sipri

Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Bergshamra S-171 73 Solna Sweden Telephone 08-55 97 00 Cable: Peaceresearch

SHEET

CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE IRAQ-IRAN WAR

Allegations of the use of chemical weapons have been frequent during the Iraq-Iran War. One of the instances reported by Iran has been conclusively verified by an international team dispatched to Iran by the UN Secretary-General Both Iran (1929) and Iraq ( 1 931) are parties to the Geneva Protocol, which prohibits the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases, and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices, as well as the use of bacteriological methods of warfare. The UN Security Council has issued a statement condemning the use of chemical weapons during the Gulf War. It remains uncertain whether the sources of supply were indigenous or external. Export controls have been placed on certain chemicals that could be used in the production of mustard and nerve gases. In this Fact Sheet, SIPRI provides background information on the international law which has been violated, the two poison gases which the UN team identified in its samples, and the possible origins of the chemical weapons used in the Iraq-Iran War.

This material may be quoted freely, with attribution to SIPRI. Questions about the allegations of use of chemical weapons should be addressed to Julian Perry Robinson, Science Policy Research Unit, The University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex BN1 9RF, UK, t e l . (0273) 686758, and about the General Protocol to Jozef Goldblat, SIPRI.

INTRODU CTION ---

T h e r e have been r e p o r t s of c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e from t h e G u l f War s i n c e t h e e a r l y months of I r a q ' s i n v a s i o n o f I r a n . I n November 1980, Tehran Radio was b r o a d c a s t i n g a l l e g a t i o n s of I r a q i c h e m i c a l bombing a t S u s a n g e r d . Three. and a q u a r t e r y e a r s l a t e r , by which t i m e t h e o u t s i d e world was l i s t e n i n q more s e r i o u s l y t o such c h a r g e s , t h e I r a n i a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r t o l d t h e Conference on Disarmament i n Geneva t h a t t h e r e had been a t l e a s t 49 i n s t a n c e s of I r a q i c h e m i c a l - w a r f a r e a t t a c k i n 4 0 b o r d e r r e g i o n s , and t h a t t h e documented dead t o t a l - l e d 1 0 9 p e o p l e , w i t h hundreds more wounded. He made t h i s s t a t e m e n t on 16 F e b r u a r y 1904, t h e day on which I r a n l a u n c h e d a major o f f e n s i v e on t h e c e n t r a l f r o n t , and one week b e f o r e t h e s t a r t of o f f e n s i v e s and c o u n t e r - o f f e n s i v e s f u r t h e r s o u t h , i n t h e b o r d e r m a r s h l a n d s t o t h e immediate n o r t h of B a s r a where, a t Majnoon I s l a n d s , I r a q h a s v a s t untapped o i l r e s e r v e s . According t o o f f i c i a l I r a n i a n s t a t e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e 3 1 d a y s following t h e Foreign M i n i s t e r ' s a l l e g a t i o n , I r a q used chemical weapons on a t l e a s t 14 f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n s , adding more t h a n 2 200 t o t h e t o t a l number of p e o p l e wounded by p o i s o n g a s . Verification One of t h e c h e m i c a l - w a r f a r e i n s t a n c e s r e p o r t e d by I r a n , a t Hoor-ul-Huzwaizeh on 13 March 1 9 8 4 , h a s s i n c e been c o n c l u s i v e l y v e r i f i e d by an i n t e r n a t i o n a l team of s p e c i a l i s t s d i s p a t c h e d t o I r a n by t h e U n i t e d Nations S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l . The e v i d e n c e adduced i n t h e r e p o r t by t h e U N team Lends s l i b s t a n t i a l c r e d e n c e t o I r a n i a n a l l e g a t i o n s o f I r a q i c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e on a t l e a s t s i x o t h e r o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 2 6 February t o 17 March. The e f f i c i e n c y and d i s p a t c h w i t h which t h i s U N v e r i f i c a t i o n : o p e r a t i o n was mounted s t a n d g r e a t l y t o t h e c r e d i t of t h e S e c r e t a r y H i s hand had presumably been s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e General. announcement on 7 March by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Committee of t h e Red C r o s s ( I C R C ) t h a t 160 c a s e s of wounded combatants v i s i t e d i n Tehran h o s p i t a l s by an I C R C team " p r e s e n t e d a c l i n i c a l p i c t u r e whose n a t u r e l e a d s t o t h e p r e s u m p t i o n of t h e r e c e n t u s e of s u b s t a n c e s p r o h i b i t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w " . The c a s u a l t i e s v i s i t e d were r e p o r t e d l y a l l v i c t i m s of an i n c i d e n t on 2 7 F e b r u a r y . The I C R C s t a t e m e n t came two d a y s a f t e r t h e U S S t a t e Department had announced t h a t " t h e U S Government h a s concllided t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t I r a q h a s used l e t h a l chemical weapons". I r a q had denounced t h e Washington s t a t e m e n t a s " p o l i t i c a l h y p o c r i s y " , " f u l l of l i e s " , a f a b r i c a t i o n by t h e C I A ; and had s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e h o s p i t a l p a t i e n t s examined by t h e ICRC had " s u s t a i n e d t h e e f f e c t s of t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s i n p l a c e s o t h e r t h a n t h e war f r o n t " . On 1 7 March, a t a l m o s t t h e same moment cis t h e UN team was a c q u i r i n g i t s most damning e v i d e n c e , t h e g e n e r a l commanding t h e I r a q i T h i r d C o r p s , t h e n c o u n t e r - a t t a c k i n g i n t h e b a t t l e f o r t h e Majnoon I s l a n d s , spoke a s f o l l o w s t o f o r e i g n r e p o r t e r s : "We h a v e n o t used c h e m i c a l weapons s o f a r and I swear by God's Word I h a v e n o t s e e n m any such weapons. B u t i f I had t o f i n i s h o f f t h e enemy, and i f I a a l l o w e d t o u s e them, I w i l l n o t h e s i t a t e t o do s o " . Some conseauences On 30 March, t h e U N Seem ifcy C o u n c i l i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t condemning t h e use of chemical weapons d u r i n g t h e Gulf War. E v i d e n t l y none of t h e f i v e permanent members used its v e t o power t o blor:k the condemnation. That same d a y t h e U S government announced t h a t i t

