Data Communications ACOE412

Lecture 9
Network Layer: Internet Protocol

Spring 2009
Dr. L. Christofi Spring 2009

0. Overview
In this lecture we will cover the following topics:

15.Network Layer: Internet Protocol

15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 ARP IP ICMP IPv6 Summary (part 15)

Dr. L. Christofi

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15.1 NETWORK LAYER PROTOCOLS

In this section, we discuss the five network layer protocols: ARP, IP and ICMP

Topics discussed in this section: Address Resolution Protocol IP ICMP IPv6

Dr. L. Christofi

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Protocols at Network Layer

IP is responsible for host-to-host delivery of datagrams from source to destination. ARP: Find the MAC (Physical) address of the next hop. Data link layer encapsulates this address into the frame ICMP: Handle unusual situations such as the occurrence of an error. IP is meant for unicast. For Multicast, we need IGMP.

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Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

Hosts and routers are recognized at the network level by their IP addresses. IP is unique. At physical network level, we use MAC. MAC is unique locally but not necessarily universally. We need both IP and MAC address because a physical network, such as Ethernet, can have two different protocols at the network layer, such as IP and IPX (Novell), at the same time. Likewise, a packet at a network layer such as IP may pass through different physical networks, such as Ethernet and Token Ring. IP and MAC address need to be mapped.

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ARP mapping
Static Mapping
Having a table of IP and MAC address mapping in all the machines. Limitations if MAC address changes due to
Change of network card In LocalTalk, MAC address changes when a machine is turned on A mobile computer can move from one network to another and so can gain different MAC address.

Dynamic mapping
Each machine knows one of the two addresses. Use a protocol to get the other address. ARP & RARP. RARP is now replaced by DHCP. ARP associates an IP address with its MAC address.

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ARP Operation

Dr. L. Christofi

ARP request has the senders IP and MAC & the receivers IP address. Its a broadcast as the physical address of the receiver is unknown. All hosts in the network processes this request but only the intended recipient responds. Response is unicast.
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ARP Packet Format

Hardware Type: 16-bits; Defining the type of network; Ethernet is 1. Protocol Type: 16-bits; IPv4 is 0800. Hardware and Protocol length is 8-bits.
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Encapsulation of ARP Packet

Start of Frame Delimiter -SDF

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Delivery of the Datagram

Sender knows the IP address of the target. IP asks ARP to create ARP request message. It includes senders and targets IP and physical addresses. Target Physical address is all 0s. Message is passed to data link layer, encapsulated in a frame using senders physical address. The physical destination address is the broadcast address. All machines drop the packet except the targeted machine. Target machine identifies the IP address. Target machine sends the ARP reply with its physical address. Sender receives the reply and knows the physical address of target. IP datagram, carries data for target machine, is now encapsulated in a frame and is unicast to the destination.

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Four cases using ARP

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Four cases using ARP

Case 1: Map the destination IP address to the physical address of the destination host (host MAC). Case 2: Map the IP address of the router to the physical address (router MAC). Case 3: IP of next router is mapped to the physical address (MAC of next router) Case 4: Destination IP is mapped to the destination MAC

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Example
A host with IP address 130.23.3.20 and physical address B23455102210 has a packet to send to another host with IP address 130.23.43.25 and physical address A46EF45983AB. The two hosts are on the same Ethernet network. Show the ARP request and reply packets encapsulated in Ethernet frames.

Solution Figure in next slide shows the ARP request and reply packets. Note that the ARP data field in this case is 28 bytes, and that the individual addresses do not fit in the 4-byte boundary. That is why we do not show the regular 4-byte boundaries for these addresses. Note that we use hexadecimal for every field except the IP addresses.

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Example

Start of Frame Delimiter -SDF

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IP
Host-to-host network layer delivery protocol for the Internet. Unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol Best-effort: no error control or flow control. Has error detection mechanism to discard the packets that are corrupted. For reliability, use IP with TCP. Each datagram is delivered independently and via different routes. Datagrams: Packets of IP layer.
Variable-length packet consisting of header [20 to 60 bytes] and data.

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IP datagram

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HLEN must be multiplied by 4 to get the length in bytes Differentiated services: QoS Total length = length of data + header length TTL: number of hops; approx 2 times the maximum number of routes between any two hosts. Protocol: Defines the higher level protocol that uses IP layer.
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Protocols: Multiplexing

Value
Dr. L. Christofi Spring 2009

Protocol ICMP IGMP TCP UDP OSPF

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1 2 6 17 89

Checksum
Checksum only covers the header and not data.
Data checksum is handled by higher-level protocols that encapsulate the data in the IP datagram. Header changes when packets travels on the network but data does not change.

Calculate Checksum
Divide the IP header into 16-bit sections. Value of checksum field is set to zero. All the sections are added and the sum is complemented. The result is inserted in the checksum field.

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Example of checksum calculation

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Fragmentation

Fragmentation
Each router on the network decapsulates the IP datagram from the frame it receives, process it, and then encapsulates it in another frame. Format and size depends on the incoming and outgoing physical network. IP datagram must be divided to make it possible to pass through these physical networks. This is called fragmentation

Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)

To make IP independent of the physical network, the maximum length of IP is equal to the largest maximum transfer unit (MTU) 65,535 bytes.

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Fragmentation Fields
Identification: Same for all the fragments. Helps destination in
reassembly of fragments.

Flags: 3-bit field.

First bit is reserved. Second bit is called Dont fragment bit. If set, dont fragment the packet. If set and still needs fragmentation, discard the packet and send an ICMP message to the source host. Third field is more fragment bit. If 0 means that this is the last fragment.

Fragmentation offset
13-bit field shows the relative position of this fragment with respect to the whole datagram. It is the offset of the data in the original datagram measured in units of 8 bytes. Forces hosts or routers that fragment datagrams to choose the size of each fragment so that the first byte number is divisible by 8.

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Example

If needed, the packets are fragmented. Each fragmented datagram has a header of its own. A fragmented datagram may itself be fragmented if it encounters a network with an even smaller MTU. Fragmentation is done at source or at the routers on the fly. Reassembly is done only at the destination.

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ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

IP lacks error control.
No error-reporting or checking. What happens if router can not find a final destination? What if time-to-live filed has zero value? What will happen if final destination has not received all the fragments within a pre-determined time limit?

Lacks of assistance mechanisms.

A host sometimes needs to determine if a router or another host is alive. And sometimes a network manager needs information from another host or router.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a network layer protocol. ICMP Messages are encapsulated inside IP datagrams before going to the lower layer. Protocol field in IP header is 1 for ICMP.

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ICMP Encapsulation

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Types of ICMP Messages

1. Error-Reporting Messages 2. Query Messages Error-Reporting Messages: Chance of error always exists and ICMP handles error reporting Error reporting messages are always sent to the original source. ICMP uses the source IP address to send the error message to the source (originator) of the datagram.

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Error-Reporting Messages

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Error-Reporting Messages
Destination unreachable
Router can not route a datagram or a host cannot deliver a datagram, the datagram is discard and message sent to the source.

Source Quench
IP is connectionless protocol and so no control of flow or congestion. Source has no idea whether the destination host has been overwhelmed with datagrams. When a router or host discards a datagram due to congestion, it sends a source-quench message to the sender of the datagram.
To inform sender about the loss of the datagram To warn the source that there is congestion in the path and that the source should slow down the sending process.

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Error-Reporting Messages
Time-exceeded: Generated in two cases
When a router receives a datagram with TTL as 0, then the router discards the datagram and sends a message to the source. When all fragments that make up a message do not arrive at the destination host within a certain time limit.

Parameter Problem
If a router or the destination host discovers an ambiguous or missing value in any field of the datagram, it discards the the datagram and sends a message back to the source.

Redirection
Routing decision on routers is made using routing protocols but in the case of hosts, there is no routing protocol. A host may send a datagram, which is destined for another network, to the wrong router. In this case, the router that receives the datagram will forward the datagram to the correct router. However, to update the routing table of a host, it sends a redirection message back to this host.

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Query Messages

In the case of query message, a node sends a message that is answered in a specific format by the destination node. Echo request and reply: for diagnostic purposes Time-stamp request and reply: to determine the round trip time and also to synchronize the clocks in two machines. Address mask request and reply: Request by a host to know its subnet mask to the router. Router solicitation and advertisement: Solicitation is request by host to know the route to send a packet. Reply comes from the router as advertisement.

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IPv6
IPv4
Two level address structure. Inefficient. For real-time audio and video transmission, there is no minimum delay strategies and reservation of resources. No security mechanism [encryption and authentication of data].

IPv6 [IPng: IP next generation]

Larger address space: 128 bits long. Better header format: Options are separated from base header. This simplifies and speeds up the routing process because most of the options do not need to be checked by routers.

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IPv6
IPv6 [IPng: IP next generation]
New options: For additional functionalities. Allowance for extension Support for resource reservation: Type-of-service has been removed but a mechanism called flow label has been added to enable the source to request special handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as realtime audio and video. Support for more security: encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality and integrity of the packet.

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IPv6 Address

Hexadecimal colon notation

Divided into 8 sections, each 2 bytes in length Two bytes in hexadecimal requires four hexadecimal digits.

Abbreviation
Leading zeros of a section (four digits between two colons) can be omitted. Only the leading zeros can be dropped, not the trailing zeros.

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Abbreviated Address

Abbreviations are possible if there are consecutive sections consisting of zeros only. We can remove the zeros altogether and replace them with a double semicolon. But only once per address.

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CIDR Address

IPv6 allows classless addressing and CIDR notation. Categories of addresses

Unicast: Single computer. Anycast: A group of computers with addresses that have the same prefix. All computers connected to the same physical network share the same prefix address. A packet sent to an anycast address must be delivered to exactly one of the members of the group. Multicast: Group of computers that may or may not share the same prefix and may or may not be connected to the same physical network. A packet sent to a multicast address must be delivered to each member of the set.

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Format of an IPv6 Datagram

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Format of an IPv6 Datagram

Base header: 40 bytes; Data + extension header= 65535 bytes Ver: 4 bit; Priority: 4 bit Flow label: 24 bit; Payload length: length of IP datagram excluding the base header. Next header: 8-bit field defining the header that follows the base header in the datagram. Sometimes, the pointer points to the upperlayer protocols header. Hop limit: TTL. Source / Destination Address: 16-bytes (128 bit). IP Add. Fragmentation in IPv6 is possible only at the source. Source must find the MTU using MTU discovery technique. OR MTU=576 bytes (smallest possible size)

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Comparison of Network Layers in v4 and v6

ICMPv6 is designed for IPv6 Some protocols that were independent in version 4 are now part of ICMPv6. ARP and IGMP in version 4 are combined in ICMPv6. RARP is dropped from the suite because it is seldom used.

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IP Transition Strategies

Dual Stack: station should run IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously until all the Internet uses IPv6. (Host DNS Query) Tunneling: A strategy used when two computers using IPv6 want to communicate with each other when the packet must pass through a region that uses IPv4. To pass this region, IPv4 address is needed. IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters the region, and the IPv6 packet leaves its capsule when it exits the region.

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Dual Stack and Tunneling

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Header Translation

When the majority of the Internet has moved to IPv6 but some systems still use IPv4. Sender wants to use IPv6, but the receiver does not understand IPv6. Tunneling does not work in this situation because the packet must be in the IPv4 format to be understood by the receiver. In this case, the header format must be changed totally through header translation.

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15.5 SUMMARY (part 15)

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a dynamic mapping method that finds a physical address, given an IP address. An ARP request is broadcast to all devices on the network. An ARP reply is unicast to the host requesting the mapping. IP is an unreliable connectionless protocol responsible for source-to-destination delivery. Packets in the IP layer are called datagrams. A datagram consists of a header (20 to 60 bytes) and data. The MTU is the maximum number of bytes that a data link protocol can excapsulate. MTUs vary from protocol to protocol. Fragmentation is the division of a datagram into smaller units to accommodate the MTU of a data link protocol. The fields in the IP header that relate to fragmentation are the identification number, the fragmentation flags, and the fragmentation offset. The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) sends five types of error-reporting messages and four pairs of query messages to support the unreliable and connectionless Internet Protocol (IP). ICMP messages are encapsulated in IP datagrams. The destination-unreachable error message is sent to the source host when a datagram is undeliverable.
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15.5 SUMMARY continued (part 15)

The source-quench error message is sent in an effort to alleviate congestion. The time-exceeded message notifies a source host that (1) the time-to-live field has reached zero or (2) fragments of a message have not arrived in a set amount of time. The parameter-problem message notifies a host that there is a problem in the header field of a datagram. The redirection message is sent to make the routing table of a host more effective. The echo-request and echo-reply messages test the connectivity between two systems. The time-stamp-request and time-stamp-reply messages can determine the roundtrip time between two systems or the difference in time between two systems. The address-mask request and address-mask reply messages are used to obtain the subnet mask. The router-solicitation and router-advertisement messages allow hosts to update their routing tables. IPv6, the latest verstion of the Internet Protocol, has a 128-bit address space, a resource allocation, and increased security measures. IPv6 uses hexadecimal colon notation with abbreviation methods available. Three strategies used to make the transition from version 4 to version 6 are dual stack, tunneling, and header translation.

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References
B.A. Forouzan, Data Communications and Networking, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, 2007

W. Stalling, Local and Metropolitan Area Networks, 6th edition, Prentice Hall, 2000 W. Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 7th edition, Prentice Hall, 2004

F. Halsall, Data Communications, Computer Networks and Open Systems, 4th edition, Addison Wesley, 1995

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