Ukraine TEFL Manual

US Peace Corps in Ukraine
TEFL Manual
TEFL Manual (Pre-PST Modules)

Dear Prospective Trainees,
Welcome to the TEFL Home Prep Program. This program was designed to provide you with a solid foundation for the TEFL pre service training, which will !egin upon your arrival in "#raine in $cto!er. "sing this home program, you will review teaching fundamentals such as the role of the teacher, teaching methods and an awareness of the English language. %fter completing this program, you will !e !etter prepared to utili&e the '( wee#s of pre service training to delve deeper into #ey practical areas specific to teaching in the "#raine conte)t. The program is followed !y a multiple choice test to help you assess your grasp of the information presented. *ou may ta#e the test as often as you li#e. +t contains a ,uestion randomi&er function which will automatically change the assortment of ,uestions each time you ta#e the test. We as# you to practice as much as you want and then forward the test report to Training -anager, +ryna .rups#a at i#rups#a/peacecorps.gov at least 0 wee#s !efore your arrival. %nalysis of the test reports will ena!le us to identify areas of difficulty that may need additional review during the pre service training. +f you have any suggestions for improvement or if you encounter any difficulties, please do not hesitate to contact us. We will !e happy to hear from you. Than# you for accepting the invitation to serve in Peace 1orps2"#raine. We loo# forward to your arrival. Warm regards, Peace 1orps "#raine Training and Programming Team
US Peace Corps in Ukraine page 1
TEFL Manual
Pre-PST TEFL Manual Modules Outline I. Introduction 1. What is TEFL/TESOL? 2. The Role of the Teacher 3. Self-Assessment Test I. General TEFL Methodology 1. Teaching etho!s. "omm#nicati$e A%%roach 2. S#ggestions for &sing Selecte! Lang#age Teaching Techni'#es 3. O$er$ie( of the )asic Lang#age S*ills+ Listening an! Rea!ing ,. O$er$ie( of the )asic Lang#age S*ills+ S%ea*ing an! Writing -. Teaching .oca/#lar0 Language Awareness 1. 2. 3. ,. 1rammatical Terms 2o#ns3 4rono#ns3 A!5ecti$es an! A!$er/s 2o#n 6eterminers. Articles .er/s. Reg#lar an! 7rreg#lar .er/s. Finite an! 2on-Finite .er/ Forms. o!al A#8iliar0 .er/s. -. &se of Tenses 9. "on!itionals :. &.S. $s. )ritish English
II.
TEFL Manual
Introduction
1. What is TEFL/TESL?
These two terms can be confusing and are sometimes interchanged, but there are differences that have an impact on teaching. TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language TEFL classes are offere! in co#ntries (here English is not the !ominant lang#age. English !oes not s#rro#n! the st#!ents in school3 at (or*3 or ;on the streets<. St#!ents in TEFL classes in %#/lic schools #s#all0 share a lang#age an! an aca!emic co#rse of st#!0. Their s*ills ma0 !iffer3 /#t there is a certain !egree of %re!icta/ilit0. TEFL teachers and textbooks provide the input. 7n man0 co#ntries3 host TEFL English teachers are s*ille! at teaching the lang#age as a s#/5ect3 an! some teachers ma0 still rel0 on rote learning. "o#ntries in$ite 4eace "or%s teachers to create o%%ort#nities for st#!ents to #se lang#age for a#thentic comm#nication. TESL: Teaching English as a Second Language TESL classes are offere! in co#ntries (here English is the %re!ominant lang#age. St#!ents in TESL classes often come from !ifferent lang#age an! c#lt#ral /ac*gro#n!s3 an! the0 ma0 ha$e /een in the &S for !ifferent lengths of time. 7n s#m3 ESL students are diverse. =et3 the0 ha$e ongoing English input in the community, at school, and on the ob. ESL teachers can !ra( #%on the real lang#age that st#!ents are hearing3 rea!ing3 seeing3 an! #sing. ESL teachers hel% st#!ents ma*e sense of the lang#age in%#t3 so that the0 can %artici%ate (ith fl#enc0 an! acc#rac0 in their 5o/s3 at school3 an! in the comm#nit0. TESOL: Teaching English to S%ea*ers of Other Lang#ages (o#l! incl#!e /oth TEFL an! TESL an! is sometimes %referre! /eca#se st#!ents ma0 /e learning English as a thir!3 fo#rth3 or fifth lang#age.
2. The Role of the Teacher

Triangle of Success
There seem to /e three essential com%onents that contri/#te to the s#ccess of teachers in &*raine >an! most %ro/a/l0 in other co#ntries too? Language Techniques ulture
As it follo(s from the teachers@ an! learners@ inter$ie(s3 the missing lin* on the chain of s#ccess is the Ac#lt#reA3 meaning teaching c#lt#re or sociall0 e8%ecte! classroom e8%erience.
TEFL Manual
!ow "ati#e English S$ea%ers an &e &etter English Teachers in '%raine

2ati$e s%ea*ing English lang#age teachers are $er0 m#ch nee!e! in &*raine an! in most cases the0 are met (ith tra!itional &*rainian hos%italit0 an! recei$e goo! e$al#ations. 2ati$e s%ea*ers of English as teachers #s#all0 !emonstrate goo! stan!ar! English an! %ro$i!e access to i!iomatic lang#age an! slang. An interesting t#rn of attention in the &*rainian a#!ience has recentl0 /een to(ar!s a#thentic /eha$ior >gest#res3 e8clamations3 e8%laining e$er0!a0 /eha$ior3 e.g.3 ho( to (ait in line Ain the American (a0A etc.?3 so a nati$e English s%ea*ing teacher is #s#all0 (arml0 (elcome! into a comm#nit0. Another $al#e for hosting a nati$e English lang#age s%ea*ing teacher is to %ro$i!e a glim%se of AforeignA teaching metho!olog0 an! c#lt#re. 2ati$e s%ea*ing teachers of English often !emonstrate teaching techni'#es3 (hich seem interesting an! are recei$e! enth#siasticall0. Bo(e$er3 the chief reason for this enth#siasm ma0 /e the no$elt0 of these %ractices as (ell as the teachersC an! learnersC e8%ectations for mirac#lo#s res#lts (hich (ill ho%ef#ll0 /e achie$e! (ith the hel% of these techni'#es. So /ehin! a generall0 (arm (elcome3 there ma0 /e criticism3 (hich for face-sa$ing reasons an! c#lt#rall0 con!itione! %oliteness3 ma0 not /e ma!e e8%licit. Therefore in some instances3 !#e to c#lt#ral !ifferences an! !ifferences in e8%ectations3 nati$e English s%ea*ing teachers ma0 not /e seen as effecti$e as the0 co#l! /e.
Organi(ation of a Lesson in '%raine

A lesson of English in &*raine >as (ell as of other s#/5ects? (ill #s#all03 tho#gh not strictl03 ha$e the follo(ing feat#res+

Lessons #s#all0 ha$e three-stages3 incl#!ing home(or* chec* #%3 %resentation of the ne( material an! reinforcement of the ne( material. The teacher3 (ho signals (hen a %artic#lar learner is in$ite! to s%ea*3 (ill reg#late learners@ %artici%ation in lessons. Learners@ contri/#tions in the lessons are calle! Aans(ersA3 meaning the0 #s#all0 %artici%ate in res%onse to teachers '#estions. Learners #s#all0 (or* in!i$i!#all0 an! lac* social s*ills for comm#nicating (ith each other !#ring lessons. Whole-lang#age a%%roach is not #ni$ersall0 s#%%orte!. A goo! lesson is consi!ere! to /e com%etence-/#il!ing. 7n e$er0 lesson3 the teacher is e8%ecte! to organiDe /alance! acti$ities in learning $oca/#lar0 an! grammar3 as (ell as in s%ea*ing3 listening an! rea!ing. Writing is #s#all0 confine! to home assignments. 7f (or*ing in %airs an! small gro#%s3 learners nee! a $er0 !etaile! !escri%tion of (hat the0 are s#%%ose! to !o3 other(ise the0 ten! to (or* in!i$i!#all0 or (ait to /e as*e! /0 the teacher an! gi$e their %re%are! ans(er. A lesson is #s#all0 !eclare! as comm#nicati$e tho#gh in realit03 teachers an! learners s%en! a lot of time !ealing (ith grammar str#ct#res3 /iling#al e8ercises an! te8t #n!erstan!ing A lesson is %rimaril0 res#lt-oriente! so the acti$ities are not seen a %rimar0 e$en tho#gh the0 ma0 /e $er0 moti$ating an! engaging for the learners.
TEFL Manual
At the en! of the lesson3 each learner #s#all0 gets a mar* on a t(el$e-%oint scale3 an! sometimes he/she (ill recei$e a !etaile! comment from the teacher. Altho#gh the first reactions to a .ol#nteerCs no$el lesson organiDation ma0 /e $er0 %ositi$e an! enth#siastic. Fail#re to meet the commonl0 hel! i!eas an! e8%ectations of ho( a lesson sho#l! /e organiDe! might ca#se !o#/t in learners as to (hether the0 (ill /enefit m#ch from #ntra!itional >i.e.3 learner-centere!? lessons.
'%rainian Learners) E*$ectations of Teachers

)e strict to(ar!s the class3 /#t /e *in! to(ar!s in!i$i!#als Bel% st#!ents o$ercome learning %ro/lems e$en if it re'#ires sacrificing one@s o(n time after classes )e la$ish in gi$ing higher scores th#s cre!iting learners Em%athiDe (ith the learner )e al(a0s a$aila/le3 e$en on the home tele%hone for cons#ltations Translate the material into a !igeste! form
Schools an! teachers are hel! res%onsi/le for the aca!emic %erformance an! /eha$ior of learners altho#gh there are attem%ts to fin! a more /alance! a%%roach to share res%onsi/ilit0 among the school3 learners an! %arents.
'%rainian Teachers) +rofessional &eliefs

The follo(ing /eliefs are commonl0 hel! /0 the teachers in &*raine an! are share! /0 the %rofessionals teaching !ifferent s#/5ects.

A lesson sho#l! /e mostl0 teacher-centere! or else there (ill /e little control an! effect. "lass sho#l! /e (ell-!isci%line!E other(ise the learners themsel$es (ill s#ffer an! learn little in the !isr#%te! lesson. Teaching lang#ages sho#l! /e recitati$eE if not3 the learners (ill not remem/er m#ch of the material The general attit#!e sho#l! /e error-intolerant or the learners (ill ne$er get ri! of the mista*es in their s%eech. Learners@ free!om for self-e8%ression in the classroom sho#l! /e restricte! or the class ma0 get com%letel0 o#t of control. Learners sho#l! /e assesse! !a0-/0-!a0E other(ise the0 (ill lac* moti$ation to (or* !#ring the lesson an! at home. Lesson sho#l! /e home-tas* /ase! or there (ill /e no consoli!ation of *no(le!ge. Teacher sho#l! e$al#ate learners to inform them of their %rogress on a reg#lar /asis Learners@ sho#l! /e acco#nta/le to teachers. 7f not3 ho( can teachers /e res%onsi/le for the learners@ %roficienc0?
7n the #ni$ersities3 a greater em%hasis is %#t on learners@ in!e%en!ence /#t this refers largel0 to st#!ent-teacher enco#nters !#ring the lect#res. Seminars an! (or*sho%s3 in man0 cases3 ha$e the feat#res of school lessons e$en tho#gh the fac#lt0 ma0 !en0 this.
!el$ing '%rainian Teachers of English

TEFL Manual
One of the tas*s of the nati$e s%ea*ers of English coming to &*raine from a/roa! is to hel% the local teaching comm#nit0 !e$elo% %rofessionall0. The follo(ing %rinci%les of this %rocess ma0 hel% %re$ent !isa%%ointment in this area+

7nstea! of !#m%ing an a$alanche of information on the teachers3 tr0 to /ring a/o#t changes in tra!itional teaching in $er0 small ste%s. 7nstea! of %arting (ith the tra!itional %ast3 s#ggest /len!ing (ith the e8isting tra!itions in (hich man0 local teachers firml0 tho#gh co$ertl0 /elie$e. 7nstea! of !oing a(a0 (ith the local teaching c#lt#re3 #se the c#lt#re /ase! a%%roach an! enco#rages integration of the e8isting %ractices (ith the ne( (a0s. 7nstea! of $ie(ing the local teachers as the reci%ients of change3 t#rn them into the agents of change Offer acti$e learning thro#gh one@s o(n e8%lorator0 teaching e8%erience 7nstea! of em%hasiDing (ea*nesses of local teachers3 %rocee! from their fiel! of e8cellence 6e$elo% in 0o#r teacher-trainees the role of a critical frien!3 rather than 5#st a *no(le!gea/le e8%ert
E8%erience sho(s that these %rinci%les #s#all0 hel% in intro!#cing mo!ern techni'#es for English lang#age teaching instr#ction in &*raine. 7n the final acco#nt the teachers (ill !emonstrate a fine /len! of the mo!ern an! tra!itional feat#res an! this (ill /e e8%ecte! as normal an! 5#stifie!.
General Interests
While !e$elo%ing sessions meant to enhance English lang#age teaching metho!olog0 in &*raine3 consi!er the follo(ing areas of interest for &*rainian teachers of English+

B#manistic teaching "omm#nicati$e teaching >Teaching comm#nicati$e s*ills an! lang#age com%etenciesF St#!ent-centere! teaching 7nteracti$e teaching 1ame acti$ities Role-%la0 an! %ro/lem-sol$ing >comm#nicati$e sim#lation? acti$ities
4rofessional !e$elo%ment (ith teachers ma0 incl#!e the follo(ing acti$ities+

1i$ing short theoretical in%#t >t#tor? 6emonstrating a techni'#e >t#tor an! teachers as assistants? Tr0ing a techni'#e in the classroom >teachers an! learners? 6isc#ssing %ros an! cons of the techni'#e in small gro#%s >teachers? icro-teaching in small gro#%s (ith %eer o/ser$ation >teachers? 4ossi/le $i!eo-ta%ing e%iso!es (ith micro-teaching >t#tor an! teachers? Reflecting an! self-reflecting on micro-teaching >teachers? Re%orting on the %roce!#re3 s*ills an! com%etencies s#staine! in learners >teachers? A!a%ting the techni'#e for a %artic#lar co#rse-/oo* an! classroom sit#ation >teachers? Writing a series of similar techni'#es for a %artic#lar co#rse-/oo* in a %artic#lar classroom >teachers?
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6#ring this %rocess the teachers act#all0 create a teaching %ac* >or re%ertoire of techni'#es?3 (hich the0 $ie( as their o(n %ro!#ct in (hich the0 /elie$e an! one in (hich the0 are rea!0 to im%lement an! recommen! to colleag#es. We ho%e that the material %resente! a/o$e (ill hel% f#t#re TEFL .ol#nteers3 (ho (ant to tr0 their %e!agogical talent in &*raine3 co%e (ith the !iffic#lties ca#se! /0 the local teaching c#lt#re so that the0 can /e $er0 s#ccessf#l in their %rofessional #n!erta*ings.
. Self-!ssess"ent Test
This '#estionnaire (ill allo( 0o# to reflect once more on 0o#r !ecision to come to &*raine as TEFL 4eace "or%s .ol#nteer. 1. 6o 0o# ha$e a /ac*gro#n! rele$ant to teaching? =ES 2O 2. Are 0o# a goo! listener? =ES 2O 3. 6o 0o# feel comforta/le %resenting in front of a gro#%? =ES 2O ,. 7s English 0o#r first lang#age? =ES 2O -. Are 0o# a ;ne$er gi$e #%< %erson? =ES 2O 9. 6o 0o# en5o0 getting the /est o#t of others? =ES 2O :. Are 0o# a %atient an! reser$e! %erson (hen 0o# nee! to e8%lain sim%le things again an! again? =ES 2O G. Are 0o# rea!0 to (or* (ith the lac* of reso#rces? =ES 2O H. 6o 0o# ha$e a goo! *no(le!ge of English grammar? =ES 2O 1I. 6o 0o# feel comforta/le sharing information a/o#t American c#lt#re? =ES 2O We ho%e 0o# (ill 5oin #s in &*raineJ
TEFL Manual
II. General TEFL Methodology (Part I)

1. Teachin# Methods
There is a (i!e $ariet0 of c#rrent metho!ologies an! a%%roaches to Teaching English as a foreign lang#age >TEFL?. 7f 0o# (ant to /e an effecti$e teacher of English as a foreign lang#age >EFL?3 %art of 0o#r (or* (ill /e to choose a com/ination of metho!s (hich (ill most /enefit 0o#r st#!ents. The follo(ing sections %ro$i!e a s#mmar0 of se$eral lang#age teaching metho!s that ha$e /een #se!3 a!a%te!3 an! sometimes a/an!one!.
Gra,,ar Translation Method

