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CHAPTER 3 FLUID STATICS

3-7 Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion
CHAPTER 4 BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
4-6 Momentum Equation for Control Volume with Arbitrary Acceleration
4-7 Equation for Rotating Control Volume
CHAPTER 6 INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW
6-6 Unsteady Bernoulli EquationIntegration of Eulers Equation along a Streamline
6-7 Irrotational Flow
Bernoulli Equation Applied to Irrotational Flow
Velocity Potential
Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensional, Irrotational,
Incompressible Flow: Laplaces Equation
Elementary Plane Flows
Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows
CHAPTER 9 EXTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW
9-3 Laminar Flat-Plate Boundary Layer: Exact Solution
CHAPTER 12 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
12-3 Isothermal Flow
12-6 Supersonic Diffuser
Supersonic Wind Tunnel Operation
Supersonic Flow with Friction in a Constant-Area Channel
Supersonic Flow with Heat Addition in a Constant-Area Channel
42757_FMCD_p1 4/30/03 9:24 AM Page 1
3-7 FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION S-1
3-7 FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION
We are almost ready to begin studying uids in motion (starting in Chapter 4), but
rst there is one category of uid motion that can be studied using uid statics ideas:
rigid-body motion. As the name implies, this is motion in which the entire uid
moves as if it were a rigid bodyindividual uid particles, although they may be in
motion, are not deforming. This means that there are no shear stresses, as in the case
of a static uid.
What kind of uid ow has rigid-body motion? You recall from kinematics that
rigid-body motion can be broken down into pure translation and pure rotation. For
translation the simplest motion is constant velocity, which can always be converted to
a uid statics problem by a shift of coordinates. The other simple translational motion
we can have is constant acceleration, which we will consider here (Example Problem
3.9). In addition, we will consider motion consisting of pure constant rotation (Exam-
ple Problem 3.10). As in the case of the static uid, we may apply Newtons second
law of motion to determine the pressure eld that results from a specied rigid-body
motion.
In Section 3-1 we derived an expression for the forces due to pressure and grav-
ity acting on a uid particle of volume dV. We obtained
or
(3.2)
Newtons second law was written
Substituting from Eq. 3.2, we obtain
(3.16)
If the acceleration is constant, we can combine it with and obtain an effective
acceleration of gravity, , so that Eq. 3.16 has the same form as our
basic equation for pressure distribution in a static uid, Eq. 3.3. This means that we
can use the results of previous sections of this chapter as long as we use in
place of . For example, for a liquid undergoing constant acceleration the pressure
increases with depth in the direction of , and the rate of increase of pressure will
be given by g
eff
,where g
eff
is the magnitude of . Lines of constant pressure will
be perpendicular to the direction of . The physical signicance of each term in
this equation is as follows:
net pressure force

per unit volume
at a point
body force per
unit volume
at a point
mass per
unit
volume
acceleration
of fluid
particle
+ p g a
r r

r
g
eff
r
g
eff
r
g
eff
r
g
r
g
eff
r r r
g g a
eff

r
g
r
a
+ p g a
r r
dF a dm a a
r
r r
r
r
dV
dF
dV
or
dF
dV
p g
r
r
+
dF p g dV
r
r
+ ( )
42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-1
S-2 CHAPTER 3 / FLUID STATICS
This vector equation consists of three component equations that must be satised
individually. In rectangular coordinates the component equations are
Component equations for other coordinate systems can be written using the appropriate
expression for . In cylindrical coordinates the vector operator,

, is given by
(3.18)
where and are unit vectors in the r and directions, respectively. Thus
(3.19)
EXAMPLE 3.9 Liquid in Rigid-Body Motion with Linear Acceleration
As a result of a promotion, you are transferred from your present location. You must
transport a sh tank in the back of your minivan. The tank is 12 in. 24 in. 12 in.
How much water can you leave in the tank and still be reasonably sure that it will not
spill over during the trip?

