C

E
3
5
3

Soil Compaction Theory

D
r
.
T
A
L
Dr. Talat Bader A
T

B
A
D
E
R
 Compaction C
E
 Soil is used as a basic material for construction 3
5
 Retaining walls, 3

 Highways, Embankments, Ramps

D
r
.
 Airports, T
A
L
A
 Dams, Dikes, etc. T
 The advantages of using soil are:

1. Is generally available everywhere B

2. Is durable - it will last for a long time A

D
E
3. Has a comparatively low cost R
 C

What is Compaction?
E
3
5
3

• In most instances in civil engineering

and/or construction practice, whenever D
r
soils are imported or excavated and re- .

applied, they are compacted.

T
A
L
A
T
• The terms compaction and consolidation
may sound as though they describe the
same thing, but in reality they do not. B
A
D
E
R
 What is Compaction C
E
3
5
What do you think 3

about this live

compaction D
r
machine .
T
Heavy Weight A
L
• When loose soils are applied to a construction A
T
site, compressive mechanical  energy is applied
to the soil using special equipment to densify
the soil (or reduce the void ratio). B
A
• Typically applies to soils that are being applied D
or re-applied to a site. E
R
 What is Consolidation C
E
3
• When a Static loads are applied to saturated 5
3
soils, and over a period of time the increased
stresses are transferred to the soil skeleton,
leading to a reduction in void ratio. D
r
.
T
• Depending on the permeability of the soil and A
L
the magnitude of the drainage distance, this A
can be a very time-consuming process. T

• Typically applies to existing, undisturbed soil B

A
deposits that has appreciable amount of clay. D
E
R
 C

Compaction - Consolidation
E
3
5
3

• Compaction means • Consolidation

the removal of means the removal D

air-filled porosity. of water-filled r

.
porosity. T
A
L
A
T

B
A
D
E
R
 C

Principles of Compaction
E
3
5
3

Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing

the volume of voids. It is assumed that the D
r
compaction process does not decrease the .
T
volume of the solids or soil grains· A
L
A
T

B
A
D
uncompacted compacted E
uncompacted compacted R
 C

The Goal of Compaction

E
3
5
3

Phase Diagram • Reduce air-void volume V in

a D
soils as much as is possible. r
.
vA Air wA • For a given water content w, T
A
Water the max. degree of compaction
vT vW wW
that can be achieved is when all
L
A
T
of the air voids have been
vS Solids wS removed, that is (S=1).
– Since  S = wGs/e, the B
A
corresponding void ratio D
– (for S=1) will be: e = wGs E
R
 Principles of Compaction C
E
3
5
The degree of compaction of a soil is 3

measured by the dry unit weight of the

 skeleton. D
r
The dry unit weight  correlates with the .
T
degree of packing of the soil grains. A
L
Recall that γ d= Gsγ w/(1+e) · A
T

The more compacted a soil is:

the smaller its void ratio (e) will be. B
A
D
the higher its dry unit weight (γ d) will be E
R
 Typical Calculation (γ d)
C
E
3
5
3
• block diagram shown
Phase Diagram • Total Mass     M = Mw + Ms D
• Total Volume V = Vw + Vs r
.
vA Air wA • Void ratio        e = Vv / Vs T
A
Water • Water content   w = Mw / Ms
vT vW wW L
A
• Saturation         S = Vw / Vv
T
• Moist unit weight
vS Solids wS
– γ = (M w + Ms) / V  
– = (w + 1) Ms / V = (1+w) γ d B
A
–    γ d = γ / (1+w) = D
E
Back –   γ d = Gsgw/(1+e) R
What Does Compaction Do? C
E
1)  Increased Shear Strength 3
5
This means that larger loads can be 3
applied to compacted soils since   they
are typically stronger.
2)  Reduced Permeability D
r
.
This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb T
water, and therefore reduces the A
tendency to expand/shrink and L
A
potentially liquefy T
3)  Reduced Compressibility
This also means that larger loads can be
B
applied to compacted  soils   since they A
will produce smaller settlements. D
4)  Control Swelling & Shrinking E
R
5)  Reduce Liquefaction Potential
Various Types of compaction C
E
3

