Society recent research project from the Norwegian School of Veterinary Science has shone a light on the mechanisms leading to feed-induced enteritis in Atlantic salmon. Dr Christian Sahlmanns research which formed his doctorial thesis provides for the first time a detailed description of the development and functions of the gastrointestinal tract of salmon fry. Up to now, marine biologists and feed nutritionists alike have been frustrated by the level of understanding available about the speciess digestive system during the early stages of its life. The thesis demonstrates that during their first few months of development, salmon do not suffer from intestinal inflammation as a result of the introduction of soy or cer tain other
he political horizon for European aquaculture development has not looked this good since the Commission published its first strategy for the sector back in 2002. Although the growth targets set out back then were not achieved, at least we now know why not. The Federation of European Aquaculture Producers Aquaculture in Motion event held in Brussels in November looked in detail at the latest EU Guidelines for the Sustainable Development of European Aquaculture,1 published earlier this year. FEAP presented its position on the four priority areas of the document, namely the simplification of administrative procedures for operating licences, the application of coordinated spatial planning to identify suitable areas, enhancing the competitiveness of EU aquaculture and promoting a level playing field for EU operators. The event also showcased the diversity of European aquaculture with presentations on the status of development of national strategies from France, Hungary, Spain and Germany. The first two of these priority areas were recently formally recognised by the European Committee of the Regions as being key issues that need addressing by the regional and local authorities that actually oversee the licensing process. The final two areas have various components and one of these is the image of aquaculture. Part of the industrys image problem is the use of captured fish to produce farmed fish. Misinformation about the need for five kilos of captured fish to produce one kilo of farmed fish is still visible in the media and therefore remains anchored in the perceptions of many people. We know that this is no longer true, and there are many good scientific publications that show that Atlantic salmon can actually be a net protein producer. The partial replacement of fishmeal and oil by the use of terrestrial plant proteins and oils has been an excellent strategy to make our increasingly expensive raw materials go further for increased production. But eco consumers pose the obvious question to this logic: why use land and water to produce plants to make aquatic feeds, when they could potentially be used for direct human consumption? The effect of terrestrial ingredient sources on aquacultures footprint and ecological credibility is considerable. So we really are between a rock and a hard place and if
aquaculture in Europe does have the space to expand significantly, a significant change in aquatic feeds must also be made. Im a firm believer in using aquatic plants to produce feeds for aquatic organisms. If we can grow marine plants in proximity to fish cages to reduce their environmental impact, and then use those plants as constituents of aquaculture feeds, then we have a beautiful story to tell and one that would certainly have resonance with those who consume our products.The article by Richard Sillett in the November/ December issue of this publication on the Brittany company Olmix and their valorisation of ulvans from green algae especially caught my eye. Ive been following Olmix since I first met Herv Balusson at the Biomarine Business Convention in Nantes in 2011, and their project is one of several initiatives that will no doubt have a considerable impact on (marine) aquaculture in the future. Certainly, Im very much looking forward to it becoming reality. Remember the man in the red bonnet back in the 1970s that first raised the idea of feeding marine plants to marine fish Valorisation is a word that Im sometimes criticised for using, as it shows that I have been living in France for more than two decades. I guess that the equivalent in the language of Shakespeare would be adding value. That just happens to be the theme of our Aquaculture Europe 2014 event, to be held in the beautiful city of DonostiaSan Sebastin in Spain next October. In aquaculture, we can add value to our products, through processing, transformation and packaging. We can also add value during the production cycle to increase overall productivity. We can add value to research, by producing knowledge products that can be used by others for incremental knowledge advancement, for developing innovation or for supporting policy. We can add overall value in research management by harmonisation in programming, by better use of infrastructure and by nurturing our human resources. Finally, we can add value to societal, environmental and natural resources, by generating new economic activity products based on environmental services, or diversifying existing ones. As at all of our events, AE2014 will have several nutrition sessions, including an update on the knowledge generated by the EU ARRAINA project. I very much hope that you will join us. And finally, dont worry; Im not going to post a selfie!
4 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | January-February 2014
pulses, including peas, to their feed. This marks a contrast to salmon living in seawater, whose distal (or posterior) intestine suffers from the introduction of such ingredients. This suggests that the intestinal immune response is much less sensitive in salmon during the fry stage. The use of plant-based ingredients in salmon feed has traditionally resulted in lower growth rates and poor gut health, so this research will provide a new avenue for the development of dietary regimes for the species. It was established that salmon fry are capable of digesting feed a week before the yolk sac is absorbed, the usual point at which hatcheries commence feeding. Dr Sahlmanns investigation into plant-based substitutes for fishmeal extended into the smolt stage. Following a change from a fishmeal-based feed to one with a large proportion of soybean meal, changes in gene and protein expression, as well as on a functional level, could be identified just 24 hours later.
Aqua News
Andritz strengthens in Asia Pacific

eading industr ial equipment supplier Andritz Feed Technologies has announced a step forward for its activities in Asia with the acquisition of Chinas Shanghai Shende Machinery. Andritz Feed Technologies Asia employs more than 220 people in China divided across three engineering locations and two sales, ser vice and manufacturing sides, in addition to sales and service hubs in Vietnam, India and Australia. The Denmark-based industrial group will relocate its engineering and product management exper ts in Liyang, Jiangsu province, 150 miles eastwards to the Shanghai site, creating a new project management and engineering team to serve Chinese and Asia Pacific customers in the animal and aquatic feed, pet food and biomass pelleting industries. Formed in 1992, Shanghai Shende Machiner y has enjoyed a pre-eminent position in Chinas feed processing industr y, as a leading provider of machinery and turnkey projects.
Stirring stories shaping strategy
Roy Palmer, director, Aquaculture without Frontiers
was pleased that we had an excellent Aquaculture without Frontiers (AwF) session at Asian Pacific Aquaculture in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. We titled the session Stirring Stories, and so they were. People who donate their time to find solutions for the poor, needy and hungry its a heartwarming feeling. The Session was jointly chaired by AwF founder Michael New OBE and myself, and there were nine presentations alongside the opportunity for some good Q&A time. 2014 marks an important time for our organisation we are entering our second decade and with this we are making some changes to the way we operate. This is all about the organisation maturing and developing as it evolves from humble but important beginnings. AwF has a strong foundation and is now working to create strategic alliances as a key part of its long-term plan. We will still rely heavily on the generosity of the incredible people who have been involved in AwF from its early days, but we will be adding other dimensions which will hopefully see the organisation becoming the charity that communities, governments and other charities look to for expertise and help with aquaculture activities aiding the alleviation of poverty and malnutrition. Michael New led the presentations with a founders take on AwFs first ten years, and highlighted how people had worked overtime to get funds in all sorts of ways to get the organisation moving. He reminded the audience and participants that the major breakthrough came when the organisation was asked to assist in the reparation work in Aceh, Indonesia after the 2006 Indian Ocean tsunami had devastated the area. Eddie Pantanella followed with a talk about the key role of women in integrated aquaculture in Myanmar, based on his experiences with an Italian project in the Southeast Asian country. The work was very innovative, and delegates congratulated him on his effort in maximising opportunities in Myanmar. Eddie is hoping to continue the second phase of this in 2014 and has been invited to engage with AwF as this progresses. Also on the subject of Myanmar, new WAS-APC Student Director and winner of last years WAS Magazine award, May Myat Noe Lwin, gave her vision of how AwF can initiate a new Aquaculture Learning Centre and assist Myanmar in building a strong future with aquaculture. I think at the end of the session we were all quite excited about the prospects of Myanmar. Antonio Garza de Yta (President of WAS-LACC) highlighted the importance of AwF strategies in Mexico, a country where we have had lots of recent success. Antonio, who is also AwFs
Capacity Building Director, sees this as the beginning of big things in Latin America, with avenues in many countries already being discussed. Probably next will be Brazil, where we are already in discussions with some AwF supporters. The Mexican opportunities have been expanded by the great assistance given by Kevin Fitzsimmons (University of Arizona) and his connections with the US Agency for International Development and its Farmer-to-Farmer programme. Antonio and Kevin have been our champions for Mexico and we will be putting the reports on the website shortly from the volunteers who have started our strategy in a great way. The main emphasis is getting an oyster hatchery up and running as quickly as possible. Ram Bhujel, WAS-APC director and AIT coordinator, Aqua-Internship & Training Program, presented on Nepals model of rural aquaculture development, one of the earliest projects to engage AwF. Nepal was the catalyst for much of our later success with other groups, and Ram reports that the Nepalese Government is starting to engage with aquaculture and accept it has an important role to play in the countrys future. Rams presentation was followed by demonstrations of the Farmer-to-Farmer programme highlighted by former WAS and AwF President Professor Kevin Fitzsimmons, and editor of WAS Magazine John Hargreaves. They brought two perspectives. Kevin focused on the organising of volunteers, funding and project outcome, whereas John took the personal angle of his experience as a volunteer. Both spoke about working in Africa and John gave some insights into his work in Haiti, a country, he thought, that was the poorest he had experienced on all his travels. I myself concluded the session with an outline of how AwF will approach its second decade. I stressed the need to build relationships and collaborations because with funding being short we need to maximise all of our partnerships. Our main directions will be the Aquaculture Learning Centres and the Global Network of Schools (see my previous columns), and once we have finalised our 2014-2019 strategy, we will aim to get financial support to add to our strengths in volunteering and aquaculture expertise. Over the next few weeks Aquaculture without Frontiers will complete its work shaping future strategy and will promote the results to solicit important input from the wider community. We expect to announce our final plan in February 2014, at the meeting held in conjunction with Aquaculture America in Seattle, WA. I look forward to receiving your comments and views as we continue to move forward.
Omega Protein streamlines operations

S nutritional company and major fishmeal and fish oil manufacturer Omega Protein has announced a plan to close its menhaden fish processing plant in Cameron, Louisiana. The company will redeploy four of its menhaden-harvesting vessels to its other Gulf of Mexico processing facilities in Abbeville and Moss Point, in the states of Louisiana and Mississippi respectively. Having reviewed the operations of its fish processing arm, Omega Protein hopes the move will reduce maintenance costs and make better use of its existing assets. While we made a tough, strategic decision to close our Cameron facility, we believe this will better position us for future growth as we consolidate operations and reallocate assets in the Gulf, said Omega president and CEO Bret Scholtes. Going forward, we expect to continue to experience robust demand for our products, and our team remains focused on enhancing control over the manufacturing process, creating avenues for organic growth, and developing additional value-added products. It is not currently known how many or which of the Cameron plants employees will be rehired by the United States biggest fishmeal manufacturer, although redundant employees will be offered financial assistance and staffing placement options.
AQUACULTURE
view
of digestible phosphorus that are safe for the organism but not excessively high aquaculture nutritionists and feed formulators need solid information on the phosphorus requirement of the animals as well as the digestibility (or availability) of the phosphorus contained in the different ingredients and/or the final feed mixture. While the phosphorus requirements and digestibility for fish and crustaceans have been the topics of numerous research projects and publications over the past 50 years (many of them reviewed in NRC, 2011; Prabhu et al., 2013), I feel that the state of the art is not as advanced as it should be. At any rate, we have not invested enough time grasping the relatively complex issues associated with estimating the phosphorus requirement. Estimates of this value in fish derived from different studies often yield significantly different results. Moreover, I feel there is a general lack of appreciation for the factors that affect or determine the digestible phosphorus content of formulated aquaculture feeds.
are likely playing a role. The live weight of the animal, the response parameters used to estimate requirements, and the composition of the feed are all factors that have been shown to have a significant impact on estimates of the digestible phosphorus requirement in fish. Very limited efforts have been made to study or comprehensively review, or integrate, analyse and model the phosphorus requirements of different fish species as a function of their life stages, dietary composition, growth rates, etc. A few such knowledge integration and modelling efforts can be found in the recent literature (e.g. Hua et al., 2008; Prabhu et al., 2013), and these publications should, in my opinion, be read by anyone interested in the role of the element in fish nutrition. However, more sustained research and modelling efforts are needed in order to develop a more precise estimate of the phosphorus requirements of different fish species at different life stages or under different dietary regimes.
phosphates, such as dicalcium phosphate and rock phosphate, varies with their degree of solubility but is generally high (assumed to be between 60 and 95 percent digestible depending on forms and species). Digestibility of bone phosphorus is variable between fish species and depends mostly on gastric acid secretion by the animal. For rainbow trout, a fish with a true (acid) stomach, digestibility of bone phosphorus is assumed to be between 40 and 60 percent.
Salmonid model
These broad generalisations are not very precise or helpful, nor do they fully take into account differences such as the various interactions that can occur between different forms of dietary phosphorus, their levels and the fish species to which they are fed. Through a detailed meta-analysis of the published data, Hua and Bureau (2006) developed a model to estimate digestible phosphorus content of salmonid fish feeds. Based on the results of the meta-analysis and subsequent validation work, they concluded that the digestible phosphorus content of salmonid feeds could be reliably estimated with the following equation: Digestible P = 0.68 bone-P + 0 phytate-P + 0.84 organic P + 0.89 Ca monobasic / Na / K Pi supplement + 0.64 Ca dibasic Pi supplement + 0.51 phytase/ phytate 0.02 (phytase/ phytate)2 0.03 (bone-P)2 0.14 bone-P Ca monobasic / Na / K Pi supplement (The units for all variables are g/kg, except for the phytase/ phytate ratio, for which the unit is 100 FTU phytase/g phytage.) Hua and Bureau (2006) demonstrated that this simple equation or model provides a reliable estimate of digestible phosphorus content of salmonid feeds, formulated with a wide variety of ingredients of animal and plant origins. However, they did not initially assess whether this model was applicable to other fish species. The ability to digest different compounds is likely to differ from species to species, due to the anatomical and physiological differences found in the
by Dominique P Bureau, member of the IAF Editorial Panel
Requirement and digestibility modelling to ensure safe phosphorus intake

One of the major environmental concerns for freshwater fish farming operations is the release of phosphorus waste. This element is the most limiting factor for algae growth in freshwater ecosystems, and even a modest increase can, under certain conditions, set off a chain of undesirable events in the water body including accelerated plant growth and algae blooms. The potential for deleterious effects on aquatic ecosystems is high. On the other hand, phosphorus is an essential nutrient for all animals. There is a need therefore to maintain the supply of the nutrient (in digestible form) to meet the requirements of the farmed organisms while warding off dietary excess, which results in increased waste output and the potentially deleterious environmental impacts. In addition to this, phosphorus is a relatively expensive nutrient. On top of environmental concerns, formulating feeds to higher-than-required phosphorus levels can in some cases reduce their cost-effectiveness. In order to formulate feeds that provide an adequate level
Estimating the phosphorus requirement

Estimates of dietary phosphorus requirements of fish species generally range from 0.3 to 1.0 percent of diet (NRC, 2011). Digestible phosphorus values as low as 0.3 percent of diet have been reported for some species (e.g. channel catfish). Higher estimates, around 0.5 to 0.6 percent of diet, have been reported for rainbow trout and hybrid striped bass. Somewhat higher digestible phosphorus requirements (greater than 0.7 percent) have been reported for some species, such as Japanese seabass, common carp, silver perch, yellow croaker and haddock. Some of the variability in estimates of phosphorus requirements across different species (and studies) is likely due to differences in digestibility between species, and with issues associated with making an accurate estimate of phosphorus digestibility in the diets used in quantifying requirements. However, many other factors
Accurately estimating digestibility

Formulating feeds to a precise digestible phosphorus content can be a difficult task, as common feed ingredients are highly variable both in phosphorus content and in the digestibility estimates provided by the literature. Not only does the phosphorus content vary greatly between different feed ingredients, but it is also found in varying chemical forms. These forms can broadly be classified in four groups: organic phosphorus, phytate phosphorus, mineral phosphates and bone phosphorus (hydroxyapatite). Experimental evidence suggests that digestibility of these different chemical forms differs widely in fish. Organic compounds such as phosphorylated protein, creatine, phospholipids and nucleic acids, are apparently highly digestible for fish. Phytate phosphorus, another organic compound, is however not digestible to fish, at least under most conditions. The digestibility of mineral
i i i i i i i i i
Other species
The same modelling approach was consequently employed by Hua and Bureau in 2010, to quantify differences in phosphorus digestibility amongst species and develop models as needed that are better suited to different species. Carp species (cyprinids), which lack a true stomach and maintain a neutral pH throughout the digestive tract, and tilapia (warm water fish species with a true stomach that exhibit a low gastric pH of 23) were compared to results previously obtained with rainbow trout, a cold water species also with a true stomach and relatively low gastic pH (34). A large meta-analysis was carried out using one dataset for tilapia (92 dietary treatments from 14 studies) and another for carp (101 dietary treatments from 20 studies). Phosphorus digestibility models for tilapia and carp were developed through multiple regression analysis, and validated by comparing model simulations with observations from independent experimental data from digestibility trials conducted with carp and tilapia. The digestibility model specifically obtained for tilapia through the multiple regression analysis was as follows: Digestible P = 0.71 bone-P + 0.21 phytate-P + 1.06 organic P + 0.97 Ca monobasic / Na / K Pi supplement + 0.56 Ca dibasic Pi supplement + 0.25 phytase/phytate 0.02 (phytase/phytate)2 0.03 (bone-P)2 0.12 bone-P Ca monobasic / Na / K Pi supplement Multiple regression analysis of the carp modelling dataset
The Aquaculturists
A regular look inside the aquaculture industry
With a history of aquaculture that dates back over 2500 years, China has flourished in to an industry leader. Nowadays, the country is responsible for around two thirds of global aquaculture production. In celebration of Chinese New Year, heres a selection of the best stories recently published on the Aquaculturists in a hat tip to the worlds most populous state. GAA collaborates with Chinese food operator The Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) has signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with Wuhan Lanesync Supply Chain Management Co. Ltd., in order to cross-promote both organisations activities and the advancement of responsible aquaculture. Based in Wuhan City, Hubei Province, China, Wuhan Lanesync handles purchasing, distribution, logistics, marketing, processing and other activities for more than 35,000 restaurants and hotels throughout China.
http://bit.ly/1j4UCqr
A highly significant (P < 0.0001) linear relationship was observed between predicted digestible phosphorus content and observed values from the independent dataset. Statistical analysis suggested that the prediction were accurate and free from bias. The three models developed by Hua and Bureau between 2006 and 2010 suggest that significant differences in the apparent digestibility of phosphorus exist among carp (cyprinids), tilapia (cichlids) and salmonids. Carp appear to have a poor ability to digest phosphorus compounds of low solubility. Cyprinids cannot effectively digest phosphorus bound in bone particles (digestibility of bone phosphorus was estimated to be nil), and their ability to digest dibasic calcium phosphates is lower (slightly below 40 percent) in comparison to cichlids and salmonids (in the range of 5565 percent). This difference is likely attributable to the absence of a true stomach in cyprinids. Hua and Bureaus three models provide a simple means of estimating the digestible phosphorus content in the feeds of different fish species (and digestive anatomies), and can be a very useful for fish feed formulators. They may also be helpful for feed formulation or for more objective analysis and interpretation of the various studies on the phosphorus requirements of different fish species.
Marine recirculation system project Australian aquaculture systems specialist RADAQUA recently announced it has partnered with Chinese firm Quanying (Fujian) Technology Co. Ltd to develop a two staged multi-species marine recirculation system. The new project will be based around the commercial production of Coral Trout and Grouper.
http://bit.ly/1hSbHnl
Chinese government suspends shellfish imports The Chinese government recently announced that the country has suspended imports of shellfish from the US West Coast, a move that will end one of the biggest export markets for Northwest companies. The ban follows the discovery of high levels of arsenic and toxins in shipments of geoduck clams from Northwest waters. US officials believe the contaminated clams originated in Washington or Alaska but are calling on help from China to help identify the exact source.
http://bit.ly/1drMTRb
Chilean authorities visit China Representatives of the Government of Chile visited China recently to gain a better insight in to the country's salmon farming, fishmeal and fish oil industries. The meeting- whick took place back in December - was attended by Pablo Galilea, head of the Fisheries and Aquaculture Undersecretariat (Subpesca), Chile and Hong Wiedong, deputy director general of Oceans and Fisheries Administration of Guangdong Province, China.
http://bit.ly/1dM1uBE
NUMBER CRUNCHING
50 years - life span of the Atlantic halibut, 10th on the
endangered fish list
Source: Top 10 most endangered fish species, Discovery Communications PLC, 2014, USA.
1,414 (5%) of the world's fish species are at risk for extinction
90% of Beluga Sturgeons spawning grounds have been lost

to overfishing
149 years - life span of the Orange Roughy, 7th on the

endangered fish list
Major Chinese RAS farm Hainan, China is set to become the location of the worlds first land-based, full production cycle aquaculture facility for salmon and cod. Norwegian fish farm experts Futurama and AquaOptima are partnering with Chinas Lim Shrimp to build the temperature-controlled Recirculating Aquaculture System (RAS) farm to supply Atlantic cod and salmon to Chinas insatiable fish market.
http://bit.ly/1ajTqdK
7 feet - length of Atlantic Grouper, 3rd on the endangered