p e
p
r
e
r
p
k
p
z
r

1
e
e
r

e
r
e
r
k
z
r
1
p
(3.17)
p
x
g a x
p
y
g a y
p
z
g a z
x x
y y
z z

direction
direction
direction
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.9
GIVEN: Fish tank 12 in. 24 in. 12 in. partially lled with water to be transported in an automobile.
FIND: Allowable depth of water for reasonable assurance that it will not spill during the trip.
SOLUTION:
The rst step in the solution is to formulate the problem by translating the general problem into a more
specic one.
We recognize that there will be motion of the water surface as a result of the cars traveling over
bumps in the road, going around corners, etc. However, we shall assume that the main effect on the water
surface is due to linear accelerations (and decelerations) of the car; we shall neglect sloshing.
Thus we have reduced the problem to one of determining the effect of a linear acceleration on the
free surface. We have not yet decided on the orientation of the tank relative to the direction of motion.
Choosing the x coordinate in the direction of motion, should we align the tank with the long side parallel,
or perpendicular, to the direction of motion?
If there will be no relative motion in the water, we must assume we are dealing with a constant accel-
eration, a
x
. What is the shape of the free surface under these conditions?
Let us restate the problem to answer the original questions by idealizing the physical situation to ob-
tain an approximate solution.
GIVEN: Tank partially lled with water (to depth d) subject to constant linear acceleration, a
x
. Tank height
is 12 in.; length parallel to direction of motion is b. Width perpendicular to direction of motion is c.
42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-2
FIND: (a) Shape of free surface under constant a
x
.
(b) Allowable water depth, d, to avoid spilling as a function
of a
x
and tank orientation.
(c) Optimum tank orientation and recommended water depth.
SOLUTION:
Governing equation:
Since p is not a function of
The component equations are:
Recall that a partial
derivative means that
all other independent
variables are held constant
in the differentiation.
The problem now is to nd an expression for p p(x, y). This would enable us to nd the equation
of the free surface. But perhaps we do not have to do that.
Since the pressure is p p(x, y), the difference in pressure between two points (x, y) and (x dx,
y dy) is
Since the free surface is a line of constant pressure, p constant along the free surface, so dp 0 and
Therefore,
{The free surface is a plane.}
Note that we could have derived this result more directly by converting Eq. 3.16 into an equivalent accel-
eration of gravity problem,
where Lines of constant pressure (including the free surface) will then be
perpendicular to the direction of , so that the slope of these lines will be .

1
g a
a
g
x
x
r
g
eff
r r
g g i a i a jg
eff x x

.
+ p g
eff
r
0
dy
dx
a
g
x \
,

free surface
0

p
x
dx
p
y
dy a dx g dy
x

dp
p
x
dx
p
y
dy

p
x
a
p
y
g
x

i
p
x
j
p
y
j g i a
x

z p z g g g g a a
x y z y z
, / . Also, , , , and . 0 0 0 0
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ + + + +

(

) (

) i
p
x
j
p
y
k
p
z
i g jg kg i a ja ka
x y z x y z

+ p g a
r r
g
y
b
O x
a
x
d

42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-3

In the diagram,
d original depth
e height above original depth
b tank length parallel to direction of motion
Since we want e to be smallest for a given a
x
, the tank should be aligned so that b is as small as possible.
We should align the tank with the long side perpendicular to the direction of motion. That is, we should
choose b 12 in. b
With b 12 in.,
The maximum allowable value of e 12 d in. Thus
If the maximum a
x
is assumed to be , then allowable d equals 8 in.
To allow a margin of safety, perhaps we should select d 6 in. d
Recall that a steady acceleration was assumed in this problem. The car would have to be driven very care-
fully and smoothly.
2
3
g
12 6 12 6 d
a
g
d
a
g
x x
and
max
e
a
g
x
6 in .
Only valid when the free surface intersects
the front wall at or above the floor
e
b b dy
dx
b a
g
x

j
(
\
,
(

2 2 2
tan
free surface
b
a
x
d
12 in.
e

This Example Problem shows that:

Not all engineering problems are clearly dened, nor do
they have unique answers.
For constant linear acceleration, we effectively have a hy-
drostatics problem, with gravity redened as the vector
result of the acceleration and the actual gravity.
g
R
EXAMPLE 3.10 Liquid in Rigid-Body Motion with Constant Angular Speed

