DJ SANGHVI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

A REPORT ON
MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND LIFE UNDER THE SEA

BY SAGAR SAMANT (60002115080) BHARGAV GOKALGANDHI (60002128007) ARUN VARIA (60002128023)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, we would like to thank to our supervisor of this project, Mr. Pradeep Yadav for the valuable guidance and advice. He inspired us greatly to work on this project. His willingness to motivate us contributed tremendously to our project. Besides, we would like to thank our Head of department Dr. Amit Deshmukh, our Principal Dr. Hari Vasudevan for providing us with a good environment and facilities to complete this project. Finally an honorable mention goes to our families and friends for their understanding and support with us in completing this project. Without help of the particular that are mentioned above, we would face many difficulties while doing this project.

MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND LIFE UNDER THE SEA

What is biodiversity? Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, is the term used to describe the variety of life found on Earth and all of the natural processes. This includes ecosystem, genetic and cultural diversity, and the connections between these and all species. Thus Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life. This can refer to genetic variation, species variation, or ecosystem variation within an area, biome, or planet. In this report, we intend to talk in general about the species biodiversity in a marine aquatic environment along with describing some of the most endemic species in India, the reasons for loss of marine biodiversity, etc.

How is any species classified?

Species can be classified as:

Bacteria

Fungi

protoctist

Plant

Animal

Bacteria: Bacteria constitute a large domain or kingdom of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometers in length, bacteria have a wide range of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most habitats on the planet. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, and the deep portions of Earth's crust. Bacteria also live in plants, animals, and have flourished in manned space vehicles. There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a milliliter of fresh water. There are approximately 51030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass that exceeds that of all plants and animals. Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many steps in nutrient cycles depending on these organisms, such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and putrefaction. In the biological

communities surrounding hydrothermal vents and cold seeps, bacteria provide the nutrients needed to sustain life by converting dissolved compounds such as hydrogen sulphide and methane to energy.

Fungi: Fungi are living organisms that are distantly related to plants, and more closely related to animals, but rather different from either of those groups. Fungi can be recognized by the following five characteristics: (1) The cells of fungi contain nuclei with chromosomes (like plants and animals, but unlike bacteria). (2) Fungi cannot photosynthesize (they are heterotrophic, like animals) (3) Fungi absorb their food (they are osmotrophic) (4) They mostly develop very diffuse bodies made up of a spreading network of very narrow, tubular, branching filaments called hyphae. These filaments exude enzymes, and absorb food, at their growing tips. Although these filaments are very narrow, they are collectively very long, and can explore and exploit food substrates very efficiently. (5) They usually reproduce by means of spores, which develop on, and are released by, a range of unique structures (such as mushrooms, cup fungi, and many other kinds of microscopically small fruiting bodies). Organisms which have all five of the features just described can be found in two of the seven living Kingdoms - they make up the entire Kingdom Eumycota or true fungi, whose cell walls (the walls of the hyphae) are made largely of chitin (like the exoskeletons of insects); and part of the Kingdom Chromista, whose cell walls are made of cellulose (like plants), and which also include the brown algae - wracks and kelps (all these Chromista, though they may look very different, have similar swimming cells with two flagella at one stage in their lives).

Protoctists: Protoctists (the smallest called protists) are all living things other than, plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria. Ubiquitous in damp, wet, watery places, these amazingly diverse beings reside everywhere from ocean abysses to ephemeral dewdrops, from moist plant tissues to dark deeps of animal bodies. Some 250,000 different species of protoctists are estimated to exist today!

The earlier joint venture of sluggish fermenting bacteria with microbial speedster spirochetes may have been a prime mover in the development of protoctists. Partners for some time, this hardy combination forms permanent attachments to a new larger cell and gets it moving. Some slide inside the cell and eventually become little organs of motility for that cell. Some mergers also take oxygen-respiring bacteria as partners. These consortia set the stage for two more great Kingdoms of life: Animals and Fungi. Not about to be left out, cyanobacteria join the fray and convert many protists to photosynthesis. This distinguished clan, the algae, expands, eventually giving rise to the great Kingdom of Plants.