fish list Up to 1,400 pounds - weight of Bluefin tuna, 1st on the endangered fish list
i i i i i i i i i
i i i i i i i i i
Digestible P = 0 bone-P + 0 phytate-P + 0.63 organic P + 0.91 Ca monobasic / Na / K Pi supplement + 0.39 Ca dibasic Pi supplement + 0.50 phytase/ phytate 0.04 (phytase/ phytate)2
i i i i i i i i i
gastrointestinal tracts among different kinds of fish.
resulted in a different digestibility model:
i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i i
www.theaquaculturists.blogspot.com
Aqua News
of experience, Dar ling International Inc provides Finding a global platform for the development and producNetherland tion of sustainable natural The Darling ingredients. As the only publiclyInternational traded company in its acquisition industry, Darling operates a network of over 200 facilities globally and employs Geert van over 10,000 staff. der Velden, Through it various sales manager processing operations at Darling that span five continents Ingredients the company is involved in International the customisation of speciality solutions pertaining to International, the world's largest, the pharmaceutical, food, petfood, publicly-traded producer of sus- feed, fuel, bio-energy and fertiliser tainable natur al ingredients industries. In addition to its animal by-prodannounced the completion of its acquisition of VION Ingredients ucts operations, Darling is also a a core division of VION Holding key player in the rendered fats NV (a member of the VION and oil sector, providing grease trap collection services and selling Food group). Headquar tered in Ir ving, used cooking oil collection equipTexas, USA, with over a century ment to restaurants. Back in 1990, Darling pioneered the first BQ-9000 certified facility (an accreditation standard for biodiesel) to convert these ingredients in to premium biodiesel. In June last year, in partnership with international manufacturer of transpor tation fuels Valero Energy, Darling initiated a massscale renewable diesel facility. As a global leader in the development and production of speciality ingredients from animal origins, VION deals in applications within the pharmaceuticals, food, feed, petfood, fertiliser and bioenergy sectors. Headquar tered in Son en Breugel, The Netherlands, the companys global network of facilities spans five continents and covers all aspects of animal byproduct processing. As well as Sonac, VION ingredients is primarily known through its five other brands: Ecoson, Rendac, Rousselot, CTH and Besthides.
onac, a leading supplier of high-quality animal-based proteins, fats and minerals, and a subsidiary of Dutch specialty ingredients firm VION, made headlines in mid-January following the news of an acquisition estimated at 1.6 billion in cash. Earlier in the month, Darling
UK scientists make Omega-3 plant progress
cientists at agricultural research institution Rothamsted Research have reported the successful modification of a kind of flax seed to imitate the nutritional characteristics seen in fish oil. The Rothamsted team, led by crop scientist Prof. Johnathan Napier, has developed a strain of oilseed capable of being the green factory for the Omega-3 fatty acids mostly restricted to marine sources. The researchers worked with the oilseed Camelina sativa, or false flax, which is known to have high levels of Omega-3 fatty acids. Although these levels are unusual in terrestrial plants, the Omega-3 comes in the
form of shorter-chain fatty acids like a-linolenic acid (ALA), which do not convey the health benefits observed in marine sources of Omega-3. Marine sources of Omega-3 are naturally high in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which in human diets are associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and improved brain development. The Rothamsted project produced flaxseed rated at 12 percent EPA and 14 percent DHA, close to the levels found in fish oil. The EPA and DHA levels found in marine fish are ultimately derived from marine algae, diatoms and other phytoplankton. From these photosynthesising organisms the Omega-3 makes its way up the food chain. We used as a starting point a plant that is rich in ALA, which is
the building block used to produce EPA and DHA Omega-3 oils, said Rothamsted scientist Dr Olga Sayanova. Having identified in marine algae and other photosynthetic marine organisms the essential genes required to make these beneficial oils, we assembled them together and introduced them to the Camelina plant. The average accumulation of these oils in the transgenic Camelina plants is comparable to those found in fish oil but Camelina makes none of these naturally. The project, funded by the UK Governments Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, announced its findings in December 2013, in biological sciences publication The Plant Journal. We are very excited with the results we have achieved with this
work, said project leader Johnathan Napier. We have managed to generate a plant that can provide terrestrial, sustainable sources of fish oils, and this achievement can have potential benefits for our health and the environment. Scientifically it has been a great achievement as we had to understand really well the fundamental processes that underpin oil synthesis in the seeds of plants. Camelina has a long history in Europe as a source of oil for lighting, although this usage declined considerably upon the introduction of oilseed rape. Interest in the oilseed has revived in recent years due to its potential applications as a biofuel and animal feed supplement. Its full genome was published in August 2013 as part of the Canadian Prairie Gold gene sequencing project.
AQUACULTURE UPDATES
A recent spate of deaths in Sparks Marina, Nevada, USA - a stocked fishery that has flourished since its creation 15 years ago - has state wildlife officials baffled. An estimated 100,000 trout, bass and catfish have died over the past month.
Commenting on the mysterious happenings, Chris Healy, spokesman for the Nevada Depar tment of Wildlife suggested a dramatic drop in dissolved oxygen levels could be the cause. Fish biologists have confirmed low oxygen levels were the cause of the death of the estimated 3,000 fish back in midDecember.
Following a study, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) has released a new report that reveals certain fish specifies that can be farmed with minimal or no harm to the coastal ocean environment. During the study, scientists from NOAAs National Ocean Service evaluated the environmental effects of finfish
aquaculture, including water quality, benthic habitats and marine life across various farming practices. It is hoped that the report, entitled Marine Cage Culture & The Environment will help aquaculture m a n a g e r s d e ve l o p r e g i o n a l best management pr actices and standardised protocols for environmental monitoring.
Aqua News
hrimp researcher s in Thailand have repor ted a 20 percent improvement in survival rates using a new alternative feed additive from French algae experts Olmix. In the Thai shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei ) feed trial that concluded in late 2013, Kasetsar t University researchers found that, over a 60-day growth period, a innovative feed additive aimed at supporting gut health improved shrimp survival rates by a staggering 20 percent. Feed conversion rates also improved, from 1.42:1 to 1.26:1, lowering feed usage by 11.3 percent.
Alternative additive trial shows shrimp improvement
Table 1: Growth performance of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed Parameters Control Variation over control Variation over P-value control
Above: Feed conversion ratio of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed Below: Survival rate of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed
The trial was set up to see how shrimp fed the innovative Olmix product respond to a Vibrio harveyi challenge. The results are impressive and augur well for the company as well as for farmers throughout Southeast Asia and China, where the bacterium
Vibrio is ubiquitous in shrimp farm water supplies. 6.32 6.34 6.33 Initial weight (g) / / 0.10 The name of the 0.13 0.29 0.28 innovative product is 12.46 13.01 13.42 Final weight (g) +4.4% +7.7% 0.61 MFeed, and shrimp 0.81 1.12 2.21 diets supplemented Specific growth rate 1.22 1.30 1.34 +6.62% +9.8% 0.70 with it saw a reduc(%/d) 0.11 0.15 0.15 tion in the amount Total feed 8.66 8.50 8.65 / / 0.95 of Vibrio concentraconsumption (g/ind.) 0.64 0.79 1.94 tion in the gut, indiFeed conversion 1.42 1.29 1.26 cating a protective -9.2% -11.3% 0.06 ratio 0.10 0.11 0.17 effect on the intes78.40b 80.00a tine. This protection 16.7% 19% <0.01 Survical rate 67.20b 4.56 4.90 was most noticeable three and five days a,b Means with different letters on a line are highly significant (P<0.01) after the initial Vibrio harveyi challenge. 2 and Treatment 3 were 6.62 Shrimp trial While shrimp on the control percent and 9.8 percent respec375 6,3 g Litopenaeus vannamei diet saw mortality rates continue shrimp were distributed over 15 tively. During the seven days folat a steady rate of increase, those 500-litre glass tanks, so that each lowing the Vibrio challenge, moron the two MFeed treatments tank contained 25 shrimps each. tality rates were much lower in experienced a drop-off in mor- The tanks were randomly allotted Treatment 2 and Treatment 3, tality (see graph). one of three treatments, pro- which is in line with the counts of The other outcome from the viding five replications per treat- Vibrio in the intestine, which were trial was the overall improvement ment. lower in shrimp from Treatment 2 in weight gain and the increased Treatment 1 was the control and Treatment 3 before the chaldensity of the biomass as a result basal diet, Treatment 2 contained lenge, and 3 and 5 days after the of including MFeed in diets. MFeed at 0.2 percent (in addition challenge. The present study highlights to the basal diet) and Treatment Olmix presented the results of the potential of using MFeed at 3 added MFeed at 0.4 percent. the trial to visitors to the APA13 2 kg per tonne in shrimp diets Water quality was controlled. The WAS Exhibition in Ho Chi Minh in order to improve zootechnical trial lasted 67 days and growth City, Vietnam in December performance. At 4 kg per tonne, was assessed after a 60-day sup- 2013. in the context of a Vibrio harveyi plementation period. On the 61st challenge, it can be used to limit day of the trial all shrimp were In Vietnam losses in a sensitive sanitar y challenged with Vibrio harveyi in In mid-June last year Olmix context, said an Olmix spokes- 1.0-2.0 x 107 CFU/mL baths. The held a seminar titled The marine person. health performance of the Thai biomass for nutrition and for MFeed stimulates enzymatic shrimp was observed over the human and animal health at the activity in the gut to improve following seven days. Hotel Sofitel in Ho Chi Minh City, digestion, allowing the organism The results were quite clear Vietnam. More than 100 particito achieve better feed efficiency with a positive improvement with pants including feed millers, uniand growth rates (shrimp fed on each increase in MFeed inclu- versity researchers, farmers and the diet were repor ted to be sion. members of research institumore than seven percent heavier Those in Treatment 2 and tions joined the gathering to listen at the end of the trial). It also Treatment 3 grew 4.4 percent to speakers from Vitalac, Benefiq, suppor ts the immune system, and 7.7 percent more than the INRA (French National Research resulting in better response to control which almost doubled in Institute for Agronomy), Amadite pathogenic pressure and higher weight from 6.32g to 12.46g and Zoople sur vival rate, and lowers the each on average while the impact of pathogens by pro- specific growth rates tecting the intestine. fo r Tr e a t m e n t
0.2%
0.4%
Olmix group innovates

and proposes new ranges of products dedicated to
AQUACULTURE
une system m im e th f o n tio Stimula rvival rate Increased su erformance p th w ro g d e v Impro Weight gain rsion Ratio e v n o C d e e F r Bette
e a g l A f o s t e Ben
www.olmix.com
Aqua News
Table 2: title: "Vibrio concentration in the intestine of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed and challenged with Vibrio harveyi" Treatment Vibrio concentration in the intestine (x104 CFU/9) Before challenge 3 days after challenge 193 32 164 41 135 13 0.055 5 days after challenge 165 41 131 12 130 17 0.269
Control 0.2% 0.4% P-Value
1.67 0.13 1.37 0.34 1.31 0.21 0.124
present their views on food safety issues with algae as a link from nutrition to health in both humans and animals. Accompanied by Breton politicians, exper ts from Zoople and several Breton SMEs, Olmix highlighted the quality and wealth of seaweeds on the coast of Brittany, and especially within the marine protected zone Parc d'Iroise. Asian feed and food chain players were very attentive to the arguments of experts in nutrition and animal health, including Dr Frdric Bernard of the Zoople Ploufragan and INRAs Dr Henri Salmon. After a presentation by Dr Bernard on the need to de-
medicalise the global livestock sector, Dr Salmon presented on the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties of seaweed. The audience was even more impressed when representatives from Parc d'Iroise explained that high-quality marine algae fields off Molne provide a bounty of active ingredients for several well-known pharmaceutical companies. Food security is a major concern in Southeast Asia, where livestock production is expanding. Freeing up the use of antibiotics in the sector, nutraceutical or nutrition-health companies should be using algae as a natural
ingredient particularly in countries where algae is already on the daily menu. Herv Demais, consultant veterinarian for Olmix, extended his speech to explain that while livestock production is growing rapidly, aquaculture production has other issues to confront, especially the growing need for a replacement for fishmeal. Again, algae can provide part of the answer, he says, because some of them are rich in proteins.
The algae of Brittany from Breton water s of incomparable quality represent an ocean of oppor tunities for sustainable agr iculture and feeding nine billion humans in 2050, he added. The seminar was concluded with matre cuisinier Didier Corlou of the Hanoi restaur ant la Ver ticale presenting s o m e o f h i s s e awe e d d i s h c r e a t i o n s fo r d e l e g a t e s t o tr y.
EMS Forum:
Managing the Shrimp Epidemic
First reported in Asia in 2009, Shrimp Early Mortality Syndrome has caused major production problems in the cultivation of shrimp in countries such as China, Malaysia,Thailand, and Vietnam.
Vibrio concentration in the intestine of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed and challenged with Vibrio harveyi
28-29 MARCH
2014
Organised by Supported by
A focus on how to best manage the issues facing shrimp farmers in the Asian territories
Kasetsart University, Bangkok,Thailand

Department of Fisheries, Indonesia The Shrimp Club of Indonesia (SCI) Department of Fisheries, Thailand
Survival rate of shrimp supplemented with different levels of MFeed and challenged with Vibrio harveyi
www.asianaquaculturenetwork.com
FEATURE
Successful moisture control in aquatic feeds

by Roger E. Douglas, director of engineering, Drying Technology, Inc., Texas, United States
uccessful moisture control of aquafeed can be seen through the safety of the product and in its profitability. Feed products must be dried sufficiently in order to prevent growth of microorganisms after the packaging process. However, over-drying the products will result in poor production yields and energy losses. The two challenges for feed manufacturers are 1) to find the highest moisture content for a given product that will still prevent growth of moulds and other microorganisms, and 2) to find a drying control method that will help achieve and maximise that moisture content. The first challenge requires the feed manufacturer to determine the highest possible target and upper moisture limits for each individual product. One of the main reasons to keep moisture content as high as possible
is profitability. The incremental amount of water left in the product can be considered a production increase, and energy is saved by not having to remove it. However, for reasons of product stability and safety it is important to set an upper limit on the feeds moisture content. The water activity and moisture content of a specific product are related values, but are calculated in different ways. Both centre on the free water or free moisture, in other words the water that is readily available for biological use. Moisture content is a measurement of the total free and bound water in the product, whereas water activity only takes into account the free water. Bacteria, mould and yeast all require moisture for growth and each microorganism has a minimum water activity, below which it would not grow. Therefore, for a safe product that will not develop mould during storage, the water activity level should be below the minimum value for some or all types of microorganism. Table 1 lists some major microorganisms and the minimum water activity level that makes their growth viable.
Table 1: Typical minimum water activity
levels for common microorganisms (Source: Fontana, 2000)

Water Activity Microorganisms generally inhibited
0.950
Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Bacillus, Clostridium perfringens, some yeast
Salmonella, C. botulinum, 0.910 Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, some moulds 0.870 Many yeasts Most moulds (mycotoxigenic 0.800 penicillia), Staphylococcus aureus, most Saccharomyces 0.750 Most halophilic bacteria, mycotoxigenic aspergilla
0.650 Xerophilic moulds 0.600 Osmopholic yeasts, few moulds
Constructing an isotherm
Water activity values are a more accurate reflection of the stability and safety of feed products than the total moisture content. Many food
Figure 1: Typical water isotherm for a product
and feed industries use 0.65 as a minimum water activity value in manufacturing their products, each of which will have its own relationship between moisture content and minimum water activity value. By analysing product samples at various moisture content levels, a water isotherm can be constructed, plotting moisture content against the water activity value (see Figure 1). The moisture content for any given water activity value can then be determined with accuracy. The moisture content corresponding to the industry standard 0.65 water activity can be different for each product. Relative differences in the raw materials used can affect the amounts of free and bound water it contains, producing unique isotherms for each formulation. In fact, the formulation used can be a
FEATURE helpful tool in increasing the moisture content allowed by the minimum water activity. Moreover, the water isotherm and moisture sample data can be used to calculate the moisture target and the upper control limit. For most dried products, the portion of the isotherm at and well below the critical water activity value of 0.65 is linear, giving a proportional relationship between water activity and moisture content. A simple linear equation can therefore be used to determine the water activity value from the moisture content, or vice versa. The isotherm in Figure 1 shows that a moisture content of 8.92 percent will give a water activity of 0.65. For this product, then, 8.9 percent would be the upper control limit. To give an example, using a standard deviation of 0.6 and the above upper control limit of 8.9 percent, and three standard deviations, you would receive a target moisture level of 7.12 percent. With current dryer control methods, only 0.14 percent of moisture samples would have a chance of exceeding the upper control limit. Many users of statistical process control methods will use 2 or 2.5 standard deviations in the target moisture calculation, giving targets of 7.42 percent and 7.72 percent respectively (see Table 2). The key values here are the percentage of samples that may be statistically above the upper limit.
Table 2: Results of altering the number of
Sample variance
The target moisture value must also take into account variance between samples. Here, the moisture sample history can be used to calculate a standard deviation: 3 standard deviations from the average will account for nearly 100 percent of samples. The moisture target can then be calculated using the upper control limit and the number of standard deviations required. Target moisture = UCL N(s.d.) UCL: Upper control limit N: No. of standard deviations s.d.: Standard deviation of the product samples
standard deviations on target moisture calculation

Target moisture UCL Number of Standard standard deviation deviations % above UCL
As seen in the equation above, a reduction in the standard deviation will result in an increase in the target moisture. The results of this are increased production and energy savings. Assume, for example, that through improved dryer control the standard deviation was reduced by 30 percent, to 0.42 (see Table 3). The new target moisture would be 7.66 percent, 0.54 percent higher than the previous figure of 7.12. As this shows, improved dryer control obtained by drying with cooler temperatures and being careful not to over-dry the product can allow a safe increase in average moisture levels, resulting in a 0.5 percent production increase. Cooler drying temperatures would also result in energy savings.
Table 3: Number of standard deviations vs
target moisture, with improved standard deviation values

Target moisture Number of Standard % above standard deviation UCL deviations
7.12 7.42 7.72
8.92 8.92 8.92
3 2.5 2
0.6 0.6 0.6
0.14 0.62 2.28
UCL
With a method of calculating target moistures and upper control limits in place, we can give attention to optimising dryer control to reduce the moisture variance.
7.66 7.87 8.08
8.92 8.92 8.92
3 2.5 2
0.42 0.42 0.42
0.14 0.62 2.28
A/S
FEATURE package based on a model derived from first principles. The Delta T model, Moisture = K1(T)p K2/Sq relates the product moisture exiting a dryer to the temperature drop (T) of the hot air after contact with the wet product, and the production rate or evaporative load (S). The model solves the two main problems with sensing and control by producing a rugged, reliable, inside-the-dryer moisture sensor, and a control algorithm that precisely adjusts the dryer temperatures for evaporative load changes. Figure 2 illustrates an example of the soft sensor location, compared with the present standard moisture sample methods of online moisture meters and hand-sampling. As previously discussed, the reduction of standard deviation is in part tied to the reduction of dead time in the process, and therefore to the location of the sensor.
Figure 2: Locations and dead times of moisture sensing
Consumer benefit
With the combined approach of finding the highest moisture content that product safety allows and using a moisture sensing/ control method, the average product moisture can be optimised. The opportunity to sell more water is too financially beneficial to ignore. For example, a 0.5 percent increase in average moisture content for a feed plant producing 25,000 tons per year at $800/ton would realise $100,000 extra sales revenue. The increase in moisture would also bring with it significant energy savings. Figure 3 shows actual moisture sample data before and after the advanced moisture control system was implemented in the feed dryer. The new regime achieved a 35.5 percent reduction in the moisture variances standard deviation, and a 0.5 percent increase in the actual moisture level of the product. Regardless of the formulation of feed products, the water activity value can be used to find the highest possible moisture content while protecting against mould growth, and do this in a relatively short period of time. The method of storing products at different moisture contents for months at a time, and continually checking for microbial growth throughout the period, is long and tedious for determining each individual upper moisture limit. Advances in sensors and process control provide the ability to control dryers and related equipment to produce the highest quality and safest product for your customers.
Figure 3: Actual results of improved moisture control
Lowering dead time, improving control

Even when the dryer is well maintained and running well, a main reason for poor moisture control is the timeliness and accuracy of the moisture sensing and the resulting control changes. The usual practice for most manufacturers is to periodically take moisture samples, using these for feedback to adjust the dryer temperatures. A few have had success with online moisture sensors, however, these are always after the dryer exit or after-the-fact. In either case, the dead time the time it takes for a load change entering the dryer to be detected is long, and detection of moisture changes only take place after the product has left the dryer. By lowering the dead time, or by sensing the load changes earlier in the drying process, control changes could be made in a timelier manner, lowering the standard deviation. The standard deviation of the moisture samples is proportional to the dead time and, as
previously stated, lowering the standard deviation allows the target moisture to be increased. Sensing moisture changes earlier in the dryer and making immediate control changes would reduce the dead time and improve moisture variance. In recent years, advances in process control and modelling have improved the drying process: for example, a soft sensor now exists that can measure and detect changes inside the dryer. Soft sensors use measurable process inputs and a mathematical model to produce a measurement of a process variable that cannot be measured directly with a hardware sensor. In this particular case, the soft sensor uses dryer temperatures to derive a measurement of product moisture while the product is still in the dryer. By detecting the moisture changes in this way, control adjustments can be made immediately, and moisture correction can begin before the product leaves the dryer. The Delta T Moisture/Dryer Control System is one such soft sensor and control
MORE
INFORmATION:
Roger Douglas roger@moisturecontrols.com Website: www. moisturecontrols.com
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Animal co-product hydrolysates:

a source of key molecules in aquaculture feeds
Maintaining ingredient quality in extruded feeds The potential of microalgae meals

in compound feeds for aquaculture
They are what they eat

Enhancing the nutritional value of live feeds with microalgae
Prevalence of mycotoxins in aquafeed ingredients:

an update
Fine particle filtration in aquaculture
Transforming aquaculture production using oxygenation systems Nutritional benefits of processed animal proteins
in European aquafeeds
Chicken viscera for fish feed formulation Profitable aquafeed moisture control Spray-dried plasma
from porcine blood in diets for Atlantic salmon parrs
Understanding ammonia in aquaculture ponds AquaNor event review EXPERT TOPIC

Salmon
Controlling mycotoxins with binders Niacin

one of the key B vitamins for sustaining healthy fish growth and production
Pellet distribution modelling:

a tool for improved feed delivery in sea cages
Effect of probiotic, Hydroyeast Aquaculture

as growth promoter for adult Nile tilapia
Bioenergetics
application in aquaculture nutrition
New functional fish feeds to reduce cardiovascular disease
EXPERT TOPIC
channel catfish
Ultraviolet water disinfection for fish farms and hatcheries
Towards aquafeeds with increased food security
The shrimp feed industry in China

an overview
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FEATURE
Current challenges and opportunities in amino acid nutrition of salmonids

by Cludia Figueiredo-Silva and Andreas Lemme, Evonik Industries, Germany
ishmeal is still one of the main protein sources used in commercial feeds for trout and salmon. But its availability is shrinking and its cost is increasing year by year. The sustainability of the aquaculture industry depends largely on its capability to replace fishmeal with alternative sources of protein, and to reduce the currently excessive protein levels commonly applied in the formulation of commercial diets. At the same time, feeds must be formulated to be effective in covering the nutrient requirements of specific species in order to maximise growth. While this great challenge has long been foreseen and recognised by both industry and academia, a large number of feed manufacturers are still struggling to adapt, and are relying on their own ability to turn challenges into opportunities on a daily basis. Despite a growing body of evidence showing that fishmeal can be replaced by alternative protein sources (reviewed by Kaushin and Hemre, 2008; Tacon and Metian, 2008), and that opportunities may exist to reduce crude protein level in aquafeeds (Yamamoto et al., 2005; Gaylord and Barrows, 2009), scientific research is not always made widely available. The feed industry is delayed from applying the most important scientific achievements in its field. Here, we will try to summarise the major achievements in the development of more sustainable diets for salmonids, whilst not forgetting to point out the existence of limitations for their fully practical application. We have reviewed some of the most relevant studies focusing on the replacement of fishmeal with alternative protein sources, and on the possibility of reducing crude protein
in diets for salmonids. In addition, we found it important to highlight that the optimisation of amino acid nutrition goes beyond meeting its requirements for protein synthesis, and may constitute a promising approach to improve, among other things, animals immunity response to environmental stresses.
Alternatives to fishmeal: feasible?