A cylindrical container, partially lled with liquid, is rotated at a
constant angular speed, , about its axis as shown in the diagram.
After a short time there is no relative motion; the liquid rotates
with the cylinder as if the system were a rigid body. Determine
the shape of the free surface.
42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-4
g
R
r
z
h
1
h
0
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3.10
GIVEN: A cylinder of liquid in rigid-body rotation with angular
speed about its axis.
FIND: Shape of the free surface.
SOLUTION:
Governing equation:
It is convenient to use a cylindrical coordinate system, r, , z. Since g
r
g
0 and g
z
g, then
Also, a
a
z
0 and a
r

2
r.
The component equations are:
From the component equations we see that the pressure is not a function of ; it is a function of r and
z only.
Since p p(r, z), the differential change, dp, in pressure between two points with coordinates
(r, , z) and (r dr, , z dz) is given by
Then
To obtain the pressure difference between a reference point (r
1
, z
1
), where the pressure is p
1
, and the
arbitrary point (r, z), where the pressure is p, we must integrate
Taking the reference point on the cylinder axis at the free surface gives
Then
p p
r
g z h
atm
( )
2 2
1
2
p p r z h
1 1 1 1
0
atm
p p r r g z z
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
( ) ( )
dp r dr g dz
r
r
p
p
z
z

2
1 1 1
dp rdr gdz
2
dp
p
r
dr
p
z
dz
z r
\
,
(
+

\
,
(

p
r
r
p p
z
g
2
0
j
(
,
\
,
(
+
e
p
r
e
r
p
k
p
z
e r k g
r r r
1
2
j
(
,
\
,
(
+ +

(
) e
p
r
e
r
p
k
p
z
k g e a e a ka
r r r z
1

+ p g a
r r
42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-5
Since the free surface is a surface of constant pressure (p p
atm
), the equation of the free surface is
given by
or
The equation of the free surface is a parabaloid of revolution with vertex on the axis at z h
1
.
We can solve for the height h
1
under conditions of rotation in terms of the original surface height, h
0
,
in the absence of rotation. To do this, we use the fact that the volume of liquid must remain constant. With
no rotation
With rotation
Then
Finally,
Note that the expression for z is valid only for h
1
0. Hence the maximum value of is given by
max
2 gh R
0
.
z h
R
g
r
g
h
R
g
r
R
+
j
(
\
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]

0
2 2
0
2 2
4 2 2
1
2
( ) ( ) ( )
z r ( )

R h h R
R
g
h h
R
g
2
0 1
2
2 4
1 0
2
4 4
+
,
,
]
]
]
and
( )
V h
r r
g
h R
R
g
R
+
,
,
]
]
]
+
,
,
]
]
]
2
2 8 4
1
2 2 4
0
1
2
2 4

V r dz dr zr dr h
r
g
r dr
R R z R
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

2 2 2
2
1
2 2
0 0 0 0

V R h
2
0
z h
r
g
+
1
2
2
( )
0
2
2 2
1

r
g z h ( )
This Example Problem shows:
The effect of centripetal acceleration on the shape of con-
stant pressure lines (isobars).
Because the hydrostatic pressure variation and variation
due to rotation each depend on uid density, the nal free
surface shape is independent of uid density.
42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-6
4-6 MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR CONTROL VOLUME WITH ARBITRARY ACCELERATION S-7
4-6 MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR CONTROL VOLUME
WITH ARBITRARY ACCELERATION
In Section 4-5 we formulated the momentum equation for a control volume with
rectilinear acceleration. The purpose of this section is to extend the formulation for
completeness to include rotation and angular acceleration of the control volume, in
addition to translation and rectilinear acceleration.
First, we develop an expression for Newtons second law in an arbitrary, nonin-
ertial coordinate system. Then we use Eq. 4.25 to complete the formulation for a
control volume. Newtons second law for a system moving relative to an inertial co-
ordinate system is given by
(4.27)
where, as in the previous section, XYZ denotes the inertial (e.g., stationary) reference
frame. Since
and M(system) is constant,
or
(4.35)
The basic problem is to relate to the acceleration , measured relative to a
noninertial coordinate system. For this purpose, consider the noninertial reference
frame, xyz, shown in Fig. 4.5.
The noninertial frame, xyz, itself is located by position vector relative to the
xed frame XYZ. The noninertial frame rotates with angular velocity . A particle
is instantaneously located relative to the moving frame by position vector
r
r
R
r
a
xyz
r
a
XYZ
r
r
F a dm
XYZ
M
(system)