Plants: Plants, also called green plants (Viridiplantae in Latin), are living multicellular organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They form a clade that includes the flowering plants, conifers and other gymnosperms, ferns, clubmosses, hornworts, liverworts and mosses, as well as, depending on definition, the green algae. Plants exclude the red and brown seaweeds such as kelp, the fungi, Archaea and bacteria. Green plants have cell walls with cellulose and characteristically obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis using chlorophyll contained in chloroplasts, which gives them their green color. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are also characterized by sexual reproduction, modular and indeterminate growth, and an alternation of generations, although asexual reproduction is common. Precise numbers are difficult to determine, but as of 2010, there are thought to be 300315 thousand species of plants, of which the great majority, some 260290 thousand, are seed plants .Green plants provide most of the world's molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of the earth's ecologies, especially on land. Plants described as grains, fruits and vegetables form mankind's basic foodstuffs, and have been domesticated for millennia. Plants serve as ornaments and, until recently and in great variety, they have served as the source of most medicines and drugs. Their scientific study is known as botany.

Animals: Animals are multi-cellular, eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa. Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop, although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later on in their lives. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move spontaneously and independently. All animals must ingest

other organisms or their products for sustenance. Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542 million years ago. Animals are divided into various sub-groups, including birds, mammals, amphibians, reptiles, fish and insects. All of the above contribute to the biodiversity in a region. No different is the Marine biodiversity. Before going into much detail as to what leads to the loss of marine biodiversity, let us first see some species which are on the verge of extinction in India and their current status of existence which would give us a brief insight so as to what the situation really is

Some species which have nearly become extinct: The Pondicherry shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon) No records of this species are available from India during the last two decades, with the last known spotting taking place in 1979. However, it is still considered as critically endangered and even possibly extinct from the face of the earth. This rare and little known fish species takes its name from Pondicherry, a union territory in South India.

According MoEF documents, this marine fish was reported inshore on continental and insular shelves. As per earlier records, the fish was once widely distributed in Indian Ocean from Gulf of Oman to Pakistan and India. Though there are no records of the species near the shores of Sri Lanka, it is expected that this rare fish will be present here also. The Pondicherry shark has been once reported from the mouth of the Hooghly River also. Like the case of many fish species, Pondicherry shark also is a victim of indiscriminate commercial fishing in inshore aquatic habitats. The population of this fish is almost completely depleted to an extent that it is no more reported even as a by-catch from the areas around its natural habitat.

 The Ganges shark(Glyphis gangeticus) The Ganges Shark got its name from its mother river Ganges where it was found in plenty numbers once. Though not much is known about the nature and character of this shark, it is known that it has adaptations which help it lead the life of a fish eating shark.

Its unique body adaptations include the small eyes which help it to survive in turbid waters and slender teeth which help it to have a fish diet. Mature individuals are recorded to grow up to a length of 2.04 meters. Actually found in the turbid waters of river Ganges and Bay of Bengal, the fish has been reported from Hooghly river mouth region also. There are speculations that the fish can be present in Pakistan also. Ganges shark is also a victim of indiscriminate shark hunting fisheries. Construction of dams and barrages in Ganges and the alarmingly rising pollution of the habitat have also contributed to a drastic population fall of these fishes. Though there have been not a single instances of finding a live specimen of the species in recent times, a few jaws of the species were spotted in the international market suggesting that the species is not completely extinct.

 Long-comb Saw fish or Narrow-snout Sawfish (Pristis zijsron) Usually found in shallow water, Long-comb Sawfish can grow up to 4.3m in length. The reports of these species vary considerably from 40 meters below the sea surface to the muddy bottoms of inland estuaries.