Because protein is typically the most costly nutrient in a formulated feed, it is important to accurately cover protein, or to be more precise, to accurately cover amino acid requirements of animals (NRC, 2011). This has become a priority given the current constraints on fishmeal in cost and availability and the consequent need to replace it with plant protein sources limited in one or more of the essential amino acids. The supplementation of low fishmeal or plant protein based diets with these essential amino acids was proven to improve voluntary feed intake and whole body protein accretion in several fish species, including rainbow trout (Gomes et al., 1995; Cheng et al., 2004; Gaylord and Barrows, 2009; Kaushik et al., 1995; FigueiredoSilva et al., 2012) and Atlantic salmon (Espe et al., 2006, 2007, 2008; Torstensen et al., 2008; Kousoulaki et al., 2009). Rainbow trout seem, however, less sensitive than Atlantic salmon to the replacement of fishmeal with plant protein sources. In a comparative study, Refstie et al. (2000) showed that rainbow trout but not Atlantic salmon grew equally well with soybean meal based diets, suggesting that rainbow trout are less sensitive than salmon to anti-nutritional factors (see Table 1). But that there is much latitude for the reduction of marine resources in salmonid diets is clearly shown by the pos-
sibility of including fishmeal levels as low as 0 percent in rainbow trout feeds (Kaushik et al., 1995) and 5 percent for Atlantic salmon (Espe et al., 2007, 2008), provided that their amino acid profile is balanced with supplemental amino acids. These achievements would not have been possible if free amino acids were not utilised as efficiently as the protein-bound kind in meeting the essential amino acid requirements of fish. The 100 percent bioavailability of free amino acids has in fact been demonstrated in several fish species (reviewed by NRC, 2011), including rainbow trout (Rodehutscord et al., 1995a,b, 1997; Rollin et al., 2003) and Atlantic salmon (Espe and Lied 1994; Epse et al., 2006, 2007, 2008). However, one might and indeed should ask why some studies have failed to successfully replace fishmeal with alternative protein sources even when diets were supplemented with limiting essential amino acids. Although the answer is not yet entirely clear, it seems to lie in the obvious differences between the nutritional value of fishmeal and of alternative protein sources. When replacing fishmeal protein, in particular with plant sources, we must keep in mind that we are not only affecting amino acid availability and utilisation, but also that of fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. In addition, being rich in anti-nutritional factors and carbohydrates, plant protein inclusion may significantly impact on diet palatability and thereby voluntary feed intake, and on the availability and utilisation of energy. This might partly explain why, for example, the 2006 study of Espe et al. undertaken in collaboration with Evonik Industries was not completely successful in replacing fishmeal with plant protein sources. In the study with
FEATURE Atlantic salmon, voluntary feed intake and growth decreased, even though the dietary amino acid profile had been balanced with supplemental amino acids (see Table 1). In a following study by Espe et al., again in collaboration with Evonik Industries, fishmeal was successfully replaced in Atlantic salmon diets by a mixture of plant proteins, provided that their amino acid profile was duly balanced with a mixture of supplementary amino acids, and also retaining a low inclusion level of fishmeal (5 percent). While without amino acid supplements, this low level of fishmeal would not have allowed the requirements of salmon to be satisfied, the inclusion of 5 percent fishmeal in addition to 3 percent squid hydrolysates (already applied in the first Espe study) proved an effective strategy in securing a similar feed intake level and growth rates between the fishmeal-based diet (49 percent) and fishmeal-replaced diets (5 percent). It seems clear, therefore, that although supplementation with amino acids is a crucial and effective strategy in keeping a similar protein accretion between fishmeal-based diets and plant-based diets, replacement of 100 percent fishmeal with alternative protein sources in salmon (as well as other species) still depends on formulations that cover requirements for all essential nutrients, including fatty acids, vitamins and minerals. A complete and accurate evaluation of the differences between the nutritional value of fishmeal and alternative protein sources will shortly allow the total replacement of fishmeal in salmonid feeds.
Lowering the crude protein level

Crude protein level is calculated by multiplying the amount of nitrogen by the empirically derived conversion factor of 6.25, which is based on the estimation that protein contains 16 percent nitrogen, although in reality it varies from 12 to 19 percent. Although crude protein value offers a good estimate of protein level, it does not allow the scientist to distinguish between nitrogen originating from amino acids and nitrogen originating from non-protein sources. Crude protein is therefore useless in evaluating the amino acid profile of ingredients and diets. Lowering the dietary crude protein level and supplementing diets with certain essential
amino acids is a well-established method of formulating diets for farm animals to achieve an ideal amino acid pattern, and it has been demonstrated by Verstegen and Jongbloed (2003) to reduce nitrogen excretion for pigs and poultry. These findings have even been incorporated into subsequent legislation. Although aquaculture seems more ecoefficient than pig or poultry production in providing nutrients for human consumption
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Safety and quality of livestock feed seminar

Full programme and book at www.campdenbri.co.uk/livestock-feed-seminar.php
Campden BRI
food and drink innovation
Organised by Campden BRI in collaboration with AG Industries, Grain & Feed Milling Technology and International Aquafeed
Thursday 6 March 2014

Venue: Campden BRI,
Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, GL55 6LD, UK
E: training@campdenbri.co.uk
#LivestockFeedSeminar
The seminar will focus on:

Understanding the current issues facing the animal feed industry. The latest R&D in the animal feed sector. Future issues facing the animal feed sector. Solutions for a sustainable animal feed chain.
www.campdenbri.co.uk
FEATURE
Table 1. The effect of on voluntary feed intake, growth, feed conversation ratio (FCR) and protein retention efficiency (PER) in Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout fed high plant protein diets compared to a FM control group. Protein sources (PS) Body weight FM % Other marinePS % Plant-PS % Supplemental AA Feed intake Results Growth FCR PER References
Atlantic salmon 200g 32.0 0 5.0 to 10.0 29.6 41.0 to 43.4 no AA Mixture, including L-Lys, L-Arg, DL-Met, L-Trp, L-Thr, L-His AA Mixture, including L-Lys, L-Arg, DL-Met, L-Trp, L-Thr, L-His L-Lys, DL-Met, L-His Similar Reduced or similar Reduced Reduced Refstie et al., 2000
300g
0.0
Reduced
Similar
Similar
Espe et al., 2006
327g
5.0
5.0 to 10
36.5 to 39.6
Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar
Espe et al., 2007
300g
30.0 to 12.0
2.5 to 5.0
29.6 to 43.0
Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar
Torstensen et al., 2008
137g Rainbow trout 55g 55g 83g 100g
5.0
5.0
48.4 to 48.9
L-Lys, DL-Met, L-Thr
Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar
Kousoulaki et al., 2009
20.0 0.0 0.0 32.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0
30-80 80.0 62.0 29.6
L-Lys, L-Met L-Lys, L-Met L-Met no
Similar Reduced Similar Similar
Similar Reduced Similar Similar
Similar Similar Similar Reduced
Similar Reduced Similar -
Gomes et al.,1995 Gomes et al.,1995 Kaushik et al., 1995 Refstie et al., 2000
(Ytrestyl et al., 2012), the move towards a lower nitrogen output is a major sustainability drive in fish farming, both for environmental and economic reasons. Furthermore, the contribution of amino acids towards meeting the energy requirements of fish are considered high (NRC, 2011), and thus efforts must be taken to reduce surplus protein supply whilst improving amino acid and non-protein energy utilisation. A decrease in the digestible-protein-todigestible-energy ratio (DP:DE) achieved by reducing the dietary digestible protein levels with or without an associated increase in the dietary non-protein digestible energy supply has proven to be extremely efficient in improving nitrogen utilisation and decreasing nitrogenous losses in numerous farmed species (reviewed by NRC, 2011). Studies including that of Yamamoto et al. (2005) show that rainbow trout diets supplemented with all the limiting essential amino acids allow for the reduction of protein level from 45 to 35 percent, without compromising performance and even improving protein retention efficiency from 35 to 50 percent, reducing nitrogen loading into the environment. In their 2009 rainbow trout study Gaylord and Barrows also showed that by keeping a similar dietary energy level and sup-
plementing diets with methionine, lysine and threonine on an ideal protein basis, dietary crude protein level can be reduced from 46 to 40.9 percent without affecting growth and even improving protein retention efficiency. Again, these achievements would not have been possible were free amino acids not utilised as efficiently as protein-bound amino acids in meeting the requirements of fish. Also very important to bear in mind is that although the DP:DE ratio is a more rational way of expressing protein requirements than dietary crude protein requirements, it must not be taken as a fixed or accurate value. At low DP:DE ratios, fat was shown to constitute a more effective source than digestible starch in improving protein utilisation efficiency in rainbow trout, underlining the importance of non-protein energy sources (lipids and starch) in maximising amino acid utilisation in salmonids (Figueiredo-Silva et al., 2013). Furthermore, the efficiency with which essential amino acids are used by rainbow trout for protein deposition is not constant, but affected by their concentration in the diet (the law of diminishing returns) and intake of digestible energy (Encarnao et al., 2004). Efficiency is also known to decrease significantly with increase in live body weight (reviewed by
NRC, 2011). The development of more sustainable diets requires adjustment of their digestible AA and energy content according to the different stages of production..
Improving health through nutrition

Several studies demonstrate that supplementation of aquaculture feeds with functional amino acids such as arginine and tryptophan constitute a promising approach to improve, among other parameters, animals immune response to environmental stresses. This does not constitute a surprise, since amino acid function goes beyond meeting the requirements for protein synthesis. Physiological response to stress and anxiety involve the serotonin signalling system that responds significantly to the availability of serotonin precursor tryptophan. The connection between tryptophan and serotonin explains why supplementation of the essential amino acid has been found to reduce aggressive behaviour and stress-induced anorexia in several fish, as well as in terrestrial animals and humans. Interestingly, it was recently shown that supplementing the diets of salmon smolts with tryptophan above the recommended level can suppress their cortisol response
FEATURE after being exposed to confinement stress (Basic et al. , 2013). Fish also have particularly high requirements for dietary arginine because it is abundant in protein and tissue fluid (as phosphoarginine, a major reservoir of ATP), and its de novo synthesis is limited or even completely absent. The dietary supplementation of arginine and glutamate in combination had positive effects on feeding rate and growth among Atlantic salmon during the first autumn after sea transfer (Oehme et al., 2010). Dietary arginine has also been shown to improve disease resistance and modulate the innate immune mechanisms of fish (Costas et al., 2011). Furthermore, increased dietary arginine seems to activate polyamine turnover and -oxidation in the liver of juvenile Atlantic salmon, and may act to improve the metabolic status of the fish (Anderson et al., 2013). Although this requires further confirmation, supplementation of aquaculture feeds with functional amino acids such as arginine and tryptophan constitutes a promising approach to reduce the stress associated with aquaculture practices, and ultimately to improve the growth performance of fish. reducing fishmeal inclusion level, and a prom- fed under practical conditions. Nutritional ising one for reducing the crude protein level Requirements for Fish and Shrimp, published in salmonid diets. Such findings confirm not by the US National Research Council (NRC), only the effectiveness of supplemental amino determines requirements for amino acids, acids in covering the nutritional requirements fatty acids, vitamins and minerals based on of fish, but also contribute to the increas- diets containing purified and chemicallyingly well-understood perception that animals defined ingredients which are highly digestdont have requirements for ingredients or ible to the organism. When formulating diets crude protein levels per se, but instead for nutrients, including amino acids. "Are the currently recommended Although Atlantic dietary essential amino acid salmon is the most successfully farmed salmonid, levels (NRC, 2011) effective in the nutrient requirements of the species throughout maximising performance of animals the entire production cycle fed under practical conditions?" still need to be completely defined. Besides, there is a high variability in reported essential amino acid requirements between from practical feedstuffs, it must be taken studies. This has been attributed to methodol- into account that nutrient bioavailability for ogy issues, but also to the composition of the the animal will usually be less than from puridiet used, and whether fish were able to reach fied sources. Another limitation of the currently recomtheir maximum growth potential. In fact, different proteins are not identical in their nutritive mended dietary amino acid values is the fact value, with amino acid profile and digestibility that a single value is offered to cover the entire production cycle. We should, therefore, varying markedly among ingredients. This raises the question whether the make an extra effort to fulfil information gaps currently recommended dietary essential about the nutrient requirements of salmonids, amino acid levels (NRC, 2011) are effec- and to offer recommendations according to tive in maximising performance of animals specifications of each stage of production.
Additional considerations
Evidence is accumulating that balancing the dietary amino acid profile with supplements can be regarded as a cost-effective strategy in
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FEATURE
Whisky by-products a sustainable protein source for aquaculture

by Julio Traub, PhD student, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, Scotland cottish whisky is a truly iconic the development of sustainable methods for University in Edinburgh, Scotland. The team product, with Scotland the largest- protein recovery suitable to the needs of both has been working on a protein recovery procproducing nation of whisky world- whisky and aquaculture producers, and a mas- ess from brewery and distillery by-products wide. Production has increased by tery of the economics behind the process and since 2011. This article will focus on the 30 percent in the last decade and more product are essential to ensure a sustainable nutritional properties and quantities of protein than five times in the last half-century. In large-scale protein supply to the aquaculture that could be potentially recovered from whisky by-products and particularly pot ale 2011 more than 500 million litres of pure feed sector. Horizon Proteins is a collaborative and draff, which are both produced during the alcohol (lpa) of whisky were produced in the UK. As the whisky industry prospers, research project based at Heriot-Watt manufacture of malt whisky. more attention is drawn to the by-products of whisky production. Whisky and whisky Table 1. Malt and grain whisky by-products. Whisky manufacture yields conby-products siderable amounts of by-products Whisky spirit is produced from which include liquid and solid either malted barley as the sole Malt Whisky Pot ale: residues from first distillation, also known components alongside the main cereal substrate or a mixture of as Burnt ale. Liquid substance that contains typically 5% solids and at least 40% protein on dry product. These materials contain unmalted cereal grain together with matter basis. significant amounts of proteins malted barley. It is important to Spent lees: residual liquor after second distillation. that are currently underutilised distinguish between the two kinds Mostly water, but also contains some volatile and are often perceived as a chalof whisky (malt and grain) and the components. Nutritive value is negligible and lenge rather than an opportunity cereals used in the process, since normally treated in bio-plants. Draff: grain solids left after starch and enzyme for distillers. the properties of the whisky and its extraction. Sometimes referred as distillers' grains by-products differ substantially. and used as animal feed. It contains typically The salmon farming indusThe production of malt whisky 70-85% moisture and at least 20% protein on a dry try, with a growing demand for in Scotland requires only three raw matter basis. proteins to satisfy the nutritional materials: barley, yeast and water. Grain Whisky Spent Wash: Liquid residue after distillation. requirements of their fish stocks, Nothing more, nothing less. This is Comparable to pot ale from malt whisky production could take advantage of the proa statutory requirement under the Spent Grain: The equivalent of draff in grain whisky production. teins available from whisky byScottish Whisky Regulations 2009. products. By reducing the reliance Scottish malt whisky can only be on wild fish and imported protein made (and, since 2012, bottled) in sources (e.g. soybean meal) to Scotland so this holds worldwide. meet the needs of an expandConsequently, the by-products ing market, UK aquaculture could from malt whisky originate from the benefit economically from a locally raw materials mentioned above. sourced sustainable protein supply. There are various types of bySymbiotic relationships such as this products, but from a nutritional can help to secure the long-term perspective, two are of particular sustainability of the aquaculture importance. Draff (also known as industry to meet the nutritional spent grains) is a solid by-product requirements of an expanding typically containing 70-85 percent world population. moisture and at least 20 percent An understanding of the crude protein content on a dry Figure 1: Historical malt whisky production in Scotland nutritional, chemical and physical matter basis. The other protein-rich 1946-2012 (Source: Scotch Whisky Association) properties of whisky by-products, by-product is pot ale. Pot ale is
FEATURE
Table 2. Chemical composition and feeding values of malt distillery by-products. (2) Draff Dry Matter (g kg-1) Crude protein (g kg-1 DM) Ether extract (g kg-1 DM) Crude fibre (g kg-1 DM) Ash (g kg-1 DM) Ca (g kg-1 DM) 258 198 82 173 33 1.7 3.7 1.4 0.9 3.7 10 43 0.02 0.02 10.8 0.80 Pot ale 40 350 22 105 1.6 22.0 6.6 1.1 23.0 6.8 133 17 18 0.11 14.2 0.95
Figure 2: Malt whisky production process a liquid substance that contains typically 5 percent solids and at least 40 percent protein on dry matter basis. A list of distilling byproducts and their definitions are presented in Table 1. Figure 2 shows a simplified process diagram of malt whisky production, which includes raw materials, by-products and the main steps of the process. Whilst whisky by-products have wellestablished markets in Scotland, current uses do not specifically exploit the particular protein content of these materials. Currently, draff and pot ale are used as food for cattle, energy recovery, fertiliser and feedstock for anaerobic digestion. However, in the mediumto long-term, with bioethanol plants (which also produce plentiful cereals by-products) coming online, there will be an increasing competition for distillers. Additionally, current processing technologies rely on energy-intensive methods. Hence, due to increasing energy costs and increased competition, distillers by-products will have a reduced potential value to the whisky industry. Finding alternative markets for these by-products is important from an economic and a sustainability perspective.
P (g kg-1 DM) Mg (g kg-1 DM) Na (g kg-1 DM) K (g kg-1 DM) S (g kg-1 DM) Cu (g kg-1 DM) Mn (g kg-1 DM) Zn (g kg-1 DM) Co (g kg-1 DM) Se (g kg-1 DM) Metabolisable energy value (MJ kg-1 M) Degradability of crude protein
Barley and yeast in aquaculture feeds

To understand the nutritional properties of the whisky by-products it is necessary to review their components, specifically barley and yeast. Barley has been incorporated in animal feed diets, but has not been widely used
in aquafeeds for several reasons. Economical and nutritional considerations have played a key role in these decisions. Compared to other plant feedstuffs used in aquafeeds (see Table 3), barley has a low protein content (15 percent compared to 49 percent for soybean meal). However, a good amino acid profile makes the barley protein itself a suitable candidate for aquafeed diets.
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FEATURE
Table 3. Typical composition (as-fed basis) of fish meal and various plants feedstuff .(3) Ingredient Fish meal Barley Canola Corn Soya bean meal Wheat Protein (%) 72.0 14.9 38.0 8.5 48.5 12.9 Lipid (%) 8.4 2.1 3.8 3.6 0.9 1.7 Ash (%) 10.4 2.9 6.8 1.3 5.8 1.6 Lysine (%) 5.57 0.44 2.27 0.25 3.08 0.36 Methionine (%) 2.08 0.16 0.70 0.17 0.68 0.21 Cystine (%) 0.74 0.24 0.47 0.22 0.75 0.27
esses with by-products similar to the malt whisky industry, including grain distilleries, breweries and biofuels, could represent a protein source worth more than 200,000 tonnes annually, equivalent to 150-450m in protein sales across the UK.
Protein demand for salmon farming