was i n s t i t u t i n g s p e c i a l l i c e n s i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r e x p o r t s t o I r a q and I r a n of p a r t i c u l a r c h e m i c a l s t h a t c o u l d be used i n t h e manufacture of c h e m i c a l weapons, and t h a t it had urged o t h e r governments t o do l i k e w i s e . O t h e r governments have s i n c e t a k e n similar steps. . R e p o r t s of I r a q i chemical w a r f a r e h a v e dwindled s i n c e t h e UN S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l s t a t e m e n t , b u t t h e y have n o t s t o p p e d a l t o g e t h e r . A B r i t i s h t e l e v i s i o n team f i l m i n g on t h e I r a n i a n s i d e of t h e Majnoon I s l a n d s f r o n t e n c o u n t e r e d e v i d e n c e of a mustard-gas a t t a c k i n mid-April. B u t I r a n i a n media a r e no l o n g e r p u b l i c i z i n g s u c h r e p o r t s , p e r h a p s m i n d f u l now of p o t e n t i a l n e g a t i v e i m p a c t s on t h e i r domestic audience.

VIOLATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

The u s e i n war of p o i s o n o u s , a s w e l l a s a s p h y x i a t i n g o r o t h e r g a s e s , and of a l l a n a l o g o u s l i q u i d s , m a t e r i a l s o r d e v i c e s was p r o h i b i t e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e use of b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l methods of w a r f a r e , i n t h e 17 J u n e 1925 Geneva P r o t o c o l , which e n t e r e d i n t o f o r c e on 8 F e b r u a r y 1928. The agreement was prompted by t h e e x p e r i e n c e of World War I , d u r i n g which t h e b a t t l e f i e l d u s e of chemical a g e n t s c a u s e d an e s t i m a t e d 1 3 0 0 000 c a s u a l t i e s , i n c l u d i n g I n f a c t , t h e Protocol only re-affirmed a c o n s t r a i n t 90 000 d e a t h s . on a c t s which were h e l d i n a b h o r r e n c e and which had been condemned by t h e g e n e r a l o p i n i o n of t h e c i v i l i z e d w o r l d . I n t h e p a r t d e a l i n g w i t h chemical weapons, t h e P r o t o c o l r e i t e r a t e d a p r o h i b i t i o n a l r e a d y contained i n previously signed i n t e r n a t i o n a l documents. These i n c l u d e d t h e -1899 Hague D e c l a r a t i o n IV, 2 , u n d e r which t h e c o n t r a c t i n g powers had a g r e e d t o a b s t a i n from t h e u s e o'f p r o j e c t i l e s f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n of a s p h y x i a t i n g o r d e l e t e r i o u s g a s e s , a s w e l l a s t h e 1907 Hague Convention I V , which p r o h i b i t e d t h e u s e of p o i s o n o r p o i s o n o u s weapons. S i n c e 1925 c h e m i c a l weapons have been used on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s , b u t on each s u c h o c c a s i o n t h e e x t e n t of world-wide i n d i g n a t i o n and c e n s u r e t e s t i f i e d t o t h e i m m u t a b i l i t y of t h e s t a n d a r d of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law a s embodied i n t h e Geneva P r o t o c o l . It is, in great p a r t , due t o t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s t r u m e n t t h a t t h e h i s t o r y of chemical w a r f a r e s i n c e World War I h a s been one of r e l a t i v e restraint. The P r o t o c o l i s now b i n d i n g on a s many a s 106 p a r t i e s , including a l l m i l i t a r i l y important s t a t e s . I r a n acceded t o t h e P r o t o c o l on 5 November 1929, w h i l e I r a q a c c e d e d on 8 September 1 9 3 1 . The l a t t e r s t a t e d i d s o w i t h an e x p r e s s r e s e r v a t i o n t h a t i t s government would n o t be bound by t h e p r o h i b i t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n t o w a r d s any s t a t e whose armed f o r c e s d i d n o t r e s p e c t t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e P r o t o c o l . Such a r e q u i r e m e n t of r e c i p r o c i t y was f o r m u l a t e d by o v e r 40 p a r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a t powers. I r a n h a s n o t a t t a c h e d any c o n d i t i o n t o i t s a c c e s s i o n , b u t s i n c e t h e r e s e r v a t i o n s made by o t h e r s h a v e i n e s s e n c e t u r n e d t h e P r o t o c o l i n t o a n o - f i r s t - u s e t r e a t y , i t c o u l d new c o n s i d e r i t s e l f f r e e from i t s o b l i g a t i o n s towards I r a q . N e i t h e r t h e U N g r o u p of e x p e r t s , which has e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f a c t of u s e of c h e m i c a l weapons i n t h e war between I r a q and I r a n , nor t h e UN S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , which has condenned s u c h u s e , have s p e c i f i e d t h e p a r t y g u i l t y of v i o l a t i o n . However, t h e Geneva P r o t o c o l d o e s n o t r e q u i r e t h a t v i o l a t o r ? be i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d . Iran c o u l d t h u s c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o r e p r i s a l i n k i n d on t h e b a s i s of i t s own f i n d i n g s . 1,n o t h e r words, t h e r e i s a danger of a n e s c a l a t i n g