Distributed in the Indo-Pacific region including Australia, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia and Malaysia, this fish is also a victim of indiscriminate fishing and aquarium trade. Historically, the population has also been negatively affected by commercial net and trawl fisheries which operate in inshore areas throughout most of its range, the cumulative impacts of which have led to population declines. The Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata) Resembling sharks in its body structure, the Knife-tooth Sawfish has a long narrow snout with blade-like teeth. This fish can grow up to 2.8 meters.

With its ability to survive in a range of salinity conditions, it is found in shallow coastal waters as well near the bottom of the sea even up to a depth of 40 meters. This ability has given it a widespread distribution in the western part of the IndoPacific region, including Red Sea. Their unique feature the long saw with teeth on it, make them easily caught even in primitive fish nets. Since their meat, fins and saw are highly valued, they end up in the international trade rackets, even if caught as a by-catch by fishermen. Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon)

Found in the western part of the Indo-Pacific in countries like East Africa to New Guinea, Philippines and Vietnam to Australia, Large-tooth saw fish is unique with its heavy-body and short, massive saw. Mature individuals have been recorded to grow to a maximum of 3 meters in length. Usually a by catch with Bull Sharks and the Green Sawfish, Large tooth Sawfish is reported from inland waters of Mahanadi River even up to 64 km off the coast. According to MoEF documents, it is common in the estuaries of the Ganga and Brahmaputra, but its present records are rare. Thus we see that due to the reasons mentioned in each of the section, some species have neared extinction in India. In the following section , we will see the species which are endemic only to India.

 Some species endemic only to India Callionymus megastomus

Dragonets are small, perciform, marine fish of the diverse family Callionymidae found mainly in the tropical waters of the western Indo-Pacific. The Draconettidae may be considered a sister family, whose members are very much alike, though rarely seen. Due to similarities in morphology and behaviour, dragonets are sometimes confused with members of the goby family. These "little dragons" are generally highly colourful with cryptic patterns. Their bodies are elongated and scaleless. A large preopercular spine is characteristic of this group, and has been reported to be venomous in some species. All fins are large, showy and elongated; the first high dorsal fin usually has four spines; in males, the first of these spines may be further adorned with filamentous extensions. Dragonets have flattened triangular heads with large mouths and eyes; their tail fins are fanshaped and tapered. The largest species, the longtail dragonet (Callionymus gardineri) reaches a length of 30 centimetres (12 in). At the other end of the scale, the Saint Helena dragonet (Callionymus sanctaehelenae) reaches a length of just 2 centimetres (0.79 in). Many species exhibit markedsexual dimorphism: males and females are coloured and patterned differently, and (in addition to the spine filament) males have a much higher dorsal fin. This theme is taken to extremes in the high-finned dragonet (Synchiropus rameus). The most common commercially available dragonets are the mandarinfish (Synchiropus splendidus), the psychedelic mandarin dragonet (Synchiropus picturatus) and the ocellated dragonet, or scooter blenny. They are considered to be reef safe and do best in reef aquariums of 55 gallons or larger with large amounts of live rock. There are many reports of spawning in captivity, but it is difficult to find dragonets that have been born and bred in captivity because they require a considerable area of sand or rock to find enough food.

Although their bright colours and showy fins make them a popular choice for the aquarium, most dragonets are picky eaters and will only accept live food, making them difficult to keep in captivity. They do not readily accept prepared foods and often starve soon after purchase. As stated earlier, larger tanks are desired because they can support a larger population of the copepods andamphipods which make up the bulk of their diet in the wild. Some success has been had feeding brine or mysis shrimps. Malabar Tongue Sole