Worldwide, farmed salmon and trout production reached 2.5 million tonnes in 2009. The main species cultured (Atlantic salmon, Rainbow trout and Coho salmon) accounted for around 95 percent of total salmon and trout production. The combined output of the top three producers (Norway, Chile and UK) represented more than 70 percent of the world's total output of the fish. Protein requirements for the species mentioned above could include up to 50 percent of their feeds ingredients, which equates to a protein demand of at least 1.3 million tonnes globally on an annual basis. Protein demand for salmon and trout feeds in the UK is approximately 85,000 tonnes per annum. The aquaculture industry is set to expand in the coming years and its protein demand will consequently follow. In the UK alone, a 50 percent increase in salmon and trout production is expected by 2020, which translates into a protein consumption of at least 150,000 tonnes annually.
Malt whisky by-products: pot ale (left) and draff (right) The other essential component in whisky production is yeast. Although the volumes of yeast compared to barley are substantially smaller (typically a 60 to 1 ratio of barley to yeast is used in malt whisky processing), the nutritional properties of yeast are worth considering. Previous articles in International Aquafeed have reviewed the nutritional properties of yeast, but to summarise here, on a dry matter basis yeast can contain up to 50 percent protein. Additionally, other components beneficial to aquaculture can be found in distillers spent yeast such as nucleotides and -glucans. tein output from UK malt whisky could offer up to 70,000 tonnes per annum of proteins to the animal and aquaculture feed markets. Average outputs of whisky by-products are reported in Table 4 below. Typically, solid by-products from malt whisky distillation have a bigger output per litre of pure alcohol than grain whisky distillation, but it is the other way round for liquid by-products. This is explained by the fact that the quantity of starch convertible into glucose is greater in the cereals used for grain whisky than those used for the production of malt whisky.
Conclusion
Scotch whisky and Scottish aquaculture could develop beneficial industrial synergies. The proteins found in whisky by-products are nutritionally comparable to proteins used in the currently available fish feed ingredients, and their potential volumes are enough to satisfy the Scottish salmon farming industry and achieve substantial protein sourcing benefits, in economical and sustainability terms. Whisky by-products can offer a sustainable supply of suitable protein to the aquaculture industry. There is a need to identify appropriate and sustainable techniques to obtain these proteins on an industrial scale. At Horizon Proteins, a Scottish research team is developing a sustainable process for protein recovery that could have much more financial viability than traditional treatment technologies for whisky by-products. The savings are not only shown economically, but through the significant reduction in energy requirements in processing, reducing the increasingly important global warming impact of the overall process.
Potentially
70k tonnes p.a.

of protein in malt whisky by-products across Scotland
Potentially
140m p.a.
worth of protein in whisky by-products across Scotland
Protein supply from whisky by-products
Market value
Considering all the malt whisky distilleries in Scotland, proteins contained in pot ale could potentially supply at least 40,000 tonnes per annum. Including draff, the combined pro-
The market value of whisky by-product will depend on several factors including their protein and moisture content. Ultimately however, their price will be driven by international prices for fish and soybean meal. Based on these factors and current protein prices, it could be estimated that Table 4. By products outputs per litre of pure alcohol (2) protein recovery from malt Malt Grain whisky co-products could be worth up to 140m Solid by-products 3.5-5.5 kg 1.0-1.25 kg per annum across Scotland. Other fermentation procLiquid by-products 8.8-11.5 L 16-21 L
FEATURE
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FEATURE
Production of farmed turbot and Senegalese sole in Portugal

by Antnio Gouveia, associate professor, Department of Biology, University of Porto and CIIMAR Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigao Marinha e Ambiental, Portugal Figure 4 t present, turbot (Scophthalmus maximus / Psetta maxima) is one of the marine fish species experiencing the highest levels of aquaculture production growth in Europe. Turbot is produced in Europe in the Channel Islands, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom and Portugal, with a total production estimated at 75,598 tonnes in 2011 (FAO, 2013). Turbot production in Portugal began during the 1990s and has increased steadily ever since. Located at the tip of the Iberian Peninsula and bordered by the North Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, Portugal is the most western country in Europe. The Algarve region on the southeast coast also exhibits a strong influence from the Mediterranean Ocean. Portugal has a milder climate compared to the same latitudes of the American Atlantic coast, owing to the ameliorating effect of the Gulf Stream current. On the north coast of Spain the current bends towards the south, giving rise to the Portuguese Current, a broad, slow, generally southward-flowing current that extends from about 10 degrees west to about 24 degrees west longitude (Bischof et al., 2003). Although Portugal is a small country with
only 88,700km2 area, its mainland stretches along 780 km of the Atlantic coastline (JNICT, 1990). In spite of its small area it has two major climate systems. The north side of Portugal is a colder, mountainous region comprising most of the countrys rivers and reservoirs more suitable for the production of cold water species such as rainbow trout and flatfish (turbot and Senegalese sole, Solea senegalensis). The centre and especially the south of the country (the Alentejo and Algarve regions) contain a drier, warmer plain, more suitable for production of warmer water species due to the influence of the Mediterranean Ocean. These include European sea bass (Dicentrachus labrax), Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata), Meagre (Argyrosomus regius), Red porgy (Pagrus pagrus) and White sea bream (Diplodus sagrus). Nowadays, the Algarve is the most important Portuguese marine aquaculture region, comprising 45 percent of national production (INE, 2011). Besides the Portuguese mainland, Portugal also includes the Azores archipelago (2,344 km2) and the island of Madeira (796 km2), both located in the Atlantic Ocean, 100 km and 660 km from the West African coast, respectively (JNICT, 1990). Madeira has a significant on-growing marine fish production industry, mainly farming Gilthead sea bream.
Figure 1
Aquaculture expansion
Until 2009, turbot was produced in three medium-sized intensive aquaculture units located in the north and centre of Portugal (see Figure 1) due to the regions cold water temperature throughout the year. In 2009 this changed for the better, as a Spanish fishing company Pescanova began operations in Mira in northern Portugal, with a 150 million Euro investment in a state-of-the-art turbot farm, the worlds biggest. The facility produced 4,000 tonnes in 2012, but when full production capacity is reached this turbot
FEATURE
Figure 2
ADDITIVES FOR AQUACULTURE SOLUTIONS
farm is bound to produce 7,000 tonnes utilising an area of 57 hectares (see Figure 2). Nevertheless, recent production problems that have arisen have unfortunately compromised this turbot farm to attain full capacity production already this year. The Acuinova layout is a double row of eight production units. Each production unit has one juvenile pavilion and eight growth pavilions. In the overhead shot of Figure 2, the juvenile pavilions are coloured darker than the growth pavilions. Each juvenile pavilion (see Figure 3) has 30 40 m2 tanks for 10-100 g turbot, making a total of 480 juvenile tanks, and each growth pavilion in turn has 20 113 m2 growth tanks for fish from 100 gr. to commercial size in a total of 1,248 growth tanks (see Figure 4). At full capacity it will create more than 200 direct and 600 indirect jobs. Ten-gram juvenile turbot are brought weekly from one of the Spanish companys turbot hatcheries to Acuinova Mira. Fish are automatically and manually fed, up to twelve times daily with juveniles and up to four times daily in the grow-out phase, until they reach the commercial size of 1-1.5 kg which may last between 600 and 750 days. Acuinova has two pumping stations, the water intake is located 2.4 km offshore, each one equipped with nine 250 kW pumps providing a 10.8 m3 per second water flow, enough to provide a daily water supply for a city the size of Madrid. Another Portuguese turbot farm, Piscicultura do Rio Alto, located in Estela in northern Portugal (see Figure 5), produced turbot from 1993 to 2011, when it was decided to abandon turbot production and farm Senegalese sole instead. At present, this aquaculture unit is undergoing major modifications after being bought this year by a Spanish company (Sea8 Porto) to be converted into a hatchery for Senegalese sole, which will
be grown in another unit in Portugal recently acquired for the purpose. Beginning production in 1997, the Aquacria Pisccolas facility was the third flatfish unit constructed in Portugal. This hightech flatfish farm is located in Torreira in the north of Portugal, and is the only aquaculture facility in the country operating with shallow raceway system technology in conjunction with a recirculation aquaculture system (RAS) for the growth out phase of Senegalese sole production, allowing the fish farm to substantially reduce its environmental impact (see Figures 6, 7). In 2011, during the management of its previous owners, the flatfish farm began its expansion policy, which was already concluded. Therefore, production of Senegalese sole will be substantially increased, with an output of 350-400 tonnes estimated for
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FEATURE
Figure 5
Figure 6
the following year. The recirculation unit has 60 shallow raceways displayed in six double rows of five store shallow raceways. Nowadays, there is still a second turbot farm in Portugal, the Stolt Sea Farm operated by Piscicultura SA. Located in Praia da Tocha, central Portugal and belonging
to the Norwegian shipping and seafood company Stolt-Nielsen, it began production in 1992 and exports all its turbot output within Europe. The farm has in total 113 circular tanks: six measuring 15 m2, 36 at 20 m2, 10 at 23 m2, 21 at 78 m2 and 40 circular tanks measuring at 144 m2. Ten
Figure 7
gramme juvenile turbot imported from Spain reaches its commercial size of 1.5 kg in around two years. Turbot production in Portugal has been steadily increasing year-on-year since 1994 (FAO, 2013), and in 2012 4,351 tonnes were produced (turbot farmers personal communication). Portuguese turbot production is expected to rise even further this year when Acuinova will reach its full production capacity of 7,000 tonnes per year. In recent years another flatfish species, Senegalese sole, has become popular among Portugals aquaculture producers. Along with White sea bream and Meagre, it is one of the most recent marine fish species to be introduced into the Portuguese fish farming sector. Besides Portugal, Senegalese sole is mainly produced in France and Spain with a production of around 235 tonnes declared in 2011 (FAO, 2013). This flatfish species began to be produced in Portugal in 1997 by Aquaria Pisccolas, followed by Piscicultura do Rio Alto in 2002 with great success, especially for the former. As previously said, with both flatfish farms having recently changed ownership, the latter is currently engaged in major adaptations to be converted into a Senegalese sole hatchery, and the former is expanding its production capacity for this species. For these reasons, Senegalese sole production is expected to increase to around 350400 tonnes next year. Although some biological and technological constraints must obviously be overcome, especially with Senegalese sole, high-quality turbot and Senegalese sole production are expected to significantly increase in Portugal in the near future with a small number of recently-renovated, hightechnology aquaculture units.
FEATURE
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FEATURE
Closing the food waste loop: a new angle for insect-based feeds
by Brad Marchant, CEO, Enterra Feed Corporation, Vancouver, Canada ith increasing global demand for affordable, high-quality, protein-rich food like fish, it is no wonder that aquaculture is one of the fastest growing sectors of the food industry. As the industry continues to grow, the search for stable supplies of feed ingredients continues. Current commercial sources of protein can be costly, resource-intensive and of variable quality. Supplies of fishmeal and fish oil put pressure on wild fish stocks. Corn, soybeans, palm kernel oil and coconut oil create feed ingredients at the expense of valuable agricultural land and fresh water. Over the past 10 years, prices for these commodities have reached record highs both in terms of their price and volatility, forcing feed manufacturers and farmers to actively search for ways to substitute products as a means to smooth out and lower their input costs. While on a rafting trip in the Canadian Yukon, world-renowned environmental advocate and broadcaster, Dr David Suzuki, and Enterra CEO Brad Marchant began discussing aquacultures ongoing feed challenge. When Brad queried Dr. Suzuki on what else could be fed to fish, it turned out the answer was on the end of their fishing rods: insects. Back in Vancouver, the two conceived the idea for a process that would provide a viable alternative for feed ingredients and help address the challenge of a diminishing global nutrient supply. And they did it by harnessing the lifecycle of a beneficial, non-invasive insect. Andrew Vickerson, the chief technology officer, joined the team and together they have commercialised a unique natural process that
could change global aquaculture by providing sustainable, local and consistent quality feed ingredients derived from food waste.
The Enterra process

Enterras proprietary technology consists of a hatchery and a food waste bioconversion unit. This clean, contained, artificial environment optimises the black soldier flys life cycle to produce valuable animal and plant feed ingredients from a food waste diet consisting of mainly fruits and vegetables. The flys lifecycle is well understood by entomologists, and the speed by which the natural cycle takes place can vary by months depending on the quality of the food source and local environment. For this reason, Enterra developed a 100 percent controlled environment to ensure high predictability for the production of eggs and larvae destined for the bioconversion units. The hatchery uses controlled, artificial lighting and mating conditions to produce black soldier fly eggs in captivity, 365 days a year, anywhere in the world. In the bioconversion units, larvae from the hatchery eat pre-consumer food waste. The stage takes about three or four hours, and feedstuffs are sourced from local grocery stores and food processing facilities. Since 2009, Enterras scientists have tested different types and quantities of food waste to create the optimal diet, to maximise the larvae growth rates and nutritional content while ensuring a safe and predictable output quality. Enterra has tested a wide range of food waste sources and has found that an optimum diet of mixed food waste results in faster growth rates. The preferred diet in the Enterra process is primarily (up to 80 percent) fruits and vegetables, with some breading, waste grains, dairy products and small amounts of fish waste also included in the feed mix. Enterra has found
The black soldier fly

Hermetia illucens, also known as the black soldier fly, is a common and widespread fly species. They are also natures nutrient renewal experts. The adult fly does not feed they spend their five to seven day lifespan reproducing, and are not considered a pest. More importantly, the larval stage of the black soldier fly must provide all of the nutrition for the adult fly, and therefore contains considerable valuable protein and oil content. The larvae feed on most organic waste, including fruits and vegetables which offers the opportunity to utilise the black soldier fly larvae to consume food waste. Simultaneously, they create high value protein and oils that can be used to feed fish, livestock and pets, and potentially replace wild-caught fishmeal and farmed nutrients as feed ingredients. The insects have been used successfully in home composting and small-scale food and animal waste management for decades, typically employed at farms and hobby farms for manure and farm waste conversion to larvae, which can then be fed to chickens, livestock or fish ponds at the farm. The larvae digestate, or frass, can be used as a natural fertiliser, also at the same farm location. However, attempts to industrialise the process have been hampered by reliance on wild populations of black soldier fly adults. Enterras scientists have successfully domesticated and commercialised the speciess life cycle on a variety of food waste sources, which eliminates the reliance on wild populations of black soldier fly.
FEATURE that the protein profile of the grown larvae is not dependent on feed mix, but that the fatty acid profile is more dependent on the feedstock used. The food waste can be from stale-dated and spoiled sources, as any fungal or bacterial contaminants are consumed by the larvae and do not report to any of the final products natures nutrient renewal and up-cycle system at its best. Enterra does not treat yard waste, manure products or postconsumer food waste (garbage) due to regulatory controls. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency must certify the production process and products, so the only source of feedstock is traceable pre-consumer food waste from the food processing, packaging and distribution industries. The first pilot-scale bioconversion units, built in 2010, were capable of converting up to 25 kg/m2 of food waste per day on a continuous feed basis. The pilot bioconversion units were used to optimise operating conditions such as the feed rate, operating bed depth, evaporation rate, harvesting methods, and to develop the engineering scaleup criteria for commercial scale operations. Concurrently, pilot hatchery units were tested to optimise the black soldier fly reproduction cycle and determine operating criteria to ensure a genetically diverse adult population on a sustainable basis, as well as provide engineering criteria for commercial scale
hatchery units. In 2012, a commercial scale demonstration plant came online. Enterras commercial demonstration plant is modular, built in modules of five tonnes per day capacity, has proven the engineering scale-up, and confirmed production conversion rates from food waste into protein, oils and a natural fertiliser at commercial scale.
Towards commercial viability?

Enterra is now in the construction phase of an expanded commercial production facility in Langley, British Columbia. The new facility, scheduled to open in 2014, will initially
process 100 tonnes of food waste per day, or 36,000 tonnes per year. For each 100 tonnes of food waste, which contains 80 percent water subsequently evaporated in the bioconversion units, the Enterra process yields approximately seven tonnes of meal and oil and seven tonnes of natural fertilizer. Mature larvae are harvested, washed and cooked to create nutritious, sustainable protein and oil products: Enterra Meal, which contains 60 to 65 percent protein and 15 percent oil; Enterra Feed Oil , which is over 99 percent oil and contains 20 percent Omega unsaturated fatty acids; and whole dried
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FEATURE larvae called Grubbinz. Enterra has explored a number of ways to separate the protein and fatty acids from the whole black soldier fly larvae (or Grubbinz) and selected a common food processing method. The objective was to minimise operating costs while maximising quality, scalability and handling of the protein and feed oil products. Separating the larvae into separate meal and oil products provides feed manufacturers with greater inclusion flexibility and a longer shelf life. During three years of product development work, Enterra, together with independent laboratories, tested black soldier fly meal and oil samples generated by the prototype bioconversion units and mapped their nutritional profiles. Data gathered to date indicate that the Enterra Meal product compares well with fishmeal and rendered poultry meal. The Enterra Feed Oil product compares well with the most valuable fatty acid products: fish oil and soybean oil, and is a valuable substitute for palm kernel oil and for coconut oil. The natural fertiliser contains approximately 10 percent N-P-K and is an excellent organic substitute for chemical and animal based fertilisers and soil amendment products. Initial digestibility testing of a pelletised aquaculture feed using Enterras meal product, conducted independently by the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) as a salmon feed ingredient, yielded promising results. Using a closed-contained test facility operated by DFO, using standard feed pelletising methods, multiple inclusion rates and faecal matter tracer methods to determine protein digestibility relative to a known standard, the initial test results showed that the digestibility was comparable to other sources of animal protein, at 78 percent. More recent digestibility testing, also conducted by DFO, has shown that the Enterra Meal product is 82 percent digestible by Atlantic salmon. By continued optimisation of the protein and oil separation process, the protein digestibility could be increased to 8590 percent a digestibility level found only in fishmeal. Further independent digestibility testing is in progress for salmon and trout. system as the frass, or larvae digestate, produced by the larvae during the food conversion process is turned into a concentrated natural soil conditioner. This natural fertiliser has a higher N-P-K content (around 10 percent) than other soil amendment products, such as compost and vermiculture soil. The fertiliser product has been tested extensively with organic farm producers, and field-testing, including greenhouse applications, continues throughout British Columbia. Nutritional data, recent field tests and the companys own germination and growth tests to date indicate that Enterras natural fertiliser product is an excellent addition to the natural soil amendment market and has unique pest control attributes. No liquid waste or special gas emissions are produced from Enterras process.
A zero waste system

Globally, more than 1.5 billion tonnes of food over 30 percent of total production is lost or wasted every year during agricultural production, post-harvest handling, processing, packaging, distribution and consumption. While communities around the world use a variety of residential and industrial programs to divert this food waste from landfills, many of these methods are sub-optimal for the recovery and monetisation of the substantial levels of food nutrients that remain in the food waste. Landfills, waste-to-energy facilities and composting operations remove food nutrients from the food cycle, whereas the Enterra system converts food waste directly back to food. The Enterra process maximises the nutritional recovery from pre-consumer food waste, providing sustainable feed ingredients at a stable price, while reducing food waste disposal costs for businesses and municipalities. Enterras technology can process large quantities of food waste in hours, compared with composting, which can take up to 180 days. Independent engineering verification indicates that the Enterra process is more efficient than anaerobic digestion for valuable nutrient recovery, with the potential for triple the revenue from the same waste inputs at approximately one-tenth the capital cost. The Green Economy is front and centre in Vancouver, and the city has set the ambitious goal of being the greenest city in the world by 2020. With a ban on food waste into Metro Vancouver landfills coming into effect in 2015, regional food retailers, distributors and producers are welcoming the opportunity to support Enterras renewable food system. The City of Vancouver and Metro Vancouver have indicated support for a new food wastespecific processing facility in the region. Both are looking for ways to reduce the fees paid to dump organic waste. The Enterra process is a truly zero waste
Closing the food waste loop

As our global population continues to grow, putting increasing strain on available nutrients, fresh water and arable land, the ability to recover and reuse nutrients from food waste quickly and cheaply will become a critical part of food production processes. Enterras process recovers nutrients that would otherwise end up in landfill or compost facilities, and converts this food waste into a viable alternative feed ingredient for fish, livestock and pets. Soybean and wildcaught fish ingredients can be costly, resourceintensive, unsustainable and of variable quality. Using sustainable inputs, Enterra creates a high-quality domestic product with the added benefit of stable, long term pricing. While addressing the increasing demand for food, Enterra also decreases demand for landfills, composting and long-haul waste trucking. By diverting food waste from the landfill and from composting facilities, costs associated with waste disposal are lowered, and a zero waste product is produced. Enterra closes the loop on food waste to create renewable food for animals and plants.
FEATURE
Aquaculture Feeds Reimagined