cnemical w a r f a r e . Indeed, t h e r e can be no g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e weapons banned by t h e Geneva P r o t o c o l w i l l n o t be r e s o r t e d t o a s l o n g . a s t h e r e i s no a b s o l u t e p r o h i b i t i o n on t h e i r very p o s s e s s i o n , subject t o international control. However, a t t h e Committee on Disarmament a t Geneva, I r a n h a s d e c l a r e d t h a t , due t o humanitarian c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it would n o t embark on r e t a l i a t o r y a c t i o n w i t h chemical weapons a g a i n s t I r a q .

THE POISON GASES IDENTIFIED BY THE UN TEAM

Mustard qas From an unexploded bomb found a t an I r a q i - a t t a c k s i t e , t h e U N team drew a sample which i t s a n a l y s t s i n Sweden and S w i t z e r l a n d l a t e r found t o be h i g h - q u a l i t y mustard g a s . What i s mustard g a s ? Mustard i s b i s ( 2 - c h l o r o e t h y l ) s u l p h i d e , an o i l y l i q u i d w i t h a g a r l i c - l i k e smell. Even i n warm weather i t e v a p o r a t e s s l o w l y enough f o r an a r e a over which it has been s c a t t e r e d t o remain dangerous f o r many h o u r s , even days, y e t f a s t enough f o r t h e i m p e r c e p t i b l e vapour t h a t it g i v e s o f f a l s o t o cause c a s u a l t i e s . Both i n vapour and i n l i q u i d form i t s e f f e c t i s t o 'burn' any b o d y - t i s s u e which i t t o u c h e s . Taken i n t o t h e body, it can a c t a s a s y s t e m i c p o i s o n d e a d l i e r , weight o r w e i g h t , than hydrogen c y a n i d e . I t s burning e f f e c t s a r e not normally a p p a r e n t f o r some h o u r s a f t e r exposure, whereupon t h e y b u i l d up i n t o t h e hideous p i c t u r e of b l i n d n e s s , b l i s t e r i n g and lung damage such a s was d i s p l a y e d by t h e p a t i e n t s s e n t from I r a n t o h o s p i t a l s i n A u s t r i a , Belgium, B r i t a i n , France, F R Germany, J a p a n , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , Sweden and S w i t z e r l a n d . Mustard gas was f i r s t used a s a chemical-warfare a g e n t d u r i n g World War I , when it was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r about 70 p e r c e n t of t h e m i l l i o n - p l u s gas c a s u a l t i e s . I t s most prominent use a f t e r t h a t war was by I t a l y i n E t h i o p i a during 1936. During World War I1 i t was produced by B r i t a i n , Canada, F r a n c e , Germany, Hungary, I t a l y , J a p a n , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , Poland, South A f r i c a , t h e USA and t h e USSR. I t was t h e CW a g e n t t h a t was s t o c l i p i l e d i n by f a r t h e l a r g e s t q u a n t i t y ~ o nt h e o r d e r of hundreds: of thousands of t o n s o v e r a l l - - b u t was used o n l y by Japan i n China. I t i s probably s t i l l t h e most h e a v i l y s t o c k p i l e d CW a g e n t today. I t s l a s t established use a p p e a r s t o have been by Egypt i n t e r v e n i n g i n t h e ( ~ o r t h Yemeni ) c i v i l war of t h e mid-1960s. E f f e c t i v e n e s s of mustard gas Mustard gas can be s p r e a d from munitions d e l i v e r a b l e by v i r t u a l l y any t y p e of weapon, i n c l u d i n g t h e m o r t a r s , a r t i l l e r y and a i r c r a f t w i t h which I r a q i f o r c e s a r e r e p o r t e d t o have used i t . Among t h e many a i r - d e l i v e r a b l e mustard munitions which B r i t a i n produced d u r i n g World War 1 1 , one r e p o r t judged t h e most c o s t - e f f e c t i v e t o be no more t h a n a 5 - g a l l o n o i l drum f i l l e d w i t h mustard and f i t t e d w i t h a simple b u r s t e r charge. The munition from which t h e U N team r e t r i e v e d i t s sample i n ran a p p e a r s t o have been a l i g h t - c a s e 250-lb white-phosphorus bomb, such a s might o t h e r w i s e be used f o r