Tonguefishes are a family, Cynoglossidae, of flatfishes. They are distinguished by the presence of a long hook on the snout overhanging the mouth, and the absence of pectoral fins. Their eyes are both on the left side of their body, which also lacks a pelvic fin. They are found in tropical and subtropical oceans, mainly in shallow waters and estuaries, though a few species found in deep sea floors, and a few in rivers. Some species have been observed congregating around ponds of sulphur that pool up from beneath the seafloor. Scientists are unsure of the mechanism that allows the fish to survive and even thrive in such a hostile environment. The most obvious characteristic of the flatfish is its asymmetry, with both eyes lying on the same side of the head in the adult fish. In some families, the eyes are always on the right side of the body (dextral or right-eyed flatfish), and in others, they are always on the left (sinistral or left-eyed flatfish). The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-sided individuals, and are generally less asymmetrical than the other families. Other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed (benthos), and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head. The surface of the fish facing away from the sea floor is pigmented, often serving to camouflage the fish, but sometimes with striking coloured patterns. Some flatfishes are also able to change their pigmentation to match the background, in a manner similar to a chameleon. The side of the body without the eyes, which faces the seabed, is usually colourless or very pale. The flounders and spiny turbots eat smaller fish, and have well-developed teeth. They sometimes seek prey in the midwater, away from the bottom, and show fewer extreme adaptations than other families. The soles, by contrast, are almost

exclusively bottom-dwellers, and feed on invertebrates. They show a more extreme asymmetry, and may lack teeth on one side of the jaw. Flatfishes range in size from Tarphops oligolepis, measuring about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) in length, and weighing 2 g (0.071 oz), to the Atlantic halibut, at 2.5 m (8.2 ft) and 316 kg (697 lb) Jester Gobi

The gobies form the family Gobiidae, which is one of the largest families of fish, with more than 2,000 species in more than 200 genera. Most are relatively small, typically less than 10 cm (4 in) in length. Gobies include some of the smallest vertebrates in the world, such as species of the generaTrimmatom nanus and Pandaka pygmaea, which are under 1 cm (3/8 in) long when fully grown. Some large gobies, such as some species of the generaGobioides or Periophthalmodon, can reach over 30 cm (1 ft) in length, but that is exceptional. Although few are important as food for humans, they are of great significance as prey species for commercially important fish such as cod, haddock, sea bass, and flatfish. Several gobies are also of interest as aquarium fish, such as the bumblebee gobies of the genus Brachygobius. Phylogenetic relationships of gobies have been studied using molecular data. he most distinctive aspects of goby morphology are the fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker. This sucker is functionally analogous to thedorsal fin sucker possessed by the remoras or the pelvic fin sucker of the lumpsuckers, but is anatomically distinct; these similarities are the product ofconvergent evolution. Gobies can often be seen using the sucker to adhere to rocks and corals, and in aquariums they will stick to glass walls of the tank, as well. Gobies have commercial importance in Ukraine. They are fished in the Sea of Azov, northwestern Black Sea. Most important species are round goby,monkey goby, toad goby, and grass goby. The grass goby is also a commercial fish in Italy. Several species of gobies are kept in aquaria. Most captive gobies are species from saltwater, and make excellent additions to healthy reef or fish-only aquariums. Perhaps the most popular is the small but colorful neon goby. Most gobies stay toward the lower portion of the aquarium, hiding in the rockwork, but some species (most notably the shrimp gobies) prefer to dig themselves little burrows. Aquarists

typically provide them with a fine-grained substrate to prevent damage to their delicate undersides. Commonly kept saltwater species include the Randall's shrimp goby, and watchman goby. The bumblebee gobies from the genus Brachygobius are perhaps the most widely traded freshwater species, being small, colorful, and easy to care for. They need tropical, hard and alkaline freshwater or slightly brackish conditions to do well. Gobies are generally peaceful towards their tankmates, though territorial among themselves. Since most are small and few are predatory toward other fishes, they usually make good community fishes. Typically, the main problem with gobies is feeding them; with a few exceptions, the small species kept in aquariums prefer live or frozen foods rather than flake, and they are not very good at competing with active species such as cichlids. Another problem is they commonly jump out of the tank, so having a tight-fitting lid is a must. They are recommended to be kept on their own or with peaceful surface dwelling species, such as halfbeaks and guppies. Quiron electric ray