r r
r
F
d
dt
V dm
dV
dt
dm
XYZ
XYZ
M M

(system) (system)

r r
P V dm
XYZ XYZ
M
)

system
system ( )
r
r
F
dP
dt
XYZ
\
,
(
system
X
r
R
y
z
x
Y
X
Z
Particle
Fig. 4.5 Location of a particle in inertial
(XYZ) and noninertial (xyz) reference
frames.
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:06 PM Page S-7
S-8 CHAPTER 4 / BASIC EQUATIONS IN INTEGRAL FORM FOR A CONTROL VOLUME
Relative to inertial reference frame XYZ, the position of the particle
is denoted by position vector . From the geometry of the gure,
.
The velocity of the particle relative to an observer in the XYZ system is
(4.36)
where, as in the previous section, is the instantaneous velocity of the control vol-
ume frame itself relative to the inertial XYZ reference frame.
We must be careful in evaluating d /dt because both the magnitude, | |, and the
orientation of the unit vectors, , , and , are functions of time. Thus
(4.37a)
The terms dx/dt, dy/dt, and dz/dt are the velocity components of the particle relative
to xyz. Thus
(4.37b)
You may recall from dynamics (and as we will see in Example Problem 4.13), for a
rotating coordinate system
(4.37c)
Combining Eqs. 4.37a, 4.37b, and 4.37c, we obtain
(4.37d)
Substituting into Eq. 4.36 gives
(4.38)
The acceleration of the particle relative to an observer in the inertial XYZ system
is then
or
(4.39)
Both
xyz
and are measured relative to xyz, so the same caution observed in devel-
oping Eq. 4.37d applies. Thus
(4.40a)
dV
dt
i
du
dt
j
d
dt
k
dw
dt
V a V
xyz
XYZ
xyz xyz xyz
r
r
r
r r
r \
,
(
+ + + +

v

r
r
r
V
r r
r
r r
a a
dV
dt
d
dt
r
XYZ rf
xyz
XYZ
+
\
,
(
+ ( )
r
r
r r
r r
a
dV
dt
dV
dt
dV
dt
d
dt
r
XYZ
XYZ
rf xyz
XYZ
+
\
,
(
+ ( )
r r r
r r
V V V r
XYZ rf xyz
+ +
dr
dt
V r
xyz
r
r
r r
+
r r
+ + r x
di
dt
y
dj
dt
z
dk
dt

r
V i
dx
dt
j
dy
dt
k
dz
dt
xyz
+ +

dr
dt
d
dt
xi yj zk i
dx
dt
x
di
dt
j
dy
dt
y
dj
dt
k
dz
dt
z
dk
dt
r
+ + + + + + + (

)
i
r
r
r
r
r
Vrf
r
r r
r
r
r
V
dX
dt
dR
dt
dr
dt
V
dr
dt
XYZ rf
+ +
r r
r
X R r +
r
X
r
r i x jy kz + +