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Guangzhou Hinter Biotechnology
Guangzhou Hinter Biotechnology is a subsidiary of Guangdong Haid Group, and is the dominant player in China's aquafeed market. A high-tech services company, it specialises in the R&D, production and sale of aquatic feed premixes and additives, and the promotion of new feeding techniques. Hinter's level of service has won a lot of awards, including the 'High-Tech Enterprise',Top Brand in China' and 'Bestselling brand in China's agricultural products market'. It is also a designated National Key Leading Enterprise for agricultural industrialisation. Along with its key position in the marketplace, Hinter leads the Chinese aquaculture industry with its highly-regarded yearly symposium, Encouraging Communication and Promoting Progress in the Industry'.
Hinter continually provides customers with a full range of supporting services, under the guiding principle of creating value for customers and ensuring win-win cooperation. Hinter's support services link together different areas of the aquafeed industry including operating management, product positioning, raw material purchasing, quality control, feed formulation, technological adjustment, technical training and end-user servicing. Hinter's motto, All engineers, all process, all around is an appropriate emblem for its work in the field. As the leading enterprise in China's aquaculture premix industry, Hinters products have made it the number one in domestic sales for 13 consecutive years.The products are sold to 26 provinces in China, and some premix series have been sold across Asia, in markets including Vietnam, India, Myanmar,Thailand and Indonesia. http://www.hinter.com.cn
FEATURE
X-ray microtomography:
a new tool in assessing the properties of aquatic feed

by Vukasin Draganovic, feed production researcher, Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre, Norway
ustainability of aquafeeds implies the use of ingredients originating from different sources and alternative locations. As a result of this, there is an increasing trend to replace fishery-derived ingredients with a variety of plant sources, especially legumes, cereals and oilseeds. If we look further into the future it is likely that other sources, for example bacterial, yeast and algae, will also become viable. Besides the nutritional quality of feed, it is necessary to acquire knowledge about the functionality of these sources in the production process, before they can be fully used in a commercial context. In other words, how these ingredients behave in terms of their processing, their interaction with other ingredients and the end physical quality of the feed. The substitution of one ingredient for another is not simple, as it can alter physical properties of pellets including their durability and the absorption of oil. These mechanical properties of feed pellets can be clearly understood if we can effectively describe their structure. The problem lies in finding a suitable technique that can help in characterising the internal structure of the pellet. The downsides of traditional imaging techniques like light or electron microscopy are that these techniques are two-dimensional, and that they just give
information about the fracture plane of a product. In addition, a sample needs to be prepared. This usually involves cutting, which can in turn alter the product structure. Another option is pycnometry, where the pressure is applied for the penetration of gas into the porous fish feed pellets. This can however cause cracks in the cell walls and it seems therefore to be a less suitable technique.
Figure 1: Micro-CT principle (Source: Bruker micro CT) cians to see cross-sections of the inner pellet, without the usual need to physically cut the sample with a razor blade. Once the pellet is scanned, software can generate three-dimensional images of the samples morphology and internal microstructure with resolution down to the sub-micron level. Subsequently, various microstructural features of the porous pellet including the average size of the cells, pore size distribution, cell wall thickness and its open and closed porosity can be quantified.
As is analysis
X-ray microtomography is an invasive imaging technique, meaning that no sample preparation is needed and the structure is analysed as is. So, no coating or vacuum treatment is needed to prepare the sample. Microtomography, like tomography, uses X-rays to create cross-sections of a threedimensional object (see Figure 1). The term micro is used to indicate that the pixel sizes of the cross-sections are in the micrometer range. The principle is very similar to that of a medical CT scanner. The only difference to a clinical one is that in the case of the micro CT scanner, the X-ray source and detector remain in a fixed position (see Figure 2). This technique allows Skretting techni-
Applications
Skretting Aquaculture Research Centre has applied this imaging technique to both dry kernels and pellets coated with oil. Differences in density between the solid matrix, oil and air (void cells) can be easily detected by X-rays. The measurements were limited to an appropriate volume of interest, that is, a cylinder located in the centre of each pellet (see Figure 3). From the right-hand image it can be seen that some cells are still not yet filled with oil, although both products have the same density, were coated with the same amount of oil and have the same visual appearance. These results indicate that the infusion of oil into the product could be studied further with this technique. For example, the effect of different protein sources could be visualised in future research. Using X-ray microtomography to visualise the microstructure of fish feed can also assist
Figure 2: Difference between clinical and micro CT instrument (Source: University of Leicester)
FEATURE
Figure 3: Three-dimensional models of two coated products obtained by XMT. The objects presented are the volume of interest, not the whole pellet. The blue areas represent oil, white areas are void cells, and the continuous solid matrix is represented as green or red (dense material) in the further optimisation of the physical quality of the pellet. Applications include the reduction of undesired fat migration out of the product, increasing pellet durability or controlling the sinking-floating behavior of aquafeed. Feed pellets must meet a series of physical specifications. They must be sufficiently durable to withstand the stresses exerted during transport and handling, and by pneumatic feeding devices. In addition to this, the pellets must be consistent in appearance, size and density, the last of which must be controlled precisely during the extrusion process to give the required oil absorption and sinking speed characteristics. Pellets that stay afloat will not be eaten, and pellets that sink too fast may escape being eaten by the fish altogether. The X-ray technology can, in addition play an important role in developing new feeds with the inclusion of novel raw materials that meet all required quality criteria. From the x-ray scans, we can see how one ingredient affects the structure of the pellet. A more compact structure from increased cell wall thickness inside the pellet will in turn result in a more durable product. The size of the pores also plays an important role when it comes to oil absorption. Using this technology, we have defined an optimal range of pore size distribution and interconnectedness between the pores, which will ensure good oil infusion and reduced fat leakage during product storage. At Skretting we are always screening different ingredients and looking at how they affect these parameters. Knowing this, we can select the right ingredients.
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FEATURE
Microalgae an indispensible feed for bivalves

by Eric C. Henry PhD, research scientist, Reed Mariculture Inc, USA
ivalves are unique among the many species widely farmed for human food. Species from the mollusc group, which include mussels, oysters and clams, are dependent on phytoplankton (microalgae) throughout their entire life cycle. Wild stocks of bivalves are under pressure from overexploitation and habitat losses; environmental stresses such as introductions of new diseases and harmful algal blooms; climate change bringing altered temperature regimes and increased incidences of damaging storms; and increasingly severe ocean acidification. The aquaculture industry plays a crucial role in supplying the increasing human demand for bivalves as food, and to maintain natural populations of the species.
Image 1: Veliger (larva) of Atlantic oyster (C. Virginica) fecundity of the broodstock and improve the rate of survival and successful metamorphosis of larvae. Better protocols also make it possible to extend the breeding season through temperature control and supplementing diets with cultured microalgae when local seawater conditions do not permit sufficient production of natural phytoplankton. Supplemental feeding with cultured microalgae can also be used to grow settled spat to larger sizes before outplanting, which increases the rates of survival and initial growth. Cultured microalgae can also be used to speed up depuration of harmful bacteria (e.g. Vibrio) (Lewis, 2010) and shellfish toxins (Svensson & Frlin, 2004) that can contaminate harvested bivalves.
Cultured microalgae hatchery fuel

Hatcheries have long been used to enhance bivalve reproduction by providing ample feed for larvae, post-larvae (spat), and often broodstock animals to increase their fecundity. Hatcheries are also essential for selective breeding of desirable qualities into bivalve strains, and for propagating their progeny. Increasing interest in strains of bivalves selected for superior productivity and disease resistance will increase the need for husbandry of adult animals in hatcheries. Equally, further environmental deterioration in natural beds will increase the importance of broodstock conditioning in hatcheries. Hatchery production of seed can be used to bolster or repopulate natural production grounds, or to establish new production sites, sometimes using entirely artificial installations such as floating oyster and mussel rafts. Ample feeding with microalgae is the key to hatchery productivity. Hatchery production can be boosted by improved feeding protocols, which increase the
Which microalgae are best for bivalves?

Although hundreds of microalgae strains have been tested as feeds for aquaculture, fewer than 20 are in widespread use (Guedes & Malcata, 2012). Because these algae vary so greatly in their nutritional profiles, careful consideration is necessary in order to select the most nutritionally appropriate strains. Such algae as Spirulina, Chlorella, Haematococcus, and Dunaliella are easily mass-produced as
they can be cultivated in open ponds at low cost, but they all lack the omega-3, polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA and DHA content that is essential for most bivalves. Although various nutritional components have been well documented in some algae strains, complete nutritional profiles are known for very few of them, so it is very difficult to predict which strains are the best choice for a particular application. It is unfortunate that so many studies of the nutritional performance of microalgae have tested single strains as the only feed, when it should be obvious that no single strain is likely to provide an optimal nutritional profile comparable to what a natural mixed phytoplankton assemblage can provide. It is equally unfortunate that so many studies of bivalve feeding have failed to identify the particular strains of the algae that were used. Additional uncertainties arise because the nutritional profiles of microalgae can be strongly influenced by culture conditions, including light regime, temperature, nutrient (e.g. nitrogen, phosphate) availability, and the growth phase of the culture (exponential, stationary, declining) when harvested. Although the PUFA content of many strains has by now been well documented, sterol profiles have been more challenging to characterise, since there is far more strain-to-strain variation. This is even the case among strains supposedly of the same species, as revealed in a recent investigation of over 100 diatom strains (Rampen et al., 2010). Protein content is less variable, with a study of 40 strains of microalgae in seven algal classes finding consistently high contents of essential amino acids (Brown et al., 1997). Vitamin contents of microalgae also appear to be consistently high (Brown & Miller, 1992; Brown et al., 1999). The high-PUFA algae most widely used for bivalves include strains of Tetraselmis (Prasinophyceae); Isochrysis and Pavlova (Prymnesiophyceae); Thalassiosira, Chaetoceros,
FEATURE and Skeletonema (diatoms); Rhodomonas (Cryptophyceae); and Nannochloropsis (Eustigmatophyceae), the last one especially used for mussel farming. But which strains to choose for a particular application? It can be very difficult, even impossible to identify a species of microalgae based on light microscopy alone, even in the hands of taxonomic specialists. Indeed, it may not even be sufficient to identify particular strains of algae from examination of ultrastructural (visible only by electron microscopy) and some biochemical characteristics. Recent studies employing molecular genetic analysis show that strains that are indistinguishable by these features may nevertheless be genetically distinct. The extent of this problem can be illustrated by a brief survey of what has been learned about the differences among some of the various strains of four microalgae most often recommended for bivalve aquaculture: Tetraselmis, Isochrysis, Pavlova, and Thalassiosira.
Image 2: Tetraselmis microalgae
Image 3: T-Iso microalga
Tetraselmis
Tetraselmis is widely used as a successful shellfish feed, probably in a large part due to high levels of cholesterol and significant EPA in some strains. Tetraselmis has also been reported to suppress pathogenic Vibrio spp. (Austin & Day, 1990; Regunathan & Wesley,
2004), and some strains are among the few microalgae containing significant levels of taurine (Tzovenis et al., 2009; Al-Amoudia & Flynn, 1989; Flynn & Flynn, 1992). It is striking that the US National Center for Marine Algae and Microbiota (NCMA formerly CCMP) holds some 118 strains catalogued as Tetraselmis, but only seven are identified as to species, and one of the most frequently recommended Tetraselmis species, T. chuii, is not among them! Studies of the fatty acids in nine strains (Wikfors et al., 1996) and sterols in 11 strains (Patterson et al., 1993) of Tetraselmis found wide ranges of total contents and different forms of these critical nutrients, indicating that more species diversity exists than has been recognized by traditional taxonomic stud-
ies. However, molecular genetic analysis of aquaculture strains has not yet been reported.
Isochrysis
Isochrysis strains are favoured for particularly high levels of the fatty acid DHA, but the relationships among aquacultured strains have been unclear. Fortunately, a recent molecular genetic study (Bendif et al., 2013) has now shown that the very widelyused Tahitian strain of Isochrysis (which has been referred to in different studies as Isochrysis sp.; Isochrysis galbana, Isochrysis aff. galbana, or most often simply T-Iso) is so different from other species of Isochrysis that it belongs in its own genus, now named Tisochrysis. Owing to this research we can now finally understand why strains that are
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FEATURE (Bendif et al., 2011) has considerably clarified the relationships among many Pavlova strains as well as related genera, although additional strains remain to be examined. Different strains contain a remarkably diverse range of unusual sterols (Gladu et al., 1991; Patterson et al., 1993; Ghosh et al., 1998) and this sterol content may account for the widespread impression that Pavlova contributes real, though poorly characterised, value as a bivalve feed. One study has surprisingly reported that the combination of Pavlova lutheri (unfortunately, strain not specified) and Nannochloropsis (not much used for bivalves other than mussels) provided a feed for the European oyster Ostrea edulis that proved superior to combinations of Chaetoceros muelleri and T-Iso, or Tetraselmis striata and Thalassiosira weissogii (Ronquillo et al., 2012). Research with scallop larvae indicates that at least one Pavlova strain produces a sterol that induces metamorphosis (Alix et al., 1997; Roberts et al., 2005). This is a very unexpected phenomenon, and it is a reminder that many gaps still remain in our knowledge of how microalgae may affect the biology of bivalves.
Image 4: Pavlova microalga
Image 5: Thalassiosira weissflogii microalgae
indistinguishable by microscopy differ so Pavlova widely in their PUFAs (I. galbana contains Pavlova strains, mostly designated P. luthEPA, Tisochrysis has none) and sterols (epi- eri, are also favoured for their high PUFA brassicasterol in I. galbana, brassicasterol in content. A recent comprehensive taxonomTisochrysis ). ic study molecular genetics VICTAMisland:Layout 1 30/8/13 14:22 Page incorporating 1
8 10 April 2014 . Bangkok International Trade & Exhibition Centre (BITEC), Bangkok, Thailand
Thalassiosira
Strains of Thalassiosira weissflogii and T. pseudonana (in particular the strain known as 3H) are widely used in aquaculture. T. weissflogii is easy to culture but lacks DHA, whereas the 3H strain has some DHA but requires selenium (Price et al., 1987), and is so prone to form resting cysts that it can be difficult to culture reliably (Dixon & Wikfors, 1997). T. pseudonana was the first marine microalga to undergo whole genome sequencing, and the functions of many previously unknown genes are currently being identified (Armbrust et al., 2004). For this reason, the physiology of this species has the potential to be better understood than that of any other alga. Diatoms possess cell walls of silica that are very resistant to degradation and are ornamented with finely detailed markings that permit very precise morphological definition. Diatom species can therefore be identified with great confidence by light and electron microscopy. However, T. weissflogii strains have been isolated from cool-temperate and tropical
Asias largest exhibition and conferences for animal feed, aquafeed and petfood production
VICTAM Asia 2014 is the largest trade show within South and South East Asia for displaying the latest equipment and technology used in the production of animal feeds, aquafeeds and dry petfoods.
New for 2014 Now including the first ASEAN Feed Summit Specialist conferences The exhibition will be supported by its own specialist conferences: The FIAAP Conference 2014 Petfood Forum Asia 2014 Aquafeed Horizons Asia 2014 The Thai Feed Conference 2014 Biomass Pelleting Asia 2014 Supported by The Thailand Convention and Exhibition Bureau Co-located with FIAAP Asia 2014 and GRAPAS Asia 2014 www.fiaap.com / www.grapas.eu Contact details For visitor, exhibition stand space and conference information please visit: www.victam.com
FEATURE
danger of introducing diseases along with density culture methods (King, 2004) that can dramatically reduce water use, by facthe feed. The best refrigerated products typically tors of hundreds. Minimising water demand have a shelf-life of six months, and the best is especially important where local water frozen products may be used several years conditions are unfavourable (e.g. affected by down the line. This means that a reliable extreme temperatures, acidification, toxic The microalgae bottleneck The success of a bivalve hatchery depends supply of algae can be kept on hand, available algae blooms) and treatment of sufficiently on the production of algae. Large quantities for use in any season or if an unexpected large volumes of seawater is prohibitively of high quality algae must be available when need arises. Algae costs become predictable, costly, or even impossible altogether. This and often prove to amount to less than on- shows how one innovation in hatchery needed. (FAO Bivalve Hatchery Manual) Production of microalgae consumes a site production once total production costs technology in this case, a new form of major fraction of the infrastructure, labour, and inefficiencies have been accounted for. microalgae feed can spur other innovations and other operating costs of a bivalve Success of larvae is so critical to the overall that were never anticipated when the feed hatchery. It requires specialised equipment success of a hatchery that even a relatively was developed. Bivalve aquaculture clearly and skilled labour, which entail costs with small improvement in survival or growth rate depends on continued research that will no return during the seasons when they are due to better feeding can yield great benefits. provide the improvements and innovations Because these products can be as much in microalgae feeding technologies necessary not needed. Any shortfall in algae production can result in reduction or even loss of bivalve as several-thousandfold more concentrated to ensure the future growth of the industry. production. Algae production can be affected than cultured microalgae, they are ideal for implementing1 new and innovative by weather (where natural sunlight is used), available online FIAAPisland:Layout 30/8/13 14:26 highPage References 1 equipment failures, or human error, and it must be timed to match the demands of the hatchery. Algae produced when it is not needed (because timing of production was misjudged, or an anticipated hatch was not successful) is simply wasted and can contribute substantially to the total cost of algae production. seas, and even fully freshwater environments, so it is not surprising that different strains, although nearly identical in appearance, show different physiological traits.
Microalgae concentrates
One solution to the problem of ensuring reliable supplies of microalgae for hatcheries can be the use of commercially available refrigerated or frozen algae concentrates or pastes (Guedes & Malcata, 2012; Shields & Lupatsch, 2012). These products, which are actually viscous liquids, have proven to be effective feeds for shellfish and other filter feeders. In products formulated to provide a long shelf-life, the concentrated microalgae are suspended in buffer media that preserve cellular integrity and nutritional value, although the cells themselves are nonviable. When concentrates with well-defined biomass densities are employed, the algae can be continuously and accurately dosed into bivalve cultures with a metering pump, matching feed delivery to the demands of the cultures, maximising feeding efficiency. Nonviability confers the advantage that the products pose no risk of introducing exotic algal strains. Concentrates produced at remote facilities free of pathogen vectors reduce the
Asias foremost exhibition and conferences for the ingredients and additives used in the production of animal feeds, aquafeeds and petfoods
FIAAP Asia 2014 is the only dedicated trade show and conference organised specifically for feed ingredients, additives and formulation within the dynamic and growing region of South and South East Asia.
New for 2014 Now including the first ASEAN Feed Summit Specialist conferences The exhibition will be supported by its own specialist conferences. They will include: The FIAAP Conference 2014 Petfood Forum Asia 2014 Aquafeed Horizons Asia 2014 The Thai Feed Conference 2014 Supported by The Thailand Convention and Exhibition Bureau Co-located with VICTAM Asia 2014 www.victam.com Contact details For visitor, exhibition stand space and conference information please visit: www.fiaap.com
FEATURE
SAFETY FIRST
Chain approach in feed safety control is crucial
in 1998. After investigations were triggered by the detection of increased dioxin levels in raw milk, it was found that about 150,000 tonnes of contaminated product had been distributed in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and northern France. A more recent experiby Johan den ence in Chile centred on Hartog, managing the contamination of copdirector, GMP+, The per sulphate with cadmium. Netherlands In the export destinations The Dutch feed industry of Chilean-produced pork, imported around 75 percent of its feed materials from other parts of the increased levels of cadmium were detected, world, from Europe as well as Asia and and traced back to contaminated copper the Americas. These materials are shipped sulphate used as an additive for pig feeds. Incidents like this saw the scope of the in large volumes to Northwest Europe. The consequence of this was that if a feed GMP+ Feed Safety Assurance scheme being material from a certain origin was contami- extended to the whole feed supply chain in nated with an undesirable substance, a huge 2000. It is important to control feed safety volume of that material would arrive at the risks as early as possible in the feed chain, and it is crucial that every entrepreneur taking country of destination. Two examples illustrate our previous part in the feed chain shows responsibility experiences. The first one is the contamina- for the safety of the marketed products, and tion of Brazilian citrus pulp (a by-product puts proper control measures in place. This of the fruit processing industry) with dioxin will prevent or, in case control measures fail crucial lesson the past has taught us is the need to realise feed safety control across the whole supply chain.The GMP+ Feed Safety Assurance certification began in the Netherlands in 1992, initially only to help oversee the production of premixes and compound feeds. Practical experience taught us that the source of contamination was often located in the supply chain.
for whatever reason, reduce the distribution of contaminated batches of feed materials. At the same time, three related requirements were introduced: (a) a proper traceability system, (b) the duty to inform customers in case of contaminated deliveries and (c) the duty to recall delivered batches of contaminated feed products. On top of this set of instruments, we introduced an early warning system. When a case of contaminated feed product is detected, GMP+ International informs all certified companies (while respecting client confidentiality), giving details of the level of contamination, the name of the feed product involved and the country of origin. The alert enables other companies to take action and implement control measures, in case they are sourcing the product concerned from the same place of origin. GMP+ Feed Safety Assurances international coverage, with over 12,400 certified companies in 65 different countries, enables us to act properly in the interest of all links in the feed chain, including livestock and aquatic feed manufacturers, as well as the next links on their respective chains, the livestock and aquaculture producers. These interest groups should make the chain approach a basic condition for all feed supply.
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SHRIMP
Welcome to Expert Topic. Each issue will take an in-depth look at a particular species and how its feed is managed.
EXPERT TOPIC
EXPERT TPIC
Global
EMS Impact on global shrimp industry and future prospects