The electric rays are a group of rays, flattened cartilaginous fish with enlarged pectoral fins, comprising the order Torpediniformes. They are known for being capable of producing an electric discharge, ranging from as little as 8 volts up to 220 volts depending on species, used to stun prey and for defense. There are 69 species in four families. Perhaps the best known members are those of the genus Torpedo, also called crampfish and numbfish, after which the device called a torpedo, is named. The name comes from the Latin torpere, to be stiffened or paralyzed, referring to the effect on someone who handles or steps on a living electric ray. Electric rays have a rounded pectoral disc with two moderately large roundedangular (not pointed or hooked) dorsal fins (reduced in some narkids), and a stout, muscular tail with a well-developed caudal fin. The body is thick and flabby, with soft, loose skin devoid of dermal denticles and thorns. A pair of kidney-shaped electric organs is found at the base of the pectoral fins. The snout is broad, large in

the Narcinidae but reduced in all other families. The mouth, nostrils, and five pairs of gill slits are located underneath the disc. Electric rays are found from shallow coastal waters down to at least 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) depth. They are sluggish and slow moving, propelling themselves with their tails, rather than using their disc-shaped bodies, as other rays do. They feed on invertebrates and small fish. They lie in wait for prey below the sand or other substrate, using their electricity to stun and capture it. The electric ray is known to be the most electro-sensitive of all animals. Their eyes are situated on the top of their head, resulting in poor vision that must be compensated for with the use of other senses, including the detection of electricity. Many species of rays and skates outside the family of the electric ray have electric organs located in the tail; however, the electric ray possesses two large electric organs on each side of its head, where current passes from the lower to the upper surface of the body. The organs are governed by four central nerves from each side of the electric lobe, or specialized brain lobe, which is of a different color than the rest of the brain. The main nerves branch repeatedly, and then attach to the lower side of each plate in the batteries, which are composed of hexagonal columns, in honeycomb formation: each column consists of 140 to half a million gelatinous plates. In marine fish, these batteries are connected as a parallel circuit where freshwater batteries are found in series, transmitting discharges of higher voltage, as fresh water cannot conduct electricity as well as salt water. It is with such a battery that an average electric ray may electrocute larger prey with a current of up to 30 amperes and a voltage of 50 to 200 volts, a similar effect to dropping a mainspowered hair dryer into a bathtub.

 Red fin dwarf monocle bream

Perciformes, also called the Percomorphi or Acanthopteri, are the largest order of vertebrates, containing about 40% of all bony fish. Perciformes means "perch-like". They belong to the class of ray-finned fish, and comprise over 10,000 species found in almost all aquatic environments. The order contains about 160 families, which is the most of any order within the vertebrates. It is also the most variably sized order of vertebrates, ranging from the 7mm (1/4-in) Schindleria brevipinguis to the marlins in the Makaira species and the heaviest of bony fish, Mola mola. They first appeared and diversified in the Late Cretaceous. Among the well-known members of this group are cichlids, sunfish/bluegills, damselfish, bass, and perch. The dorsal and anal fins are divided into anterior spiny and posterior soft-rayed portions, which may be partially or completely separated. The pelvic fins usually have one spine and up to five soft rays, positioned unusually far forward under the chin or under the belly. Scales are usually ctenoid, although sometimes they are cycloid or otherwise modified.

 Strong- spined silver biddy

It is the most commonly used bait fish along the coastal areasand also they are mostly found in the shallow ocean areas. Adults often in clear coastal waters up to about 50 m depth; juveniles often in estuaries or lagoons influenced by fresh water; prefers shallow waters over sandy bottoms, from coral reefs to brackish waters. It occurs singly or in groups. In the Gilberts, it forms spawning aggregations for a few days around the new moon. Sold fresh in markets; processed into fishmeal. It feeds on small bottom invertebrates.

Now we move on to inspect the various causes that have led to the loss of marine biodiversity: Loss of Marine Biodiversity Life in the ocean, where evolution began, comprises more major taxonomic groups (phyla), which represent separate evolutionary paths, than does life on land. Of the approximately 55 phyla, approximately 80% include species that are marine while about 50% include species found on land. It is therefore certain that in the ocean there are more species that are very different from each other, although it is not yet known which realm has the most species.