test 5
3

Hammer No of Blows per

Type of Test Mould Drop (mm) D
mass (kg) layers layer
r
One Liter 2.5 300 3 27
.
BS “Light” T
CBR 2.5 300 3 62
A
4 in 2.49 305 3 25 L
ASTM (5.5lb)
6 in 2.49 305 3 56 A
T
One Liter 4.5 450 5 27
BS “Heavy”
CBR 4.5 450 5 62
4 in 4.54 457 5 25
ASTM (10lb)
6 in 4.54 457 5 56 B
A
BS Vibration
hammer
CBR 32 to 41 Vibration 3 1 minute D
E
R
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Head, 1992)

General Compaction Methods C

E
3
Coarse-grained soils Fine-grained soils 5
3
Laboratory

•Falling weight and hammers

D
•Vibrating hammer (BS) •Kneading compactors r
.
•Static loading and press T
A
•Hand-operated vibration plates L
A
•Motorized vibratory rollers •Hand-operated T
tampers
Field

•Rubber-tired equipment
•Sheepsfoot rollers
•Free-falling weight; dynamic B
compaction (low frequency •Rubber-tired rollers A
D
vibration, 4~10 Hz)
E
R
Vibration Kneading
 The Standard Proctor Test C
E
3
5
3

• R.R. Proctor in the early

1930’s was building dams D
for the old Bureau of r
.
Waterworks and Supply T
A
in Los Angeles, and he L
A
developed the principles T
of compaction in a series
of articles in Engineering B
News-Record. A
D
E
R
 C

Variables of Compaction
E
3
5
3

Proctor established that compaction is a

function of four variables: D
r
.
• Dry density (ρd) or dry unit weight γd. T
A

• Water content w
L
A
T
• Compactive effort (energy E)
• Soil type (gradation, presence of clay B

minerals, etc.) A
D
E
R
The Standard Proctor Test C

Equipments
E
3
5
3

D
r
.
Hammer T
Weight A
5.5 lb L
A
T
Drop Height
h=12”

B
A
D
soil Volume 1/30 ft3 or 944 cm3 E
Diameter 4 in or 10.16 cm R
Height 4.584 in or11.643cm
Equipments Needed C

For Compaction
E
3
5
3

ASTM D-698 / D-1557 AASHTO T-99 / T-180

For determining moisture - dnesity relationship. D
Machined steel, galvanized, 4" i.d.,
SO-351 Standard Proctor Mold
4.584" height, 2" height of collar
1 Pc r
SO-352 Standard Proctor Mold
Machined steel, galvanized, 6" i.d.,
1 Pc .
T
4.584" height, 2" height of collar
Standard Proctor Machined steel, galvanized, 2" i.d.,
SO-353
Hammer 12" drop height, 5,5 lbs weight
1 Pc
A
SO-354
Standard Proctor Machined steel, galvanized, 2" i.d.,
1 Pc L
Hammer 18" drop height, 10 lbs weight
SO-355 Extruder Steel frame, hydraulic jack 1 Set
A
GE-303 Square Pan Galvanized steel, l 65 x 65 x 7.5 cm 1 Pc T
GE-390 Thin Box Alumunium, 60 gr capacity 12 Pcs
GE-405A Graduated Cylinder Plastic, 1.000 ml capacity 1 Pc
GE-801 Scoop Cast Alumunium 1 Pc
GE-871 Trowel Pointed type 1 Pc
GE-890 Straight Edge 30 cm length 1 Pc B
GE-900 Rubber Mallet Wooden handle 1 Pc
GE-920 Steel Wiire Brush Wooden handle 1 Pc
A
D
E
R
 Standard Proctor Test C
E
3
o The soil is mixed with varying amounts 5
of water to achieve different water 3
contents.
o For each water content,the soil is
compacted by dropping a hammer 25 D
r
times onto the confined soil .
o The soil is in mold will be divided into T
A
three lifts L
o Each Lift is compacted 25 times A
T
o This is don 4-6 times from dry-wet

B
A
Layer or lift # 3 D
soil Layer or lift # 2 E
Layer or lift # 1 R
25 Blows/Layer
 C