by Dr Farshad Shishehchian, president and CEO of Blue Aqua International and president-elect of the Asia Pacific Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society he early mortality syndrome (EMS) in shrimp has been ravaging production systems, spreading vertically in Asia and horizontally to countries as far away as Mexico since first reported in 2009. Looking at the impact of EMS on the three largest global shrimp producers Thailand, Vietnam and China - there have been substantial effects on supply and prices to the global shrimp market. "Thailand used to be the largest shrimp exporter with over 500,000 metric tonnes of shrimp production. "In 2013, its production fell almost 50 percent from the previous year because of EMS. This offers a window of opportunity for other potential shrimp producers such as Indonesia, India and Ecuador. Indonesia farmers have experienced the highest profit record in their shrimp history as a result. "Culture expansion is putting in full force during this lucrative period. India is another
potential producer to keep an eye on. Since the permission of vannamei culture a few years back, India increased its shrimp production by more than two fold last year. Ecuador is pushing with much higher production in the past two years." In conclusion, and due to the impact of EMS, Dr Shishehchia says shrimp Dr Farshad Shishehchian President and CEO of Blue prices will continue their Aqua International and President-elect of the Asia high level for some time Pacific Chapter of the World Aquaculture Society because of the insufficient (right) with Tuti Tan of International Aquafeed supply. magazine, Roger Gilbert President of Association "This is likely to conof Sdeafood Professionals and publisher of IAF and Nun Chongwitookit, Marketing Communications tinue until Thailand, the at Blue Aqua International during the APA13 worlds leading shrimp exhibition in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam in exporter and most techDecember 2013 nologically advanced producer, gets into recovery mode and creates a shift in supply and prices." corporation with International Aquafeed However, the long-term impact will be and the Association of International consolidation and integration of shrimp farms. Seafood Professionals is organising a EMS The current disease situation and environ- Forum: 'Managing the Shrimp Epidemic' in ment will push for consolidation in the mar- terms of bringing practical solutions to the ket. Small farms without aquaculture practice shrimp industry. The forum will be held on standards and sufficient funds will be driven March 28-29, 2014 at KU Home, Kasetsart out of the business. Those large farms with University, Bangkok, Thailand. This event strong finance, good farm management, low is supported by Department Fisheries of cost, high access to markets will be the future Thailand, Department Fisheries of Indonesia, of the shrimp industry, he adds. Shrimp Club of Indonesia (SCI) and Blue Aqua International. Participants are expected from India, Vietnam, Malaysia and Mexico in addiEMS Forum Asian Aquaculture Network (AAN), in tion to Indonesia and Thailand.
2
EXPERT TPIC
Biofloc systems
Using super-intensive biofloc systems for Pacific white shrimp production
by Tzachi Samocha, Terryl Hanson, Timothy Morris, Vitalina Magalhes, Bob Advent and Andr Braga, Texas A&M AgriLife Research Mariculture Lab, Flour Bluff, Texas, USA he demand for protein by an increasing world population together with decreasing harvests from fisheries has resulted in rapid growth of aquaculture. Global aquaculture currently accounts for 40 percent of seafood production and provides 60 percent of shrimp demand.The world shrimp farming industrys annual growth over the last decade has been estimated at 10 percent. The rapid expansion of this industry has stimulated the intensification of production systems, which has unfortunately resulted in the release of nutrients and organic waste, and sometimes the spread of diseases, all damaging receiving streams. Uncontrolled growth has imposed heavy losses, and raised major criticisms that threaten further development of the industry. To reduce losses to disease outbreaks, producers have been looking for more sustainable and cost-effective practices.
Despite the world trend in favour of aquaculture, in the United States the sector has shown no substantial growth. The country thus remains a net seafood importer, with annual shrimp imports of 1.2 billion lbs worth $4.5 billion. New approaches must Table 3. Combined mean production values from two grow-out studies conducted in 2011 with juveniles Litopenaeus vannamei from Fast-Growth (a) and Taura resistant lines (b) in the 40 m3 and be devised if US shrimp farming is to avoid the 100 m3 raceways. the environmental drawbacks of traditional flow-through ponds. US systems must have Salinity Initial Final Growth Sur. Yield System Density Days FCR N (ppt) Wt. (g) Wt. (g) (g/wk) (%) (kg/m3) Volume (shrimp/m3) a very low impact on the environment and fully contain rather than export any water quality or disease problems that 500a 18 1.9 23.2 82 1.82 82.3 9.5 1.43 40 m3 4 arise. One approach is to shift from low3 40 m 1 500a 30 1.4 25.1 85 1.95 78.9 9.9 1.44 intensity outdoor ponds to super-intensive 3 100 m 2 390b 30 3.1 25.3 106 1.46 83.0 8.4 1.77 indoor recirculating aquaculture systems
(RAS). With little or even Table 1. Litopenaeus vannamei performance in a 92-d growno water exchange, properly out trial in four 40 m3 RWs stocked with juveniles (1.2 g) at a density of 530/m3 and operated with no water exchange managed RAS thus reduces or eliminates the amount of Water Use Sur. Wt Growth Yield nutrients released to the enviFCR (L/kg ID 3 (g) (g/wk) (kg/m ) (%) Shrimp) ronment, escape of non-native culture species, and spread ST 18.45a 1.27 8.96 84.4 1.28 148 of pathogens to the environment. Because of these factors FF 17.35b 1.26 8.24 80.2 1.35 149 they easily conform to effluent standards set by the national * Values with different superscript letters indicate stat regulator. Biofloc technology (BFT) Table 2. Summary of a 108-d grow-out study performed in systems are a special type of 2009 with juveniles (0.99 g) Litopenaeus vannamei stocked at RAS that maintain a commu450/m3 under no water exchange nity of suspended (flocculated) Av. O2 Growth Survival Yield microalgae and autotrophic Usage Wt. Tank ID FCR and heterotrophic bacteria (LPM)* (g) (g/wk) (%) (kg/m3) (biofloc) together with the shrimp in limited-exchange RW (ST) 21.88 1.37 94.5 9.43 1.58 0.17 grow-out units. Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannaRW (FF) 22.45 1.37 96.6 9.63 1.55 0.27 mei) growth rates are much higher in BFT systems than in clear-water systems, and higher still at costs in shrimp production, accounting for greater floc levels. The composition of the over 50 percent of the total production costs, biofloc affects nutrient cycling. Heterotrophs it can significantly affect profitability. The and autotrophs are preferred in floc systems interactions between feed, water quality and because they provide two very important productivity have been evaluated in relation services: they assimilate ammonia and nitrite to the characteristics of each culture system (both highly deleterious to shrimp), and act as resulting in the development of specially a supplemental feed. designed feeds to enhance shrimp performance in each system. The effects of commercial feeds on water Biofloc success: a water quality and shrimp performance are important quality issue? Feed and feeding practices are important factors affecting feed formulations. The end factors affecting water quality and profit- product of feed catabolism is ammonia, which ability of any aquaculture operation, moreso can be toxic to shrimp. Ebeling et al. describe when dealing with hyper-intensive, biofloc- three pathways for ammonia removal in tradidominated systems. As mentioned above, tional aquaculture systems: photoautotrophic, shrimp can derive nutritional benefits from the autotrophic and heterotrophic. The dominant microbial aggregates in BFT systems. Studies in of these pathways in BFT systems can be our lab also showed good shrimp growth (2.4 affected by biotic and abiotic factors. With an adequate supply of organic g per week) and survival (96.8 percent) when 5 percent of the fishmeal in a 35 percent carbon, heterotrophic bacteria can quickly crude protein diet was replaced with biofloc. convert (in around 8 hours) all available However, this replacement resulted in a ammonia into bacterial biomass, a process reduction in shrimp growth (0.4 g per week) which requires a large amount of oxygen and compared to the control diet with no fishmeal the generation of high volume of bacterial replacement. Analysis of the biofloc produced biomass. On the other hand, when organic in our system suggested low protein (20.4 carbon is provided solely from feed, any percent), low fat (0.29 percent) and high ash ammonia not consumed by the heterotrophic bacteria will be slowly converted into nitrate (43.4 percent) content. Because feed represents one of the major by autotrophic bacteria. This nitrification proc-
EXPERT TPIC
Figure 1: Ammonia-N (100 m3 RWs)
Figure 2: NO2-N (100 m3 RWs)
Figure 3: NO3-N
(100 m3 RWs)
Figure 4: Alkalinity (100 m3 RWs) ess, which consumes alkalinity as an inorganic carbon source, requires far less oxygen and produces around 40 times less bacterial biomass than the heterotrophic pathway. When operating biofloc systems under low light intensity with restricted organic carbon supply, autotrophic and heterotrophic bacteria will dominate the microbial populations. These mixotrophic systems require careful monitoring and control of selected water quality to maximise production.
Figure 5: Turbidity (100 m3 RWs)
Figure 6: TSS (100 m3 RWs)
Figure 7: VSS (100 m3 RWs)
Figure 8: SS (100 m3 RWs)
2007-2011: early studies

In recent years, studies at the Texas A&M AgriLife Research Mariculture Lab have focused on the use of a commercial feed made by Zeigler Bros. (HI-35, Zeigler Bros., Gardners, PA) formulated for use in highdensity, biofloc-dominated no-exchange systems for the production of market-size L. vannamei. These studies were conducted in four to six greenhouse-enclosed 40 m3/68.5 m2 raceways. Each lined raceway is equipped with a centre longitudinal partition positioned over a 5.1 cm PVC pipe with spray nozzles. Every tank had six banks of three 5.1 cm airlift pumps positioned equidistantly on each side
of the partition. In addition, each raceway had six 0.91 cm long air diffusers, a 2 hp centrifugal pump, and a Venturi injector capable of introducing atmospheric air or a mixture of oxygen and air. The following is a short summary of the progress made in operating this system over the last six years. The 2007 study was conducted in four of the raceways described above, which were equipped with the YSI 5200 inline dissolved oxygen monitoring system. The tanks were stocked to a density of 530/m3 with 1.2 g juveniles using water from a 77-day nursery trial. The study compared two methods of biofloc control: homemade foam fractionators
and settling tanks. Shrimp were fed on the HI-35 feed mentioned above. Until Day 73 (estimated 7 kg shrimp/m3), oxygen demand was met solely by the Venturi injector and atmospheric air. From Day 74 on, atmospheric air was enriched with pure oxygen. The dissolved oxygen monitoring system was instrumental in managing feed and preventing low oxygen events. All shrimp submitted for disease diagnosis showed no signs of viral infections. The results from this trial are summarized in Table 1. In 2009 a second study was conducted to determine whether or not smaller commercial foam fractionators (in the case, Aquatic Eco
A two-day VietFish Conference Fishfarm Management & Fish Marketing - August 7 & 8, 2014
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Vietnam, with its population base of 90 million people, produces for domestic markets and export markets US$6.7 billion of farmed sh products. Of its exports 21 percent goes to the EU, 19 percent to the USA and 16 percent to Japan. Currently, Vietnam exports 40 percent of its shrimp production and 30 percent of its Pangasius. Vietnam is aiming at achieving food security in sh by 2020. The industry faces challenges in the area of disease, production costs, meeting market requirements, nancial resources and value chain developments. This conference aims to address several of these issues for producers and marketers.
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EXPERT TPIC Systems VL65 fractionator) could be used to minimise the differences in shrimp final weights observed in the 2007 study. The 108day study was conducted in the same four 40 m3 raceway tanks equipped with the previously described YSI 5200 dissolved oxygen monitoring system. Raceways were filled with water from a preceding 62-day nursery study, and stocked to a density of 450/m3 with 0.99 g juveniles. Freshwater was added weekly to offset water losses. Shrimp were fed the same HI-35 feed mentioned earlier. Settling tanks and the foam fractionators were operated intermittently, targeting total suspended solids concentrations between 400 and 600 mg/L. The results showed no significant differences in shrimp final weights between the raceways operated with settling tanks and those operated with foam fractionators. Furthermore, no statistically significant differences were found in shrimp performance between treatments (see Table 2). In an effort to reduce production costs (e.g. the use of pure oxygen and electricity) the lab began to test non-Venturi injectors for aeration and mixing in two 100 m3 raceways under biofloc conditions. These injectors (a3, All Aqua Aeration) are currently used in several wastewater treatment facilities in the United States and require little maintenance compared to other aeration and oxygenation methods. This technology may be successfully transferred to biofloc and other types of aquaculture systems. Based on the manufacturers specifications, the injector provides a 3:1 air-to-water ratio, compared with the <1:1 capacity of our Venturi-driven system, which requires the use of pure oxygen to maintain desired dissolved oxygen levels at high biomass loading Table 4. Summary of mean final weight, weekly growth, yield, survival, (> 6 kg/m3). Each FCR, and water usage from a 67-d grow-out study of Litopenaeus tank was equipped vannamei in 40 m3 greenhouse-enclosed raceways operated with no water exchange. with 14 injectors, and one injector Yield Survival Av. Wt. Growth Water Use powering a homeFeed FCR made foam frac(kg/m3) (%) (g) (g/wk) (L/kg shrimp) tionator for biofloc control. Raceways HI-351 9.74 87.3% 22.12 2.03 1.25 124.7 were stocked to a density of 270/m3 SI-352 8.71 88.3% 19.74 1.76 1.43 138.3 with 8.5 g juveniles Diff 1.03 2.38 0.27 0.18 13.6 and were fed the Zeigler Bros. HI-35 1RWs where shrimp were fed the HI-35 Zeigler Bros. feed 2RWs where shrimp were fed the SI-35 Zeigler Bros. feed feed. At the end of the 87 days of the 2010 trial, a yield of 6.4 kg/m3 Table 5. Summary of Litopenaeus vannamei) performance following a was obtained from 63-d grow-out period in two 100 m3 raceways using the a3 injectors for mixing and aeration. marketable shrimp (26.1 g), with 90.1 Stocking Harvest Growth Survival Yield Water percent survival RW FCR Use rate and a feed (Juveniles (g) (g) (g/wk) (%) (kg/m3) (L/1 kg) /m3) conversion ratio of 2.46. The trial in 2011 1 500 3.6 22.76 2.13 80.82 9.20 1.43 139.5 was conducted in five of the 40 2 500 3.6 22.67 2.12 78.19 8.86 1.53 148.9 m3 raceway tanks Average 22.72 2.12 79.50 9.03 1.48 144.2 described above, filled with a mixture of seawater and biofloc-rich water previously throughout the 106-day duration of the study. used in a 42-day nursery trial. Salinity in four of The results are summarised in Table 4. the tanks was adjusted to 18 parts per thousand using chlorinated municipal freshwater. 2012: trials point to Raceways were stocked to a density of 500 commercial viability shrimp/m3 with 1.90 g juveniles. For compariThe studies in 2012 used both systems for son, a fifth tank was operated with salinity of the production of marketable shrimp. The first 30 parts per thousand, and stocked with 1.40 study was conducted in six 40 m3 raceways g juveniles stocked at a density of 500/ and had four objectives: m3. All raceways were stocked with 1. Evaluate the effect of two commercial Table 6. Summary of production and sales for feeds on juvenile shrimp produced shrimp from a Fast-Growth line providsuper-intensive biofloc dominated no exchange from a cross between Fast-Growth and ed by the Oceanic Institute, Makapuu shrimp production systems comparing the results from the 2011 trial to the 2012 trials. Taura-Resistant lines Point, Hawaii. Shrimp were fed the 2. Monitor the changes in selected water same HI-35 feed as in previous studies. HI-35 SI-35 HI-35 quality indicators under no exchange The raceways were operated with no 100 Treatment 2011 40 m3 40 m3 m3 3. Monitor L. vannamei performance under water exchange throughout the study. high density and no exchange Results from this study showed high 4. Evaluate the benefit of using the YSI yields of food size shrimp, with good Stocking density 500 500 500 500 5500 continuous dissolved oxygen growth, survival and FCR (see Table 3). (Juvenile/m3) 0% 0% 0% monitoring system with optical probe The second 2011 trial was conductSurvival rate 87.3 88.2 79.5 81.6 in operating a biofloc-dominated, supered in the two 100 m3 EPDM rubber(%) +7.0% +8.1% -2.6% intensive shrimp production system lined raceways, each filled with a mixGrowth rate 2.03 1.76 2.13 1.85 The second study took place in the two 100 ture of seawater, municipal chlorinated (g/wk) +9.7% -4.9% +15.1% freshwater, and biofloc-rich water from m3 raceway tanks and had three objectives: Stocking size 2.7 2.7 3.6 a previous nursery study. The tanks 1. Evaluate the performance of the same 1.8 (g) +50% +50% +100% were stocked with 390 shrimp per juvenile shrimp used in the previous Harvest size 22.3 19.8 22.7 3 m study under the same stocking den, with Taura-resistant L. vannamei 23.6 (g) -5.5% -16.1% -3.8% sity when fed the HI-35 feed under no juveniles (1.90 g) supplied by Shrimp 1.25 1.43 1.48 exchange Improvement System, Florida. Shrimp FCR 1.43 -12.6% 0% +3.5% 2. Further evaluate the ability of the a3 were fed the same HI-35 feed used Crop length 67 67 63 in previous studies. Raceways were injectors to maintain adequate mix83 (days) -19.3% -19.3% -24.1% equipped with the YSI 5200 dissolved ing and dissolved oxygen levels in a 9.74 8.71 9.03 Production oxygen monitoring systems and were high-density, biofloc-dominated, zero9.58 +1.7% -9.1% -5.7% (kg/m3) maintained with no water exchange exchange conditions
EXPERT TPIC 3. Evaluate the benefit of using the YSI 5200 continuous dissolved oxygen monitoring system in operating the system We also aimed at reducing FCRs below the values achieved in the previous trials, primarily through continuous feeding. The six 40 m3 raceway tanks were filled with a mixture of water used in a preceding 49-day nursery study, seawater and municipal freshwater to reach a salinity of 30 parts per thousand. Each tank was equipped with a small commercial foam fractionator and a homemade settling tank. Shrimp used in this study were produced from a cross between Taura-resistant and Fast-Growth genetic lines developed by Shrimp Improvement Systems. Raceways were stocked with 2.66 g juveniles at a density of 500 shrimp/m3. The study was performed with three replicates using a semiintensive feed (SI-35) which had 35 percent crude protein, 7 percent lipid and 4 percent fibre, and a hyper-intensive feed (HI-35) with 35 percent crude protein, 7 percent lipid and only 2 percent fibre, both produced by Zeigler Bros. The raceway tanks were maintained with no exchange throughout the study and freshwater was added to compensate for water losses. Oxygen supplementation was initiated on Day 17 and continued until termination. The YSI 5500 monitors and their optical probes allowed trouble-free, real-time oxygen supplementation Table 7. Summary of production and sales for the extrapolated commercial while avoidscale super-intensive biofloc dominated no exchange shrimp production ing excess use. operation, with 2011 trial results compared to three 2012 trials. Concentrations HI-35 40 SI-35 40 HI-35 100 of total ammo2011 m3 m3 m3 nia-nitrogen remained Production, kg/crop 38,320 38,960 34,840 36,120 below 0.5 mg/L throughout the Crops per year 4.4 5.5 5.5 5.8 study, while Production, kg/year 168,608 214,280 191,620 209,496 NO 2-N level Production MT/year 169 214 192 209 remained below 1.22 mg/L with Selling price, $/kg 7.20 7.20 7.20 7.20 no significant Total Sales per year, $ 1,213,978 1,542,816 1,379,664 1,508,371 differences between treatments. While solids were controlled by the final weights, yields, growth, and FCR for the use of the foam fractionators and settling shrimp fed with the HI-35 feed. This study tanks, levels of total suspended solids, turbid- showed that market-size shrimp can be proity and volatile suspended solids levels in the duced with no water exchange, and although SI treatment remained significantly higher the cost difference between the HI and SI than the HI treatment. These results may be feeds was significant ($1.75/kg vs. $0.99/kg), a related to the higher levels of non-digestible preliminary profitability analysis indicates that components in the SI-35 feed fibre and ash. both feeds would be commercially viable with Oxygen use for the HI treatment was 21 the profit advantage in favor of the HI feed. The second trial lasted 63 days and was percent lower compared to the SI treatment and the volume of water used to produce conducted in the two 100 m3 raceway tanks 1 kg of shrimp was slightly lower for the HI described earlier. The tanks were initially treatment than the SI. filled with a mixture of seawater, municipal Analyses of shrimp performance based chlorinated freshwater, and biofloc-rich water on harvest data (see Table 4) showed no from a previous nursery study. Whereas the differences in survival rate, but better mean juvenile shrimp (3.14 g) in the 2011 study
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Table 8. Summary enterprise budgets for the super-intensive biofloc dominated no exchange shrimp production systems comparing the best 2011 trial with the three 2012 trials, in $/kg. 2011 HI-35 40 m3
Gross Receipts Variable Costs Income Above Variable Cost Fixed Cost Total of All Specified Expenses Net Returns Above All Costs Payback period, years Net present value ($ mil.) Internal Rate of Return (%)
7.20 5.38 1.82 0.59 5.97 1.23 2.9 1.0 31.3
7.20 4.06 3.14 0.47 4.53 2.67 1.4 2.9 66.6
were of a Taura-Resistant strain and stocked at 390 juveniles per m3, the shrimp (3.60 g) used in the current study were a cross produced from Taura-resistant and Fast-Growth genetic lines, stocked at a density of 500 per m3. The shrimp were fed a HI-35 feed using four 24-hour belt feeders for each raceway. The tanks were maintained with no water exchange and freshwater was added weekly to maintain salinity and compensate for evaporative losses. Mean water temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH levels were 29.6 C, 29.3 ppt, 5.5 mg/L, and 7.1 respectively. Total ammonia nitrogen and NO2-N remained low throughout the study, <0.6 mg/L and <1.5 mg/L respectively, while NO3-N increased from 67 mg/L at stocking to an average of 309 mg/L at harvest. Shrimp were harvested using a Magic Valley Heli-Arc mechanical harvester. The study results are summarized in Table 5.
Analysis: promising results point towards production refinements