7n a t0%ical 1rammar Translation class the main foc#s is on rea!ing an! (riting3 (ith little attention /eing gi$en to s%ea*ing or listening. The central te8t for each lesson is #s#all0 literar0. 4assages are selecte! from a#thors s#ch as ar* T(ain3 1eorge Or(ell3 "harles 6ic*ens3 or mo!ern (riters. These %assages are rea! an! then com%rehension '#estions are as*e! an! ans(ere!3 first orall03 then in (riting. 1rammar is ta#ght !e!#cti$el0 thro#gh %resentation an! st#!0 of the r#les follo(e! /0 %ractice in translations e8ercises. .oca/#lar0 selection is /ase! on the rea!ing te8t #se!. Wor!s are ta#ght thro#gh /iling#al lists an! memoriDation. St#!ents are often as*e! to (rite the ne( (or!s in a sentence. Altho#gh the inistr0 of E!#cation an! Science of &*raine intro!#ce! the "omm#nicati$e a%%roach as the main mo!el for foreign lang#age teaching some 0ears ago3 man0 of 0o#r st#!ents (ill /e #se! to an! e8%ect 1rammar Translation acti$ities. emoriDation %artic#larl0 ma0 /e consi!ere! a $al#e! teaching tool3 as oral tra!itions are strong here. Bo(e$er memoriDation !oes not e8cl#!e #n!erstan!ing. 7f the s0lla/#s follo(e! in 0o#r school incl#!es literar0 te8ts an! 0o# ha$e %resente! a %oem3 e8%lore! its i!eas3 an! are satisfie! that 0o#r st#!ents #n!erstan! them3 then as*ing 0o#r st#!ents to learn the %oem is a goo! (a0 to reinforce learning an! one that is familiar to 0o#r st#!ents. =o#r st#!ents ma0 also /e #se! to the st0le of teacher-st#!ent interaction generate! /0 the 1rammar Translation etho!. 7n this metho! the teacher initiates interaction an! there are sel!om an0 st#!ent-to-st#!ent e8changes. The role of the teacher is tra!itionall0 a#thoritarian an! the role of the st#!ent is to follo( teacherCs instr#ctions. O/ser$ing other teachers (ill gi$e 0o# an i!ea of the sort of st#!ent-teacher relationshi%s (hich e8ist in 0o#r school an! local e8%ectations. See the earlier sections on /eliefs an! caref#ll0 res%ect tra!itions (hile /len!ing in ne( metho!s.
-irect Method
The 6irect etho! !e$elo%e! (hen e!#cators attem%te! to /#il! a lang#age learning metho!olog0 aro#n! their o/ser$ations of chil! lang#age learning. These e!#cators arg#e! that a foreign lang#age co#l! /e ta#ght (itho#t translation or #se of the learner@s nati$e tong#e. The 6irect etho!3 therefore3 insists on thin*ing an! comm#nicating !irectl0 in the target lang#age
TEFL Manual
an! !oes not allo( translation. The )erlitD School of Lang#ages is the /est *no(n %ro%onent of this metho!. The fo#r lang#age s*ills are ta#ght from the /eginning3 /#t a s%ecial em%hasis is %lace! on s%ea*ing. "lasses often start (ith rea!ing alo#! a s%eciall0 gra!e! te8t (hich intro!#ces the lesson@s $oca/#lar0 an! grammatical str#ct#re. 4ractice follo(s (ith e8ercises s#ch as g#i!e! con$ersation3 (here the teacher as*s '#estions on the te8t an! the st#!ents ans(er #sing f#ll sentences. St#!ents (ill then as* each other similar '#estions. Other %ractice e8ercises incl#!e filling-in-the-/lan*s3 !ictation3 controlle! com%osition or listening com%rehension e8ercises. 1rammar is ta#ght in!#cti$el03 that is to sa03 lang#age %atterns are %resente! an! %ractice!3 /#t the r#les are not e8%licitl0 gi$en. The 6irect etho! teacher #ses mime3 !emonstration3 realia3 an! $is#al ai!s to hel% st#!ents #n!erstan! grammar an! $oca/#lar0. 7f 0o# #se some as%ects of the 6irect etho! an! are monitoring the amo#nt of st#!ents@ nati$e lang#age /eing #se! in class3 0o# sho#l! #se common sense relate! to translation. 7f 0o# 5#!ge that 0o#r st#!ents are not getting the %oint or the meaning of a %artic#lar (or!3 an! the lesson is stra0ing from its o/5ecti$es3 allo( a translation an! get on (ith 0o#r lesson.
Audio.lingual Method /ALM0

6#ring the Secon! Worl! War3 arm0 %rograms (ere set #% to teach American militar0 %ersonnel lang#ages. Strong em%hasis (as %lace! on a#ral-oral training. The A#!io-Ling#al etho! !e$elo%e! from these %rograms. This metho! (as infl#ence! /0 /eha$ioral %s0chologists (ho /elie$e! that foreign lang#age learning (as /asicall0 a %rocess of mechanical ha/it formation. 7n the A#!io-Ling#al etho!3 s*ills are ta#ght in the nat#ral or!er of ac'#isition+ listening3 s%ea*ing3 rea!ing an! (riting. A#!io-ling#al classes /egin (ith a !ialog#e (hich intro!#ces the lesson@s sentence %atterns. The st#!ents memoriDe a !ialog#e an! then %ractice grammar %atterns in !rills s#ch as listen an! re%eat3 s#/stit#tion3 chain3 an! transformation. Acc#rac0 in %ron#nciation is em%hasiDe! an! fostere! thro#gh minimal %air !rills (hen st#!ents learn to !ifferentiate /et(een so#n!s s#ch as the $o(els in Ashi%A an! Ashee%3A AhitA an! Aheat3A an! A/itA an! A/eat.A Lessons are se'#ence! accor!ing to grammatical com%le8it0. Translation3 consi!ere! to ca#se interference from the mother tong#e3 is not allo(e!. Learning is tightl0 controlle! /0 the teacher3 (ho follo(s the te8t closel0. an0 of 0o#r st#!ents (ill /e familiar (ith the t0%e of acti$ities !escri/e! a/o$e. For most Americans $ariet0 an! change is an essential %art of their learning e8%erience. Therefore3 0o# ma0 sometimes fin! 0o#rself amaDe! /0 0o#r st#!ents@ stamina an! ca%acit0 to re%eat !rills in mantra-li*e fashion seemingl0 for ho#rs at a time. To ens#re that min!less chanting !oes not ta*e o$er3 0o# ma0 (ish to em%hasiDe some of the s%ee! an! com%etiti$eness %romote! /0 the A#!io-Ling#al etho!.
o,,unity Language Learning / LL0

The aim of "omm#nit0 Lang#age Learning is to in$ol$e the learner@s (hole %ersonalit0. Affecti$e an! intellect#al (ell-/eing are gi$en e'#al (eight. "LL !ra(s its insights an! rationale from co#nseling techni'#es. The teacher is the co#nselor (ho gi$es assistance an! s#%%ort to the learners3 (ho are the clients. The teacher@s role is to #n!erstan! the learners@ fears an! $#lnera/ilities as the0 str#ggle to master another lang#age. )0 /eing sensiti$e to the learners@
TEFL Manual
fears3 the teacher can t#rn the negati$e energ0 of those fears into %ositi$e energ0 an! enth#siasm for learning. The relationshi%s /et(een the teacher an! learner an! /et(een the learners themsel$es3 therefore3 ta*e on great im%ortance. The foc#s is initiall0 on listening an! s%ea*ing. 1rammar r#les are e8%laine! an! translations are #se! (hen necessar0 to gi$e learners a sense of sec#rit0 an! control o$er the sit#ation. The s0lla/#s an! materials are !esigne! mostl0 /0 the learners. "LL is a metho! that (or*s /est in small gro#%s an! it re'#ires s%ecial training for teachers. This metho! contains #sef#l %rinci%les (hich 0o# can easil0 im%lement in 0o#r lessons s#ch as ac*no(le!ging the stress an! fears (hich can /e fo#n! in a lang#age learning classroom. =o# can lo(er the stress in 0o#r lessons /0 ma*ing 0o#r e8%ectations an! goals clear3 /0 coaching 0o#r st#!ents in e8amination strategies3 an! /0 %ro$i!ing li$el0 acti$ities (hich ma*e learning f#n. "LL also enco#rages learners to %ro!#ce their o(n materials. hel%ing 0o#r st#!ents (rite short stories or articles to /e %#/lishe! in a school magaDine/ne(sletter3 organiDing them to (rite an! act %la0s or s*its3 an! !e$elo%ing %ro5ect /ase! learning3 0o# (ill accom%lish t(o goals+ >1? 0o# (ill gi$e 0o#r st#!ents a sense of o(nershi% an! %ri!e an! >2? 0o# (ill si!este% the %ro/lem of tr0ing to teach (ith fe( or ina!e'#ate te8t/oo*s.
Total +hysical 1es$onse /T+10 and the "atural A$$roach

T4R is a lang#age teaching metho! /#ilt aro#n! the coor!ination of s%eech an! action. 7t attem%ts to teach lang#age thro#gh %h0sical acti$it0. T4R an! The 2at#ral A%%roach %lace an em%hasis on e8%osing learners to hearing an! #n!erstan!ing the lang#age /efore re'#iring them to s%ea*. Lang#age s*ills are ta#ght in the nat#ral or!er of ac'#isition+ listening3 s%ea*ing3 rea!ing3 an! (riting. )oth the 2at#ral A%%roach an! T4R foc#s on the im%ortance of listening com%rehension as the /asis for lang#age ac'#isition. )oth a%%roaches /elie$e that lang#age is ac'#ire!3 not learne!. 7n other (or!s3 learners ac'#ire a lang#age thro#gh an #nconscio#s %rocess (hich in$ol$es #sing the lang#age for meaningf#l comm#nication. Learning a lang#age3 on the other han!3 in$ol$es a conscio#s %rocess (hich res#lts in *no(le!ge a/o#t the r#les of a lang#age3 /#t not necessaril0 in an a/ilit0 to #se the lang#age. The learner@s mother tong#e is sel!om #se! in T4R or the 2at#ral A%%roach. eaning is ma!e clear /0 mime3 !ra(ing3 etc.3 an! great attention is %ai! to re!#cing learner an8iet0. The 2at#ral A%%roach stresses that self-confi!ent learners (ith high moti$ation are s#ccessf#l learners an! teachers are res%onsi/le for creating learning en$ironments (hich %romote self-confi!ence. 7n /oth of these a%%roaches3 the role of the teacher is to generate com%rehensi/le in%#t. This means that (hen %resenting ne( materials 0o# ha$e to /e %re%are! to s%ea*3 mime3 !ra(3 or #se real o/5ects to get 0o#r meaning across. Onl0 (hen 0o# are satisfie! that 0o#r st#!ents #n!erstan! an! are rea!0 to s%ea* (ill 0o# as* them to !o so. T4R action se'#ences in res%onse to a series of comman!s are gra!e! an! $ar0 from the sim%le to the intricate. After the first stage of listening to the teacher3 some st#!ents might /e rea!0 to s%ea*. 6#ring the secon! stage3 in!i$i!#al st#!ents ma0 /egin to ta*e o$er3 !irecting the teacher an! the other st#!ents in %arts of or in the (hole action se'#ence. 7n man0 instances 0o#r st#!ents (ill /e c#rio#s a/o#t life in the &nite! States3 an! this com%rehensi/le in%#t stage %ro$i!es a (a0 of satisf0ing that c#riosit0 an! a (a0 for 0o# to
TEFL Manual
/#il! a goo! %ersonal relationshi% (ith 0o#r class. These a%%roaches can /e #sef#l an! f#n3 es%eciall0 (hen 0o# are (or*ing (ith /eginners3 or (ith st#!ents in a %rimar0 school or at a technical or $ocational center (ho onl0 ta*e one ho#r of English a (ee*3 or (ith st#!ents (hose greatest nee! is for listening com%rehension. 7t is also #sef#l (hen 0o# lac* a!e'#ate te8t/oo*s. .er0 fe( instit#tions offer co#rses (hich #se onl0 T4R or the 2at#ral A%%roach3 /#t man0 teachers ha$e commente! that com%rehension-/ase! acti$ities re!#ce learning stress.
o,,unicati#e Language Teaching

The late 1H9Is sa( a shift in foc#s from the A#!io-Ling#al etho! an! its %rotot0%es to comm#nicati$e lang#age teaching. St#!ies carrie! o#t /0 the "o#ncil of E#ro%e hel%e! to i!entif0 the lang#age nee!e! in a $ariet0 of social sit#ations /0 someone immigrating to "ommon ar*et co#ntries. The st#!ies so#ght to e$al#ate ho( lang#age itself (as #se!Kho( nati$e s%ea*ers of a lang#age e8%resse! themsel$es in $ario#s sit#ations. The st#!ies ha! a ma5or im%act on the teaching of English as a foreign lang#age. Teachers an! c#rric#l#m !esigners /egan to loo* at the content an! at the *in! of lang#age nee!e! (hen greeting or sho%%ing. The em%hasis on e8%licitl0 learning grammar r#les or %racticing grammatical %atterns (as !o(n%la0e! in fa$o#r of an a%%roach !esigne! to meet learners@ nee!s (hen #sing the lang#age in !ail0 interaction. 7t is referre! to as an a%%roach that aims to ma*e comm#nication the goal of lang#age teaching. Se$eral mo!els ha$e e$ol$e! aro#n! this %rinci%le -- the "omm#nicati$e A%%roach3 Total 4h0sical Res%onse3 2at#ral A%%roach3 an! "om%etenc0-)ase! A%%roach.
o,,unicati#e A$$roach
The comm#nicati$e a%%roach e8%ects st#!ents /ecome com%etent >i.e.3 a/le to #se the lang#age a%%ro%riate for a gi$en social conte8t3 an! to manage the %rocess of negotiating meaning (ith interloc#tors?. The teacher facilitates st#!ents@ learning /0 managing classroom acti$ities an! setting #% comm#nicati$e sit#ations. St#!ents are comm#nicators acti$el0 engage! in negotiating meaning. Acti$ities are comm#nicati$e (hen the0 are ha$e a %#r%ose s#ch as an information ga% that nee!s to /e fille!3 an! (hen s%ea*ers ha$e a choice of (hat to sa0 an! ho( to sa0 it. The0 recei$e fee!/ac* from the listener that (ill $erif0 that their comm#nicati$e %#r%ose has /een achie$e!. The teacher initiates interactions /et(een st#!ents an! %artici%ates sometimes. A#thentic materials are often #se!3 an! st#!ents #s#all0 (or* in small gro#%s. St#!ents interact a great !eal (ith each other in man0 !ifferent config#rations. The em%hasis is on !e$elo%ing moti$ation to learn /0 esta/lishing meaningf#l an! %#r%osef#l things to !o in the target lang#age. 7n!i$i!#alit0 is enco#rage!3 as (ell as coo%eration (ith %eers3 /oth of (hich contri/#te to a sense of emotional sec#rit0 in the target lang#age. Lang#age is for comm#nication. Ling#istic com%etence m#st /e co#%le! (ith an a/ilit0 to con$e0 inten!e! meaning a%%ro%riatel0 in !ifferent social conte8ts. 2on$er/al /eha$ior an! c#lt#re are %art of the e$er0!a0 life an! lang#age of nati$e s%ea*ers. Lang#age f#nctions >e.g.3 greeting3 lea$e-ta*ing3 see*ing hel%3 com%limenting3 criticiDing3 a%ologiDing3 etc.? are em%hasiDe! o$er grammatical forms in comm#nicati$e classrooms. St#!ents (or* at a !isco#rse le$el3 an! he0 (or* on s%ea*ing3 listening3 rea!ing3 an! (riting from the /eginning. "onsistent foc#s is %lace! on negotiate! meaning. Errors of form are consi!ere! nat#ral - st#!ents can ha$e incom%lete ling#istic *no(le!ge an! still /e s#ccessf#l comm#nicators. The em%hasis is %lace! on #sing the target
TEFL Manual
lang#age to accom%lish a f#nction s#ch as com%laining3 a!$ising3 or as*ing for information. Attention is also %ai! to the social conte8t in (hich this f#nction ta*es %lace. For instance3 !ifferent lang#age (ill /e #se! (hen com%laining to a teacher than (hen com%laining to a close frien!. 7nformal e$al#ation is ongoing as the teacher a!$ises or comm#nicatesE formal e$al#ation is #s#all0 /0 means of an integrati$e test (ith a real comm#nicati$e tas* s#ch as com%leting an a%%lication. All fo#r lang#age s*ills are ta#ght from the /eginning. 7n s%ea*ing3 the aim is to /e #n!erstoo!3 not to s%ea* li*e a nati$e. 7n se'#encing lessons3 %riorit0 is gi$en to learner interests an! nee!s. This is in shar% contrast to a grammar !ri$en metho! (hich ma0 start (ith $er/ tenses an! (or* from the sim%le %resent to the con!itionals. 7n the "omm#nicati$e A%%roach3 if learners nee! to *no( ho( to gi$e a!$ice3 the0 are ta#ght the f#nction at their %roficienc0 le$el. )eginners might learn to gi$e a!$ice #sing ;!ou should ""..< an! Bigh 7nterme!iate st#!ents might learn ho( to gi$e a!$ice #sing the con!itional3 A#f # were you, # would . . . .< 7nteraction /et(een s%ea*ers an! listeners or rea!ers an! (riters is at the root of all comm#nicati$e acti$ities. Learners #s#all0 (or* in %airs or gro#%s for role %la03 information sharing3 or %ro/lem sol$ing. The "omm#nicati$e A%%roach (ill challenge 0o#r creati$it0 to set #% sit#ations in (hich 0o#r st#!ents can !emonstrate their com%etence in the fo#r lang#age s*ills. 1ro#% (or* is /asic an! 0o# ma0 face !iffic#lties in the logistics of organiDing 0o#r gro#%s. Lac* of s%ace3 or com%laints from other teachers a/o#t the nois0 mo$ing of !es*s3 might occ#r in 0o#r first fe( (ee*s (hen as*ing 0o#r class to !i$i!e into gro#%s. =o# (ill ha$e to consi!er all of 0o#r o%tions. "an 0o# (or* o#tsi!e? 7s it %ossi/le to #se the li/rar0 for 0o#r lessons? "an 0o# set #% a re(ar! s0stem to enco#rage 0o#r st#!ents to mo$e '#ic*l0 an! '#ietl0 into their gro#%s? =o# ma0 also enco#nter resistance to gro#% (or* from 0o#r st#!ents. Some of the /etter st#!ents ma0 resent ha$ing to AshareA their s*ills an! gra!es. Some of the less moti$ate! st#!ents ma0 ta*e the o%%ort#nit0 to !o e$en less (or*. =o#r gra!ing %olic0 for gro#% (or* (ill ha$e to /e s%elle! o#t an! 0o# (ill nee! to monitor the gro#%s to ass#re that e$er0one is contri/#ting to the gro#% effort. =o# sho#l! also %ro$i!e time an! o%%ort#nities to earn gra!es for in!i$i!#al (or*. Finall03 man0 a!#lt lang#age %rograms #se a com%etenc0-/ase! e!#cation >")E? a%%roach (hich foc#ses on teaching lang#age for real life #se. 7n ")E3 teachers (or* (ith learners to assess their imme!iate lang#age nee!s an! interests3 an! then !esigns lessons that a!!ress the nee!s. For e8am%le3 a!#lts in a ")E (or*%lace class might foc#s on negotiating a sche!#le change3 rea!ing a safet0 man#al3 or (riting a memo. St#!ents are assesse! on their a/ilit0 to act#all0 %erform a concrete tas*. 7n 0o#r &*rainian lang#age classes3 the lang#age trainers might incor%orate ")E /0 ha$ing trainees rea! train timeta/les3 %#rchase foo! in a mar*et3 or (rite a sim%le (or* %lan for the first three months of ser$ice.
TEFL Manual
Ta2le 3.
Gra,,ar Translation Method "entral feat#re Gra,,ar 1ules 2ot im%ortant Limite! "entral feat#re Audio.Lingual Method 2ot e8%laine! o,,unicati#e Language Teaching E8%laine!3 necessar0
Meaningful o,,unication
2ot consi!ere! +ronunciation "entral feat#re Translation Follo(s ling#istic com%le8it0 Teacher-centere! Teacher.Student 1oles Acc#rac0 em%hasiDe! Attitude to Errors Rea!ing an! (riting em%hasiDe!
Target L nati$e-li*e %ron#nciation For/i!!en
Target L com%rehensi/le %ron#nciation &se!3 (hen necessar0
Sequencing of Lessons
Follo(s ling#istic com%le8it0 Teacher-centere!
Follo(s learners@ nee!s
Teacher facilitates st#!ent-to-st#!ent interaction Errors %an of learning %rocess S*ills ta#ght accor!ing to learners@ nee!s
Acc#rac0 em%hasiDe!
&alance of Language S%ills
Listening an! s%ea*ing em%hasiDe!
1e,e,2er: 2o one metho! is s#fficient on its o(n. Ta*e into acco#nt that st#!ents ha$e !ifferent learning st0les an! e8%ectations.. "onsi!er ho( learners feel a/o#t themsel$es as lang#age learners. 2egati$e feelings a/o#t the learning %rocess can /loc* learning. Enhancing a learner@s self-confi!ence lea!s to s#ccessf#l learning. Wor*ing together as a gro#% is a $ital %art of lang#age learning. 1ro#% mem/ers s#%%ort each other3 an! the interaction /et(een them %ro$i!es a real nee! for comm#nication an! an o%%ort#nit0 to %ractice the target lang#age.
TEFL Manual
2. Su##estions for $sin# Selected Lan#ua#e Teachin# Techni%ues

Gra,,ar Translation Method and Audio.lingual Method
7f 0o#r st#!ents feel that the0 m#st *no( the r#le for a certain feat#re of grammar3 tr0 this a!a%tation of the 1rammar Translation an! A#!io-ling#al etho!s. Tell 0o#r st#!ents that the0 are going to !isco$er the r#les themsel$es. Then ha$e them (or* thro#gh a set of a#!io-ling#al %attern !rills (hich ill#strate the feat#re. After the0 ha$e !one the !rills3 as* for $ol#nteers to tr0 to state the r#le. 7f the0 ha$e tro#/le e8%ressing the r#le3 as* lea!ing '#estions to g#i!e them.
-irect Method and Audio.lingual Method

"on$ersations3 !ialog#es3 or short narrati$es can /e #se! to e8ercise the st#!ents@ a/ilit0 to g#ess meaning from conte8t. &se $is#als an! titles to %re!ict (hat the con$ersation or article (ill /e a/o#t. As* 0o#r st#!ents to listen for one or t(o s%ecific (or!s3 %la0 a ta%e recor!ing of a short %assage >t(o to three min#tes at most?3 an! as* them to g#ess the meaning of the (or!s. Ba$e 0o#r st#!ents 5#stif0 their g#esses /0 telling (hat cl#es the0 #se!. "on$ersations an! !ialog#es are also an e8cellent (a0 to %ractice con$ersational form#las s#ch as greetings an! lea$e-ta*ing3 sim%le re'#ests3 in$itations3 a%ologies3 com%liments3 etc. S#ch materials are %artic#larl0 #sef#l in one-on-one t#toring sit#ations.
Total +hysical 1es$onse

=o# can intro!#ce ne( $oca/#lar0 to st#!ents #sing this metho!. 7t is es%eciall0 effecti$e (ith 0o#ng learners /#t also #sef#l in action se'#ences (ith a!#lts. For e8am%le3 an0 time 0o# teach !irections3 ha$e 0o#r st#!ents act them o#t3 /oth (ith an! (itho#t re%etition of the !irections. This (ill im%ro$e /oth com%rehension an! retention. T4R acti$ities are also a goo! (a0 to /rea* #% a session in (hich st#!ents ha$e /een sitting a long time.
"atural A$$roach
)orro( some techni'#es from the 2at#ral A%%roach for teaching $oca/#lar0. 6eci!e on *e0 $oca/#lar0 terms to /e ta#ght !#ring the %resentation %hase of the lesson an! %lan ho( 0o# (ill %#t across the meaning of each of the (or!s. 7s it a $er/ (hose meaning 0o# can act o#t? "an 0o# sho( a %ict#re to ill#strate the meaning? > an0 teachers acc#m#late files of %ict#res s%ecificall0 for this %#r%ose.? "an 0o# #se stic* fig#res !ra(n on the /lac*/oar!? "an 0o# contrast or com%are the meaning of the ne( (or! to that of (or!s (hich the st#!ents alrea!0 *no(?
o,$etency.&ased A$$roach
To hel% 0o#r st#!ents see ho( m#ch the0 are learning3 intro!#ce real tas*s or com%etencies an! as* them to com%lete these. For e8am%le3 as* them to rea! a /#s sche!#le an! choose the /est /#s to ta*e. Ba$e them or!er foo! off a men# or a /oo* from an online catalog#e.
TEFL Manual
o,,unity Language Learning

Altho#gh comm#nit0 lang#age learning is not (i!el0 #se! in &*raine3 0o# can enco#rage more of a team s%irit in 0o#r class /0 /orro(ing some of the acti$ities from "omm#nit0 Lang#age Learning. These (ill also %romote real con$ersation.
o,,unicati#e A$$roaches
One of the !isting#ishing feat#res of the $ario#s t0%es of comm#nicati$e lang#age teaching is that the0 em%hasiDe the #se of lang#age in realistic (a0s. As 0o# go a/o#t 0o#r !ail0 ro#tines3 /e on the alert for (a0s in (hich 0o# #se English to carr0 o#t sim%le tas*s+ for e8am%le3 ta*ing a %hone message for a frien!3 or inter%reting for someone (ho s%ea*s English /#t !oesn@t *no( the local lang#age. A!a%t these tas*s for classroom acti$ities (hich (ill moti$ate 0o#r st#!ents an! allo( them to !emonstrate their #se of English in real life tas*s. 1etting other %eo%le to #n!erstan! (hat 0o# mean3 (hen 0o# s%ea*3 an! #n!erstan!ing (hat the0 mean3 (hen the0 s%ea*3 is *no(n as ;negotiating meaning< an! is consi!ere! the ma5or com%onent of s#ccessf#l comm#nication. The most im%ortant %art of learning a foreign lang#age3 accor!ing to the "omm#nicati$e etho!3 is !e$elo%ing the s*ill to comforta/l0 an! creati$el0 e8%ress 0o#r i!eas an! #n!erstan! (hat others are sa0ing >fluency?3 e$en (itho#t #n!erstan!ing e$er0 (or!. Less im%ortance is gi$en to %erfect master0 of grammar >accuracy?. What 0o# sa0 is more im%ortant than ho( 0o# sa0 it. When teaching3 s%ea*ing is em%hasiDe! as the main st#!ent acti$it0 an! most class time sho#l! /e s%ent on it. Then listening >as a %art of con$ersation?3 ne8t rea!ing3 an! finall0 (riting. All s*ills are #se! from the /eginning an! lessons foc#s on s#ccessf#l comm#nicationE sa0ing (hat 0o# mean an! #n!erstan!ing (hat others mean. Translation is not an essential s*ill3 #n!er the "omm#nicati$e etho!3 an! an0 class time or home(or* assignments re'#iring translation are not #se!. S%ea*ing onl0 in English is consi!ere! /est !#ring the lesson. The main 5o/ for a teacher #sing the "omm#nicati$e etho! is to /e a facilitator. This means that the teacher acts as a helper3 enco#raging st#!ents to comm#nicate (ith each other an! creating sit#ations (here the0 can !o so. The teacher sho#l! (or* to /alance the !ifferent %ersonalities in the class so all st#!ents ma0 %artici%ate an! learn. Sh0 st#!ents m#st /e enco#rage! to s%ea* an! confi!ent st#!ents m#st /e gentl0 restraine! from s%ea*ing too often an! !ominating the entire lesson. St#!ents are the center of the action3 s%ea*ing3 listening3 an! tal*ing (ith each other. The teacher starts the interaction /et(een st#!ents an! ma0 %artici%ate sometimes3 /#t #s#all03 the teacherCs role is to mo$e aro#n! the classroom gi$ing a!$ice an! hel%ing the st#!ents sta0 on trac* an! comm#nicate /etter >this incl#!es ans(ering their '#estions an! chec*ing on their %erformance3 correcting grammar?. St#!ents #s#all0 (or* in small gro#%s. There sho#l! /e m#ch more st#!ent-st#!ent interaction than teacher-st#!ent interaction. Long lect#res (here the st#!ents onl0 listen to the teacher s%ea*3 (ith no interaction3 are !isco#rage!. The teacher sho#l! (or* to create a rela8e! an! frien!l0 atmos%here in the classroom. )eca#se st#!ents (ill /e s%ea*ing often3 an! /eca#se the0 (ill /e !isc#ssing their o(n feelings an! o%inions3 creating a safe an! comfortable atmos%here is $er0 im%ortant. R#!e comments /0 other st#!ents sho#l! not /e tolerate!.
TEFL Manual
Ta2le 4.
Principles Goals Traditional Methods Able to read literature written in the target language Learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary Communicative Approaches Become communicatively competent. Able to use the language appropriate to a given social context Gain knowledge of the linguistic forms, meanings, and functions oles are not traditional !eacher re facilitator of students# learning. !eacher has many roles$ manager, advisor, and co%communicator. "tudents are communicators. !hey are actively engaged in trying to make themselves understood and to understand others, even when their knowledge of the target language is incomplete. !hey are responsible for their own learning.
Roles of the Teacher oles are prescribed. and Students !eachers are authorities in the classroom. "tudents do as the teacher says so they can learn what the teacher knows.
TEFL Manual
Principles Characteristics of the TeachingLearning Process
Traditional Methods "tudents may be taught to translate from one language to another. !hey might translate readings about some aspect of the culture of the foreign language community, or they might be memori&ing dialogues. "tudents study and practice grammar rules. !hey learn grammatical paradigms such as verb con'ugations. !hey may memori&e native language e(uivalents for vocabulary words. +ost of the interaction is from teacher to students. !here is little student initiation and little student%to%student interaction.
Communicative Approaches )verything is done with a communicative intent. "tudents use the language through communicative activities such as games, role%plays, and problem%solving tasks. !hese activities have features such as$ information gap, choice, and feedback. *se of authentic material "mall groups !eachers are the initiators of the activities, but they don#t continually interact with the students.. "tudents interact a great deal with one another. !hey do this in pairs, triads, small groups, and whole group.
The nature of Student-Teacher and Student-| Student Interaction
eeling of Students ,Affect-
!ie" of Language and Culture
#mphasi$ed Language S%ills
!he affective domain does not play a role in !eachers give students an opportunity to these methods. express their ideas and opinions on a regular basis. "tudent security is enhanced by the many opportunities for cooperative interactions with their fellow students and the teacher. Literary language is superior to spoken Language is for communication. Linguistic language. !herefore students study literary competence is only one part. /nowledge of language. the functions language is used for is another competence. Learners need the knowledge .ulture is viewed as consisting of literature of forms, meaning and functions of the target and the fine arts. language and how to use them in different social contexts. .ulture includes everyday life and beliefs of the people who use the language as native speakers. 0onverbal behavior receives attention in this approach. 1ocabulary and grammar are emphasi&ed. 2ocus is on language function over form. eading and writing are often the primary !hey learn about cohesion and coherence. skills. All four skills are worked on from the Attention is given to speaking, pronunciation beginning. and listening in the traditional audio%lingual approach..
TEFL Manual
Principles Roles of Students& 'ative Language
Traditional Methods !he meaning of the target language is made clear through translation. 3n Grammar translation, the students# native language is used in the classroom more than the target language. 4owever, the native language is not used in Audio%lingual classrooms
#valuation
!ie" of #rrors
Communicative Approaches !he students# native language has no particular role. !he target language should be used not only during class activities, but also, for example, in explaining the activities or in assigning homework. !he students learn from these classroom management exchanges and reali&e that the target language is a vehicle for communication, not 'ust an ob'ect to be studied. Grammar !ranslation$ 5ritten tests in which )valuates both accuracy and fluency. students are asked to translate from their )valuation is done both informally and native language to the target language or formally. !ests have real communicative vice versa are often used. 6uestions about functions ,example$ writing a letter to a the foreign culture or (uestions that ask friend-. students to apply grammar rules are also common. AL+% .onversations, drills, and exercises 4aving students get the correct answer is )rrors are tolerated and are seen as a considered very important. 3f students make natural outcome of the development of errors or don#t know an answer, the teacher communication skills. "tudents can have supplies them with the correct answer. limited linguistic knowledge and still be successful communicators.
References
Larsen-Freeman3 6.3 Techni$ues and %rinciples in Language Teaching3 O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HG9. Teacher Training& ' (eference )anual3 4eace "or%s 7nformation "ollection an! E8change. 6ec*ert3 1.3 AThe "omm#nicati$e A%%roach+ Bel%ing St#!ents A!5#st3A English Teaching For#m3 M#l0 1HG:. 6o/son3 M.3 Effective Techni$ues for English *onversation +roups3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH9. E!elman3 ".3 AEffecti$e 7nter$ie(s in the "omm#nicati$e "lassroom3A English Teaching For#m3 M#l0 1HG:. Nirn3 E. an! Bartmann3 4.3 1HHI. 7nteractions 77+ A Rea!ing S*ills )oo*+ 2e( =or*3 c1ra(-Bil3 7nc. Nli%%el3 F.3 ,eep Talking& *ommunicative Fluency 'ctivities for Language Teaching3 "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HH3. al*oc an! ontal$an3 e!.3 -right #deas& ' Teacher.s (esource )anual3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH1. Wi!!o(son3 B. 1.3 Teaching Language as *ommunication3 O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1H:H.
TEFL Manual
. O&er&ie' of Lan#ua#e S(ills) Listenin# and Readin#

Listening (ith #n!erstan!ing S$ea%ing an! /eing #n!erstoo! 1eading (ith #n!erstan!ing 5riting an! /eing #n!erstoo! /0 the rea!er
Listening and reading ha$e often /een %ercei$e! as ;rece%ti$e s*ills< /eca#se it a%%ears that
a listener or rea!ing is onl0 recei$ing information. Bo(e$er3 (e c#rrentl0 $ie( /oth listening an! rea!ing to /e interacti$e s*ills re'#iring listeners/rea!ers to ta*e in information an! %rocess it (ith their c#rrent *no(le!ge.
Listening
Listening3 (hich means %a0ing attention to an! #n!erstan!ing (hat 0o# hear3 is an essential s*ill for comm#nication. The aim of listening tas*s sho#l! /e to %re%are st#!ents for interaction in the real (orl!. A. Select a$$ro$riate ,aterial. 7tCs im%ortant to #n!erstan! the !ifference /et(een a#thentic $ers#s %re%are! listening materials. A#thentic listening materials are more challenging than materials that are s%ecificall0 %re%are! for lang#age learners. TEFL/TESL listening materials are often gra!e! for %artic#lar le$els3 might incl#!e /oth a#!iota%es an! corres%on!ing te8t/oo*s3 an! are #s#all0 easier to co%e (ith /eca#se the0 are %lanne! or rehearse! lang#age. 7f listening tas*s are !oa/le3 st#!ents are more li*el0 to /e s#ccessf#l3 (hich in t#rn /#il!s their confi!ence. &. &e aware of different listening strategies and $ur$oses. We !o not listen to air%ort anno#ncements in the same (a0 as (e !o to ra!io ne(s3 a lect#re3 or a frien!Cs con$ersation. Nee% these !ifferences in min! (hen choosing listening tas*s for 0o#r st#!ents. Esta2lish the $ur$ose for listening so that 0o# can %re%are the a%%ro%riate acti$ities. Al(a0s gi$e st#!ents s%ecific reasons for listening an! s%ecific information to listen for. 4#r%ose incl#!es listening O 1. for the gist >or glo/al #n!erstan!ing? 2. for s%ecific information >an anno#ncement at an air%ort? 3. to esta/lish a conte8t >(here is it ha%%ening? What is ha%%ening? Who is s%ea*ing to (hom?? ,. to gather information for later !isc#ssion3 role-%la03 or information e8change . +re$are a$$ro$riate listening tas%s The main f#nctions of a listening tas* sho#l! /e to hel% learners gain confi!ence in their listening a/ilit0 an! to /#il! strategies that hel% learners ma*e sense of (hat the0 hear. )e %ositi$e to(ar!s the learnersC attem%ts to carr0 o#t the tas*s. a*e s#re 0o#r tas*s are clear3 foc#se! an! not too !iffic#lt. Ans(er these '#estions as 0o# !e$elo% listening tas*s+ What is the %#r%ose of the tas*? What listening s*ills (ill /e %ractice!? 7s the tas* s#ita/le for the learnersC le$el?
TEFL Manual
What lang#age !o the st#!ents nee! in or!er to !o the tas* >*e0 $oca/#lar0?? Bo( can 7 create an interest in the listening te8t?
Tips and advice to help teachers develop listening activities and tasks: intro!#ce listening material (ith sim%le glo/al #n!erstan!ing '#estions to hel% re!#ce st#!entCs fear ass#re st#!ents that the0 (ill hear the ta%e more than once to hel% them rela8 an! listen o%enl0 (ith less stress %lace learners in airs or small gro#%s to ena/le them to share their in!i$i!#al !iffic#lties in fin!ing the ans(ers chec* an! reconfirm st#!entsC ans(ers an! i!eas to hel% them feel sec#re. -. +lanning a Listening Lesson: Staging the acti$ities an! clarif0ing the %#r%ose of the stages are t(o im%ortant %oints (hen creating a listening s*ills lesson. Ten stages for a listening lesson incl#!e+ +re.listening 1. Warm #% >set the sceneE acti$ate schema or %rior *no(le!ge?. 2. 7f !esire!3 teach *e0 $oca/#lar0 to e'#i% the st#!ents (ith essential $oca/#lar0 for managing the tas* s#ccessf#ll0. 3. 4ro$i!e '#estions/tas*s for general com%rehension >get the gist? to moti$ate st#!ents to listen an! to create interest in the to%ic or theme of the recor!ing. Listening ,. 4la0 the recor!ing for the first time -. 4air #% st#!ents an! as* them to !isc#ss the general or gist '#estions to hel% st#!ents feel sec#re an! confi!ent /efore the secon! listening an! tas*. 9. 4la0 the recor!ing a secon! time (ith a more s%ecific reason/tas* for listening. The teacher sho#l! circ#late aro#n! the classroom3 chec*ing the st#!entsC %artici%ation3 facial e8%ressions3 an! /o!0 lang#age to get an i!ea of their in!i$i!#al a/ilities to co%e (ith the tas*. +ost Listening :. 4ro$i!e time for st#!ents >in!i$i!#all03 in %airs or teams? to ans(er s%ecific '#estions or com%lete com%rehension tas*s. While st#!ents are acti$el0 engage!3 the teacher sho#l! circ#late aro#n! the classroom to monitor an! assess st#!entsC %artici%ation. G. Ba$e st#!ents re%ort ans(ers to the (hole class. "hec* an! confirm their res%onses. H. 1i$e follo( #% acti$ities >s#ch as (ritten (or*? to foc#s st#!ents on s%ecific as%ects of the listening te8t. 1I. Assess st#!ents (or* >an! the effecti$eness of the listening acti$ities?.
TEFL Manual
Ty$es of listening acti#ities

The first fo#r listening tas* t0%es ma0 /e !one /efore or (hile the st#!ents are listening to the te8t for the first time. Tr#e/false statements an! m#lti%le choice '#estions are more a%%ro%riate after st#!ents ha$e ha! t(o or more chances to listen. 2ote-ta*ing re'#ires se$eral o%%ort#nities for listening. +redicting through #oca2ulary: 1i$e st#!ents a list of *e0 $oca/#lar0 items an! as* them to %re!ict or g#ess (hat the !ialog#e or stor0 (ill /e a/o#t. This tas* allo(s the teacher to %re-teach the $oca/#lar0 #se! in the listening material (hile %re%aring learners for the semantic fiel!. Student.generated questions as a first listening tas*+ 7n %airs3 ha$e st#!ents (rite '#estions the0 (o#l! li*e to as* after listening to the te8t. Then ha$e them listen to the recor!ing an! chec* ho( man0 of their '#estions ha$e /een ans(ere!. Listening for s$ecific infor,ation: 1i$e the st#!ents a list of items an! as* them to chec* off items that are mentione! (hile the0 are listening. +utting e#ents6ite,s in the right order: 1i$e st#!ents the list of items or e$ents mentione! on the ta%e. As* them to rea! the list3 listen to the !ialog#e3 an! n#m/er the e$ents in the or!er that the0 hear them. True6false state,ents: As* the st#!ents to listen an! circle Tr#e or False. O$en.ended questions: Select !etails from the (ritten te8t or ta%e an! form '#estions a/o#t them. Multi$le.choice questions. "ote.ta%ing: Foc#s st#!ents listening /0 intro!#cing se$eral to%ics. 1i$e the tas*s to ta*e notes on !ifferent to%ics mentione! in the te8t. Authentic listening is /ase! on a sit#ation in (hich st#!ents might fin! themsel$es >anno#ncements at the air%orts3 etc.?. After listening to the recor!e! te8t3 st#!ents ma0 fill in the !etails on the gri! or/an! ans(er '#estions.
Sa,$les of Other Listening Acti#ities that do not require a $re.recorded $assage:

7 &ingo . St#!ents ma*e their o(n /oar!s an! the teacher rea!s the n#m/ers. 7n a!!ition to %racticing n#m/ers3 st#!ents can also #se this game to %ractice $ario#s $oca/#lar0 lists. For e8am%le3 0o# can %la0 ;S%orts /ingo<. Bere the st#!ents (o#l! fill in all the s'#ares >#s#all0 19? (ith !ifferent s%orts3 an! then the teacher (o#l! sho( %ict#res of these s%orts or %antomime them.
TEFL Manual
7 7 7 7 7
&lindfold -irections . A st#!ent is %#t in a /lin!fol! an! other st#!ents $er/all0 g#i!e him/her aro#n! o/stacles in the room. orrect Me . The teacher s%ea*s (ith grammar mista*es an! st#!ents correct the teacher. -raw This +icture . The teacher >or another st#!ent? !escri/es a %ict#re no/o!0 can see3 an! st#!ents !ra( it /ase! on the !escri%tion. Fill.In.the.&lan% Story . The teacher rea!s a short stor0 or a %aragra%h 3 or , times3 then rea!s it again3 /#t lea$ing o#t certain (or!s3 (hich st#!ents fill in. Mystery O28ect . The teacher !escri/es an o/5ect in the room >or o#tsi!e the room? an! st#!ents g#ess (hat it is. +ulling My Leg . The teacher e8%lains the English i!iom ;%#lling m0 leg< to in!icate !is/elief. 4#%ils learn it an! %ractice sa0ing it. Then the teacher /egins telling a stor03 e$ent#all0 a!!ing a fantastic element or t#rning it into a ;tall tale<E here the attenti$e %#%il (ill e8claim3 ;=o#Cre %#lling m0 legJ< E8am%le+ ;7 (as (al*ing !o(n the street the other !a0 (hen 7 met a frien! of mine. We /egan tal*ing3 an! he tol! me he ha! 5#st /een on a $acation. Be ha! 5#st ret#rne! from the moon.< ;=o#Cre %#lling m0 legJJ< Scra,2led +ictures . "hoose a short stor0. 6ra( some sim%le %ict#res to ill#strate the stor03 an! c#t them o#t. Ban! them o#t to %#%ils an! as* them to %#t the %ict#res in their %ro%er se'#ence. Si,on Says . 1reat for oral comman!s an! teaching %arts of the /o!0 an! li$ening things #% >See T4R?. 5hich One A, I -escri2ing9 . There are a n#m/er of !ifferent %ict#res3 s*etches3 %eo%le3 (hate$er on the /lac*/oar!3 an! the teacher !escri/es them one /0 one as the st#!ents g#ess (hich one is /eing !escri/e!.
7 7
TEFL Manual
Ta(le )* Snapshot of Listening Activities Stages Activities #+planations,-emonstrations Pre-Listening,.arm-up 7. elicitation8discussion about the topic ,based on visuals, titlea. elicit something associated with the topic b. encourage students to exchange ideas8opinions about the topic a. 5ord%star$ ask students to predict the words and expressions likely to appear in the passage. !eacher writes them on the blackboard. b. expressing hypotheses about the content of the passage, based on previous knowledge. 5rite notes down a. warming%up and relaxation b. training in basic listening skills, e.g.,, miming words and expressions heard; minimal%pair distinctions teacher asks8writes (uestions that help students exploit listening passages .hile-Listening .hileListening 7. comparing 9. following instructions students compare a passage with a prediction made from pre%listening activities students are given instructions and demonstrate comprehension by body language, finishing tasks, etc. students hear the utterances of only one of the participants and are asked to reconstruct those of the others. students are asked to repeat short phrases or complete utterances recorded students listen to passages, responding only when they come across something different or wrong students listen to a list of words and tick off or categori&e them as they hear them students complete maps, plans, grids, forms, lists, pictures, based on the listening
9. brainstorming PreListening
:. games
<. guiding (uestions
:. filling in gaps
<. repetition =. detecting differences or mistakes >. ticking off items ,bingo?. information transfer
TEFL Manual
@. paraphrase
students are asked to focus on certain sentences and paraphrase them students are asked to give the right order for a series of events8actions heard during the listening passage ,or picturesstudents listen to a passage and take notes on the segments that answer a particular (uestion students are given the transcript of a passage with some words missing and must fill in the blanks while listening ,also known as a clo&e exercisestudents are asked to match items that have the same meaning as things they hear Post-Listening
A. se(uencing
7B. information search
77. filling in blanks
79. matching
7. answering to show comprehension of messages 9. problem solving
"tudents complete multiple%choice or true8false (uestions
students hear all the information relevant to a particular problem and then set themselves to solve it students are given several possible summary%sentences and asked to say which of them fits a recorded text Cifferent groups of students listen to different but connected passages, each of which supplies some part of what they need to know. !hen they come together to exchange information in order to complete a story or perform a task. e.g.,, letters, telegrams, postcards, messages, etc., related to passages
:. summari&ing
PostListening
<. 'igsaw listening
=. writing as a follow%up to listening activities
>. speaking as follow%up to listening activities
e.g.,, debate, interview, discussion, role%play, dramati&ation, etc., associated with the passages
TEFL Manual
Reading
There are man0 ty$es of reading3 an! therefore3 man0 !ifferent rea!ing s*ills an! strategies that &*rainian st#!ents (ill nee! to master in or!er to /ecome %roficient rea!ers in English. TEFL teachers nee! to remem/er that %eo%le ha$e !ifferent rea!ing st0les3 there is a $ariet0 of %#r%oses for rea!ing3 an! efficient rea!ers em%lo0 !ifferent rea!ing strategies !e%en!ing on the %#r%ose of the rea!ing acti$it0.
Teachers (ill nee! to antici%ate %ossi/le rea!ing !iffic#lties3 es%eciall0 those #ni'#e to EFL learners3 an! /e %re%are! (ith techni'#es to hel% learners o$ercome rea!ing !iffic#lties. Teachers (ill nee! to /e a/le to e$al#ate rea!ing tas*s in or!er to a!a%t an! str#ct#re them for st#!entsC s#ccess. Teachers also nee! to learn ho( to %lan an effecti$e rea!ing lesson. When consi!ering the s*ills in$ol$e! in school-/ase! rea!ing tas*s3 it is im%ortant to #n!erstan! the s#/sets of rea!ing strategies an! s*ills that are essential for aca!emic gro(th. Rea!ing a $ariet0 of te8ts is an im%ortant as%ect of the st#!0 of English3 an! /0 i!entif0ing an! %ro$i!ing instr#ction in these s#/sets3 teachers can assist st#!ents to rea! more effecti$el0. Among the s#/set of s*ills that TEFL teachers (ill nee! to teach /eginners an! to strengthen interme!iate/a!$ance! st#!entsC rea!ing s*ills is hel%ing rea!ers to >a? learn the meaning of #nfamiliar (or!s >$oca/#lar0 !e$elo%ment?3 >/? #n!erstan! e8%licitl0 state! information >!irect com%rehension? an! >c? infer im%licit information from te8t >inference?. Rea!ers also nee! to learn to !isting#ish the relations /et(een %arts of a te8t3 %artic#larl0 !isting#ishing the main i!eas from s#%%orting !etails. St#!ents nee! to learn the s*ill of s*imming a te8t for a general im%ression of the i!eas /0 foc#sing on *e0 content (or!s an! the to%ic sentences. The0 also nee! to learn ho( to scan a te8t for a s%ecific items of information s#ch as a %artic#lar %hrase3 n#m/er3 name or fact (ithin a te8t. St#!ents nee! to learn ho( to !isting#ish facts from o%inions3 an! at higher le$els3 to inter%ret a (i!e range of te8ts. )asic rea!ing com%rehension can /e chec*e! thro#gh tr#e/false statements3 or m#lti%le choice '#estions3 matching or3 se'#encing acti$ities3 o%en-en!e! '#estions3 or %re%aring short re$ie(s an! s#mmaries Rea!ers also nee! to learn ho( to #se their e8%erience an! o#tsi!e *no(le!ge to inter%ret an! !econstr#ct ne( material. St#!ents nee! to learn ho( to categoriDe ne( learning as an ai! to #n!erstan!ing an! remem/ering information as (ell as !etermining ho( to #se the ne( learning to accom%lish a tas*. For e8am%le3 a sim%le health or en$ironmental te8t can %ro$i!e information #sef#l %ersonal information or for %lanning a s%ecial e$ent in 0o#r school. At higher le$els3 rea!ers sho#l! /e a/le to s#mmariDe the a#thorCs %oint of $ie( an! #se their o(n e8%erience an! *no(le!ge to agree or !isagree (ith the a#thorCs %osition. A!$ance! rea!ers sho#l! /e a/le to com%are information from m#lti%le so#rces an! !emonstrate their #n!erstan!ing of te8ts /0 creating scri%ts3 role %la0s3 stories3 !e/ates3 or (riting re$ie(s. St#!ents nee! to /e e8%ose! to intensive reading P that is3 rea!ing for !etails an! s%ecific
TEFL Manual
information P an! e8tensi$e rea!ing of a long te8t for %leas#re3 entertainment3 or %ersonal interest in a!!ition to classroom rea!ing to com%lete an acti$it0 or assignment. Within each class3 there (ill %ro/a/l0 /e st#!ents (ith strong rea!ing s*ills (ho can easil0 !o s%i,,ing an! scanning an! com%lete /asic rea!ing tas*s. Bo(e$er3 there might /e some st#!ents (ho lac* the moti$ation or rea!ing s#/s*ills an! strategies to a%%roach a te8t. The0 ma0 rea! (ith little com%rehension an! /e #na/le to com%lete associate! tas*s or acti$ities. Teachers nee! to /ecome a(are of !eficiencies in rea!ing s*ills an! /e a/le to assess s*ill ga%s an! %re%are reme!ial lessons to hel% st#!ents gain s#fficient rea!ing s*ills3 not onl0 in English3 /#t also for rea!ing other aca!emic materials. Finall03 teachers (ill nee! to e$al#ate materials an! acti$ities to ens#re that most st#!ents can s#ccessf#ll0 rea! an! #se the materials to com%lete tas*s an! to contin#e rea!ing for information an! for %leas#re.
1eading S%ills 2y Le#el

Low 2eginners should 2e a2le to: Q recogniDe letters an! transcri%tion mar*s. Q associate (or!s (ith their (ritten %resentations. Q #se rea!ing for e$er0!a0 tas*s. Q rea! a sim%le te8t. !igh 2eginners and inter,ediate students should 2e a2le to: Qs*im an! scan the te8t. Q %ic* o#t main i!eas. Q #n!erstan! se'#ence of e$ents. Q g#ess the meaning of (or!s >#se conte8t or (or! anal0sis? Q inter%ret a te8t at an interme!iate !iffic#lt0 le$el. !igh inter,ediate and ad#anced students should 2e a2le to: Q !isco$er the a#thor@s %#r%ose. Q #n!erstan! logical relationshi% /et(een %arts in the te8t. Q e$al#ate the te8t. Q rea! a!$ance! TEFL te8ts an! a#thentic materials. Ti$s and ad#ice for hel%ing a teacher !e$elo% rea!ing acti$ities an! tas*s+ A. Selecting and ada$ting te*ts. Similar to listening tas*s3 it is im%ortant to #n!erstan! the !ifference /et(een a#thentic $ers#s %re%are! rea!ing materials3 an! select materials that (ill /e of interest to the st#!ents. "onsi!er the follo(ing+ 7s the lang#age of the te8t a%%ro%riate for 0o#r st#!ents? Bo( (ill 0o# !eal (ith !iffic#lties >$oca/#lar03 organiDation3 #nfamiliar conce%ts? 6eci!e (hat $is#al s#%%ort might /e hel%f#l. "an 0o# %ro$i!e a $oca/#lar0 *e0 to hel% st#!ents #n!erstan! the te8t? 7f the te8t is too long3 can 0o# teach %arts of it?
TEFL Manual
7f the te8t is too !iffic#lt3 can 0o# re(rite an! a!a%t it to ma*e the $oca/#lar0 or str#ct#re easier to #n!erstan!? "an 0o# ch#n* the information so %#%ils a%%roach it in small3 c#m#lati$e #nits? "an 0o# !esign acti$ities that (ill allo( %#%ils to foc#s onl0 on the most im%ortant as%ects of the te8t?
&. -ecide which reading s%ills 0o# (ill foc#s on for the lesson >s*ills are %rioritiDe! from /asic to more a!$ance!? Rea!ing for e8%licitl0 state! information S*imming Scanning 6etermining the meaning of (or!s >#sing conte8t3 cognates an! (or! anal0sis s*ills3 or !ictionaries? 6ifferentiating the main i!eas an! i!entif0ing s#%%orting information E$al#ating correctness of statements (ithin the te8t. 6isting#ish fact an! o%inion. Rea!ing to !isco$er inferre! information S#mmariDing 4ara%hrasing "ategoriDing information in or!er to #se it in another conte8t >research? 6isco$ering the a#thorCs %oint of $ie( P agreeing or !isagreeing (ith it . Select a$$ro$riate reading acti#ities. The main f#nction of rea!ing acti$ities is to hel% st#!ents gain confi!ence in their s*ills to rea! for information >an! for %leas#re?. The rea!ing acti$ities 0o# chose sho#l! hel% st#!ents ma*e sense of (hat the0 rea!. a*e s#re the instr#ctions for the acti$ities are clear3 foc#se!3 an! not too !iffic#lt. -. +lanning a reading lesson ost lesson %lans ha$e se$eral com%onents+ >1? oti$ation/Warm-#%3 >2? 4resentation3 >3? 4ractice3 an! >,? A%%lication or E$al#ation. 7n rea!ing3 0o# (ill (ant to incl#!e a %re-rea!ing acti$it0 to acti$ate learnersC *no(le!ge an! interest. This is follo(e! /0 a g#i!e! rea!ing acti$it0 an! then rea!ing alone. an0 teachers (ill set #% a tas* for learners to !o (hile rea!ing an! then follo( that #% (ith a!!itional e8ercises relate! to the $oca/#lar03 rea!ing s*ills !e$elo%ment3 or the content of the %assage. )efore 0o# /egin a lesson3 %lan *no(le!ge acti$ation acti$ities. "onsi!er the follo(ing+ What !o st#!ents alrea!0 *no( a/o#t this s#/5ect? What $oca/#lar0 !o most of them alrea!0 #n!erstan!? What %ersonal e8%eriences (ith the to%ic ma0 st#!ents ha$e ha!? +re.reading acti#ities >ma0 incl#!e eliciting an! *no(le!ge acti$ation acti$ities a/o$e? 4re!icting (hat the te8t (ill /e a/o#t /0 #sing hea!lines3 titles3 %ict#res3 etc. Rehearsing (hat the st#!ents might e8%ect to fin! in the te8t. R#estions to foc#s st#!ents on %artic#lar as%ects of the te8t.
TEFL Manual
5hile.reading tas%s Tas*s the teacher has %re%are! for st#!ents to com%lete (hile rea!ing sho#l! /e intro!#ce! an! e8%laine! /efore st#!ents /egin rea!ing. The tas*s sho#l! /e !e$elo%e! /ase! on the s*ills the teacher (ishes st#!ents to learn or %ractice !#ring this lesson. For e8am%le3 st#!ents might /e as*e! to >a? match $oca/#lar0 (or!s (ith !efinitions3 >/? #n!erline the main i!ea3 >c? scan for s%ecific information3 etc. St#!ents might com%lete a tas* in!i$i!#all03 in %airs3 or small gro#%s. +ost.reading tas%s After the st#!ents ha$e rea! the %assage an! !isc#sse! the ;(hile rea!ing< tas*s3 the class can mo$e into com%rehension an! e8%ansion acti$ities. Some teachers rel0 on the familiar e8ercises s#ch as tr#e/false3 m#lti%le-choice3 or '#estions re'#iring short ans(ers. St#!ents com%lete the tas*s set /0 the teacher an! the class re$ie(s the correctness an! acc#rac0 of ans(ers3 citing te8t in s#%%ort of ans(ers. The ne8t section %ro$i!es a list of a!!itional acti$ities Sa,$le reading acti#ities Ans(er or e$al#ate the correctness of Tr#e/False statements Ans(er m#lti%le choice '#estions a/o#t the te8t "om%lete a chart #sing information from the te8t >information transfer? Locate i!entifie! (or!s or %hrases in the te8t >scanning? 7!entif0 main i!eas from the te8t >s*imming? Locate an! i!entif0 information from the te8t s#%%orting a#thorCs %oint of $ie( 6e$elo% $oca/#lar0+ &se conte8t cl#es from the te8t3 st#!ents g#ess at the meaning of !esignate! (or!s an! the class shares their g#esses an! reasons for the g#esses3 (hile teacher %ro$i!es fee!/ac* regar!ing the acc#rac0 of the g#esses. &se *e0 (or!s - se'#ence *e0 (or!s an! #se them to re-tell the te8t "om%lete a cloDe rea!ing tas* P e$er0 ;nth<(or! >-th-9th-:th (or!? is re%lace! (ith a /lan* an! st#!ents tr0 to com%lete the te8t /0 filling in the missing (or!. This can also /e a listening tas*. M#m/les >(hen !one in gro#%s3 these acti$ities re'#ire lots of comm#nication? o M#m/le! sentences >St#!ents are gi$en (or!s from a sentence that ha$e /een c#t a%art an! then reassem/le the sentences in the correct or!er? o M#m/le! %aragra%hs >st#!ents are gi$en sentences from a %aragra%h in the te8t an! m#st re-or!er the sentences to sho( the main i!ea an! the s#%%orting sentences? o M#m/le! te8t >st#!ents are gi$en a te8t in (hich the %aragra%hs ha$e /een c#t a%art an! m#st reassem/le the %aragra%hs in the correct or!er. 4aragra%hs can also /e gi$en to st#!ents (ith the first sentence missing an! %#%ils m#st select the a%%ro%riate first sentence from a list %ro$i!e!. S#mmariDe the te8t .ariation+ st#!ents s#mmariDe im%ortant i!eas in 1II (or!s - -I (or!s - ten (or!s3 an! finall0 a telegram or te8t message 4ara%hrase+ st#!ents re-%hrase sentences or %aragra%hs from the te8t in !ifferent3 more com%act form.
TEFL Manual
Migsa( rea!ing acti$ities in gro#%s. Each mem/er of a gro#% rea!s a !ifferent %art of a te8t an! then gro#% mem/ers share their information (ith one another in or!er to com%lete a tas*.
Follow u$ or E*$ansion Acti#ities: The class might e8ten! learning thro#gh !isc#ssion or !e/ate on iss#es raise! /0 the te8t. Or the0 co#l! !ramatiDe information from the te8t3 create stories3 role %la0s an! scri%ts /ase! on te8t. St#!ents might (ant to (rite s#mmaries or re$ie(s of articles3 or e$en %ractice (riting a res%onse to the a#thor. St#!ents might con!#ct f#rther research to /#il! *no(le!ge on a to%ic. Finall03 teachers sho#l! %ro$i!e an o%%ort#nit0 for st#!ents to reflect on an! %ersonaliDe their learning /0 relating (hat the0 ha$e rea! (ith their o(n *no(le!ge an! e8%erience.
References
6off3 A.3 Teach English& ' Training *ourse for Teachers3 "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress an! )ritish "o#ncil3 1HH,. aclin3 A.3 (eference +uide to English& ' /andbook of English as a Second Language3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH,. &r. 4enn03 Teaching Listening *omprehension3 "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HG,. A!elsten3 M.3 et al.3 Listening and Speaking 'ctivity -ook3 O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HH3. "#rr03 6.3 (ight (eading3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH,. 6o/son3 M.3 0ialogs fo Everyday 1se3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH, Fr03 E.3 /ow to Teach (eading3 Lag#na )each E!#cational )oo*s3 1HH2. Nral3 T.3 e!.3 Teacher 0evelopment& )aking the (ight )oves3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH,. Nral3 T.3 e!.3 2The Lighter Side2 of TEFL3 &nite! States 7nformation Ser$ice3 1HH,. Littlehea!3 W.3 *ommunicative Language Teaching& 'n #ntroduction3 "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HG,. asso#!3 L B#ston3 %reludes to (eading3 &nite! States 7nformation Ser$ice. #r%h03 R.3 A.3 From %ractice to %erformance& ' )anual of Teaching Training 3orkshop 'ctivities3 $ol. 13 &nite! States 7nformation Ser$ice3 1HH-. Olsen3 M.3 Winn-)ell3 *ommunication Starters44and 5ther 'ctivities for the ESL *lassroom3 Alemagn0 4ress3 1H::. 4eterson3 4.3 Wilco83 *hanging Times, *hanging Tenses3 &nite! States 7nformation Agenc03 1HH9. 4otter3 R.3 Language 3orkshop& ' +uide to -etter English3 1lo/e )oo* "o.3 1H:9. Sa$age3 N. L0nn3 A6ialog#es/6rillsA an! A7nformation 1a%s3A Teacher Training Through 6ideo& ESL Techni$ues3 Longman3 1HH2.
*. O&er&ie' of the +asic Lan#ua#e S(ills) S,ea(in# and Writin#
TEFL Manual
S$ea%ing and writing are often consi!ere! $roducti#e s%ills. When s%ea*ing an! (riting3 st#!ents ha$e to organiDe their tho#ghts an! (or!s orall0 or in (riting. The0 %ro!#ce lang#age that can /e hear! an! rea!.
Spea ing
S%ea*ing is a learnerCs a/ilit0 to comm#nicate orall0 an! hol! a con$ersation in the foreign lang#age. S%ea*ing in$ol$es three areas of *no(le!ge+ echanics >%ron#nciation3 grammar3 an! $oca/#lar0?. F#nctions >transaction an! interaction?. Social an! c#lt#ral r#les an! norms >t#rn-ta*ing3 rate of s%eech3 length of %a#ses /et(een s%ea*ers3 relati$e roles of %artici%ants?. A learner (ith goo! s%ea*ing s*ills (ill !emonstrate the follo(ing s*ills+ &n!erstan!ing an! comm#nicating information from sim%le nee!s to '#ite com%le8 information >often !etermine! /0 lang#age %roficienc0 le$el? S%ea*ing clearl03 a#!i/l0 an! #sing a%%ro%riate lang#age Tal*ing effecti$el0 a/o#t %ersonal e8%erience Res%on!ing to other %eo%leCs o%inions an! to /e a/le to recogniDe %artic#lar arg#ments3 o%inions3 an! re'#ests for information S%ea*ing in an a%%ro%riate tone in $ario#s contrasting s%eech sit#ations OrganiDing an! %resenting o%inions3 i!eas an! facts in a coherent mannerE #sing lang#age to %ers#a!e an! infl#ence others.
Teaching s%ea*ing s*ills hel%s st#!ents !e$elo% comm#nicati$e com%etence in a (i!e range of s%eech sit#ations. S$ea%ing lessons usually co,2ine four stages: eliciting3 controlle! oral %ractice3 free or g#i!e! %ractice3 an! comm#nicati$e o#t%#t. Eliciting means getting information from %eo%le as o%%ose! to gi$ing it to them P as*ing '#estions an! !ra(ing them into con$ersation. The %#r%ose of this stage is to %resent or re$ie( the lang#age that the st#!ents (ill nee! in a controlle! sit#ation. Eliciting hel%s a teacher !e$elo% the teaching s*ill of not tal*ing too m#ch (hile learners are stim#late! to s%ea*. Eliciting can /e !one in the follo(ing (a0s+ With almost no oral lang#age3 teachers can %rom%t sim%le s%eech #sing o gest#res an! mime. o real o/5ects >realia?. o $is#al ai!s >!ra(ings3 flashcar!s3 $i!eos3 etc.?. o %rom%ts3 c#es an! '#estions in social sit#ations. With limite! oral lang#age3 teachers can elicit sim%le s%eech /0 o 1i$ing $er/al instr#ctions
TEFL Manual
o As*ing 0es/no or either/or '#estions >(hich can /e ans(ere! (ith minimal oral lang#age? o As*ing (h-'#estions >(ho3 (hat3 (here3 (hen3 (h03 an! ho(?. o 1i$ing one (or! ans(ers3 sim%le !efinitions3 #se *e0 $oca/#lar0 o &sing s0non0ms an! anton0ms. o Allo(ing translation. ontrolled oral $ractice of a %artic#lar lang#age item often foc#ses on acc#rac0. 7t allo(s st#!ents to get a /etter comman! of the lang#age the0 (ill nee! mo$ing from controlle! %ractice to freer %ractice an! then to comm#nicati$e o#t%#t. A teacher sho#l! %ro$i!e st#!ents (ith the mo!el sentence or listening e8ercise /efore as*ing st#!ents to res%on!. This stage sho#l! incl#!e a $ariet0 of e8ercises an! games. Follo(ing are e8am%les of controlle! oral %ractice+ Re%etition Echo '#estions R#estions an! ans(ers S#/stit#tion !rills "om/ining sentences "haining 6ialog#es The %rece!ing acti$ities !o not %romote a#thentic comm#nication P the0 allo( st#!ents to %ractice lang#age in a controlle! (a0. Tr#e comm#nication often in$ol$es an information ga% P each %erson has information that the other !oes not ha$e. To comm#nicate effecti$el0 an! to share information3 tho#ghts3 an! feelings3 real comm#nicators often ha$e to clarif0 their meaning or as* for confirmation of their #n!erstan!ing. Freer /or guided0 +ractice acti$ities /egin to sim#late real comm#nication. 7n the classroom3 teachers often #se role %la0s or sim#lations so that st#!ents gain e8%erience s%ea*ing (itho#t a scri%t. Teachers also %romote lang#age learning thro#gh games >e.g.3 5eo%ar!03 /ingo3 2I '#estions3 etc.? so that st#!ents are free to %la0 (ith the lang#age in a safe classroom en$ironment. 6#ring games3 st#!ents #se a lot of lang#age (itho#t (orr0ing too m#ch a/o#t form. Teachers also set #% ;information ga%< or ;5igsa( acti$ities< (here each st#!ent has some information that the other>s? !o not ha$e. These g#i!e! acti$ities gi$e st#!ents o%%ort#nities to %ractice lang#age more freel0 an! creati$el0. All these acti$ities create a /ri!ge /et(een controlle! oral %ractice an! comm#nicati$e o#t%#t. o,,unicati#e out$ut acti$ities enco#rage st#!ents to %ro!#ce s%o*en lang#age (ith fl#enc0 an! creati$it0 in sit#ations that closel0 resem/le real settings. At this stage st#!ents #se (hate$er lang#age the0 ha$e at their comman!. 7n these acti$ities3 st#!ents (or* together to !e$elo% a %lan3 resol$e a %ro/lem3 or com%lete a tas*. "ommon comm#nicati$e o#t%#t acti$ities that start in the classroom incl#!e the follo(ing+ "on!#cting inter$ie(s Writing or %erforming P !rama3 %oetr03 m#sic acti$ities 6e/ating 4resenting %ro5ects 4artici%ating in a#thentic !isc#ssions
TEFL Manual
a*ing s%eeches Writing articles or corres%on!ing (ith a %en %al 6e$elo%ing (e/ %ages an! sen!ing email in English
!riting
Writing is a comm#nication s*ill that re'#ires st#!ents to comm#nicate their i!eas on %a%er3 com%#ter3 or other %rint me!ia. Writing instr#ction hel%s learners !e$elo% the follo(ing *no(le!ge an! s*ills+ echanics >gra%hic s0stem3 s%elling3 ca%italiDation3 %#nct#ation3 etc.? 1rammar >r#les for %arts of s%eech3 agreement3 articles3 s0nta83 etc.? OrganiDation >(riting %rocess3 str#ct#re of %aragra%hs3 essa0s/re%orts3 etc.? "ontent 6e$elo%ment >%#r%ose3 a#!ience3 (or! choice3 st0le3 etc? As (ith the listening3 s%ea*ing3 an! rea!ing3 teachers of (riting ha$e to hel% st#!ents learn !ifferent forms of (riting for !ifferent %#r%oses. Some (riting tas*s (ill foc#s on creati$it0 an! others (ill foc#s on clarit0 an! acc#rac0. 7n the TEFL classroom3 there are often t(o t0%es of (riting+ >1? controlle! an! g#i!e! %ractice an! >2? comm#nicati$e3 a#thentic (riting. an0 teachers (ill #se a %rocess (riting a%%roach P /rainstorming3 !rafting3 e!iting3 re$ising3 an! %#/lishing. ontrolled and Guided 5riting +ractice The main %#r%ose of g#i!e! (riting at the /eginning English learning le$els is to hel% st#!ents learn ne( (or!s an! str#ct#res an! to foc#s their attention on (hat the0 are learning. 7n comm#nicati$e classrooms3 teachers enco#rage st#!ents to go /e0on! mechanical co%0ing an! gi$e them e8ercises (hich re'#ire them to thin* an! a!! something of their o(n. Therefore3 g#i!e! (riting acti$ities at the /eginning an! high-/eginning le$els are /ase! on the #se of cl#es3 information3 or g#i!elines an! ser$e as a hel%f#l (a0 for st#!ents to /#il! confi!ence in their (riting s*ills. At this le$el (riting acti$ities are #s#all0 controlle!3 so that st#!ents are not o$er(helme! (ith a /lan* %age or too man0 choices (hich lea! to mista*es an! fr#stration. Sa,$le writing acti#ities for the 2eginning and high.2eginning le#els: Tracing letters3 (or!s an! sentences. St#!ents #se %encils to trace letters an! (or!s (ritten in an a%%ro%riate siDe an! sha%e. ;"o%0 an! change<. St#!ents are gi$en a %assage to co%0 an! are re'#ire! to change one as%ect of the %assage. ;&nscram/le m#!!le! sentence %arts<. St#!ents are gi$en a list of (or!s an! as*e! to form a sentence. A mo!el sentence. St#!ents are gi$en a mo!el sentence on the /oar! an! as*e! to (rite a similar tr#e sentence a/o#t themsel$es. Form sentences. St#!ents are gi$en items or cl#es to form sentences.
TEFL Manual
Sim%le !ictations. St#!ents listen to the teacher an! then (rite o#t the com%lete sentences. S#/stit#tion ta/les. St#!ents are as*e! to #se the (or! in the ta/le to (rite at least ten correct sentences. R#estions an! Ans(ers. 1i$en rele$ant '#estions3 st#!ent (rite ans(ers in their o(n (or!s a/o#t themsel$es.
As soon as st#!entsC (riting s*ills ha$e reache! the interme!iate le$el3 the0 sho#l! /e rea!0 to %rogress to freer %aragra%h (riting. Tra!itionall03 this transition has /een !one /0 gi$ing a short mo!el te8t for st#!ents to #se in (riting a/o#t something familiar to them >e.g.3 !escri%tion of famil0?. "#rrentl03 teachers are foc#sing more on the (riting %rocess (here classes /rainstorm or create ;(e/s< (ith i!eas relate! to a to%ic the0 ha$e selecte!. St#!ents then #se the i!eas to create a !raft %aragra%h. "lassmates often rea! their %aragra%hs to one another an! get oral fee!/ac* on the i!eas an! clarit0. The0 ma0 e!it each otherCs %a%ers. The thir! ste% is for st#!ents to #se the fee!/ac* to e!it an! re$ise their (ritten (or*. Finall03 the st#!ents %re%are another !raft to s#/mit to the teacher >or for %#/lication?. The teacherCs role is to %ro$i!e chances for st#!ents to !e$elo% (or*a/le strategies for %re(riting3 !rafting3 re$ising an! e!iting. Sa,$le writing acti#ities at the inter,ediate le#el: Letter (riting. St#!ents res%on! to a letter or an a!$ertisement. 7nstr#ctions/6irections. St#!ents (rite instr#ctions on ho( to get some(here or !o something. Writing a re$ie(. St#!ents (rite re$ie(s of stories3 mo$ies3 theater sho(s3 T. %rograms or s%ecial e$ents. 4ict#re (riting. St#!ents com%are t(o %ict#res or %hotogra%hs3 noting the !ifferences an! similarities.
5ritten out$ut
As st#!ents gain %roficienc0 an! confi!ence in (riting3 teachers often foc#s the st#!ents attention on !e$elo%ing an! organiDing i!eas for !ifferent %#r%oses an! a#!iences3 the clarit0 of tho#ght an! st0le3 (or! choice3 tone an! consi!eration of the rea!er. The assignments of this stage go thro#gh se$eral !rafts an! (ill %ro/a/l0 /e e!ite! or %roofrea! /0 the a#thor an! other classmates. Sa,$le writing acti#ities at the written $roduction le#el of ad#anced le#el: Fa/les3 fol*tales an! %oems. 6etecti$e an! m0ster0 stories. The game AL7)7 can /e a great moti$ator for (riting. After the s#s%ects are '#estione!3 st#!ents (rite their stories3 a!!ing their o(n creati$e !escri%tions. 2e(sletters. St#!ents engage in %#/lishing their o(n ne(sletter. Mo#rnals. St#!ents (rite (hate$er the0 (ant to sa0. "orrectness is not the %#r%ose of 5o#rnaling. St#!ents gain s*ills in (riting (ith more fl#enc0 an! get into the ha/it of e8%ressing %ersonal tho#ghts.
TEFL Manual
4ro5ects. St#!ents might (rite %la0s3 com%ose songs3 !e$elo% a (e/ %age3 %re%are a %osition %a%er3 or (rite a %ro%osal. Research %a%ers an! essa0s. Translate !oc#ments3 articles or /oo*s.
A$$roaches to teaching writing

TEFL 4eace "or%s .ol#nteers ten! to teach (riting to st#!ents (ho ha$e gaine! some control o$er the con$ention of (riting an! can foc#s more on comm#nicating their i!eas thro#gh (riting. This circ#mstance allo(s .ol#nteers to a%%l0 the comm#nicati$e an! the %rocess a%%roaches to teaching (riting more often in the classroom. TEFL teachers 5#st nee! %ro$i!e a goo! reason to (rite an! ma*e the (riting assignments rele$ant to st#!entsC li$es. The comm#nicati$e a%%roach stresses the %#r%ose of an! a#!ience for a %iece of (riting. Therefore3 teachers #sing the comm#nicati$e a%%roach e8ten! rea!ershi% to other st#!ents in the class or s%ecif0 rea!ers o#tsi!e the classroom. St#!ents rea! (hat classmates ha$e (ritten3 res%on!3 re(rite in another form3 s#mmariDe3 or ma*e comments. The teachers can also %ro$i!e st#!ents (ith a conte8t that ena/les to select a%%ro%riate content3 lang#age an! le$els of formalit0. Writing often stim#lates st#!ents to thin* criticall0 a/o#t a to%ic or iss#e3 an! %lan ho( the0 can /est !efen! their arg#ment in (riting. The %rocess a%%roach mo$es a(a0 from the concentration on the (ritten %ro!#ct to an em%hasis on the %rocess of (riting. St#!ents e8%lore a to%ic thro#gh (riting3 sho(ing their !rafts to the teacher an! each other3 an! then the0 mo$e on to ne( i!eas. The t(o cr#cial a!$antages of the %rocess a%%roach are time gi$en for st#!ents to tr0 o#t i!eas an! fee!/ac* on the content of st#!entsC !rafts %ro$i!e! /0 the teacher. The (riting %rocess /ecomes a %rocess of !isco$er0 of ne( i!eas an! ne( lang#age forms to e8%ress those i!eas.
-. Teachin# .oca/ular0
Teaching $oca/#lar0 in$ol$es teaching the meaning an! the form of ne( $oca/#lar0 an! as (ell as their #se in sit#ations or in conte8t. .oca/#lar0 is #s#all0 ta#ght three (a0s in the lang#age classroom+ 1. as it emergesE !isco$er0 2. (hile rea!ing or listening3 or 3. from e8%licit instr#ction on $oca/#lar0 7n general3 (e can !isting#ish t(o t0%es of $oca/#lar0+ acti$e an! %assi$e. 'ctive vocabulary incl#!es the (or!s (hich st#!ents nee! to #n!erstan! an! #se themsel$es. Wor!s (hich teachers (ant the st#!ents to #n!erstan!3 /#t (hich the st#!ents ma0 not nee! to #se are calle! passive vocabulary. Wor!s a st#!ent ma0 #n!erstan! in conte8t >e.g.3 in a rea!ing or (hile listening to a /roa!cast?3 /#t he/she ma0 not #se /ecome %art of ones %assi$e $oca/#lar0. There has /een a rene(e! interest in $oca/#lar03 /#t that !oes not mean teachers sho#l! re$ert to the ol! %ractice of gi$ing $oca/#lar0 lists to /e memoriDe!. For man0 teachers3 $oca/#lar0 is often %resente! '#ite '#ic*l03 (ith a sim%le e8am%le or a translation in some schools. When an
TEFL Manual
#n*no(n (or! a%%ears as %art of a te8t or !ialog#e3 teachers can as* st#!ents to #se conte8t cl#es3 cognates or (or* anal0sis s*ills >i.e.3 loo*ing at roots an! affi8es? to g#ess the meaning. 7t im%ortant for st#!ents to learn that not all ne( (or!s are essential for #n!erstan!ing meaning of a te8t. +resenting Acti#e :oca2ulary ; Teacher<s Goals Ens#re st#!ents can recogniDe the (or! &n!erstan! the (or! Sa0 it correctl0 &se it a%%ro%riatel0
+resentation Staging "hoose :-1, ne( (or!s from a s%ecific conte8t s#ch as a rea!ing or listening %assage. "onsi!er the to%ic area an! te8t to acti$ate the st#!entsC *no(le!ge. See (hat $oca/#lar0 the0 alrea!0 *no( an! then 1. Elicit or %ro$i!e a ne( (or! 2. "on$e0 the meaning of the ne( (or!. &se conte8t cl#es3 cognates or (or! anal0sis s*ills. Translate3 (hen e8%e!ienc0 is more im%ortant than the (or!. 3. "hec* that the st#!ents ha$e #n!erstoo! the meaning thro#gh '#estions ,. o!el the %ron#nciation >incl#!ing s0lla/les an! stress? -. Re%eat ste%s 1-- (ith other *e0 (or!s >limit :-1,? 9. St#!ents recor! ne( (or!s :. St#!ents %ractice sa0ing the ne( (or!s an! !emonstrating that the0 #n!erstan! the (or! in the conte8t of the lesson.
:oca2ulary $resentation techniques

1. 4resent the meaning of ne( $oca/#lar0 /0 #sing+ Realia >an0thing that is alrea!0 in the classroom+ f#rnit#re3 clothes3 /o!0 %arts?. an0 o/5ects can /e /ro#ght from home. 4ict#res/flashcar!s/s*etches >the teacher !ra(s a %ict#re on the /oar! or %re%ares /efore the class? )o!0 lang#age3 mime3 or acti$e !emonstration >the teacher can #se miming3 actions an! facial e8%ressions? E8am%les of the *in! or a (or! in a conte8t >mini stor0/anec!ote? 6efinition/e8%lanation A com/ination of !ifferent techni'#es Scale/cline 6ictionaries >st#!ents #se !ictionaries to chec* meaning? 6irect translation >minimiDe it (hene$er %ossi/le? 2. 4resent the form 1i$e a mo!el %ron#nciation of a ne( (or! >incl#!e s0lla/le an! stress?
TEFL Manual
Ba$e st#!ents listen an! re%eat a ne( (or! in chor#s t(o-three times. Some learners /enefit /0 !oing finger s%elling the ne( (or! in the air. 7f !esira/le, as* one-t(o in!i$i!#al st#!ents to re%eat a ne( (or!. >7t might /e more #sef#l to finish the (or! list an! than ha$e %airs !rill each other (hile the teachers monitor. This allo( e$er0one to %ractice sim#ltaneo#sl0? Write a ne( (or! clearl0 on the /oar! (ith foc#s on s%elling an! transcri%t 4resent te8t again an! ha$e st#!ents scan the te8t an! circle/#n!erline the $oca/#lar0. As* them for similar (or!s that (o#l! fit in the sentence.
3. "hec* #n!erstan!ing of ne( (or!s /0 as*ing conce%t '#estions. "once%t '#estions hel% ens#re that st#!ents reall0 #n!erstan! the (or! an! also %ro$i!e %ractice #sing real lang#age. Some teachers re$ie( the ne( (or!s in games3 %#DDles3 songs3 %ict#res3 or (ith actions..
References)
.irginia French Allen. Techni$ues in Teaching 6ocabulary. O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HG3. Moanna )a*er. Beather Westr#%. The English Language Teacher7s /andbook. Bo( to teach large classes (ith fe( reso#rces. "ontin##m. Lon!on P 2e(-=or*3 2II2. A!rian 6off. Teach English. Trainer7s /andbook. "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress in association (ith the )ritish "o#ncil3 2II2. Merr0 1. 1e/har!. Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. Ann Ar/or. The &ni$ersit0 of ichigan 4ress3 2III. Thomas Nral. Teacher 0evelopment 8)aking the right moves9. Selecte! Articles from the English Teaching For#m3 1HGH-1HH3. 4a#l Linsa0. Teaching English 3orldwide. ' :ew %ractical +uide to Teaching English. Alta )oo* "enter 4#/lishers3 2III. T. 0*hailen*o3 7. )ereho$a. (eference +uide for the Teacher of English. English. )i/liote*a3 2II-. Ann Raimes. Techni$ues in Teaching 3riting. O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1H:9. The 4eace "or%s TEFL Training 3orkbook3 4art 13 4eace "or%s &*raine3 2III.
TEFL Manual
III. Language "#areness

1. 1ra""atical Ter"s
To /e a/le to teach s#ccessf#ll03 TEF teachers m#st ha$e a gras% of /asic English grammar. +rammar is the st#!0 of r#les go$erning the #se of lang#age. 1rammar r#les e8%lain ho( (or!s change to sho( !ifferent meanings3 an! ho( the0 are com/ine! into sentences. The follo(ing !efinitions ma0 /e hel%f#l to 0o# not onl0 (hen 0o# teach English3 /#t also (hen 0o# are st#!0ing of &*rainian or R#ssian.
+arts of S$eech
Tra!itional grammar classifies (or!s /ase! on eight %arts of s%eech+ the $er/3 the no#n3 the %rono#n3 the a!5ecti$e3 the a!$er/3 the %re%osition3 the con5#nction an! the inter5ection1. A verb is a (or! that e8%resses an occ#rrence3 act3 or mo!e of /eing. >e.g.3 as*3 %la03 /e3 can? A noun is a (or! that refers to a thing3 animal3 %lace3 '#alit03 or i!ea. >e.g.3 ta/le3 cat3 Lon!on3 honest03 lo$e? A pronoun is a (or! that re%laces a no#n or no#n %hrase. >e.g.3 he3 (e3 o#r3 mine3 (hich? An ad ective is a mo!ifier or '#alifier that mo!ifies the meaning of a no#n or %hrase. >e.g.3 green3 h#ngr03 im%ossi/le? An adverb is a (or! or gro#% of (or!s that ser$es to mo!if0 a $er/3 an a!5ecti$e3 another a!$er/3 or a (hole sentence. >e.g.3 tomorro(3 /a!l03 there3 also? A preposition relates or @%ositions@ a no#n or %rono#n to another element of the sentence. >E.g.3 at3 /03 in3 to3 from3 #n!er3 (ith? A con unction is a (or! or gro#% of (or!s #se! to connect (or!s3 %hrases3 or cla#ses. >e.g.3 an!3 /#t3 /eca#se3 if? An inter ection is a (or! that e8%resses strong emotion in a sentence. >e.g.3 Wo(J OhJ?
Sentence
A sentence is a gro#% of (or!s that e8%resses a com%lete tho#ght in the form of a statement3 comman!3 '#estion or e8clamation. A sentence consists of one or more cla#ses3 an! #s#all0 has at least one s#/5ect an! a finite $er/. 7n (riting it /egins (ith a ca%ital letter an! en!s (ith a f#ll sto% >%erio!?3 '#estion mar* or e8clamation mar*. >e.g.3 7Cm col!. ar0 sai! that she (as tire!. Where are 0o# going? 6onCt !o thatJ?
1
For more information %lease see the res%ecti$e sections /elo(.
TEFL Manual
A clause is a %art of a sentence3 (hich contains a s#/5ect an! a $er/3 #s#all0 5oine! to the rest of the sentence /0 a con5#nction. >e.g.3 7 tele%hone! Ro/in because I didnt know what to do.? Bo(e$er3 it ma0 /e a str#ct#re containing %artici%les or infiniti$es >(ith no s#/5ect or con5#nction?. >E.g.3 Not knowing what to do3 7 tele%hone! Ro/in?. Sentences containing one cla#se are calle! simple. Sentences containing more than one cla#se ma0 /e compound or complex. There are t(o main (a0s of lin*ing cla#ses together+ coordination an! subordination. T(o sim%le sentences3 for e8am%le+ /e heard an explosion. /e phoned the police. a0 /e 5oine! into one sentence3 either /0 coor!inating the t(o cla#ses /0 and or /0 ma*ing one cla#se into a main cla#se an! the other into a s#/or!inate cla#se+ *oordination& Be hear! an e8%losion and >he? %hone! the %olice. Subordination& When he hear! an e8%losion3 he %hone! the %olice. A sentence that consists of t(o or more in!e%en!ent cla#ses an! no s#/or!inate cla#se is calle! compound sentence. A comma an! a con5#nction se%arate the in!e%en!ent cla#ses. >e.g.3 7 finishe! m0 (or* for the !a03 an! no( 7 am rea!0 to go o#t.? A sentence consisting of one in!e%en!ent cla#se an! one or more s#/or!inate cla#ses is calle! a complex sentence. >e.g.3 The !og '#ic*l0 !isco$ere! the cat3 (hich ha! left the safet0 of its hi!ing %lace.? A s#/or!inate cla#se can act li*e a %art of the main cla#se >e.g.3 li*e a s#/5ect3 or an o/5ect3 or an a!$er/ial?. For e8am%le in the sentence SWhere she is !oesnCt matterC3 the s#/or!inate cla#se SWhere she is is the s#/5ect of the main cla#se.
+arts of the Sentence

The parts of the sentence are a set of terms for !escri/ing ho( %eo%le constr#ct sentences from smaller %ieces. There is not a !irect corres%on!ence /et(een the %arts of the sentence an! the %arts of s%eech. E$er0 com%lete sentence contains t(o %arts+ a sub ect an! a predicate. The sub ect is (hat >or (hom? the sentence is a/o#t3 (hile the predicate tells something a/o#t the s#/5ect. >e.g.3 7n the sentence SM#!0 r#nsC3 M#!0 is the sub ect an! Sr#nsC is the predicate.? An ob ect is a no#n or %rono#n that normall0 comes after the $er/3 in an acti$e sentence. The direct ob ect refers to a %erson or thing affecte! /0 the action of the $er/. >e.g.3 7n the sentence STa*e the !og for a (al*C3 the dog is the !irect o/5ect.? The indirect ob ect #s#all0 refers to a %erson (ho recei$es the !irect o/5ect. >e.g.3 7n the sentence SAnn ga$e me a (atchC3 the in!irect o/5ect is me3 an! the !irect o/5ect is a watch.?
TEFL Manual
Other Gra,,atical ategories

Gender English no#ns3 in general3 are not mar*e! for gender. 7n English gender is assigne! to animate o/5ects /ase! on /iological gen!er >(here *no(n?3 an! to %ersonifie! o/5ects /ase! on social con$entions >e.g.3 shi%s are often regar!e! as feminine in English?. /e is #se! for masculine no#nsE she is #se! for feminine no#nsE an! it is #se! for no#ns of in!eterminate gen!er an! inanimate o/5ects. A remnant of grammatical gen!er is also %reser$e! in the thir! %erson %rono#ns. &*rainian an! R#ssian retain three grammatical gen!ers3 (hich ha$e nothing to !o (ith se8 >nat#ral gen!er?+ masc#line3 feminine an! ne#ter. "u,2er 2#m/er is the (a0 in (hich !ifferences /et(een singular an! plural are sho(n grammaticall0. The !ifferences /et(een house an! houses3 mouse an! mice3 this an! these are !ifferences in n#m/er. o!ern English has !istincti$e %l#ral forms for %ersonal %rono#ns an! !emonstrati$es >e.g.3 7(e3 me-#s3 that-those?. We ha$e recentl0 lost the !istincti$el0 sing#lar secon! %erson %rono#n thou4thee4thy;thine3 re%lacing it (ith you-your. The #s#al %l#ral infle8ion of no#ns is Ps /-es+ brick < bricks= dish < dishes. There are a fe( $estiges of Ol! English !eclensions+ man < men= child < children= foot < feet, etc. Some (or!s of Latin an! 1ree* origin retain !istincti$e %l#rals+ datum < data= phenomenon < phenomena. Some (or!s ha$e no !istinct %l#ral+ sheep, #s#all0 fishE there are some #nco#nta/le no#ns+ sugar, salt, butter. Some collecti$e no#ns are treate! !ifferentl0 /0 !ifferent s%ea*ers+ government, people, committee. 7n o!ern English the $er/ S/eC !isting#ishes sing#lar an! %l#ral+ am <are= is < are= was < were. Other(ise3 onl0 the 3r! %erson %resent sing#lar is !istincti$e+ he talks. R#les of concor! re'#ire that a sing#lar s#/5ect is follo(e! /0 a sing#lar $er/+ he talks P the0 tal*. 7n &*rainian an! R#ssian the a!5ecti$e agrees in n#m/er an! case (ith the no#n it !escri/es. +erson 7n o!ern English person is signale! /0 the %ersonal %rono#ns onl0. 7n grammar3 it is the (a0 in (hich (e sho( the !ifference /et(een the %erson s%ea*ing >first person& 7 P me P m0 P mine an! (e P #s P o#r Po#rs?3 the !irect a!!ressee of the #tterance >second person& 0o# P 0o#r - 0o#rs? an! someone or something other than the s%ea*er or a!!ressee >thir! %erson+ he P him P hisE she P her P hersE the0 P them P their P theirs?.
TEFL Manual
7n o!ern English onl0 the 3r! %erson sing#lar is !isting#ishe! in $er/s+ she (al*s P 7 / (e/ the0 (al*. 7n &*rainian an! R#ssian the en!ing of the $er/ changes for each %erson an! n#m/er3 (hich res#lts in #% to si8 !ifferent en!ings in the %resent tense. The s0stem of the en!ings of a $er/ is *no(n as a con ugation. ases The (or! case refers to the grammatical f#nction %erforme! in a sentence /0 a no#n or %rono#n. The !ifferences /et(een # an! me3 who an! whom3 or >ohn an! >ohn7s are !ifferences of case. The s0stem of case-en!ings >infle8ions? is *no(n as a declension. 7n o!ern English all case en!ings e8ce%t the geniti$e >@s3 s@? ha$e !isa%%eare! in no#ns3 a!5ecti$es3 an! !emonstrati$es3 /#t s#r$i$e in the %ersonal %rono#ns in re!#ce! form. :ominative case >he3 she3 it3 73 (e3 0o#3 the03 (ho? is the case of the grammatical s#/5ect of the sentence+ ABrutus sta//e! "aesarA3 AThe girl 7 (as (ith has !isa%%eare!A3 ACaesar (as sta//e! /0 )r#t#sA. 1rammaticall03 it !oes not matter (here the main interest of the s%ea*er is3 nor (here the em%hasis falls. The com%lement of the $er/ be an! $er/s of seeming is also in the nominati$e+ AWho (as she?A3 AHe seems $er0 intelligentA3 A li!abeth II is "ueen o# CanadaA. 'ccusative case >him3 her3 it3 me3 #s3 0o#3 them3 (hom? is the case of the !irect o/5ect of the $er/+ A)r#t#s sta//e! CaesarA3 A1i$e me the bookA3 A"all me %lease.A +enitive case >his3 her3 its3 m03 o#r3 0o#r3 their3 (hose? is the %ossessi$e case3 %reser$e! in o!ern English as the infle8ions @s an! s@ >A$ohn%s /oo*A3 Athe women%s mo$ementA3 ACanadians% attit#!esA?. 7ts f#nction is loosel0 a!5ecti$al. 7n o!ern English all t0%es of geniti$e are often e8%resse! /0 the %re%osition o# >Athe /oo* of MohnA3 Athe attit#!es of "ana!iansA?. an0 can onl0 /e e8%resse! this (a0 >Aa (or* of great $al#eA3 Aone of threeA3 Aeach of themA3 A(hich of 0o#A?. 0ative case >him3 her3 me3 #s3 0o#3 them3 (hom? is the case of the in!irect o/5ect+ ATell me a stor0A3 A7 sho(e! her m0 ho#seA3 Ahe ga$e his mother a %resentA. 7n &*rainian an! R#ssian the acc#sati$e3 geniti$e an! !ati$e cases >together (ith the instr#mental an! locati$e cases3 (hich !o not e8ist in o!ern English? are #se! for man0 more f#nctions of no#ns an! %rono#ns.
2. 2ouns3 Pronouns3 !d4ecti&es and !d&er/s

"oun
TEFL Manual
A noun is a naming (or!3 a (or! that i!entifies a %erson3 %lace3 thing3 '#alit0 or a/stract i!ea. 4ersonal names >e.g.3 1eorge?3 an! %lace-names >e.g.3 2e( =or*? are calle! proper nouns. *ommon noun is a no#n (hich is not a %ro%er name >e.g.3 car3 i!ea3 !ogs?. *oncrete noun is the name of something (hich (e can e8%erience /0 !irect %h0sical contact or %erce%tion >e.g.3 ta/le3 ras%/err0?. 'bstract noun >the o%%osite of a concrete no#n? is the name of something (hich (e e8%erience as an i!ea3 not /0 !irect %h0sical contact or %erce%tion >e.g.3 !o#/t3 height?. *ountable noun is a no#n (hich can ha$e a %l#ral form an! can /e #se! (ith the in!efinite article a/an >e.g.3 a !og P !ogsE an i!ea P i!eas?. 1ncountable noun >or ,ass noun? is a no#n (hich has no %l#ral form an! cannot normall0 /e #se! (ith the article a/an >e.g.3 m#!3 r#!eness3 f#rnit#re?. 2onco#nt no#ns are often li'#i!s or e8tremel0 small >milk, rice, sugar? or a/stract >love, honesty? *ollective noun is a sing#lar (or! #se! to refer to a gro#% >e.g.3 famil03 team?
+ronoun
%ronouns stan! in for no#ns >#s#all0 *no(n or im%lie!? an! /eha$e li*e no#ns. The0 ma0 /e mo!ifie! accor!ing to case3 n#m/er or gen!er. The0 can /e classifie! as follo(s+ %ersonal %rono#ns >e.g.3 73 0o#3 he3 she3 (e? are #se! instea! of /eings an! o/5ects. The0 !enote %erson3 n#m/er3 an! >sometimes? gen!er. The0 incl#!e s#/5ects >e.g.3 73 0o#3 he3 she3 it3 (e3 the0? an! o/5ects >e.g.3 me3 0o#3 him3 her3 #s?. %ossessive %rono#ns >e.g.3 m03 0o#r3 her an! mine3 0o#rs3 hers? are #se! instea! of geniti$es (hen it is #nnecessar0 to name the S%ossessorC. >e.g.3 This is m& coat an! that one is &ours?. (eflexive %rono#ns >e.g.3 himself3 themsel$es? refer /ac* to the s#/5ect of the $er/. >e.g.3 Be can !o it himsel#.? 0emonstrative %rono#ns >e.g.3 this3 that? %oint o#t something. The0 can /e #se! (ith or (itho#t a follo(ing no#n. >e.g.3 This /oo* is $er0 interesting. Loo* at thisJ? (elative %rono#ns >e.g.3 (ho3 (hom3 (hose3 (hich3 that? re%lace no#ns an! no#n %hrases as the s#/5ects or o/5ects of relati$e cla#ses. >e.g.3 ThereCs the man who fell of his /ic0cle 0ester!a0.? #nterrogative %rono#ns >e.g.3 (ho3 (hom3 (hose3 (hat3 (hich? ta*e the %lace of #n*no(n s#/5ects an! o/5ects in '#estions. >e.g.3 Who sai! that? What ha%%ene!?? #ndefinite %rono#ns >e.g.3 an03 an0one3 an0/o!03 an0thing3 some3 someone3 e$er03 e$er0thing? refer to an #ni!entifie! %erson>s? or thing>s?. >e.g.3 'omeone m#st %a0 for this.? (eciprocal %rono#ns >e.g.3 each other3 one another?.
Ad8ecti#e
TEFL Manual
'n ad ective !escri/es or mo!ifies a no#n >e.g.3 tall man?. 7t is terme! a mo!ifier3 /eca#se it a!!s something to >mo!ifies? a no#n. An a!5ecti$e can %rece!e a no#n >e.g.3 black cat? or follo( it >e.g.3 The meal (as delicious.? An a!5ecti$e is sometimes #se! to mo!if0 gro#%s of (or!s3 s#ch as no#n %hrases >e.g.3 the astonishing t#rn of e$ents? or no#n cla#ses. We #se as ( a!5ecti$e ( as for positive comparisons or not as) so ( a!5ecti$e ( as for negati$e com%arisons. >E.g.3 Be is as strong as a horse. Be isnCt as) so smart as his sister.? We form the comparative /0 a!!ing *er to one-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es an! to t(o-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es en!ing in P0 >e.g.3 /ig P bigger3 f#nn0 P #unnier? #sing more T t(o an! more than t(o-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es ( than >e.g.3 This armchair is more com#ortable than that (oo!en seat.? We form the superlative /0 a!!ing *est to one-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es an! to t(o-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es en!ing in P0 >e.g.3 /ig P biggest3 f#nn0 P #unniest? #sing most T t(o an! more than t(o-s0lla/le a!5ecti$es >e.g.3 7 ha$e man0 /oo*s /#t this is the most interesting.?
Ad#er2
'n adverb !escri/es3 or mo!ifies a $er/. 7t tells something a/o#t ho( or (hen the $er/ (as !one >e.g.3 ha%%il03 (ell3 later3 soon3 %erfectl0?. An a!$er/ can also mo!if0 an a!5ecti$e >e.g.3 the per#ectl& clear s*03 e+tremel& goo! foo!3 terri/l0 lo#! noise? or another a!$er/ >e.g.3 She sings (ell3 ver& (ell. Be 5#m%e! far3 ama!ingl& far. The0 left soon3 too soon.? 7n English a!$er/s are often forme! (ith Ply at the en!. We #s#all0 form the comparative an! superlative /0 #sing more3 most T a!$er/. >e.g.3 She !ri$es more care#ull& than her h#s/an!. This is the most e##icientl& r#n office in the area? A!$er/s (ith the same form as a!5ecti$es form their comparative an! superlative (ith ,er- ,est. >e.g.3 We arri$e! later than 0o#. Be (al*s the #astest.? Notice some exceptions to these two rules: well better best; badly worse worst; little less least; much more most. Adverb or adjective? After the verbs seem, appear, look, sound, feel, smell or taste we use an adjective not an adverb. (e.g., That smells good, but it tastes awful.)
. 2oun 5eter"iners. !rticles

TEFL Manual
', an an! the are calle! articles. '; an is calle! the indefinite article= the is calle! the definite article. 'rticles are mem/ers of a gro#% of (or!s calle! determiners that are #se! /efore no#ns. Other !eterminers are the %ossessi$es >e.g.3 m03 0o#r?E the !emonstrati$es >e.g.3 this3 that3 those?E some an! any. Two determiners cannot usually be used together. Articles (and other determiners) usually come first in the noun group (the noun with the other words, like adjectives, that can come before it). e.g., the last few days; a very nice surprise; my only true friend However, some words can come before articles in the noun group: for instance, all, both, rather, quite, exactly, just, such, what and much in the expression much the same. e.g., all the time; rather a good idea; such a funny expression; what a pity
Indefinite Article a/an

The in!efinite article a;an is #se! (ith sing#lar co#nta/le no#ns for more general meaning+ e.g.3 0o# (ill nee! a %en an! an e8ercise /oo*. >7t !oesnCt matter (hich %en?. for a no#n mentione! for the first time. 2otice (e #se the for the secon! mention+ e.g.3 There (as a terri/le storm last night. The storm s(e%t across the (hole co#ntr0. (ith n#m/ers >e.g.3 a h#n!re!3 a tho#san!3 a million? an! fractions >e.g.3 a half3 a '#arter?+ E.g.3 / million %eo%le recei$e! o#r hel% last 0ear. / fe(3 ho(e$er3 (ere not so l#c*0. "otice a fe( >%eo%le? L someE a little hel% L some )#t fe( >%eo%le? L not man0E little >hel%? L not m#ch to mean Se$er0C (ith e8%ressions of time >e.g.3 once a 0ear?+ e.g.3 We come to classes t(ice a (ee*. to !escri/e a %ersonCs 5o/ or sit#ation+ e.g.3 SheCs a teacher. BeCs an ol!-age %ensioner.
Definite Article the

The !efinite article the is #se! (ith most no#ns for more s%ecific meaning+ to refer /ac* to something alrea!0 mentione!+ e.g.3 Mane+ A man %hone! last night. 4eter+ When3 (hat !i! the man (ant? (hen (e *no( (hich one (e are tal*ing a/o#t+ e.g.3 Last night 7 rea! the /oo* 0o# recommen!e!.
TEFL Manual
(hen (e refer to onl0 one of its *in!+ e.g.3 The s#n rises in the east an! sets in the (est.
2otice these other #ses of the+ (ith sing#lar co#nta/le no#ns (hen the0 stan! for an in$ention or a s%eciesE e.g.3 The com%#ter has re$ol#tioniDe! office s0stems. (ith a s#%erlati$e >the first3 the most en5o0a/le?+ e.g.3 =o# can /#0 the /est %iDDas in to(n at 4aoloCs. (ith a!5ecti$es as %l#ral no#ns+ e.g.3 The )ritish an! the French agree! to /#il! a channel t#nnel. The strong sho#l! hel% the (ea*. (ith the names of co#ntries or gro#%s of islan!s (hich are %l#ral+ e.g.3 7 li$e in the &nite! States/ the 2etherlan!s/ the Fal*lan!s/ the West 7n!ies/ the 4hili%%ines 2otice these e8ce%tions+ the &nite! Ning!omE the =emen (ith the names of ri$ers3 oceans an! seas+ e.g.3 4aris lies on the Seine. The Atlantic se%arates )ritain from America. 7tCs $er0 hot in the e!iterranean at the moment.
No Article
We !o not #se an article+ (ith %l#ral co#nta/le no#ns+ e.g.3 #se#ms are interesting %laces. (ith #nco#nta/le no#ns (hen s%ea*ing a/o#t the no#n in general >e.g.3 foo!3 m#sic3 lo$e?+ e.g.3 So#n! tra$els $er0 fast in (ater. "otice a fe( #nco#nta/le no#ns >e.g.3 a!$ice3 ne(s3 l#ggage3 information3 research? are sometimes %rece!e! /0 a %hrase li*e a; the bit ofE a;the piece of to refer to a %artic#lar e8am%le of that no#n+ a bit of advice, the piece of news (ith the names of most to(ns/ cities3 streets3 co#ntries3 single/ in!i$i!#al islan!s3 la*es+ e.g.3 7 li$e in Rome/ 4erc0 Roa!/ "hina/ Merse0/ near La*e Win!ermire (ith the names of most sho%s3 name! /#il!ings an! instit#tions+ e.g.3 7 sho% at Barro!sE The R#een li$es in )#c*ingham 4alace. (ith the name of most magaDines+
TEFL Manual
e.g.3 7 rea! 4#nch/2e(s(ee* for ne(s%a%er hea!lines+ e.g.3 A2 FO&26 6EA6 O2 T&)E for tele8es >(here the message sho#l! /e as short as %ossi/le?+ e.g.3 Sen! re%resentati$e imme!iatel0 for %ersonal3 informal messages+ e.g.3 6inner in o$en /ecome a secon! no#n in a lin*e! %air of no#ns+ e.g.3 =o# (ill nee! a *nife an! for*. Ta*e a /#c*et an! s%a!e to the /each
*. .er/s. Re#ular and 6rre#ular .er/s. Finite and 2on-Finite .er/ For"s. Modal !u7iliar0 .er/s.
' verb is a (or! that e8%resses action >e.g.3 as*3 %la03 s%ea*?3 occ#rrence >e.g.3 is3 e8ists3 li$es? or state of /eing >e.g.3 feel3 seem3 is3 /e?. 7t tells (hat is ha%%ening. 7t is the *e0 element in the %re!icate3 one of the t(o main %arts of a sentence. A $er/ is calle! intransitive if it ma*es sense (itho#t an o/5ect >e.g.3 smile3 fall3 come3 go? or transitive3 if it re'#ires one >e.g.3 eat a meal3 give a %resent?. (egular $er/s form a %ast tense an!/ or %ast %artici%les (ith the hel% of *ed >e.g.3 smile P smile!E coo* P coo*e!3 st#!0 P st#!ie!?3 (hile irregular $er/s ha$e a %ast tense an! %ast %artici%le forme! in a !ifferent (a0. >e.g.3 /rea* P /ro*e P /ro*enE /lo( P /le( P /lo(nE r#n P ran P r#nE #n!erstan! P #n!erstoo! P #n!erstoo!?
Finite and "on.Finite :er2 For,s

A finite $er/ form is one that can /e #se! (ith a s#/5ect to ma*e a $er/ tense >e.g.3 /rea*s3 /ro*e3 is singing3 has /een?. ost sentences contain at least one finite $er/ form. A non4finite $er/ form is one that cannot /e #se! (ith a s#/5ect to ma*e a tense >e.g.3 to /rea*3 /rea*ing3 /ro*en?. The non-finite %arts of a $er/ are the infinitive an! participles. The infiniti$e is a $er/ form that %ossesses characteristics of /oth $er/ an! no#n an! is #s#all0 %rece!e! /0 StoC >e.g.3 to start3 to lea$e3 to sing?. The infiniti$e form of the $er/ is t0%icall0 #se! in constr#ctions that are s#/or!inate to another $er/. >e.g.3 7 made him do it.? There are negati$e3 %rogressi$e3 %erfect an! %assi$e infiniti$es.
TEFL Manual
e.g.3 7 !eci!e! not to become an astronomer. >negati$e? 7tCs nice to be sitting here (ith 0o#. >%rogressi$e? 7tCs goo! to have #inished (or* for the !a0. >%erfect? 7 !i!nCt e8%ect to be invited. >%assi$e? A participle is a $er/ form #se! as an a!5ecti$e >e.g.3 rising s#n3 cooked foo!3 broken glass?. There can /e %resent %artici%les3 %ast %artici%les or %erfect %artici%les. The present participle en!s in Ping >e.g.3 charming3 singing?. 7f the Ping form of a $er/ is #se! as a no#n3 itCs calle! a gerund. e.g.3 She (as cr&ing (hen 7 sa( her. >%resent %artici%le? Cooking is her ho//0. >ger#n!? 6ee%l0 shocked3 7 left. >%ast %artici%le? Having lost all m0 mone03 7 (ent home. >%erfect %artici%le?
Modal Au*iliary :er2s

An auxiliary $er/ >e.g.3 /e3 ha$e3 !o? is #se! to accom%an0 another $er/ in or!er to hel% it e8%ress %artic#lar grammatical f#nctions or meanings >e.g.3 to ma*e '#estions ;Where have 0o# /een?<3 or to form tenses e.g.3 ;She was (riting.<? When the three auxiliary verbs >/e3 ha$e3 !o? are #se! to ma*e tenses3 %assi$es an! '#estions3 the0 ha$e im%ortant grammatical f#nctions /#t no real S!ictionar0 meaningC. >7f 0o# (ant to #n!erstan! e8%ressions li*e 0o &ou smoke1 Where have &ou been1 or It was written b& 2o!art3 itCs not $er0 #sef#l to loo* #% do- have an! was in the !ictionar0.? There is another gro#% of a#8iliar0 $er/s (hich generall0 ha$e more S!ictionar0 meaningC. The0 are can- could- ma&might- must- will- shall- would- should- ought- and need. >Need can also /e an or!inar0 nona#8iliar0 $er/.? These $er/s are often calle! modal auxiliaries. The0 ha$e se$eral %oints in common (hich ma*e them !ifferent from other $er/s. )odal auxiliary verbs are not #se! >e8ce%t sometimes in the negati$e? to tal* a/o#t things (hich are !efinitel0 ha%%ening3 or ha$e !efinitel0 ha%%ene!. The0 are #se! (hen (e sa0 that (e e8%ect things to ha%%en3 or that e$ents are %ossi/le3 or necessar03 or im%ro/a/le3 or im%ossi/le3 or (hen (e sa0 that things !i! not ha%%en3 or that (e are not s#re (hether the0 ha%%ene!. E.g., 7 cant swim. She could be in Lon!on or 4aris or To*0o P no/o!0 *no(s. 7 ma& come tomorro( if 7 ha$e time. =o# might have told me Frances (as ill. What would 0o# do if 0o# ha! a free 0ear? 7 thin* the0 should have consulted a !octor earlier. )odal verbs ha$e no *s on the thir! %erson sing#larE '#estions an! negati$es are ma!e (itho#t doE the0 are follo(e! /0 the infinitive (itho#t to of other $er/s >e8ce%t for ought?. E.g., =o# neednt look at me li*e that.
TEFL Manual
Be ,ust 2e here /0 nine oCcloc*. Can 0o#r mother drive? That ought to be eno#gh. )odal verbs ha$e no infiniti$es3 an! other e8%ressions are #se! instea!3 (hen necessar0. E.g., 7C! li*e to be able to skate. P instea! of @can. =o#Cre going to have to work har!er. P instea! of must. )odal verbs ha$e no %ast forms. Could an! would are #se! (ith %ast meanings in some cases >/#t ne$er to sa0 that %artic#lar e$ents act#all0 ha%%ene! on !efinite occasions?. Other(ise3 other e8%ressions are #se!. E.g., After clim/ing for si8 ho#rs3 (e managed to reach the to%. P instea! of could. 7 had to go to school 0ester!a0. P instea! of must. )odal verbs can /e #se! (ith %erfect infiniti$es to tal* a/o#t things (hich !i! not ha%%en3 or (hich (e are not s#re a/o#t3 in the %ast. E.g., =o# should have told me at once. Ber car ma& have broken !o(n.
Other :er2 ategories

Tense is a $er/ form (hich sho(s the time of an action or e$ent. The /asic tenses >%resent3 %ast3 f#t#re? an! $ariations tell if an action is ta*ing %lace3 too* %lace or (ill ta*e %lace. 6erb aspect can /e %rogressi$e or contin#o#s >(e are (al*ingE (e (ere (al*ing?3 ha/it#al >/ir!s sing?3 %erfecti$e >7 ha$e eaten m0 l#nch?. 2 6oice is the form of the $er/ in (hich the grammatical s#/5ect of the sentence is re%resente! as %erforming the action e8%resse! /0 the $er/ 8active voice& e.g.3 The stoc* mar*et slumped? or it is the goal of the action e8%resse! /0 the $er/ >passive voice& e.g., A great !eal of mone0 was lost in the stoc* mar*et.? English $er/s ha$e three moods. The0 are calle! the indicative, the imperative and the sub unctive. The indicative mood is #se! for or!inar0 statements an! '#estions. >E.g.3 7 ha$e onl0 one e8amination remaining.? The sub unctive mood is #se! to e8%ress a (ish or something that is contrar0 to fact.>E.g.3 7f 7 (ere 0o#3 7 (o#l!nCt acce%t the offer.? The im%erati$e moo! is #se! for a re'#est or a comman!. >"all me %leaseJ?
-. $se of Tenses
'se of +resent Tense For,s
%resent SimpleA is #se!+
2 3
For more !etails see the section a/o#t the &se of Tenses. 7t is often calle! 4resent 7n!efinite in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s.
TEFL Manual
for something (hich ha%%ens reg#larl0 or ha/it#all0 >often (ith a!$er/s of time li*e always or usually?+ e.g.3 We go out e$er0 Sat#r!a0 night. Be ne$er gives me %resents. for something (hich remains tr#e for a long time or for a scientific fact+ e.g.3 Be lives in 1reece. The earth travels ro#n! the s#n. To gi$e instr#ctions >more frien!l0 an! %ersonal than the im%erati$e?+ e.g.3 First 0o# check 0o#r ans(ers3 then han! in 0o#r %a%er. To !escri/e e$ents in 5o*es3 stories or ne(s items to ma*e them seem more !ramatic+ e.g.3 A gorilla goes into a /ar an! as*s for a !rin*O The 4o%e visits To*0o to!a0. (ith $er/s not normall0 #se! in an0 of the %rogressi$e forms >believe, understand, imagine, suppose, hear, see, taste, love, hate, need, want, prefer, seem, appear, belong, deserve?+ e.g.3 Mane+ 7 dont like /ig cities. The0 smell of cars. 4eter+ 7 know (hat 0o# mean.
%resent %rogressiveB is #se!+ for an e$ent in %rogress at the %resent time+ e.g.3 Loo*3 the0Cre coming o#t of the cinema no(. The stan!ar! of li$ing in this co#ntr0 is slo(l0 rising. (ith always to sho( s#r%rise or !isa%%ro$al (hen an action is re%eate!+ e.g.3 Shes always borrowing mone0 from me. 7ts always raining here. To set the scene in a 5o*e or a stor0 an! !escri/e e$ents (hich are not com%lete+ e.g.3 A man is standing on the %a$ement (hen s#!!enl0 a s%aceshi% lan!s.
%resent %erfect is #se!+ for an e$ent (hich ha%%ene! at the in!efinite time in the %ast. 7tCs often #se! (ith s#ch a!$er/s as already, ust, yet, often, never, so far, still& e.g.3 7ve seen that film. >"om%are # saw that film last week.? 7Cve ust seen him. 7 havent #inished yet. for an e$ent (hich /egan in the %ast an! is still going on no(+
7t is often calle! 4resent "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s
TEFL Manual
e.g.3 Shes been a (i!o( for about six months ; since last year. >"otice (e #se for to tal* a/o#t the length of time3 an! (e #se since (ith a s%ecific time in the %ast. 2ote contrast3 ;7C$e *no(n her for 2- 0ears $ers#s 7C$e *no(n her since 1HGI? for an e$ent (hich is finishe! /#t still affects the %resent+ e.g.3 7 canCt (rite /eca#se 7Cve broken m0 arm. for an e$ent (hich has a res#lt (hich can /e seen in the %resent+ after e8%ressions li*e itCs the first/ /est/ most interesting/ onl0O.+ e.g.3 This is the third time heCs taken his !ri$ing test. This is the worst film 7<#e e$er seen.
%resent %erfect %rogressiveC is #se!+ for an acti$it0 (hich /egan in the %ast an! is still going on >to em%hasiDe the length of time ta*en /0 the acti$it0?. >"otice it sometimes sho(s anger3 s#r%rise3 etc.?+ e.g.3 Weve been living here for si8 0ears/ since 2III. WeCve been standing at this /#s sto% for half an ho#r in the %o#ring rain. to !escri/e a tem%orar0 arrangement (hich ma0 still /e going on or (hich ma0 5#st ha$e finishe!+ e.g.3 7ve been sta&ing (ith m0 co#sin for a (ee*. for an acti$it0 (hich (as going on3 (hich has no( finishe! an! the res#lt of (hich is still e$i!ent. >This3 can /e #se! to sho( anger3 s#r%rise3 etc.? e.g.3 Loo* at the mess 0o# are inJ What on earth have 0o# been doing? 7 can see that 0o#ve been decorating. The ho#se loo*s lo$el0J
'se of +ast Tense For,s