Standard Energy
E
3
5
3

• Compactive (E) applied to soil per unit

volume: D
r
.
T
(# blows/layer) * (# of layers) * (hammer weight) * (height of drop) A
E= L
Volume of mold A
T

(25blows/layer) * (3 of layers) * (5.5 lbs) * (1.0 ft)

ESP = = 12,375 ft − lb / ft 3
(1/30)ft 3
B
A
D
E
R
 Results from Standard C
E
Proctor Test 3
5
3
Maximum dry
• Optionally, the unconfined
unit weight
Dry Density (γ d)

compressive strength of
 the soil is also measured D
r
 .
A sample T
  from the
mold
A
L
A
 T

B
A
Optimum water content D
E
R
Water Content (w)
 Dry Unit Weight C
E
3
5

• The compacted soil is removed from the mold and its 3

dry density (or dry unit weight) is measured.

γ
γ 1+ m
Where γm =
Mg D
r

ω
d = .
V T

γ
A
L
d • =Dry Unit weight A

γm T

ω
• =Bulk Density
• =Water Content
B
V • =Total Soil Volume A
D
M • =Total Wet Soil Mass E
R
g • =Gravitational Acceleration
 Water Role in C
E
3

Compaction Process 5
3

 Water lubricates the soil grains so that

they slide more easily over each other D
r
and can thus achieve a more densely .
T
packed arrangement. A
L
A
– A little bit of water facilitates T

compaction
B
A
– too much water inhibits compaction. D
E
R
 Dry Unit Weight C
E
3
5
3
as Co
2.0 mp
ac
y
ted
1.9
sit Density when compacted
(Mg/m3)

Increase of D
n

Dry + mass of water added

De

Density due r
3

1.8
to compaction
.
1.7 T
A
1.6 Increase of density due L
Density

1.5 to mass of water added A

T
1.4

1.3 Density when compacted dry

B
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
A
Water content w (%) D
E
R
 Modified Proctor Test C
E
3
5
 Was developed during World War II 3

 By the U.S. Army Corps of

Engineering D
r
 For a better representation of the .
compaction required for airfield to T
A
support heavy aircraft. L
A
T

B
A
D
E
R
 Modified Proctor Test C
E
3
 Same as the Standard Proctor Test 5
3
with the following exceptions:
 The soil is compacted in five layers
D
r
 Hammer weight is 10 Lbs or 4.54 Kg .
T
 Drop height h is 18 inches or 45.72cm A
L
A
 Then the amount of Energy is calculated T
 Remember Standard Proctor Energy ESP = 12,375 ft − lb / ft 3
(25blows/layer) * (5 of layers) * (10 lbs) * (1.5 ft) B
E MP =
# 5
(1/30)ft 3 A
# 4
D
soil # 3
# 2
E MP = 56,250 ft − lb / ft 3 E
E MP 56,250 ft −lb / ft 3 R
# 1
= = 4.55
E SP 12,375 ft −lb / ft 3
Effect of Energy on Compaction C

E2 > E1
E
3
5
3

D
Modified E=E2 r
Dry Density (γ d)

.
T
A
L
A
T

Standard E=E1
B
A
D
E
Water Content (w) R
 Comparison-Summary C
E
3
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test 5
3

• Mold size: 1/30 ft3 • Mold size: 1/30 ft3

• 12 in height of drop • 18 in height of drop D
r
• 5.5 lb hammer • 10 lb hammer .
• 3 layers • 5 layers T
A
• 25 blows/layer • 25 blows/layer L
• Energy 12,375 ft·lb/ft3 • Energy 56,250 ft·lb/ft3 A
T
Dry Density (γ d)

Modified E=E2

B
A
D
Standard E=E1
E
R
Water Content (w)
 Common Compaction Curves C
E

Encountered in Practice 3
5
3
Dry unit weight γ d

One & one-half peaks

Bell-shaped D
r
.
T
A
L
A
T
Double-peaked
Odd-shaped
B
A
D
E
Water content (w) R
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Zero-Air-Void C
E
Degree of Saturation ZAV:The curve represents 3
5
the fully saturated 3
2.0 60% 80% 100%
condition (S=100%).
"Zero ZAV cannot be reached by
( Mg 3/ m )