Production of shrimp in indoor superintensive recirculating systems can produce large quantities of shrimp but can have high initial investment and operating costs. Economic analyses of the 2012 trials in the two production systems used by the Texas A&M maricul-
ture lab have been very encouraging. Production results for the best trial run in 2011 and the SI-35 HI-35 three trial runs in 2012 40 m3 100 m3 are presented in Table 6. Using production results and extrapolating 7.20 7.20 them into the context 4.54 4.31 of a commercial facility, 2.66 2.89 10-year cash flows and enterprise budgets were 0.53 0.48 developed to provide 5.07 4.79 comparable financial 2.13 2.41 indicators of profitability (cost of production, 1.9 1.6 net return, net present 2.0 2.6 value, internal rate of 50.1 60.6 return, and payback period). For this hypothetical analysis one greenhouse system contains 10 raceway tanks: eight 500 m3/m2 raceways for grow-out, and two 500 m3/m2 raceways for the nursery phase to culture ten-day-old postlarvae to the 2.7 g or 3.6 g juvenile shrimp used in our simulations. Analyses include a fixed cost component covering construction, equipment and machinery costs of around $992,000. Other critical prices and costs include shrimp selling price ($7.20/ kg), feed cost ($1.75 and $0.99/kg), juvenile production costs ($20 per thousand), and an interest rate of 8 percent for operating, equipment and construction loans. The economic questions to be answered by this analysis are: Whether the production results are financially positive, given that one feed is much more expensive than the other feed Whether progress was made between the 2011 and 2012 trials in improving the profitability of these super-intensive, recirculating, biofloc shrimp production systems Table 6 summarises the production and sales for the 2011 trial compared to 2012 trials. Table 8 summarises the enterprise budget based on 2011 and 2012 results, and indicates a positive net return per kilo of shrimp
produced. The three 2012 trials had lower variable production costs than the 2011 trials variable cost. Likewise, the payback period was less for these same trials than for the 2011 trial. All NPVs were two to nearly three times greater than the 2011 trial, and the IRR for the 2012 trials were much higher than the ROI for the 2011 trial. Thus, the answers to the two economic questions posed earlier, are: The more expensive HI-35 feed financially outperformed the lower-priced SI-35 in the 40 m3 and 100 m3 trials The improvements on the 2011 trials made for 2012 resulted in a much better financial performance Now, the old adage if it looks too good to be true, it probably is may be at work here. The highly favourable financial results from the 2012 trials need to be accepted with care as a couple of major assumptions are being used in this type of analysis. First, the model assumes there is a readily available year-round ten-dayold postlarvae supply (which may be difficult to achieve in the continental United States), and secondly, research trials using these systems have yet to actually conduct back-toback-to-back production cycles. Water re-use issues should also be taken into account (e.g. for how many production cycles the same water can be used until complete replacement or major polishing is needed to maintain balanced ionic composition). Also, the energy use to produce 1 kg of shrimp in each system will have to be evaluated to determine which system is more economically viable. Although one research crop per year is an accomplishment, to actually produce 5.8 crops per year (the result for the HI-35 100 m3 trial) with the same high level of output is much more difficult to achieve. These caveats are large and need to be addressed. However, in the meantime the financial analyses conducted here using a tested bio-economic model, together with current positive research results, can help researchers focus their efforts on the factors where improvement will provide the most return, helping to sharpen the competitiveness of these intensive biofloc shrimp systems.
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EXPERT TPIC
Shrimp farming in greenhouses:

a profitable model to culture Penaeus vannamei in China
by Ju Peng, Dong Qiufen, Zhang Song, Yang Yong, Guangzhou Hinter Biotechnology, Guangdong, China
hrimp farming in China has made great progress since the turn of the millennium. From marine areas to fresh water, from south to north, from east to west even in the highlands of Xinjiang province the important and popular vannamei (whiteleg shrimp) has seen production increase from 848,400 tonnes in 2002 to 1.3 million tonnes in 2012. With its 1.4 billion-strong population, China has still become a net shrimp importer, as local farmers cant meet the domestic demand. Lower shrimp supply means higher shrimp prices in the market, especially during the winter season where temperatures in China are very low, and commercial shrimp cant be farmed with traditional methods in regular ponds. Guangdong is one of the most important provinces for commercial vannamei farming, with total production accounting for more than 55 percent of the national output in 2012.
Within Guangdong, the Pearl River Delta is the traditional aquaculture region, and owing to its superior geographic location, plentiful water supply, relatively high temperatures, skilled farmers and strong aquaculture service infrastructure, it leads the development of shrimp cultivation in China. The marine, brackish and freshwater areas of the Delta allow for a wide variety of shrimp farming models, and in freshwater farming specifically, it acts as a bellweather for practices across the country. Already, techniques developed in the Pearl River Delta have been applied to other inland river areas of China. However, the progress of shrimp farming in the area has been beset with problems in the past decade of growth, including degener-
the offending diseases are directly or indirectly caused by new trends in rainfall, wind and temperature, which implicates climate change as another threat to shrimp farmers profits and livelihoods.
Greenhouses: a departure from the usual model

So, how to keep winter shrimp farming delivering high survival rates and good returns on investment? To achieve this dream, the hard work of farmers and feed enterprises has pointed to a new way of shrimp cultivation in the Pearl River Delta. More and more farmers are doing their winter vannamei farming in greenhouses. The facilities, which are also known as winter-houses, white-houses or
Table 1: Materials and specifications for greenhouse construction Material Specification
Wood column Main column: 6m/pc, side column:14m/pc, side piling: 1m/pc, beams: 4m/pc Plastic film Thickness: 0.7~0.8mm Steel rope Diameter: 0.240.26cm, 7 pieces of steel wire tightened Iron wire 12#(to bind woods)/14#(to bind bamboos)/18#(to fix steel ropes) Miscellaneous Sand bags, bamboo canes, nails, steel rope puller, pliers, heavy hammers, etc.
ation of seeds, over-intensive and unscientific farming practices, the increasing cost of feed and land, the threat of disease, and the fluctuating market price for commercial shrimp. In the past two years, Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) has hit the Chinese shrimp industry hard, and 2013s bad shrimp broodstock and post-larvae quality has exacerbated the situation. Because of Chinas clearly defined four seasons, some of the poor success rate for shrimp farming should also be attributed to climate change. New research indicates that
warm-houses, are mainly constructed with plastic film and wooden columns, which has so far proved the most effective way to improve operational performance. The main difference between the new greenhouse technique and traditional cultivation systems lies in temperature control. Normally the suitable temperature for vannamei shrimp is between 15 and 34 C, and water temperature should be between 28 and 32 C. At water temperatures below 18 C, shrimp stop their feed intake
Figure 1: Working procedure for greenhouse construction Main columns planting Side columns planting Side pilings plantings Beams fixing Bottom steel ropes pulling Plastc film laying Fixing steel ropes for film covering
EXPERT TPIC Figure 2: Outline of a greenhouse greenhouse-reared shrimp will be smaller, albeit bringing better prices. Greenhouse shrimp are always harvested in the spring or early summer, when there are very few shrimp on the market. For this reason, successful greenhouses can command high prices and make good profits. Shrimp of 120140 pcs/kg, for instance, will cost around 14 yuan/kg. Another obvious difference from the usual model is the longer cultivation period: the first harvest begins more than 90 days into the total period of 120180 days. Finally, the total cost of shrimp grown with this method is typically 46 yuan/kg higher.
Building a shrimp greenhouse

A high quality greenhouse requires a high wind loading rating, good heat conservation and reasonable costs. These requirements determine the materials and working procedure used for construction. Essential materials are listed in Table 1. After preparation of the materials, construction proceeds according to Figure 1. Figure 3: Birds eye view of a greenhouse
Technical points for farm management

and are in danger of freezing to death. In the winter, the temperature at the Pearl River Delta is commonly between 10 and 25 C, and regularly below 18 C at night. Outside of greenhouses, where water temperature is generally between 18 and 28 C, vannamei therefore cant be grown naturally. The post-larvae stocking density is higher in greenhouses than regular farms, requiring a higher level of dissolved oxygen as well as greater investment. Moreover, the harvest of Pond conditions: A rectangular or square pond, far away from high voltage power lines, with south-north orientation and an area of 0.530.8 ha is most suitable for health vannamei growth. Meanwhile, sufficient supply of river and salt water should be guaranteed. It is also better
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EXPERT TPIC for the shrimp if the pond bottom is neutral or alkaline, containing silt or mixed sand and mud. Aeration: Impeller and waterwheel aerators are usually applied together in shrimp ponds, and the power configuration is around 1.5 kW/mu. Generally, from the 010 day period, one set of aerators is required to run all day. After 10 days an additional set is needed for nighttime until day 20. From days 2040, two sets are required during the day and three sets at night. Between days 40 and 60 this increases further to three and four aerators respectively, and after that, the units should be kept running all day. However, aerator usage is dependent on weather conditions and the level of dissolved Figure 4: Main columns Figure 5: Side columns oxygen in the water. For this reason, operators should be flexible when it comes to deploying them. Sometimes oxygenation is needed for high shrimp densities or for rainy nights, or to remedy high nitrite levels or poor water quality. Ventilation: In early winter water temperature Figure 6: Greenhouse is higher than air temperaFigure 7: Side pilings beams ture. Because of this, the greenhouse should not be totally enclosed with Table 2: Cost analyses of shrimp culturing in greenhouse in Pearl film, and air inlets and River Delta outlets should be made for air circulation. If during Pond information the course of cultivation 8mu/pond (0.53ha/pond), water depth is 0.8m, Area/Depth 5 aerators the water temperature Culturing period Nov. 1, 2011Apr. 2, 2012, 150days in total reaches 2425 C, and 400,000PL with 1cm body length. greenhouse air temperaPost Larvae 16.8yuan/1000PL (USD2.75/1000PL) ture reaches 2830 C, Output the air inlets and outlets Average size Production Farm gate price Sales Volume should be opened or the film covering should be 40yuan/kg 118,000yuan dispensed with altogether. 100pcs/kg 2,950kg (USD6.56/kg) (USD19,344) This ensures good ventilaFarming analysis tion and dissolved oxygen 1. High quality feed for Vannamei with FCR 1.3 levels by improving aera2. Feed cost: 1.3*8yuan/kg=10.4yuan/kg. tor function.
Post larvae: 2.28yuan/kg (USD0.37/kg). Labor: 4yuan/kg (USD0.66/kg). Water and electricity fee: 3yuan/kg (USD0.49/kg). Animal protection cost: 1.6yuan/kg (USD0.26/kg). Pond rent: 1400yuan/mu*12months, 1.58yuan/kg (USD0.26/ kg). Greenhouse construction cost: 3000yuan/mu*5years, 1.63yuan/ kg (USD0.27/kg). Plastic film cost: 1000yuan/mu, 2.71yuan/kg (USD0.44/kg). Other depreciation expense: 10000yuan/8mu, 3.39yuan/kg (USD0.56/kg). The total cost is about 30.59yuan/kg (USD5.01/kg). The net profit is round 9.41yuan/kg (USD1.54/kg). 3. Shrimp size could reach 100pcs/kg in 150days with a survival rate of 73.75%. 4. The average production is 368.75kg/mu (0.55kg/m2 or 5,531.25kg/ha). 5. The net profit is 9.41yuan/kg*368.75kg/mu=3469.94yuan/ mu (USD 8,532.64/ha), the total net profit for 8mu (0.53ha) is 27,759.5yuan (USD4550.74).
effective tool for partial harvest in greenhouses, as they do little damage to the ponds themselves. The cages are set up as follows: a loop of dragon-shaped cage is laid 2 metres away from the pond sides and feed is spread within its limits. After half an hour the cage is collected, taking with it a maximum harvest of around 50 kilos per cage, although yields of 1525 kilos are more usual. The second application of the cage generally gains 1020 percent of the initial catch. Partial harvest is the usual way to gather greenhouse-cultivated shrimp. A common way of scheduling batches is as follows: First harvest after 5060 days, yield 7501,500 kg/ha Second harvest after 6070 days, yield 1,5002,250 kg/ha Final harvest after 7080 days, either with electronic net or continuing partial harvest method Cost: The cost of modifying a common pond is higher owing to structural materials and labour. However, initial investment is greatly offset by the high price fetched by shrimp in winter, when supply from traditional farms is low.
Conclusion: environmental factors key to success

Compared with usual shrimp farming habitats, with winter greenhouse farming a shrimp pond can yield three crops in a year, making greenhouses an attractive option for farmers trying to maintain year-round cashflow. The ponds are fully utilised and production is consequently increased. These advantages do not take into account the great boost to profits delivered by harvesting before or after the shrimp sales peak. Moreover, greenhouses can effectively protect shrimp from rainfall, reducing morbidity and improving product quality. With the success seen in South China, the greenhouse model has been accepted in several shrimp farming areas in East China, Jiangsu, Shanghai and Zhejiang. Farmers in those areas build the greenhouse in early spring, and stock their ponds with shrimp post-larvae from February, three months earlier than the traditional method. As a result their shrimp can usually go to market in June with very attractive prices. The greenhouses used in East China are smaller than in South China for easier management, and with high success rates for shrimp producers, they are becoming more and more popular. Greenhouse cultivation could effectively extend the shrimp farming season into the winter and spring months where water temperatures drop below 18 C, with the associated boost to aquaculture producers profits. However, there are some problems threatening greenhouse farming, the greatest headache of all being low quality shrimp post-larvae.
Film maintenance:
After heavy rain, water can gather on top of the greenhouses plastic film covering. It should be checked periodically and precipitation removed to keep it in good shape. Broken plastic film cant protect the shrimp inside, a particular problem in February when ground heat dissipates before the onset of the rainy season. Harvest: Dragonshaped cages are an
EXPERT TPIC more complicated climate and water quality management. More research is required to ensure stable water quality in the future. The service teams of Guangzhou Hinter Biotechnology and feed cooperatives are engaged in these projects as part of their supply of service and solutions to shrimp farmers. The following points should be noted: Choose high quality post larvae. It seems that some F1 post larvae of the imported bloodstock havent performed well in 2012 and 2013. It is easy to allow oxygenation levels in pond water to drop. Since the greenhouse is covered with a plastic film, a layer of water vapour will form which may affect sunlight shining into the facility. This will weaken the photosynthesis effect within the pond, slowing phytoplankton growth and reducing the input of oxygen to the system. In addition, the plastic film prevents the exchange of air inside and outside the greenhouse, again influencing the volume of dissolved oxygen in the shrimp habitat. Too much water exchange may dramatically influence water temperature. However, when too little water is allowed to enter the pond from outside, a harmful monoculture of algae can develop. Worse still, extreme weather like snowstorms, hail and typhoons can damage or destroy the greenhouse. Water quality tends to be diminished by high levels of ammonia nitrogen and nitrite during the later stages of cultivation. If this is not controlled, shrimp will develop problems at these stages. Try to maintain water quality with prebiotics and probiotics. For food safety reasons, prohibited medicines shouldnt be used. For sustainable development, ensure reasonable amounts of water are being used for shrimp farming, and carry out water treatment for its discharge. Polyculture and mixoculture can make use of some of the waste water.
Case study
Zhongshan
The greenhouse farming model described above has been applied since 2010 by Mr Zheng, a shrimp farmer in Zhongshan in Guangdong province. In 2011, Zheng turned a profit of around 3,500 yuan/mu (US$ 8,500/ha). A detailed breakdown of cost, revenue and profit is given in Table 2. It has been reported that Zheng achieved a better harvest in 2012, producing 11,250 kg/ha of shrimp with a farm gate price of 50 yuan/kg (US$ 8.20/ kg) and a size of 90 pcs/kg. Although plenty of farmers are still sitting on the fence given the required level of investment and technical expertise, some farmers are trying to replicate Zhengs success.
More information:
Ju Peng, Dong Quifen, Dr Zhang Song and Dr Yang Yong are experts in aquaculture health and nutrition from Guangzhou Hinter Biotechnology. As the biggest aquafeed premix supplier in China, Hinter delivers a whole practical solution for mills, helping them produce high quality aquatic feeds. Email: qiufendong@gmail.com
High investment doesnt make the pond any easier to manage, and since the greenhouse model is a new one some farmers struggle to adapt to its demands, which include the longer cultivation period, and day-to-day challenges like higher larvae stocking density, and
Aquaculture - A business perspective

The BioMarine business convention
by Darren Parris, International Aquafeed magazine ioMarine 2013, hosted by Canada, kicked off with hot topics challenging both the panel and the audience. Opening the session for 'Aquaculture Business Perspectives', Steve Armstrong, CEO of Genome Atlantic, spoke about the challenges feeding 9.6 billion by 2050."This is the equivalent of adding a new Halifax every two days in population terms. We have to produce 60 percent more food than ever before on less land and with less fresh water; so what are the road blocks, what needs to be done and how do we mitigate the risks?"Mr Armstrong went on ask the panel to focus on five areas: Key growth Sustainability Growth barriers Balancing supply and demand Social licence Ross Butler, senior vice president at Cooke Aquaculture, Saint John's, New Brunswick, Canada, spoke about his personal perspective, having grown up in St John's Newfoundland and started fishing from the age of seven. He concluded he has been involved in fishing for many years and felt Atlantic Canada had come to an economic crossroads. Mr Butler went on to say, "Commercial fishing has declined, there is no longer a single pork processing plant in Atlantic Canada, the majority of dairy farms have closed and agriculture has consolidated and relocated and 1000s of jobs in Atlantic Canada have been lost."With his business partner Chris, who entered the feed industry in the early
1990s, they are confident with their diverse backgrounds they can combine their feed and fishing knowledge to help grow aquaculture in Atlantic Canada.With fishmeal in feed now often below 20 percent, there is a far greater focus on nutrition in feed. This has been the focus of salmon feed for years, where huge developments have been made; this also goes for sea bass and sea bream, they say. "With the right approach to innovation and science, which integrates into and enhances a diverse ecosystem, we feel sure we can win support for fish farming in the region, says Mr Butler.It was felt that the international community will continue to invest in the scientific approach to fish farming. However, a word of caution was given by Mr Butler: "Growth must go hand-in-hand with an increase in market demand for eating fish globally. "Next to comment was Oyvind Fylling-Jensen, CEO of Nofima, Norway. "Aquaculture and BioMarine is slowly getting its place on the world stage. An additional 23 million tonnes of sea food is required to stay where we are per capita worldwide over the next 20 years. Sixty-seven percent of feed is used for fresh water species which represents 58 percent of total aquaculture production." Of course fish being produced must be palatable to the consumer. This represents massive opportunities for sea aquaculture. We all know fresh water production uses water, as our populations grow fresh clean water is a diminishing resource. Therefore, going forward sea farming is the only sustainable option. Though we still have hurdles to overcome such as the impact of
climate change and demographic change, to name a few". Patrick Lavens, business development & innovations director for INVE Aquaculture, Belgium, suggested that we needed further integration in aquaculture, more vertically operated business where feedmills to hatcheries to fish farms are more seamless.He argued there was a need to keep expertise across all sectors in one vertically integrated model where control, vets, technologists, farmers, nutritionists, etc, are all in place globally. Mr Lavens went on further to explain that combining species together, fish and seaweed and mussel, would meet the challenges of improving the eco-system within which we intend to farm. He urged everyone to form stronger alliances with all groups, biotech, chemical companies with farms and health all with the aim to improve a sustainable growth. Mr Lavens added, "We should look at combining aquaculture with oil sites and energy sites whilst at the same time focusing on the existing species we know most about". He suggested that Asia will remain on top of global aquaculture production and that our focus should be on more stable outputs. Looking for solutions for Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) in shrimp which is still a big problem in Asia and globally. With effective management, better bio-security and improvements in prophylactic treatments we need to focus on reducing the impact on the environment and with integration and consolidation there is a sustainable way forward. Thad Simons, president and CEO of Novus, USA, the last in the panel to speak, started
of by congratulating BioMarine for the sheer diversity of delegates. He went on to explain that Novus produce nutritional supplements in the animal feed industry and that the company fully understood the opportunities and challenges ahead of it. Having grown its business within the poultry industry, Thad spoke about the many countries that have modernised their feed industries including dairy, beef and pork and even petfood and human nutrition." One of the most significant challenge for growth in aquaculture is that of social acceptance of aquaculture, the challenge going forward is, 'How do we make people understand the environmental issues, health issues, protein issues and sustainability issues?'. "Novus is dedicated to researching feeding solutions, as we move to a vegetation diet not dissimilar to poultry feed, which we have historically used, we find ourselves working closely with a developing industry as it develops. And we have to earn our social licence."In the issue of earning 'social licence', Mr Butler raised the requirement for a globally accepted third-party certification and third-party audit system. There needs to be legislation on how these are monitored and measured with the goal always of improving our systems, he added. Salmon, where only a small segment of the world could afford its products, on its own as a species is not going to solve world hunger. Also, it was strongly suggested that we need to look at other environmental issues affecting the oceans, such as waste reduction, water use, effluent reduction, plastics, all of which leave a measurable footprint.Mr Fylling-Jensen, fol-
lowed this up by talking about the challenges on finances in aquaculture, and where in the industrialised world we are only focused on a few species this is not the case in developing worlds. Here there is a different approach, they have a lack of knowledge, lack of infrastructure and lack of training. We must first answer three basic questions. 1) What do you farm? 2) Where do you farm? and 3) How do you farm? It is our job to bring technology to the developing countries, as you cannot just burn forests and dig ponds as this is not healthy.Mr Lavens expanded these thoughts by adding that there is a real challenge of reducing costs, which involves integration that allows you to work with expertise; in disease management, breeding technology, functional diets and environmental control. However, will there still be room for the small players? Mr Lavens thinks yes, when he went on to explain that smaller players can join co-operatives and still benefit from expertise. Mr Simons raised the concern of talent in aquaculture, which he referred to as talent sustainability. He argued, Agriculture in general is not seen as an attractive job to work in. I have seen this all over the world, every single country has the same dilemma trying to attract new staff into aquaculture. We need to build a value chain, where we can show young people that there are many exciting careers in aquaculture In addition to this Mr Simons highlighted the need to improve the link between the consumer, farmer, nutritionist and back to the consumer. A major obstacle to growth
was the consumer and he rightly pointed out that they were not represented at BioMarine. Furthermore, the industry needs to involve its media friends more to further spread the word and enlighten the public to the positive things happening in aquaculture. The industry has to be more efficient and embrace working with small companies. It was felt that two areas for greater international co-operation were in conferences and sharing research; problems of course need solutions for everyone to move forward with science. And lastly, Mr Simons spoke about the real need for local and national governments to support the industry. Implementing globally accepted legislations and regulations will drive productivity. There are huge marketing opportunities globally, where everyone can develop markets together with huge opportunities in Africa and the Far East. In conclusion the group agreed that it was critically important for the industry that there was a better alignment with government, and that the government was operating from a strong regulatory position as opposed to the current unpredictability and shifting focus. Government need to see objective results and businesses need to see new data and information and work together. Mr Simons closed the session with his final thoughts: How do we use the professional management we have learnt over the years to improve and mitigate risks? We must have a strong focus on feed management, training and husbandry. We must respond rapidly and work together when problems arise.
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EMS Forum: Managing the Shrimp Epidemic, Bangkok, Thailand Contact: Asian Aquaculture Network Tel: +66 0 2192 17878 ext. 29 Email: info@asianaquaculturenetwork.com Web: www.asianaquaculturenetwork.com VIV Europe, Utrecht, the Netherlands Contact: Ruwan Berculo Tel: +31 3029 52879 Email: viv.europe@vnuexhibitions.com Web: www.viv.net
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GRAPAS Conference (held in conjunction with Victam Asia), Bangkok, Thailand Contact: Andy West Tel: +44 0173 776 3501 Email: andrew.west733@ntlworld.com Web: www.victam.com XVI International Symposium on Fish Nutrition and Feeding, Queensland, Australia Contact: Dr Brett Glencross Tel: +61 7 3833 5926 Email: brett.glencross@csiro.au Web: www.isfnf2014.org/index.php
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INDUSTRY Events
IFFO
T
he International Fishmeal and Fish Oil Organisation welcomes a joint announcement from leading aquaculture agencies on common requirements for marine ingredients sourcing, in a statement released late last year. Traceability and a moratorium on fishmeal and fish oil derived from endangered species were top of the organisations common agenda released in November 2013. This move to harmonise feed requirements between certification schemes is another step in helping aquaculture buyers seek responsibly sourced products, said an IFFO spokesperson. Three of the worlds leading organisations for maintaining sustainability standards in aquaculture, the Global Aquaculture Alliance , Global G.A.P. and the Aquaculture Stewardship Council, signed a memorandum of understanding in April 2013 to coordinate effor ts in promoting their respective programmes. All three agencies agreed a common requirement for marine ingredients to be traceable to species and country of origin, free of species on the International Union for Conserving Natures red list of endangered species, avoidance of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing, and a preference for feed manufacturers which make publically available evidence of their responsible sourcing of fish oil and fishmeal. Further harmonisation was made between Global G.A.P. and the GAAs Best Aquaculture Practices standards in the requirement for
welcomes sustainability commitment