%ast SimpleD is #se!+ (hen a !efinite %oint in time is mentione! (hen tal*ing a/o#t the %ast+ e.g.3 Last night 7 went to a concert. The last time 7 saw aria (as three 0ears ago. (hen the e$ent too* %lace at a time the s%ea*er is a(are of /#t !oes not mention+ e.g.3 Mane+ 0id 0o# have a nice time in 4aris? 4eter+ =es3 (e did. for a n#m/er of e$ents (hich too* %lace one after another in the %ast+ e.g.3 The thief went into the /an*3 pulled out a g#n an! pointed it at the cashier.
7t is often calle! 4resent 4erfect "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s 7t is often calle! 4ast 7n!efinite in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s.
TEFL Manual
To !escri/e a %ast ha/it+ e.g.3 When 7 (as at school3 7 got up e$er0 !a0 at se$en oCcloc*.
1sed to onl0 e8ists in the %ast form. 7t is #se! to e8%ress+ a ha/it or state in the %ast+ e.g.3 7 used to smo*e cigars /#t no( 7 che(ing g#m. Be used to /e $er0 fat /#t heCs lost a lot of (eight. Something (hich !i! not ha%%en in the %ast /#t (hich has no( /ecome a ha/it or state. e.g.3 7 didnt use to go to the theatre /#t 7 tr0 an! go a/o#t once a month no(. 7 never used to li*e him /#t 7 !o no(. an in'#ir0 a/o#t a ha/it or state in the %ast+ e.g.3 0id 0o# use to !o s%orts at school? > ore common in )ritish English? 0idnt 0o# use to /e m#ch thinner?
3ould is #se! to e8%ress+ a ha/it or re%eate! e$ent in the %ast (hich is no( finishe! an! (hich sho(s the s%ea*erCs attit#!e to the e$ent >anger3 irritation3 etc.?+ e.g.3 Be would *ee% telling me (hat to !oJ
%ast %rogressiveE is #se!+ for an e$ent (hich (as in %rogress (hen another e$ent ha%%ene!+ e.g.3 7 was driving along the motor(a0 (hen 7 ha! a %#nct#re >&SLflat?. to set the scene an! %ro$i!e the /ac*gro#n! for a stor0+ e.g.3 7t (as si8 oCcloc* an! !ar*ness was #alling. For t(o or more e$ents (hich (ere in %rogress at the same time in the %ast+ e.g.3 7 was digging the gar!en (hile Mohn was painting the *itchen. for an e$ent (hich ha! /een arrange! /#t (hich !i! not ha%%en+ e.g.3 Be was coming to !inner /#t he ha! to go a(a0 on /#siness.
%ast %erfect is #se!+ for an e$ent (hich ha%%ene! /efore another in the %ast+ e.g.3 7 (ent /ac* home /eca#se 7d #orgotten m0 *e0s. 7 (as s#re 7 hadnt seen him. )0 1HG9 )o/ 1el!of had raised millions of %o#n!s for charit0.
7t is often calle! 4ast "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s
TEFL Manual
With scarcely; hardly T when or no sooner F than& e.g.3 7 had scarcel&) hardl& put the %hone !o(n (hen the /ell rang. No sooner had I le#t the ho#se than it starte! to rain.
%ast %erfect %rogressiveG is #se!+ to em%hasiDe the contin#o#s nat#re of an action or acti$it0 (hich ha%%ene! /efore another in the %ast+ E.g.3 The0Cd been talking for ho#rs (hen the0 s#!!enl0 realiDe! it (as mi!night.
'se of Future Tense For,s and Other 5ays of Tal%ing a2out the Future
Future SimpleH 8will; shall9 is #se!+ to ma*e a %re!iction a/o#t the f#t#re+ e.g.3 Tomorro( will be fine an! s#nn0. Well e+pect 0o# ne8t (ee*.
Future %rogressiveIJ is #se!+ for an e$ent (hich (ill /e in the %rogress at a certain time in the f#t#re+ e.g.3 This time ne8t (ee* 7Cll be swimming in the e!iterranean.
Future %erfect is #se!+ for an e$ent (hich (ill /e o$er not later than a certain time in the f#t#re+ e.g.3 The0Cll have #inished their re%ort /0 tomorro(.
Future %erfect %rogressiveII is #se!+ for something still in %rogress /#t (hich (ill /e com%lete not later than a certain time in the f#t#re+ e.g.3 BeCll have been working for the /an* for 3I 0ears ne8t s#mmer.
7n a!!ition to the f#t#re tense forms3 the follo(ing forms an! %hrases are #se! to tal* a/o#t the f#t#re. -e going to is #se! for+ an intention+ e.g.3 7Cm going to write some letters. an in!ication that something is %ro/a/le+ e.g.3 Loo* at those /lac* clo#!s. 7 thin* itCs going to rain.
G H
7t is often calle! 4ast 4erfect "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s 7t is often calle! F#t#re 7n!efinite in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s 1I 7t is often calle! F#t#re "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s 11 7t is often calle! F#t#re 4erfect "ontin#o#s in man0 &*rainian te8t/oo*s US Peace Corps in Ukraine page 51
TEFL Manual
%resent Simple is #se! for+ f#t#re e$ents on a timeta/le or a fi8e! %rogram+ e.g.3 The match begins at 3+3I. When he comes3 7Cll tell 0o#. >"otice when can /e #se! (ith the 4resent Sim%le for an e$ent in the f#t#re? %resent %rogressive is #se! for+ a !efinite arrangement3 %lan or a%%ointment+ e.g.3 WeCre #l&ing to S%ain ne8t (ee*. 7Cm taking m0 !ri$ing test tomorro(. -e about to or be on the point of is #se! for+ an e$ent (hich is or (as 5#st going to ta*e %lace+ e.g.3 The %lane is on the point o# taking o##. 2ic* was 3ust about to put the mone0 in his %oc*et.
+assi#e Tense For,s

The passive is forme! /0 #sing a form of to be >is3 has /een3 (ill /e3 (as3 etc.? T the %ast %artici%le of the $er/ >ma!e3 seen3 gi$en3 %re%are!?. The tenses an! r#les for their #se3 are the same as for acti$e $er/ forms. "ote3 ho(e$er3 that (e #s#all0 a$oi! sa0ing be being an! been being, so that f#t#re %rogressi$e an! %erfect %rogressi$e tenses are $er0 #ncommon. Loo* at the follo(ing e8am%les+ %resent Simple %assive+ %resent %rogressive %assive+ %resent %erfect %assive& %resent %erfect %rogressive %assive& %ast Simple %assive& %ast %rogressive %assive& %ast %erfect %assive& %ast %erfect %rogressive Future Simple %assive& Future %rogressive %assive+ Future %erfect %rogressive& English is spoken here. E8c#se the mess+ the ho#se is being painted. Has ar0 been told? Bo( long has the research been being done? >&S+ Bo( long has the research /een in %rogress? 7 wasnt invited- /#t 7C$e come an0(a0. 7 felt as if 7 was being watched.< 7 *ne( (h0 7 had been chosen. 7 (on!ere! ho( long 7Cd been being #ollowed. >&S+ 7 (on!ere! ho( long someone ha! /een follo(ing me.? =o#Cll be told in a!$ance. =o#ll be being told in the near f#t#re. )0 ne8t "hristmas3 that /ri!ge will have been being built >&S+ )0 ne8t "hristmas3 that /ri!ge (ill ha$e /een #n!er constr#ction for - 0ears?.
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TEFL Manual
+oing to str#ct#re+ o!al Str#ct#res The passive is #se!+
WhoCs going to be invited? Be o#ght to /e shot. =o# might have been hurt.
(hen the agent is #n*no(n or not im%ortant+ e.g.3 Fi$e %olicemen have been killed in 2orthern 7relan!. The (ater was heated an! a sol#tion of chemicals was prepared. to ma*e the o/5ect of the acti$e $er/ more im%ortant+ e.g.3 A !escri%tion of the g#nman was issued /0 the %olice. (hen the !escri%tion of the agent is $er0 long+ e.g.3 A charit0 recor! has been made /0 man0 famo#s names in the (orl! of %o% m#sic.
8. 9onditionals
*onditional is a *in! of a sentence (hich #ses if or unless. 7t tal*s a/o#t sit#ations (hich are not real. There are three main t0%es of con!itional sentences+ *onditional I is #se! >&S L 4resent Real?+ for general facts that !o not change+ e.g.3 I# 0o# take !r#gs reg#larl03 0o# /ecome a!!icte! to them. for scientific facts+ I# 0o# mi+ the colors /l#e an! re!3 0o# get %#r%le. mainl0 for f#t#re %ossi/ilities+ e.g.3 I# 0o# work har!3 0o#ll get a goo! 5o/. 4nless 0o# stud&3 0o# wont pass 0o#r e8amination.
*onditional K is #se! >&SL 4resent or F#t#re #nreal con!itional?+ for S#nrealC or im%ro/a/le con!itions in the %resent or f#t#re+ e.g.3 I# 7 had a million %o#n!s3 7 would bu& a 0acht. I# he knew the ans(er3 he wouldnt tell me. I# ar0 were here no(3 she would drive me home. for gi$ing a!$ice an! s#ggestions+ e.g.3 I# 7 were 0o#3 7 wouldnt accept that offer.
*onditional A is #se! >&SL %ast #nreal con!itional?+ for #nreal or im%ro/a/le con!itions in the %ast+
TEFL Manual
e.g.3 We would have gone a/roa! for o#r holi!a0s3 i# (e hadnt bought a ne( car. to im%l0 regret+ e.g.3 I# (e hadnt set out late3 (e wouldnt have been caught in the traffic 5am. to im%l0 criticism+ e.g.3 I# 0o# had listened to 0o#r father3 0o# wouldn<t ha#e ,ade so man0 mista*es.
:. $.S. &s. +ritish En#lish

While there are certainl0 man0 more $arieties of English3 'merican and -ritish English are the t(o $arieties that are ta#ght in most ESL/EFL %rograms. 1enerall03 it is agree! that no one $ersion is AcorrectA ho(e$er3 there are certainl0 %references in #se. The most im%ortant r#le of th#m/ is to tr0 to /e consistent in 0o#r #sage. 7f 0o# !eci!e that 0o# (ant to #se American English s%ellings then /e consistent in 0o#r s%elling >i.e. The color of the orange is also its flavor P color is American s%elling an! flavour is )ritish?3 this is of co#rse not al(a0s eas0 P or %ossi/le. The follo(ing g#i!e is meant to %oint o#t the %rinci%al !ifferences /et(een these t(o $arieties of English.
:oca2ulary
Sometimes !ifferent (or!s are #se! for the same i!ea in American an! )ritish English+ &S a%artment /a/0-carriage ca/ can!0 coo*ie corn !essert ele$ator fall first floor flashlight mo$ie one-(a0 trash tr#c* $acation 1) flat %ram ta8i s(eets /isc#it aiDe s(eet lift a#t#mn gro#n! floor torch film single >tic*et? r#//ish $an3 lorr0 holi!a0>s?
S$elling
TEFL Manual
7n American English3 final l is not #s#all0 !o#/le! in an #nstresse! s0lla/le+ e.g.3 tra$eler >&S? P tra$eller >1)?. Some (or!s en! in *ter in American English an! *tre in )ritish+ e.g.3 theater3 center >&S? - theatre3 centre >1)?. Some (or!s en! in *or in American English an! *our in )ritish+ e.g.3 la/or3 honor3 color >&S? P la/o#r3 hono#r3 colo#r >1)?. Some (or!s en! in *og in American English an! *ogue in )ritish+ e.g.3 catalog3 !ialog3 analog >&S? P catalog#e3 !ialog#e3 analog#e >1)?. Some (or!s en! in *i!e in American English3 /#t in *i!e or Pise in )ritish+ e.g.3 realiDe >&S? P realiDe or realise >1)?
!ere is a list of ,ost co,,on s$elling differences in indi#idual words: &S al#min#m anal0De chec* !efense !ialog 5e(elr0 offense %ractice >$er/? %rogram 1) al#mini#m anal0se che'#e >from a /an*? !efence !ialog#e 5e(ellr0 offence %ractice %rogramme
-ifferences in the 'se of Tense For,s

7n )ritish English the %resent %erfect is #se! to e8%ress an action that has occ#rre! in the recent %ast that has an effect on the %resent moment+ e.g.3 7@ve lost m0 *e0. "an 0o# hel% me loo* for it? 7n American English the follo(ing is also %ossi/le+ e.g.3 7 lost m0 *e0. "an 0o# hel% me loo* for it? #n -ritish English the above would be considered incorrect. /owever, both forms are generally accepted in standard 'merican English. Other !ifferences in$ol$ing the #se of the %resent %erfect in )ritish English an! Simple %ast in American English incl#!e already, ust an! yet. For e8am%le3 G& 7@ve 3ust had l#nch 7@ve alread& seen that film Have 0o# #inished 0o#r home(or* 0et? 'S 7 3ust had l#nch 7%ve 3ust had l#nch 7@ve alread& seen that film 7 alread& saw that film Have 0o#r #inished 0o#r home(or* 0et? 0id 0o# #inish 0o#r home(or* 0et?
TEFL Manual
+ossession
There are t(o forms to e8%ress %ossession in English+ have or have got. While /oth forms are correct >an! acce%te! in /oth )ritish an! American English?3 have got >ha$e 0o# got3 he hasn@t got3 etc.? is generall0 the %referre! form in )ritish English (hile most s%ea*ers of American English em%lo0 the have >!o 0o# ha$e3 he !oesn@t ha$e etc.? G& Ba$e 0o# got a car? Be hasn@t got an0 frien!s. She@s got a /ea#tif#l ne( home. 'S 6o 0o# ha$e a car? Be !oesn@t ha$e an0 frien!s. She has a /ea#tif#l ne( home.
Notice The %ast %artici%le of the $er/ get is gotten in American English an! got in )ritish English. e.g.3 Be@s gotten m#ch /etter at %la0ing tennis. >&S? P Be@s got m#ch /etter at %la0ing tennis. >1)?
+re$ositions
There are also a fe( !ifferences in %re%osition #se incl#!ing the follo(ing+ G& 'S at the (ee*en! 5n the (ee*en! in a team on a team P on!a0 to Fri!a0 on!a0 through Fri!a0 on!a0 to Fri!a0 incl#si$e
+ast Si,$le 6 +ast +artici$les

The follo(ing $er/s ha$e t(o acce%ta/le forms of the %ast sim%le / %ast %artici%le in /oth American an! )ritish English3 ho(e$er3 the irreg#lar form is generall0 more common in )ritish English >the first form of the t(o? an! the reg#lar form is more common to American English. G& /#rn P /#rnt !ream P !reamt lean P leant learn P learnt smell P smelt s%ell P s%elt /#rne! !reame! leane! learne! smelle! s%elle! 'S
TEFL Manual
References
4eters3 4am3 The *ambridge +uide to English 1sage. "am/ri!ge+ "am/ri!ge &ni$ersit0 4ress3 2II, S(an3 ichael3 %ractical English 1sage. O8for!+ O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 2II3 Born/03 A. S.3 +uide to %atterns and 1sage in English. O8for!+ O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 1HHG OC2eill3 Ro/ert3 Success at First *ertificate. O8for!+ O8for! &ni$ersit0 4ress3 2III

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US Peace Corps in Ukraine

TEFL Manual (Pre-PST Modules)

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2. The Role of the Teacher

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!ow "ati#e English S$ea%ers an &e &etter English Teachers in '%raine

Organi(ation of a Lesson in '%raine

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'%rainian Learners) E*$ectations of Teachers

'%rainian Teachers) +rofessional &eliefs

!el$ing '%rainian Teachers of English

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4rofessional !e$elo%ment (ith teachers ma0 incl#!e the follo(ing acti$ities+

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II. General TEFL Methodology (Part I)

Gra,,ar Translation Method

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Audio.lingual Method /ALM0

o,,unity Language Learning / LL0

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Total +hysical 1es$onse /T+10 and the "atural A$$roach

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o,,unicati#e Language Teaching

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Target L nati$e-li*e %ron#nciation For/i!!en

Target L com%rehensi/le %ron#nciation &se!3 (hen necessar0

Follo(s ling#istic com%le8it0 Teacher-centere!

Follo(s learners@ nee!s

&alance of Language S%ills

Listening an! s%ea*ing em%hasiDe!

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2. Su##estions for $sin# Selected Lan#ua#e Teachin# Techni%ues

-irect Method and Audio.lingual Method

Total +hysical 1es$onse

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o,,unity Language Learning

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Principles Characteristics of the TeachingLearning Process

The nature of Student-Teacher and Student-| Student Interaction

eeling of Students ,Affect-

!ie" of Language and Culture

#mphasi$ed Language S%ills

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Principles Roles of Students& 'ative Language

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. O&er&ie' of Lan#ua#e S(ills) Listenin# and Readin#

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