smoke-screening o r i n c e n d i a r y p u r p o s e s . Published eye-witness a c c o u n t s s u g g e s t t h a t I r a q i p r a c t i c e was f o r e i g h t s u c h bombs t o be c a r r i e d p e r g r o u n d - a t t a c k j e t a i r c r a f t , dropped from a h e i g h t of 200-300. m e t r e s . T h e r e may w e l l be an i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i n s u c h munitions. I t would be r e l a t i v e l y e a s y , though h a z a r d o u s , t o exchange t h e phosphorus p a y l o a d f o r mustard g a s . Manufacture Mustard g a s may be made i n d i f f e r e n t ways a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r e t h y l e n e , v i n y l c h l o r i d e o r t h i o d i g l y c o l i s chosen a s t h e s t a r t i n g material. P u b l i s h e d U N f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e I r a q i mustard h+.d been made from t h e l a s t of t h e s e p r e c u r s o r s . T h i o d i g l y c o l i s a q u i t e w i d e l y used i n d u s t r i a l commodity, f i n d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n a s an a n t i o x i d a n t , a s a v u l c a n i z i n g a g e n t , a s an i n t e r m e d i a t e f o r o t h e r commodities, and a s a s o l v e n t f o r dyes used i n t h e t e x t i l e industry. I t s c o n v e r s i o n t o mustard gas i s v e r y s i m p l e i n d e e d , t h e o n l y t e c h n o l o g i c a l problem b e i n g t h a t of p r e v e n t i n g i t s manufact u r e r s from becoming i t s f i r s t c a s u a l t i e s . T h a t , however, i s n o t a s m a l l problem. When B r i t a i n f i r s t manufactured mustard g a s , t h e r e w e r e , o v e r a six-month p e r i o d d u r i n g 1918, 1 . 2 7 c a s e s of mustard i l l n e s s p e r p e r s o n employed. The q u a n t i t y of t h i o d i g l y c o l needed t o p r o d u c e enough mustard g a s t o f i l l e i g h t of t h e bombs sampled by t h e UN team would be a b o u t 350 kg. A hundred t o n s c o u l d y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t m u s t a r d t o arm maybe 300 a i r c r a f t s o r t i e s o r t o keep a m e d i u m - a r t i l l e r y b a t t a l i o n f i r i n g n o t h i n g b u t mustard s h e l l f o r a f o r t n i g h t . Tabun The second p o i s o n g a s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e U N team was t h e nerve-gas tabun. T h i s was found i n a sample which t h e team was a s s u r e d by I r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s had been drawn by an I r a n i a n s o l d i e r from a dud bomb. The bomb was s a i d t o have had t h e same a p p e a r a n c e a s t h e one from which t h e UN team had drawn mustard g a s . I r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s t o l d t h e UN team t h a t a b o u t 400 p e o p l e had been a f f e c t e d by c h e m i c a l weapons d u r i n g t h e a t t a c k from which t h e t a b u n sample was s a i d t o h a v e o r i g i n a t e d . The a t t a c k p u r p o r t e d l y happened on 1 7 March, w h i l e t h e U N team was i n T e h r a n , and was s a i d t o h a v e been d e l i v e r e d by f o u r I r a q i a i r c r a f t . F o r t y of t h e c a s u a l t i e s were i n a f i e l d h o s p i t a l which t h e U N team was t a k e n t o v i s i t t h e following day. The s i g n s and symptoms i n t h e s i x c a s e s which t h e U N team had t i m e t o examine were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e mustard-gas sample. The UN team concluded from them t h a t t h e p a t i e n t s had been exposed t o an anticholinesterase agent. What i s t a b u n ? Tabun, o r e t h y l NN-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate, o t h e r w i s e known a s G A , i s such a n a g e n t . I t i s a l i q u i d t h a t evaporates only h a l f a s f a s t a s mustard g a s , b u t s o p o w e r f u l a p o i s o n i s i t t h a t even s h o r t e x p o s u r e t o s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of i t s vapour can r e s u l t i n a l m o s t immediate symptoms, f e l t f i r s t i n t h e e y e s ( a s a p e r s i s t e n t c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e p u p i l ) and c h e s t ( a s a t i g h t n e s s o r a s t h m a - l i k e c o n s t r i c t i o n ) . I f a l e t h a l dosage has been t a k e n u p , e i t h e r from i n h a l a t i o n of t h e vapour o r by a b s o r p t i o n of t h e l i q u i d t h r o u g h t h e s k i n , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c sequence of t o x i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s e n s u e s ,

some of g r e a t v i o l e n c e , i n c l u d i n g running nose, s w e a t i n g , i n v o l u n t a r y u r i n a t i o n and d e f a e c a t i o n , vomiting, t w i t c h i n g , c o n v u l s i o n s , p a r a l y s i s and unconsciousness. Prior t o the o b s e r v a t i o n s made by t h e UN team a t t h e f i e l d h o s p i t a l , such s i g n s had a p p a r e n t l y not been k~een i n h o s p i t a l i z e d chemical-warfare c a s u a l t i e s , although one o r two of t h e e a r l i e r I r a n i a n communiqu& ( a s from t h e n o r t h e r n f r o n t i n October 1983) had r e f e r r e d b r i e f l y t o "nervous system" e f f e c t s . And s i n c e mid-March, I r a n i a n p u b l i c a t i o n s have been s t a t i n g t h a t 'nerve g a s ' had been used on a t l e a s t 10 o c c a s i o n s during 1980-83. E f f e c t i v e n e s s of tabun Because tabun a c t s much more r a p i d l y than mustard, it could be thought capable of s t o p p i n g massed i n f a n t r y a s s a u l t s on t h e move, a t l e a s t when dropped i n l a r g e a i r - b u r s t bombs. In s t a t i c s i t u a t i o n s , i t would probably n o t , i n warm w e a t h e r , be s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e t h a n mustard gas a s a weapon of a t t r i t i o n . The c h i e f s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e tabun r e p o r t s i s t w o f o l d . First, i f t h e r e p o r t s a r e t r u e , they may w e l l be d e s c r i b i n g t h e f i r s t ever use of nerve gas i n combat o p e r a t i o n s , t h u s p r o v i d i n g l e s s o n s which m i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s around t h e world may be e a g e r t o a b s o r b . Second, i f r e s o r t t o tabun h a s been motivated by t h e m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n j u s t o u t l i n e d , t h e r e may w e l l be powerful i n c e n t i v e s o p e r a t i n g upon t h e Gulf War b e l l i g e r e n t s t o i n t r o d u c e t h o s e even d e a d l i e r nerve gases t h a t o f f e r s t i l l more p o t e n t i a l f o r r a p i d mass-destruction: a g e n t s such a s t h e s a r i n , VX and, r e p o r t e d l y , soman s t o c k p i l e d by t h e USA, France and t h e U S S R . Against u n p r o t e c t e d people an a i r c r a f t armed w i t h s a r i n could be a s d e s t r u c t i v e a s t h e n u c l e a r bomb' dropped on Hiroshima. Manufacture Tabun, l i k e s a r i n , was a s e c r e t d i s c o v e r y of Germany's a t t h e time of World War 11. Germany manufactured about 1 2 000 t o n s of i t d u r i n g 1943-44, and a l s o , i n 1 9 4 4 , manufactured s a r i n on a s m a l l p i l o t p l a n t s c a l e . Soman was n o t manufactured by Germany. For f i l l i n g i n t o m u n i t i o n s - - a r t i l l e r y s h e l l and bombs--the German t-abun was l e f t d i l u t e d with up t o 2 0 p e r c e n t of t h e s o l v e n t t h a t had been used during i t s s y n t h e s i s , namely monochlorobenzene. The sample analysed by t h e UN team c o n t a i n e d a comparable p r o p o r t i o n of monochlorobenzene, s u g g e s t i n g it had been made by t h e o r i g i n a l German method. That method used t h e s i m p l e s t of a number of p o s s i b l e r o u t e s t o tabun. I t s t a r t e d from phosphoryL c h l o r i d e i n a two-stage chemical p r o c e s s , both s t a g e s of which wen? conducted w i t h i n t h e same reactor. Advanced containment meiisures were used t o p r o t e c t p l a n t workers from t h e tabun, b u t even { h e y were i n s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n t a t l e a s t t e n d e a t h s and innumerable l e s s e r e x p o s u r e s . The q u a n t i t y of ph&sphoryl c h l o r i d e needed t o produce enough tabun t o f i l l , u n d i l u t e d , e i g h t of t h e bombs examined by t h e UN team would be about 500 kg. Also needed would be a b x t 120 kg of sodium c y a n i d e , 150 kg of e t h y l a l c o h o l and 6 5 kg of dimethylcmine ( s y n t h e s i z a b l e from ammonia and methyl a l c o h o l ) . A hundred t o n s of phosphoryl c h l o r i d e could y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t tabun t o a r n maybe 200 s o r t i e s by MiG, Mirage o r Sukhoi a i r c r a f t .

O R I G I N OF THE CHEMICAL WEAPONS

The U N r e p o r t p r o v i d e s only n e g a t i ~ v i d e n c e of t h e o r i g i n of t h e m u s t a r d . g a s sample. The absence i n t h e sample a n a l y s e d i n Sweden and S w i t z e r l a n d of p o l y s u l p h i d e s and of more t h a n a t r a c e of s u l p h u r i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s ^ not of p a s t US-government m a n u f a c t u r e , for a l l U S mustard was made by t h e L e v i n s t e i n p r o c e s s from e t h y l e n e and mixed s u l p h u r c h l o r i d e s . That p r o c e s s i s a l s o s a i d t o have been t h e one used by t h e USSR. From s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g , British-made mustard, t o o , can probably be r u l e d o u t , even though s u b s t a n t i a l s t o c k s were once h e l d a t B r i t i s h d e p o t s i n t h e Middle E a s t . For more p o s i t i v e evidence o t h e r s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n must be used. Over t h e y e a r s s i n c e t h e mid-1960s q u i t e a l o t of i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been p u b l i s h e d p u r p o r t i n g t o d e s c r i b e I r a q i chemical weapons, b u t much of i t i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y and a l l of it i s of a r e l i a b i l i t y which S I P R I i s i n no p o s i t i o n t o judge. A major c a v e a t must be e n t e r e d : chemical w a r f a r e i s such an emotive s u b j e c t t h a t i t lends i t s e l f very r e a d i l y t o campaigns of d i s i n f o r m a t i o n and ' b l a c k ' propaganda, campaigns which t h e p o l i t i c s both of t h e Gulf War and of t h e c u r r e n t chemical-weapons n e g o t i a t i o n s have u n q u e s t i o n a b l y s t i m u l a t e d t o no small degree.
W e may look f i r s t a t t h e n a t u r e of

t h e chemical-weapons which I r a q has been r e p o r t e d t o have a c q u i r e d .

technology

I n a d d i t i o n t o b u l k - f i l l e d f r e e - f a l l a i r c r a f t bombs, a t l e a s t two o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s of chemical munition have r e p o r t e d l y been employed: a r t i l l e r y s h e l l and a i r - t o - g r o u n d r o c k e t s . I r a n i a n s s e n t f o r h o s p i t a l t r e a t m e n t i n London who were s u f f e r i n g from what m u s t almost c e r t a i n l y have been mustard-gas burns have a t t r i b u t e d t h e i r i n j u r i e s t o a l l t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s of munition. There i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t m u s t a r d - f i l l e d a i r - t o - g r o u n d r o c k e t s have ever been s t o c k p i l e d by Western c o u n t r i e s . The r o c k e t s whose use was d e s c r i b e d by one of t h e I r a n i a n s a p p a r e n t l y had submunition warheads, a r e l a t i v e l y sophisticated design. Other a g e n t s r e p o r t e d t o have been used

I n August 1982, U S o f f i c i a l s were quoted i n t h e p r e s s a s Tear g a s : being " c o n f i d e n t " t h a t t h e I r a q i s d i d n o t p o s s e s s any "deadly chemical weapons", only t e a r g a s .
Choking g a s : C h l o r i n e , , t h e a r c h e t y p a l war g a s , i s included i n a t l e a s t one of t h e l i s t s o f I r a q i chemical-warfare a g e n t s p u b l i s h e d t h i s y e a r by I r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . Arsenicals: I r a n informed t h e UN S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l l a s t y e a r t ' l a t "compounds c o n t a i n i n g a r s e n i c " had been used i n I r a q i chemical weapons. Speaking t o r e p o r t e r s , one of t h e Swedish s p e c i a l i s t s t r e a t i n g I r a n i a n gas c a s u a l t i e s s a i d h e t h o u g h t it p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e l a t t e r had been exposed t o a m i x t u r e of mustard gas and lewisite. Such mixtures were s t a n d a r d m u n i t i o n - f i l l s i n t h e a r s e n a l s of J a p a n , t h e U S S R and p r o b a b l y o t h e r s t a t e s t o o d u r i n g World War 11. Nitrogen mustard: O f f i c i a l I r a n i a n s o u r c e s have s e v e r a l times s t a t e d t h a t an a g e n t of t h i s t y p e had been i d e n t i f i e d by I r a n i a n m i l i t a r y e x p e r t s i n samples from I r a q i chemical munitions. 'Knowledgeable" b u t u n i d e n t i f i e d US o f f i c i a l s have a l s o been r e p o r t e d a s speaking of I r a q i n i t r o g e n mustard.

Germ-warfare a g e n t s : I s r a e l i i n t e l l i q e n c e s o u r c e s have been c i t e d f o r r e p o r t s t h a t a n t h r a x had been found i n h o s p i t a l i z e d I r a n i a n s . 1 r a n i a n sources have r e f e r r e d t o I r a q i u s e of " m i c r o b i c " and " b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l " weapons. Mycotoxins: A B e l g i a n f o r e n s i c t o x i c o l o g i s t h a s claimsd t h a t h i s l a b o r a t o r y has found mycotoxins ( ~ 2 HT2, , n i v a l e n o l and v e r r u c ' a r o l ) i n a d d i t i o n t o mustard gas i n samples of blood, u r i n e and f a e c e s t a k e n from I r a n i a n gas v i c t i m s h o s p i t a l i z e d i n Vienna, b u t t h i s c l a i m c u r r e n t l y remains u n v e r i f i e d and open t o q u e s t i o n . There a r e r e p o r t s of s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s from p a t i e n t s h o s p i t a l i z e d i n Belgium, France, F R Germany, Sweden and S w i t z e r l a n d , b u t t h e s e too s t i l l remain open t o d o u b t , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e , i n t h e Swedish c a s e , t h e Swedish a u t h o r i t i e s concerned have e x p r e s s l y r e p u d i a t e d t h e r e p o r t . The UN team i n s p e c t e d cadavers r e t u r n e d t o Tehran from Swedish and A u s t r i a n h o s p i t a l s , b u t i t s r e p o r t makes no mention of any post-mortem t i s s u e samples having been t a k e n f o r a n a l y s i s . Mycotoxins were s o u g h t b u t not found i n t h e chemical samples analyzed by t h e UN team. The s e a r c h method used had a d e t e c t i o n l i m i t of 0.00005 p e r c e n t : i . e . , capable of f i n d i n g mycotoxins a t l o a d i n g s g r e a t e r t h a n a t h i r d of a gram p e r 250-lb bomb. Novel u n i d e n t i f i e d a q e n t : There has been s p e c u l a t i o n i n t h e p r e s s a b o u t I r a q i use of a t o x i c a q e n t unknown i n t h e West. T h i s was e x c i t e d bp r e p o r t s e a r l y i n March from t h e G z a i e l s e c t o r , j u s t t o t h e north of B a s r a , of groups of I r a n i a n c o r p s e s h a v i n g been seen t h a t were s a i d t o b e a r no e x t e r n a l t r a c e of i n j u r y - - l o o k i n g a s though they had f a l l e n a s l e e p i n t h e i r f o x h o l e s . Indigenous o r e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of supply? With t h e e x c e p t i o n s , maybe, of t h e l a s t two of t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s of p u t a t i v e I r a q i a g e n t , s o u r c e s of s u p p l y might a s w e l l be indigenous a s e x t e r n a l t o I r a q , given t h e t e c h n o l o g y i m p l i e d . Involvement of t h e l a s t t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s would, i n some c i r c l e s , implicate the U S S R a s s u p p l i e r , f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e USSR i s s a i d , on evidence t h a t h a s y e t t o be s o l i d l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d b u t which has n o n e t h e l e s s a t t r a c t e d some f i r m b e l i e v e r s , t o have weaponized a l l t h r e e of them i n r e c e n t y e a r s . For i t s p a r t , t h e USSR has e x p r e s s l y d e n i e d s u p p l y i n g I r a q w i t h t o x i c weapons. Reports of S o v i e t s u p p l y a t t r i b u t e d t o U S and o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n c e s o u r c e s have n o n e t h e l e s s r e c u r r e d . The e a r l i e s t p r e d a t e r e p o r t s of I r a q i use of chemical weapons i n t h e Gulf War. O f f i c i a l I r a n i a n commentaries, t o o , have p o i n t e d t o t h e USSR a s a s u p p l i e r of t h e I r a q i weapons. These s o u r c e s have a l s o accused B r a z i l , France and, most c o n s p i c u o u s l y , B r i t a i n of s u p p l y i n g t h e weapons. N o b a s i s f o r any of t h e s e I r a n i a n a c c u s a t i o n s h a s been d i s c l o s e d . F r a n c e , a l o n g s i d e Czechoslovakia and b o t h Germanies, i s r e p o r t e d l y a l s o rumoured, among " f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y and d i p l o m a t i c s o u r c e s " i n Baghdad, t o have s u p p l i e d I r a q w i t h chemical p r e c u r s o r s needed f o r an i n d i g e n o u s p r o d u c t i o n e f f o r t . U n o f f i c i a l p u b l i s h e d s o u r c e s have c i t e d Egypt a s a p o s s i b l e s u p p l i e r of a c t u a l chemical weapons. I n t h e mid-1960s, when I r a q was a l l e g e d t o be u s i n g chemical weapons a g a i n s t i n s u r g e n t Kurdish f o r c e s , Swiss and German s o u r c e s of supply were r e p o r t e d i n t h e Western p r e s s .

Production c a p a b i l i t y i n I r a q I n c r e a s i n g l y p e r s u a s i v e e v i d e n c e i s now emerging i n p u b l i s h e d s o u r c e s . t h a t , w h e t h e r I r a q h a s o r h a s n o t been r e c e i v i n g c h e m i c a l weapons from a b r o a d , i t h a s b e e r a c q u i r i n g a development and p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y f o r them of i t s own. An o f f i c i a l I r a n i a n commentry d a t e s t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h i s e f f o r t back t o 1 9 7 6 , c l a i m i n g t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h a t e f f e c t had been p r o v i d e d t o I r a n by West German i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c i a l s . U n i d e n t i f i e d U S i n t e l l i g e n c e s o u r c e s have been q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h a t I r a q began making m u s t a r d g a s i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . Such s o u r c e s have been q u o t e d a s b e l i e v i n g t h a t I r a q i s now a t t e m p t i n g t o produce s a r i n n e r v e g a s . Associated with t h i s b e l i e f i s t h e a s s e s s m e n t , it was r e p o r t e d i n t h e U S p r e s s a t t h e end of March, t h a t , w h i l e I r a q h a s a l r e a d y been u s i n g n e r v e gas i n t h e Gulf War, t h i s h a s been on an e x p e r i m e n t a l s c a l e u s i n g s t o c k s a c c u m u l a t e d d u r i n g t h e development programme; s u p p l i e s of n e r v e g a s from l a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n f a c i l i t i e s w e r ? e x p e c t e d ~ t h e r e p o r t i n g c o n t i n u e d - - t o be a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n a m a t t e r of months, even weeks. F u r t h e r , t h e p r e s s h a s r e p o r t e d U S government s o u r c e s a s having i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e , p o s s i b l y f i v e , chemical-agent p r o d u c t i o n s i t e s i n I r a q . The l o c a t i o n s t h a t have been s p e c i f i e d i n t h e p r e s s a r e Samawa, Ramadi, Samarra and Akashat. The l a s t o f t h e s e h a s , however, been t o u r e d by f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s , i n c l u d i n g a B r i t i s h j o u r n a l i s t who h a s r e p o r t e d f i n d i n g o n l y c o n t r a - i n d i c a t i v e e v i d e n c e of a n e r v e g a s p l a n t b e i n g t h e r e . Technological capacity O t h e r t h a n t h e need f o r e l a b o r a t e s a f e t y measures, t h e r e seems t o be n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e technology' of p r o d u c i n g mustard gas o r tabunq-or l e w i s i t e o r n i t r o g e n m u s t a r d ~ t h a t would o b v i o u s l y be : beyond t h e c a p a c i t i e s of t h e I r a q i c h e m i c a l i n d u s t r y : an i n d u s t r y which h a s been growing r a p i d l y i n s i z e and s o p h i s t i c a t i o n s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . However, i f n e r v e g a s e s of a t y p e whose p r o d u c t i o n would n e c e s s i t a t e t h e t e c h n i c a l l y demanding and c o m p a r a t i v e l y s p e c i a l i z e d p r o c e s s e s of p h o s p h o r u s - f l u o r i n a t i o n a n d / o r phosphorus-alkylation--i.e. n e r v e g a s e s s u c h a s s a r i n , soman and VX--foreign t e c h n o l o g y might v e r y w e l l h a v e t o be i m p o r t e d . There i s s t r o n g p u b l i c e v i d e n c e ( b u t by no means c o n c l u s i v e y e t ) t h a t I r a q h a s been e n d e a v o u r i n g t o a c q u i r e t h e s e o r r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g i e s from p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e 'JSA, B r i t a i n , F R Germany and I t a l y s i n c e 1 9 7 5 ; and t h a t i t h a s been d i s s e m b l i n g t h e s e e n d e a v o u r s under t h e g u i s e of a c q u i r i n g p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y f o r organophosphorus pesticides. The s e a r c h f o r m a t e r i a l s Any need t o i m p o r t s p e c i a l c h e m i c a l - p r o c e s s p l a n t and a s s o c i a t e d know-how c o u l d be l e s s e n e d by i m p o r t i n g , i n s t e a d , some of t h e c h e m i c a l i n t e r m e d i a t e s needed t o p r o d u c e c h e m i c a l - w a r f a r e a g e n t s , r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o m a n u f a c t u r e t h o s e i n t e r m e d i a t e s from i n d i g e n o u s raw m a t e r i a l s ( o f which t h e I r a q i mining, p e t r o l e u m and r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s a p p e a r t o p r o v i d e t h e f u l l range needed f o r m u s t a r d and n e r v e g a s e s , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x p e c t i o n f o r some of t h e l a t t e r of f l u o r i d e m i n e r a l s ) . C e r t a i n i n t e r m e d i a t e s can be i d e n t i f i e d which c o u l d r e d u c e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r c h e m i c a l p l a n t t o p r o c e s s i n g equipments of s t a n d a r d o f f - t h e - s h e l f o r e a s i l y improvised t y p e s . I r a q has not concealed t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s i n t h e m a r k e t f o r c h e m i c a l s which do i n d e e d f a l l w i t h i n this c a t e g o r y . T h i s h a s been most c o n s p i c u o u s i n I r a q ' s s e a r c h i n America f o r s u p p l i e s of methylphosphonous d i c h l o r i d e and d i m e t h y l methyl-

phosphonate. These two chemicals do, however, have c e r t a i n c i v i l applications. B u t a t l e a s t i n t h e former c a s e t h e y a r e n o t ones which, i n t h e normal course of e v e n t s , I r a q might o b v i o u s l y be expected t o e x p l o i t . Export c o n t r o l s
O n 30 March, t h e U S government announced t h e i m p o s i t i o n of ' f o r e i g n p o l i c y c o n t r o l s ' on t h e e x p o r t t o t h e Gulf-War b e l l i g e r e n t s of f i v e chemicals t h a t could be used i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n of mustard and nerve gases. U S o f f i c i a l s t o l d t h e p r e s s t h a t t h i s had been done i n r e s p o n s e t o an unexpected volume of r e c e n t o r d e r s from I r a q f o r t h o s e c h e m i c a l s . They a l s o s a i d t h a t J a p a n , F R Germany and o t h e r u n s p e c i f i e d European c o u n t r i e s had been e x p o r t i n g t h e chemicals t o I r a q . The B r i t i s h government took a c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t of Washington on 1 2 A p r i l , adding t h r e e more chemicals t o t h e c o n t r o l l i s t ( s e e t a b l e ) . Since t h e n , o t h e r European governments have a l s o announced embargoes of varying scope, and on 1 5 M a y t h e Foreign M i n i s t e r s of t h e European Community a g r e e d i n p r i n c i p l e on a common and complementary p o l i c y . There a r e Western p r e s s r e p o r t s of s u s p i c i o n s i n 'western d i p l o m a t i c c i r c l e s i n t h e Middle ~ a s t 't h a t t h e U S S R i s s h i p p i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e s t o I r a q through J o r d a n .

Postscript The o r i g i n of t h e chemical weapons used i n t h e Gulf War i s a m a t t e r which w a r r a n t s more a t t e n t i o n t h a n s p a c e i n t h i s F a c t S h e e t p e r m i t s - - i t h a s an immediate b e a r i n g on t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n Geneva f o r a Chemical Weapons Convention: a t r e a t y which, among o t h e r t h i n g s , m u s t be designed so a s t o p l a c e e f f e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of t h e weapons.

Table of export-controlled chemicals

Chemical Thiodiglycol a ,b

Chemical-warfare utilityL Convertible into mustard gas simply by contact with hydrogen chloride. Essential to one of the ways for making thiodiglycol (see above). Essential to tabun production. Can also be converted, with some difficulty, into methylphosphonyl dichloride (see below). Like phosphoryl chloride (see above), essential to tabun production, but much easier to make. Convertible into sarin-family nerve gases simply by contact with any of many alcohols. Convertible into sarin-family nerve gases by carefully controlled reaction with an alcohol and a fluoride such as potassium fluoride (see below). Convertible into methylphosphonyl difluoride (see above) by heating with a fluoride such as potassium fluoride. One of many methylphosphonyl compounds from which methylphosphonyl dichloride (see above) can be made quite easily. One of many fluorine compounds that could be used in the production of' sarin-family nerve gases. Insignificant in the absence of a supply of methylphosphonyl or ethylphosphoriyl compounds.

b Chloroethanol

Phosphoryl chloridearb b Dimethylamine Methylphosphonyl difluorideal Methylphosphonyl dichlorideb

Dimethy 1 methylphosphonatea,b arb Potassium fluoride

Conspicuously absent from the list Sodium fluoride Methylphosphonous dichloride 0-alkyl methylphosphonothioates Other methylphosphonyl compounds P-ethyl homologues of all the methylphosphorus compounds above
A fluorinating agent more common than potassium fluoride,

Essential precursor in most of the better routes of VX-family nerve gases. Easily convertible into methylphosphonyl dichloride (see above. Precursors for VX-family nerve gases, also convertible into sarin-family nerve gases. See dimethyl methylphosphonate above. Precursors for ethylphosphonate-family nerve gases.

a Subjected to 'foreign policy controls' by the US government on 30 March 1984. b Subjected to special export-licensing requirements by the British government on 12 April 1984.

c Except for methylphosphonyl difluoride, all of the controlled chemicals have significant civil applications.