fish farmers to have a clear, written plan for responsible sourcing and for assurance that marine ingredients should be free of biological or chemical contaminants including pathogens, mycotoxins and heavy GRAPASisland:Layout 1
metals, or for medicated feeds, that dosing and labelling is correct and accurate. 2012 data from the UNs Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) indicate 20 percent of the total global fish catch was reduced to fishmeal and fish oil. Although inclusion of marine ingredients in aquaculture has declined considerably in recent years, the groups joint statement demonstrated its intent to consolidate these sustainability gains. These raw materials are impor tant to the production of feed used for the farming of fish, crustaceans, and poultry. 30/8/13 14:29pigs Page 1
Unfor tunately, when sourced from fisheries that do not follow responsible management practices, significant negative environmental impacts occur. Regardless of the cer tification programme chosen and implanted, the aqua feed and livestock feed sectors should apply the above common criteria as a minimum set of requirements when sourcing FMFO [fishmeal and fish oil] ingredients. This will better promote the responsible sourcing of FMFO, for the benefit of the environment and the future sustainability of the fisheries.
Asias premier rice & flour milling and grain processing exhibition and conference
GRAPAS Asia 2014 is the only dedicated trade show and conference organised specifically for rice & flour milling, grain storage, preservation & processing, noodle, breakfast cereal and extruded snack production within the dynamic and growing regions of South & South East Asia.
New for 2014 Now including the first ASEAN Rice Summit Specialist conference The exhibition will be supported by its own specialist conference: The GRAPAS Conference 2014 Supported by The Thailand Convention and Exhibition Bureau Co-located with VICTAM Asia 2014 www.victam.com Contact details For visitor, exhibition stand space and conference information please visit: www.grapas.eu
INDUSTRY Events
WAS to bring new forum to Korea

he next edition of the industr y-leading Wor ld Aquaculture show has been boosted by the announcement of a new AquaForum to be held at the Jeju Island event in May next year. Following on from the success of December 2013s Asian Pacific Aquaculture, hosted by the World
Aquaculture Societys Asian Chapter, the AquaForum will see Asian farmers, suppliers, industry professionals and academics coming together for industr y sessions, facilitated workshops, roundtable discussion, meeting spaces and farm tours. The sessions and workshops will provide simultaneous translation
services into Chinese, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese and Thai. Although the inaugural AquaForum will not take place until May 27-29, 2015, the World Aquaculture Society is urging interested attendees to get involved soon to take advantage of its offer of its simultaneous translation services, as well as reserved
seating, discounted farm tours and free entry to the exhibition. Workshops and speakers will cover topics par ticularly relevant t o t h e A s i a Pa c i fi c r e g i o n , including flatfish and shr imp health, aqua feed technologies, marine finfish and shellfish production and integrated aquaculture systems.
INDUSTRY Events
Ghana on course for first fisheries college
onstruction has begun on a new fisheries and aquaculture college in Anomabu, Ghana, the first of its kind in the West African country. Plans for the college in Ghanas coastal Central Region have been gestating since 2011, when an implementation committee was tasked with coordinating the Ministr y of Fisheries and Aquaculture, the
University of Cape Coast and local communities in setting up the institution. Delays in acquiring the 50-acre site finally ended in January 2013 when UCC vice-chancellor Prof. Jane Naana Opoku-Agyemang whose institution will run the Anomabu college as a satellite campus came to an agreement with two local families. Construction of college facilities, including offices, laboratories, lecture halls and accommodation, is now underway. Once built, the institution will provide a dedicated base for
professional and technical training for Ghanas 10,000-tonne-per-year aquaculture industry, which UK development think tank IMM estimates to involve 10 percent of its population. Speaking in 2011, Prof. OpokuAgyemang outlined her vision for the college. Agriculture is interdisciplinary, and thus we should as a nation pay much attention. The UCC is committed to making the Fisheries College a success. The development of the curricula will encompass all existing practices and indigenous technologies, and adopt
the most appropriate, effective and efficient practices. The UCC intends to move from strict academia to production, while still providing a context where it can partner with existing institutions, so they can both learn from each other. The UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) indicates that as a cheap, high-quality and easily preserved foodstuff, fish represent the most important protein source for Ghana. Recent figures show that the country imports over 30 percent of its intake, and aquaculture is seen as the key to reducing the fish gap.
INDUSTRY Events
Shellfish in Seatttle
his year, Aquaculture America 2014 will take place in the coastal seaport city of Seattle. With over 200 booths, it is a fantastic opportunity to inspect the latest products and services in the aquaculture industry.
The event will address the current issues facing producers in the US as well as around the world. Topics include: communications and media; aquatic animal health; national animal i d e n t i fi c a t i o n ; f e e d s a f e t y ; aquatic invasive species; marketing; offshore aquaculture; environmental issues; star t up
aquaculture; science and public p o l i c y a n d fe d e r a l a g e n c y updates. The event will also feature an extensive technical programme combining special sessions, contributed papers and workshops on all of the species and issues facing aquaculturists around the country. A plenar y will be pre-
sented by Patr ick Sor geloos - director of the Laborator y of Aquaculture & Ar temia Reference Center of the Univer sity of Ghent, Belgium - addressing the conference theme: "Taking Aquaculture to New Heights Through Te c h n o l o g y, M a r ke t i n g a n d Collaboration"
Aquaculture Europe 2014 call for abstracts
T S
he European Aquaculture Society (EAS) in par tner ship with AZTITecnalia, a Spanish technological centre specialised in marine and food research, will present
Aquaculture Europe 2014 this October. With a strong scientific programme that includes more than 20 parallel sessions, Aquaculture Europe will allow delegates to present initiatives that add value to aquaculture, covering the basic and applied science behind all aspects of aquaculture, technical aspects of pro-
duction, harvest, processing and commercialisation of aquaculture products. The event will feature an international trade exhibition where Spanish and international companies will present the latest products and services for aquaculture. As with all Aquaculture Europe events, there will be an
EU Forum addressing research funded by the European Community and chaired by member s of the European Commission. An EAS Student Group workshop and Industr y Forum will also offer networking opportunities and the chance to exchange of ideas related to aquaculture.
International Aquaculture focus on South Australia

outh Australias wor ldrenowned aquaculture sector will be unde the spotlight this year as Adelaide plays host to the World Aquaculture Adelaide Conference. Gail Gago, minister for agriculture, food and fisheries, South Australia
said winning the hosting rights was a coup for South Australia, with between 2,000 to 3,000 delegates expected to attend and inject up to AUD$11.5 million into the states economy. Por t Lincoln just hosted the Austr alian seafood industr y national conference, and now with the premier international aquaculture science and industry event coming to Adelaide next year, it shows how well regarded
South Australia is as a producer of premium and safe seafood from a clean aquatic environment". H o s t i n g t h e c o n fe r e n c e presents a fantastic oppor tunity to showcase to the international industry our production techniques, regulator y frameworks, research and innovation as well as the growing connection between aquaculture and tourism Gago said.
It is anticipated that the conference will be one of the lar gest ever held in South Austr alia. Gago added that with South Australian aquaculture production at the farm gate valued at over AUD$241 million and the sector now making up more than 54 percent of the states seafood production, the industr y is a significant employer, par ticularly in regional areas.
International Aquafeed magazine supports EMS Forum

ir st repor ted in Asia in 2009, Shrimp Early Mor tality Syndrome has caused major production problems in the cultivation of shrimp in countries such as China, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam. In light of this, the Asian Aquaculture Network (AAN) is pleased to announce a platfor m established to address the problem of EMS.
The EMS Forum: Managing the Shrimp Epidemic is an assembly with a focus on how to best manage the issues facing shrimp farmers in the Asian territories. The Forum is scheduled to take place from 28 - 29 March 2014 at the Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. Suppor ted by the Depar tment of Fisher ies, Thailand, the Depar tment of Fisheries, Indonesia, the Shrimp Club of Indonesia (SCI) and Blue Aqua International, the forum is set to attract an international wealth of par ticipants.
Aquaculture hits the British Isles

quaculture UK is the UKs premier aquaculture exhibition and conference. A truly international event, in 2012 it attracted almost 1000 visitors from 27 countries. Back in 2012, Aquaculture UK presented a conference featuring some of the most promising aqua researchers from the British Isles. The author of the best presentation was Rogielo SierraFlores from Stirling University, Scotland.
He was awarded an allexpenses paid trip to Prince Edward Island, Canada, to visit one of Novartis Animal Health's state of the art facilities. This platform proved so popular that Novartis have agreed to run it again during the 2014 edition. Open to trade visitors and those with commercial, academic or similar interests in aquaculture, Aquaculture UK 2014 will offer a valuable oppor tunity to launch new products, meet decision makers and promote products and services. It is the place to do business, to network and to catch up with all the latest developments.
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The aquafeed interview

Amy Novogratz and Mike Velings, managing partners of Aqua-Spark
The aquafeed interview

A
my Novogratz and Mike Velings are managing partners of Aqua-Spark, a Netherlands-based investment fund focusing solely on opportunities in sustainable aquaculture. Having officially launched in November 2013, the group plans to make its first investments in the coming year.
Tell me about yourselves and how you arrived in aquaculture

Amy: Mike and I met through the 2010 TED Prize Mission Blue Voyage to the Galapagos, led by celebrated oceanographer, explorer and author Sylvia Earle. The voyage convened a hundred scientists, environmentalists, entrepreneurs, and artists with the purpose of addressing how we could protect the ocean. We came away hugely impacted, and ultimately this was the impetus for Aqua-Spark. On a boat with the worlds foremost ocean and fish experts, it was impossible not to get sucked into the enormity of the challenge from overfishing to the terrifying fact that our oceans could become virtual deserts in less than 35 years. Months after the voyage, at a Conservation International Meeting, we heard Dr Stephen Hall of WorldFish give a talk on aquaculture and its potential as a solution for these problems. The conservationists all agreed that wed need to work together to get this right and do it sustainably. We started a two-year period of learning, researching, building a network of experts, and figuring out the right role for us to play in the expansion of the industry. This past November, we officially launched Aqua-Spark.
All aquaculture producers see consumer confidence in farmed fish as a major stumbling block. How do you think this can be turned around?
Amy: Many consumers dont even know why they think farmed fish is bad; they just heard it somewhere and it stuck. Aquaculture has come a long way in the past decade, whether its farming of more sustainable species, reduction in antibiotic usage, or more sustainable feed practices. We have much more control of how fish are farmed, and we need to educate people on the benefits of aquaculture, such as the ability to monitor what fish have been exposed to, where they were grown, etc. Ultimately we want to arm people with good information so they can make the right choices when purchasing fish.
The replacement or near-replacement of fish-derived ingredients is the big challenge for 21st-centry aquaculture nutrition. Which novel ingredients particularly interest you?
Mike: Insects. They can be farmed in remarkably sustainable ways while also solving the major challenge of food waste. Amy: What is needed is technology that can produce material in a volume that will be interesting to feed manufacturers. Were beginning to see a wave of innovative processes to produce insectbased ingredients, but no one has made that step yet.
Your fund invests in small and medium enterprises. What can these offer investors (and the world) that bigger and safer investments cant?
Mike: Bigger is not per se safer. And what is defined as small and medium (SMEs) can still be quite sizable and reputable. We believe there is a natural limit to how big an aquaculture company can be at a certain point you reach the limit of how intensive you can go. The aquaculture industry is also very fragmented, with very few large companies in the space. So much of the expected growth in production will have to come from SMEs, and part of our mission is to connect these enterprises for potential collaboration, where it will be beneficial.
What message do you have for the small business owners and ideas people among our readership?
Amy: The message is that while were the first fund wholly interested in sustainable aquaculture investment, there are more investors out there looking to do the exact same thing. We were recently in a meeting at Stanford University where 80 people presented their projects. There was a really good mix of ideas in the room, but also a good amount of investing power. Our website has an open form and we encourage anyone to submit their project. Things are only starting right now, but investment in sustainable aquaculture really has begun, and were in it for the long term. As the industry continues to expand, we need to continue to improve it and make it as sustainable and transparent as possible.
How can venture capital improve aquaculture practices in China and Southeast Asia?
Mike: We believe that if we make investment available to best in class companies, this will help set a bar for sustainability and other key practices. If we can help these companies succeed, then others will follow suit. This approach is of course applicable anywhere around the globe, not exclusively in Asia.
What about aquaculture as a way of alleviating poverty?

Amy: One of our partners, WorldFish, has been working on this for decades, mostly in Asia and Africa. They recently launched the WorldFish Incubator, which works with many aquaculture projects globally, such as aquaculture cooperatives in India. They aim to get them investment-ready basically turning them into a business. As a partner of WorldFish, Aqua-Spark gets the first look at them. Were looking to receive 10 a year for consideration, and hopefully one of them will develop into an investment.
Amy, you used to lead the prestigious TED Prize. I know many of our readers are interested in it from following their LinkedIn! What are aquacultures ideas worth spreading?
Amy: We want to spread the idea that sustainably farmed fish is the best animal protein available to humankind. Weve seen so many global companies with great ideas and technologies that could transform this industry. We are convinced there is a great future for aquaculture, and this is a critical idea worth sharing. Our oceans depend on it, as do billions of people who look to seafood for their protein. An extended version of this interview can be found on the Aquaculturists blog.
"We want to spread the idea that sustainably farmed fish is the best animal protein available to humankind"
"We are convinced there is a great future for aquaculture, and this is an idea worth sharing"
INDUSTRY FACES AQUACULTURE

IAF appoints new business development manager for Nigeria
AF's new business development manager - Nigeria: Nathan Nwosu who is executive director of Nate Farms Ent Ltd in Jos South, Plateau State near to Abuja, Nigeria has been appointed IAF's new Business Development Manager - Nigeria. His task is to develop the magazine's circulation in Nigeria and neighbouring African countries. Mr Nwosu works in the aro-livestock sector with the aim of changing the face of agriculture and livestock farming in Africa by promoting the use of modern technologies. He sees the way forward for Nigeria and other African countries in the adoption of 21st Century technologies. Working with Perendale Publishers and International Aquafeed in particular will help him and his company achieve these goals. At present he works with farmers, faming communities and farming institutions but recognises the importance fish farming will play in the future food supply for Nigeria people. He is already working with VIV of The Netherlands, ZCME of China and Valco of the USA among other technology companies in the area of animal feeding. INternational Aquafeed welcomes Nathan to our team! He can be contacted on:nathann@perendale.co.uk
Leading farmed salmon producer re-appoints CEO

orwegian fish farm company SalMar recently announced the appointment of Leif Inge Nordhammer as its new CEO, effective 20 January 2014. Nordhammer previously served as SalMar's CEO for a period of 15 years until he stepped down in 2011. Since NordHammers initial tenure from 1996 until 2011 the company has grown from a regional fish-farming operation into a leading international enterprise. "SalMar has always played a key role in my life, as a shareholder, senior executive and, most recently, as a member of the board of Kverva AS, SalMar's majority shareholder. When I was approached about taking over as CEO again, and at the same time felt that the energy and the desire to step back into the role had returned, I didn't need much time to mull over my decision," said Nordhammer. www.salmar.no
New appointment at scientific agency

he National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA recently appointed Eileen Sobeck as is new administrator. NOAA Fisheries employs 4,800 people in five regional offices, six science centers, and 12 laboratories in 15 states and U.S. territories. As assistant administrator, Ms Sobeck will oversee the management and conservation of these recreational and commercial fisheries, and the protection of marine mammals, marine protected species, and the coastal fisheries habitat within the US economic zone. "Since the beginning of her career, Eileen has sought to strike a balance in management of natural resources to ensure sustainable uses while protecting and preserving our marine ecosystems for future generations," said Kathryn Sullivan, NOAA administrator. "Her background and expertise will be an asset at NOAA Fisheries as they work to continue turning the corner on overfishing, protect endangered marine species, and promote smart management approaches to build sustainable fisheries, and vibrant coastal communities." www.noaa.gov
Global aquaculture director leads charity

n a shift from his current role, the Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA) has announced that its executive director, Wally Stevens, will soon be heading the organisations' Responsible Aquaculture Foundation (RAF). The RAF is a charitable organisation established by GAA under Stevens' leadership, which offers education and training in support of responsible aquaculture. Education is in my DNA, as I suspect it is for most of us. It is only through continual learning that individuals and enterprises have the greatest potential for success, said Stevens. www.gaalliance.org
University of Maine names new aquaculture director
ture. In his new role a two-year appointment which commenced on 1 December 2013 - Anderson will oversee a strategic planning effort, an external review of the institute, and will work to align the faculty, student and facilities that are involved in aquaculturerelated research towards common goals. This is an important time in the evolution of aquaculture in the world and strong science is needed to help ensure that aquaculture is integrated in the working waterfront and into the food systems in an ecologically sustainable manner, Anderson said. www.umaine.edu
he University of Maine, USA recently appointed Paul Anderson as the new director of the Universitys Aquaculture Research Institute (ARI). ARI- a statewide resource for research, faculty expertise and facilities is dedicated to informing the development of sustainable aquacul-
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International Aquafeed January February 2014 - FULL EDITION

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I N C O R P O R AT I N G F i S H Far M ing t E c H no L og Y

Closing the food waste loop:

Croeso a Blwthyn Newydd dda

Professor Simon Davies

Meet the latest addition to the International Aquafeed team

Multi-million dollar fund focuses on aquaculture

The functionality dimension

Ioannis Zabetakis, assistant professor of food chemistry, university of Athens, Greece

January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 3

Andritz strengthens in Asia Pacific

Stirring stories shaping strategy

Roy Palmer, director, Aquaculture without Frontiers

Omega Protein streamlines operations

by Dominique P Bureau, member of the IAF Editorial Panel

Requirement and digestibility modelling to ensure safe phosphorus intake

Estimating the phosphorus requirement

Accurately estimating digestibility

6 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | January-February 2014

90% of Beluga Sturgeons spawning grounds have been lost

149 years - life span of the Orange Roughy, 7th on the

7 feet - length of Atlantic Grouper, 3rd on the endangered

January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 7

gastrointestinal tracts among different kinds of fish.

resulted in a different digestibility model:

UK scientists make Omega-3 plant progress

8 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | January-February 2014

Alternative additive trial shows shrimp improvement

January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 9

Olmix group innovates

Control 0.2% 0.4% P-Value

1.67 0.13 1.37 0.34 1.31 0.21 0.124

Kasetsart University, Bangkok,Thailand

January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 11

Successful moisture control in aquatic feeds

Table 1: Typical minimum water activity

levels for common microorganisms (Source: Fontana, 2000)

Pseudomonas, Escherichia, Bacillus, Clostridium perfringens, some yeast

0.650 Xerophilic moulds 0.600 Osmopholic yeasts, few moulds

Figure 1: Typical water isotherm for a product

12 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | January-February 2014

standard deviations on target moisture calculation

target moisture, with improved standard deviation values

7.12 7.42 7.72

8.92 8.92 8.92

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.14 0.62 2.28

7.66 7.87 8.08

8.92 8.92 8.92

0.42 0.42 0.42

0.14 0.62 2.28

January-February 2014 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | 13

Figure 2: Locations and dead times of moisture sensing

Figure 3: Actual results of improved moisture control

Lowering dead time, improving control

Roger Douglas roger@moisturecontrols.com Website: www. moisturecontrols.com

14 | INTERNATiONAL AQUaFEED | January-February 2014

Animal co-product hydrolysates:

Maintaining ingredient quality in extruded feeds The potential of microalgae meals

They are what they eat

Prevalence of mycotoxins in aquafeed ingredients:

Fine particle filtration in aquaculture

Understanding ammonia in aquaculture ponds AquaNor event review EXPERT TOPIC

Controlling mycotoxins with binders Niacin

Pellet distribution modelling: