Reconfigurable Computing Multipliers: Options in Circuit Design

John Morris
Chung-Ang University The University of Auckland

Iolanthe at 13 knots on Cockburn Sound, Western Australia

Multipliers
Long multiplication

x x x x x x x x x

x x x x x x x

x x x x x

x x x x x x x

x x x

multiplicand In binary, the partial products multiplier are trivial if multiplier bit = 1, copy the partial multiplicand products else 0 Use an and gate! product

Multipliers
Long multiplication

a3 b3 x x

a2 b2 x x

a1 a0 b1 b0 x x x

b0 b1 b2 b3

x x x x x x x x x x x x x

In binary, the partial products are trivial if multiplier bit = 1, copy the multiplicand else 0 Use an and gate! a3 a2 a1 a0

b0

first row of partial products

Multipliers Simple binary multiplier

We can add the partial products with FA blocks a3 a2 a1 a0 0

b0

FA

FA

FA

FA b1

FA

FA

FA

FA b2

FA

FA

FA

FA

p1

p0

product bits

Parallel Array Adder - VHDL

We can build this adder in VHDL with two GENERATE loops

SIGNAL pa, pb, cout : ARRAY( 0 TO n-1 ) OF ARRAY( 0 TO n-1 ) OF std_logic;

FOR j IN 0 TO n-1 GENERATE -- For each row FOR j IN 0 TO n-1 GENERATE - Generate a row pjk : full_adder PORT MAP( ); END GENERATE; This part is straight-forward! END GENERATE;
but you need to fill in the PORT MAP using internal signals!

Multipliers Adding partial products

We can add the partial products with FA blocks a3 a2 a1 a0 0

b0 Optimization 1: Replace this row of FAs

FA

FA

FA

FA

b1 FA

FA

FA

FA

Time? Whats the worst b2 case propagation delay?

FA

FA

FA

FA

p1

p0

product bits

Multipliers Using carry save adders

We can add the partial products with FA blocks a3 a2 a1 a0 0 Try to use a b0 more efficient adder A simpler scheme in each row? uses a carry save FA FA FA FA adder which b1 pushes the carry outs down to the next row! FA FA FA FA b2 FA FA FA FA Note that an extra adder is needed below the last row to add the last partial products and p0 product bits p1 the carries from the row above!

Carry select adder

Multipliers - Tree
Chris Wallace discovered a way to build fast multipliers by reducing the number of carry propagations and thus the delay All the partial product bits can be generated directly from the operand bits A full adder adds 3 input bits to produce a 2 bit result Use it to add the bits in columns Produce pairs of first level sums Combine bits in these sums vertically again

Combine pp bits vertically! 3 at a time

First level results Pairs of bits from FA cells

Multipliers - Tree
Summing the partial products

So combine them vertically!

First level results

Signed digit arithmetic Avoiding the carries!

Terminology First, we need to distinguish carefully between
digits of a number and bits used in representing the number

In the standard binary representations, one bit is used to represent each binary digit (0 or 1) of a number However, we can use other representation schemes If we use more than one bit to represent each digit of an operand, then we have a redundant system Were using more bits than the minimum log2n needed to represent a number of magnitude, n. These redundant number systems generally have the ability to avoid carry propagation
This may be exploited in the addition of sequences of numbers Carries are transferred to the following addition Concept similar to that used in carry-save multiplier where carries are transferred to the following partial product addition

Booth Recoding
A binary number can be re-coded according to Booths scheme to reduce the number of partial products in a multiplier Original idea Early computers: shift much faster than add Observe than when there is a 0 in the multiplier, you can skip the addition and just shift the multiplicand In a synchronous computer, this doesnt help in the worst case, you still have to perform an add for each digit of the multiplier (all or most of them are 1s) but in an asynchronous computer, the ability to skip some additions reduces the average completion time Booth observed that when there is a long sequence of 1s, eg digits j through (down to) k are 1s, then 2j + 2j+1 + +2k-1 + 2k = 2j+1 2k

Booth Recoding
A binary number can be re-coded according to Booths scheme to reduce the number of partial products in a multiplier Booth recoding Booth observed that when there is a long sequence of 1s, eg digits j through (down to) k are 1s, then 2j + 2j+1 + +2k-1 + 2k = 2j+1 2k Thus the sequence of additions can be replaced by
An addition of the multiplicand shifted by j+1 positions and A subtraction of the multiplicand shifted by k positions

This is equivalent to recoding the multiplier

from a representation using {0,1} to one using {-1,0,1} corresponding to subtract, skip, add

The recoding can be done in O(1) time by inspecting neighbouring digits

Booth Recoding
Booths scheme Radix-2 Booth recoding

xj
0 0 1 1

xj-1
0 1 0 1

yj
0 1 -1 0

Note
No 1s End of a string of 1s - add Start of a string of 1s - subtract Middle of a string of 1s - skip

For each position, j, inspect xj and xj-1 to determine the bits (2 needed!) of yj Example x: 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 y: -1 0 1 0 0 -1 1 0 -1 1 -1 1 0 0 -1 In practice, this scheme is no use in a synchronous machine,
Worst case: sequence of alternating 0 1 More additions than necessary!