1.9 Line of Air compaction. D

optimums
Voids" Line of Optimum: A line r
drawn through the peak .
1.8 Modified T
Proctor points of several A
compaction curves at
Dry density

L
1.7 different compactive A
Standard
efforts for the same soil T
Proctor
will be almost parallel to a
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25 100 % S curve
Water content w (%) B
Entrapped Air: is the A
Points from the ZAV curve can be distance between the wet D
calculated from: side of the compaction E
γ dry = Gsγ ω / 1+ e curve and the line of R

100% saturation.
 Zero-Air-Void C
E
3
The Equation for the ZAV 5
curves with different 3
Degree of Saturation
degree of saturation is :
2.0 60% 80% 100%
ρwS ρ S D
"Zero ρd = = w
( Mg 3/ m )

r
Air
ρw S
1.9 w+ S w+ .
Voids" ρs Gs T
A
1.8 Modified L
Proctor
You can derive the equation A
Dry density

T
by yourself, Hint
1.7
Standard ρs
Proctor ρd =
1+ e B
1.6
0 5 10 15 20 25
Se = wG s A
Water content w (%) D
E
R
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Results-Explanation C
E
Below womc At womc Above womc 3
5
Dry of Optimum The density is at the Wet of Optimum 3
•As the water content maximum, and it does not Water starts to
increases, the particles increase any further. replace soil
develop larger and OMC particles in the D
larger water
around them, which
films Dry Density (γ d)
  mold, and since ρ
the dry
r
w<<ρ s .
tend to “lubricate” the
particles and make
  density starts to T
A
decrease.
them easier to be Dry Wet  Hammer Impact L
A
moved about and Side Side Moisture cannot T
reoriented into a escape under
denser configuration. Water Content (w) impact of the
Hammer Impact Escaping air hammer. Instead,
the entrapped air is B
•Air expelled from the
A
soil upon impact in energized and lifts
D
quantities larger than Entrapped the soil in the E
the volume of water air region around the R
added.
Dry side Wet side hammer.
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981; Das, 1998

Effects of Soil Types on C

Compaction
E
3
5
The soil type-that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the 3
soil grains, specific gravity of soil solids, and amount and type
of clay minerals present
Soil texture and Plasticity data D
2.2 r
NO Description Sand Silt Clay LL PI
.
(Mg / m3)

1
2.1
Zero air voids, S= 100 1
Well graded
88 10 2 16 NP T
loamy sand
2.0 2 % A
Well graded
2 72 15 13 16 NP L
sandy loam
1.9 A
3 Med graded
3 73 9 18 22 4 T
Dry density

sandy loam
1.8
4 Lean sandy
4 32 33 35 28 9
5 silty clay
1.7
6 Lean silty
5 5 64 31 36 15
clay B
7
A
1.6
8 6 Loessial silt 5 85 10 26 2
7 Heavy clay 6 22 72 67 40 D
5 10 15 20 25
E
Water content w (%) Poorly graded
8
sand
94 6 6 NP NP R
Compaction Characteristics C
E

Unified Soil Classification

3
5
3

Compaction
Group Symbol
Characteristics D
GW r
.
GP T
GM A
GC Good L
A
SW T
SP
SM
SC B
Good to Fair
CL A
D
ML Good to Poor E
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Fair to Poor R
 Embankment Materials C
E

Unified Soil Classification

3
5
3
Group Symbol Value as Embankment Material
GW
Very Stable D
SW r
.
CL Stable T
GP A
L
GM A
Reasonably Stable T
GC
SC
SP B
Reasonably Stable when Dense A
SM
D
ML Poor, gets better with high density E
R
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Poor, Unstable
 Subgrade Materials C
E

Unified Soil Classification

3
5
3

Group Symbol Value as Subgrade Material

GW Excellent D
GP r
Excellent to Good .
GM T
A
GC
Good L
SW A
T
SP
SM Good to Fair
SC B
A
ML
Fair to Poor D
CL E
R
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT Poor to Not Suitable
 Typical Compaction Curve for C
E
Cohesionless Sands & Sandy Gravel 3
5
3

Complete saturation
  D
(increasing) Density

Air dry   r
.
  T
 A
 
L
A
 The low density that is obtained at
T

bulking low water content is due to capillary

Forces resisting arrangements of B
the sand grains. A
D
E
(increasing) Water content R
 Water & Compaction
C
E
3
5
3
Remember what is the Affect
D
• Increasing the water content r
.
at which soil is compacted: T
A
 Increases the likelihood of L
A
obtaining dispersed soil structure T
with reduced shear strengths.
 Increases the pore pressure in B
the soil, decreasing the short A
D
term shear strength. E
R
 Water Role in C
E
3

Compaction Process 5
3

 Water lubricates the soil grains so that

D
they slide more easily over each other r
and can thus achieve a more densely .
T
packed arrangement. A
L
A
T
– A little bit of water facilitates
compaction B
– too much water inhibits compaction. A
D
E
R
Lambe and Whitman, 1979

Structure of Compacted Clay C

E
Intermediate 3
structure 5
3
High Compactive
Effort Dispersed Structure
or
parallel D
r
Dry Density

.
T
A
L
Low
Flocculated Structure Compactive A
or Effort T
Honeycomb Structure
or
Random

B
Water Content A
D
Structure E
Particle Arrangement Dry side more random
R
Dry side more deficient; thus imbibes more water,
Water Deficiency
swells more, has lower pore pressure
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979;
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

10−7
Effect of Compaction on C
E
3

permeability 5
3
Permeability

Permeability at constant
compactive effort decreases D
with increasing water content r
and reaches a minimum at about .
the optimum. T
A
10−9
If compactive effort is L
A
increased, the permeability
Density

T
decreases because the void
ratio decreases.
B
Water content A
D
Permeability E
Magnitude Dry side more permeable
R
Dry side permeability reduced much more by
Permanence
permeation
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979;
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Compressibility C
E
3
Dry compacted or Dry compacted or 5
undisturbed sample undisturbed sample 3

Void ratio , e
Void ratio , e

Wet compacted or Wet compacted or D

Remolded sample Remolded sample r
.
T
Rebound for both samples A
0
Pressure, natural scale L
0
Pressure, log scale
Low pressure consolidation A
High-pressure consolidation T

Compressibility of compacted clays is function of stress level.

Low stress level: Clay compacted wet of optimum are more compressible.
B
High stress level: The opposite is true A
Compressibility D
Wet side more compressible in low pressure range, E
Magnitude R
dry side in high pressure range
Rate Dry side consolidates more rapidly
Compressibility & Expansion C

Unified Soil Classification

E
3
5
3
Compressibility
Group Symbol
and Expansion
D
GW
r
GP .
Very Little
SW T
A
SP L
GM A
GC Slight T

SM
SC
Slight to Medium B
ML
A
CL Medium D
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT High E
R
Compressibility & Expansion C

Unified Soil Classification

E
3
5
3
Compressibility
Group Symbol
and Expansion
D
GW r
Very Little .
GP
T
GM A
Slight L
GC
A
SW T
Very Little
SP
SM Slight
B
SC A
Slight to Medium
ML D
E
CL Medium R
OL, MH, CH, OH, PT High
From Lambe and Whitman, 1979

Effect of Strength C
E
150 3
Samples 100 5

Degree of Particle Orientation

De
Dry unit weight (kN/m3) Parral 3
(Kaolinite)

gr
145

ee
80

of
compacted

sa
60

tu
dry of

ra
140

tio
40

n=
optimum

10
D

% 0
tend to be 135 20 r
Random
more rigid 0 .
and 130
22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 T
stronger 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 Molding water content (%) A
than Molding water content (%) L
samples 600 A
T
compacted
Deviation stress (kN/m2)

500
wet of 400
optimum
300
B
200 A
D
100
E
R
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Axial Strain (%)
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Strength (con) E

3
5
100 3
Unsoaked CBR (%)

55 blows / layer
75 26 blows / layer The CBR (California bearing ratio)

10 lb hammer 18 “ drop (modified proctor)

50
12 blows / layer
CBR= resistance required to
06 blows / layer penetrate a 3-in2 piston into the D
r
25 compacted specimen/ resistance
.
required to penetrate the same T
0
120
depth into a standard sample of A
crushed stone. L
Dry density (lb/ft3)

115 A
A greater compactive effort T
110 produces a greater CBR for the
dry of optimum. However, the CBR
105
is actually less for the wet of
100 optimum for the higher B
compaction energies A
95 (overcompaction). D
E
90 R
10 15 20 25
Water content (%)
 Comparison of Soil Properties C
E
Dry of Optimum & Wet of Optimum 3
5
Compaction 3

Strength
D
As molded
r
a :Undrained Dry side is much higher .
b :Drained Dry side is some how higher T
After saturation A
Dry side higher if swelling prevented,wet sidecan be L
a :Undrained A
hiher if swelling is permitted
b :Drained dry side the same or slpghtly hiher T
Stress-strain modulus Dry side much greater
Sensitivity Dry side more apt to be sensitive
B
A
D
E
R
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Effect of Swelling C
E
3
• Swelling of compacted clays is greater for those 5
3
compacted dry of optimum. They have a
relatively greater deficiency of water and
therefore have a greater tendency to adsorb D
water and thus swell more. r
.
T
OMC A
 L
Dry Density (γ d)

 A
T
Higher
  Higher
Swelling Dry Wet  Shrinkage
Potential Side Side Potential B
A
Water Content (w) D
E
R
 Compaction and Shrinkage C
E
Dry of OMC Wet of
optimum optimum
• samples 3
5
Kneading compacted wet 3

of optimum
Vibratory
have the D

Static
highest r
.
shrinkage T
A
1.80
L
Dry density ( Mg / m3 )

A
S = 100% T
1.75

1.70
Legend
B
Kneading compaction A
1.65 Vibratory compaction D
E
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Static compaction R
Molding water content (%)
1.60
 Engineering Properties C
Summary E
3
5
Properties Dry side Wet side 3

Structure More random More oriented

(parallel) D
r
More .
Permeability
permeable T
A
More compressible More compressible L
Compressibility A
in high pressure in low pressure T
range range

Swell more, higher *Shrinkage

Swelling
water deficiency more B
A
D
Strength Higher E
R
 C

Summary E
3
5
UCS
Compaction Compressibility Value as 3
Group Value as Embankment Material
Characteristics and Expansion Subgrade Material
Symbol
GW Very Stable Excellent
Very Little
GP
Excellent to Good D
GM Reasonably Stable r
Slight
GC Good .
Good T
SW Very Stable
Very Little A
SP
Reasonably Stable when Dense
L
SM Slight Good to Fair A
SC Good to Fair Reasonably Stable T
ML Good to Poor Slight to Medium Poor, gets better with high density
Fair to Poor
CL Good to Fair Stable
OL, MH, CH,
Fair to Poor High Poor, Unstable Poor to Not Suitable B
OH, PT
A
D
E
R
 C

Question Time
E
3
5
3

Thank you
r
.
T
A
L
A
T

Dr. Talat Bader B

A
D
E
R
 C
E
3
5
3

Appendix
D
r
.
T
A
L
A
T

B
A
D
E
R
Holtz and Kovacs, 1981 Hand Out 03_2

C
E
3
5
3

D
r
.
T
A
L
A
T

B
A
D
E
R
Lambe and Whitman, 1979
Hand Out 03_ 3
C

Compaction and Earth Dam

E
3
5
3

• The engineer must consider not only the behavior of the soil
as compacted but the behavior of the soil in the completed
D
structure, especially at the time when the stability or r
deformation of the structure is most critical. .
T
A
• For example, consider an element of compacted soil in a dam L
core. As the height of the dam increases, the total stresses A
on the soil element increase. When the dam is performing its T
intended function of retaining water, the percent saturation
of the compacted soil element is increased by the permeating
water. Thus the engineer designing the earth dam must B
consider not only the strength and compressibility of the soil A
D
element as compacted, but also its properties after is has E
been subjected to increased total stresses and saturated by R
permeating water.