The Problem

Because so much of the ocean is only accessible with expensive technology and/or remote instrumentation, uncovering the extent of marine biodiversity has been and continues to be a slow and difficult undertaking. Much of ocean life remains a mystery and there are an unknown number of species yet to be discovered. Consequently, scientific estimates of the number of species in the ocean vary greatly, ranging from many thousands to several tens of millions. It is also difficult -- and in many cases impossible -- to determine the status of most species in the ocean. So little is known of many species' distribution or range that it cannot be determined whether they are plentiful or naturally rare or whether populations are stable or changing, and if they are threatened or endangered. Marine species that are relatively easily monitored are those restricted to near-shore habitats, especially if they are sedentary or attached (e.g. seagrasses and corals) and those that spend time at the sea surface or on land (e.g. marine mammals and seabirds). Because there is little evidence to the contrary, there has been a common impression that marine species and ecosystems are generally in good shape. However, as more is learned, that impression is turning out to be wildly misconceived. We do not have a clear idea of the full extent of the loss of marine biodiversity over the past 500 years as the level of biodiversity at that time is unknown. When populations of a species become depleted, the genetic variation is reduced, which compromises the species' ability to adapt to new environmental changes and stresses. Furthermore, due to interdependencies among species, the demise of one can lead to the decrease or demise of others. Ecosystems become impoverished when species disappear or remain only in insignificant populations. The traditional biological roles of depleted species become seriously compromised, and threaten the integrity and stability of the ecosystem as a whole. Impoverished systems may not contain the species and genetic diversity necessary to enable them to survive major environmental changes and stresses, such as global climate change. There is increasing evidence that numerous marine species are, in fact, restricted to relatively small areas, which makes them more vulnerable to depletion or extinction. It was once assumed that this phenomenon must be rare in the sea, since most species swim or rely upon the dispersal of reproductive cells and larvae by moving waters and there are few barriers to their dissemination. Thus, it was reasoned that all marine species should be widespread. In fact many are, but it is now also known that many are not.

The Causes

The major causes of biological impoverishment and loss of marine biodiversity are: fishing and bycatch; hunting mammals, birds, turtles; toxic chemicals and nutrient pollution; habitat destruction; the human-assisted transport and release of species to environments where they did not previously exist; and possibly, the increased ultra-violet radiation due to ozone layer depletion. Global climate change is predicted to have a major impact in the future. Many marine species depend upon broad dissemination during motile life stages, and short-lived species in particular must be replenished by means of this dispersal (a process called recruitment). If dispersal routes or migration are interrupted by lethal environmental conditions, populations and ranges of affected species may be reduced as a consequence. Nutrient and toxic chemical pollution are invariably associated widh a reduction in biodiversity. Species that can adapt to or thrive under conditions stressful to most living organisms can dominate the biological community, thus changing the entire nature and function of the ecosystem. This may lead to an even greater loss of species from the system. The pressures of fishing have given rise to a new category of species depletion: commercial extinction. Fish and shellfish populations are depleted to the point that it is no longer economically feasible to fish for them. While not extinct, these species are certainly no longer playing their traditional roles in their ecosystems, and some, such as white abalone off the coast of California, have been pushed to the brink of exrinction. Fishing operations, such as trawling and dragging destroy bottom habitats and deplete species populations, and repetition of such activities delays or prevents recovery. Coastal habitats, such as estuaries and wetlands, are subject to a number of physical alterations that deplete native species populations. Residential development, tourism, aquaculture, industrial development, and dams all have huge impacts. The rapid increase of coastal human populations exacerbates the situation.

Conclusion Along with providing economic and other supports to millions all over the world, the oceans cover almost over 95% of the biosphere thus serving as a valuable source of Genetic Material. Hence it is necessary to keep our oceans clean and conserve this great resource of biodiversity

Reference:
http://www.seaweb.org/resources/briefings/marinebio.php http://www.wikipedia.org/