0 (0) 0

but if we use a higher radix Booth recoding

Higher Radix Multiplication

Radix-2 multiplier Use 1 bit of the multiplier at a time Form partial product with and gates Radix-4 multiplier Use 2 bits of the multiplier at a time
If A is the multiplicand ..

Multiplier bits

Operation

00
01 10 11

none
+A +2A (shift A) +3A (precompute A+2A?)

Radix-4 Booth recoding

Radix-4 Booth Recoding

Recode multiplier into a signed digit form Use 3 bits of the original multiplier at a time Recoded multiplier has half the number of digits, but each digit is in [-2,2] Operands to the adders are now formed by shifts alone Recode Constant time Partial products Shift, and, select x2j+1 0 0 0 0 1 1 x2j 0 0 1 1 0 0 x2j-1 0 1 0 1 0 1 yj 0 1 1 2 -2 -1 Operation No 1s +A End of 1s string +A Isolated 1 +2A End of 1s string -2A Beginning of 1s -A End one string, start new one -A Start of 1s string Middle of 1s

n/2 partial products

generated Potentially 2 speed! 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 -1

No carries at all?
Residue Number Systems

Residue Arithmetic
Residue Number Systems A verse by the Chinese scholar, Sun Tsu, over 1500 years ago posed this problem
What number has remainders 2, 3 and 2 when divided by the numbers 7, 5 and 3, respectively?

This is probably the first documented use of number representations using multiple residues In a residue number system, a number, x, is represented by the list of its residues (remainders) with respect to k relatively prime moduli, mk-1, mk-2, , m0 Thus x is represented by (xk-1, xk-2, , x0) where xi = x mod mi So the puzzle may be re-written What is the decimal representation of (2,3,2) in RNS(7,5,3)?

Residue Number Systems

The dynamic range of a RNS, M = mk-1 mk-2 m0 For example, in the system RNS(8,7,5,3) M = 8 7 5 3 = 840 Thus we have RNS(8,7,5,3) Decimal (0,0,0,0) (1,1,1,1) (2,2,2,2) (0,1,3,2) 0 or 840 or -840 or 1 or 841 or -839 or 2 or 842 or 8 or 848 or

Any RNS can be viewed as a weighted representation In RNS(8,7,5,3), the weights are: 105 120 336 280 Thus (1,2,4,0) represents (105 1 + 120 2 336 4 + 280 0)840 = (1689)840 = 9

Residue Number Systems - Operations

Complement To find x, complement each of the digits with respect to the modulus for that digit 21 = (5,0,1,0)

so
-21 = (8-5,0,5-1,0) = (3,0,4,0) = 510 = -110 = 410 = 410 Addition or subtraction is performed on each digit ( 5 , 5 , 0 , 2 )RNS ( 7 , 6 , 4 , 2 )RNS ( (5+7)=48, (5+6)=47, 4 , (2+2)=13)RNS ( 4 , 4 , 4 , 1 )RNS

Multiplication is also achieved by operations on each digit ( 5 , 5 , 0 , 2 )RNS = 510 ( 7 , 6 , 4 , 2 )RNS = -110 ( (5x7)=38, (5x6)=27, 0 , (2x2)=13)RNS = -510 ( 3 , 2 , 0 , 1 )RNS = -510

Residue Arithmetic - Advantages

Parallel independent operations on small numbers of digits Significant speed ups
Especially for multiplication! 4 bit x 4 bit multiplier (moduli up to 15) much simpler than 16 bit x 16 bit one

Carries are strictly confined to small numbers of bits

Each modulus is only a small number of bits

Can be implemented in Look Up Tables (LUTs) 6 bit residues (moduli up to 64)

64 x 64 x 6 bits required (<4Kbytes)

Residue Arithmetic Choosing the moduli

Largest modulus determines the overall speed Try to make it as small as possible Simple strategy Choose sequence of prime numbers until the dynamic range, M, becomes large enough eg Application requires a range of at least 105, ie M 105
For RNS(13,11,7,5,3,2), M = 30,300 Range is too low, so add one more modulus: RNS(17,13,11,7,5,3,2), M = 510,510 Now each modulus requires a separate circuit and our range is now ~5 times as large as needed, so remove 5: RNS(17,13,11,7,3,2), M = 102,102 Six residues, requiring 5 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 19 bits The largest modulus (17 requiring 5 bits) determines the speed, so

Residue Arithmetic Choosing the moduli

Application requires a range of at least 105, ie M 105
RNS(17,13,11,7,3,2), M = 102,102 Six residues, requiring 5 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 19 bits The largest modulus (17 requiring 5 bits) determines the speed, so combine some of the smaller moduli (Remember the requirement is that they be relatively prime!) Try to produce the largest modulus using only 5 bits Pair 2 and 13, 3 and 7 RNS(26,21,17, 11), M = 102,102 Four residues, requiring 5 + 5 + 5 + 4 = 19 bits (no improvement in total bit count, but 2 fewer ALUs!) Better ?

Residue Arithmetic Choosing the moduli

Application requires a range of at least 105, ie M 105
RNS(26,21,17, 11), M = 102,102 Four residues, requiring 5 + 5 + 5 + 4 = 19 bits
(no improvement in total bit count, but 2 fewer ALUs!)

Include powers of smaller primes before primes, starting with RNS(3,2), M = 6 Note that 22 is smaller than the next prime, 5, so move to RNS(22,3), M = 12 (trying to minimize the size of the largest modulus) After including 5 and 7, note that 23 and 32 are smaller than 11: RNS(32,23,7,5), M = 2,520 Add 11 RNS(11,32,23,7,5), M = 27,720 Add 13 RNS(13,11,32,23,7,5), M = 360,360

Residue Arithmetic Choosing the moduli

Application requires a range of at least 105, ie M 105
Add 13 RNS(13,11,32,23,7,5), M = 360,360 M is now 3 larger than needed, so replace 9 with 3, then combine 5 and 3 RNS(15,13,11,23,7), M = 360,360 5 moduli, 4 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 3 = 18 bits, largest modulus has 4 bits

You can actually do somewhat better than this! Reference: B. Parhami, Computer Arithmetic: Algorithms and Hardware Designs, Oxford University Press, 2000

Residue Numbers - Conversion

Inputs and outputs will invariably be in standard binary or decimal representations, conversion to and from them is required Conversion from binary | decimal to RNS Problem: Given a number, y, find its residues wrt moduli, mi Divisions would be too time-consuming! Use this equality:

(yk-1yk-2y1y0)2mi = 2k-1yk-1 mi + + 2y1 mi + y0 mi mi So we only need to precompute the residues 2 j mi for

each of the moduli, mi, used by the RNS

Residue Numbers - Conversion

For RNS(8,7,5,3) : <y>8 is trivially calculated (3 LSB bits) For 7, 5 and 3, we need the powers of 2 modulus 7, 5 and 3

j
0 1 2

2j
1 2 4

2 j 7
1 2 4

2 j 5
1 2 4

2 j 3
1 2 1

3
4 5 6

8
16 32 64

1
2 4 1

3
1 2 4

2
1 2 1

7
8 9

128
256 512

2
4 1

3
1 2

2
1 2

Residue Numbers - Conversion

Find 16410 = 1010 01002 = 27 + 25 + 22 in RNS(8,7,5,3) : <164>8 is 1002 = 410

j
0 1 2

2j
1 2 4

2 j 7
1 2 4

2 j 5
1 2 4

2 j 3
1 2 1

<164>7 = <2 + 4 + 4>7 = <10>7 = 3

3
4 5 6

8
16 32 64

1
2 4 1

3
1 2 4

2
1 2 1 Note that the additions are done in a modular adder! Worst case:

7
8 9

128
256 512

2
4 1

3
1 2

2
1 2

k additions for each residue for a k -bit

number

Residue Numbers - Conversion

Conversion from RNS to binary Digits of an RNS representation can be shown to have position weightings, eg for RNS(8,7,5,3) the weightings are 105 120 336 280 The weightings may be calculated using the Chinese Remainder Theorem

x = (xk-1xk-2 x1x0)RNS = S Mi aixim M

where i

Mi = M / mi and ai = < Mi-1>m is the multiplicative inverse of Mi wrt mi

This means that (x3, x2, x1, x0)RNS = x3 105 + x2 120 + x1 336 + x0 280
i

Residue Numbers - Conversion

Conversion from RNS to binary Digits of an RNS representation can be shown to have position weightings, eg for RNS(8,7,5,3) the weightings are 105 120 336 280 Calculate position weights with CRT This means that (x3, x2, x1, x0)RNS = x3 105 + x2 120 + x1 336 + x0 280 This is most efficiently done through a LUT Note that the table for RNS(8,7,5,3) requires only 8 + 7 + 5 + 3 = 23 entries In general, this requires only

Sk-1i=0 mi
words a reasonable number!

Residue Arithmetic - Disadvantages

Range is limited Division is hard! Comparison <, >, sign (<0?) are hard Still suitable for some DSP applications Only use +, x Range is limited Result range is known Examples: digital filters, Fourier transforms