.
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-8
and
or
(4.40b)
Substituting Eqs. 4.40a and 4.40b into Eq. 4.39, we obtain
(4.41)
Equation 4.41 relates the acceleration of a uid particle as measured in the two
frames (the inertial frame XYZ and the noninertial frame xyz). From your study of dy-
namics you will be familiar with each of the terms in the equation. They are
: Absolute rectilinear acceleration of a particle relative to xed reference
frame XYZ.
: Absolute rectilinear acceleration of origin of moving reference frame
xyz relative to xed frame XYZ.
: Rectilinear acceleration of a particle relative to moving reference
frame xyz (this acceleration would be that seen by an observer on
moving frame xyz; .
: Coriolis acceleration due to motion of the particle within moving
frame xyz.
: Centripetal acceleration due to rotation of moving frame xyz.
: Tangential acceleration due to angular acceleration of moving refer-
ence frame xyz.
Substituting , as given by Eq. 4.41, into Eq. 4.35, we obtain
or
(4.42a)
But
(4.42b)
Combining Eqs. 4.42a and 4.42b, we obtain
r
r r
r
r r r r r
r
F a V r r dm
dP
dt
rf xyz
M
xyz
+ + +
\
,
(
[ ( )
] 2
(system)
system
r
v
r
r
a dm
dV
dt
dm
d
dt
V dm
dP
dt
xyz
xyz
xyz
M M
xyz
M
xyz
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(

(system) (system) (system)
system

r
r r
r
r r r r r r
F a V r r dm a dm
rf xyz
M
xyz
M
+ + +

[ ]
(system)
2 ( )
( )

system
r
r r r
r
r r r r r
F a a V r r dm
rf xyz xyz
M
system
(system)
[ ] + + + +
2 ( )

r
a
XYZ
.
r r
r
r r r
( ) r
2
r
r
V
xyz
r
r
a dV dt
xyz xyz xyz
/ )
r
a
xyz
r
a
rf
r
a
XYZ
r r r r
r
r r r r r
a a a V r r
XYZ rf xyz xyz
+ + + + 2 ( )
d
dt
r r V r
xyz
( )
( )
r r r r r
r
r r r
+ +
+ +
r r r
r
r r
( ) r V r
xyz
d
dt
r
d
dt
r
dr
dt
( )
r r
r
r r
r
+
xyz
\
,
(
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-9
or
(4.43)
Equation 4.43 is a statement of Newtons second law for a system. The system
derivative, d /dt, represents the rate of change of momentum, , of the system
measured relative to xyz, as seen by an observer in xyz. This system derivative can be
related to control volume variables through Eq. 4.25,
(4.25)
To obtain the control volume formulation, we set N , and . Then Eqs.
4.25 and 4.43 may be combined to give
(4.44)
Equation 4.44 is the most general control volume formulation of Newtons sec-
ond law. Comparing the momentum equation for a control volume moving with arbi-
trary acceleration, Eq. 4.44, with that for a control volume moving with rectilinear
acceleration, Eq. 4.33, we see that the only difference is the presence of three addi-
tional terms on the left side of Eq. 4.44. These terms result from the angular motion
of noninertial reference frame xyz. In dynamics these terms are often referred to as
ctitious forces that arise due to inertia effects present when we use a noninertial
xyz coordinate system: the Coriolis force due to particle motion within the xyz coor-
dinates, and centripetal and tangential forces due to the xyz coordinate systems rota-
tional motion, respectively. As we should expect, the general form, Eq. 4.44, reduces
to the rectilinear acceleration form, Eq. 4.33, when the angular terms are zero, and to
the inertial control volume form, Eq. 4.26, when all of the terms for the control vol-
ume motion ( , and ) are zero.
The precautions concerning the use of Eqs. 4.26 and 4.33 also apply to the use
of Eq. 4.44. Before attempting to apply this equation, one must draw the boundaries
of the control volume and label appropriate coordinate directions. For a control vol-
ume moving with arbitrary acceleration, one must label a coordinate system xyz on
the control volume and an inertial reference frame XYZ.
EXAMPLE 4.13 Velocity in Fixed and Noninertial Reference Frames
A reference frame, xyz, moves arbitrarily with respect to a xed frame, XYZ. A
particle moves with velocity
xyz
(dx/dt) (dy/dt) (dz/dt) , relative to frame
xyz. Show that the absolute velocity of the particle is given by
r r r
r r
V V V r
XYZ rf xyz
= + +
i
r
V
r
r
a
rf
,
=

+

t
V d V V V dA
xyz xyz xyz
r r r r

CV CS
r r
r r
r
r r r r r
F F a V r r dV
S B rf xyz
+ + + +
[ ( )
] 2
CV

r
V
xyz
r
P
xyz
dN
dt t
dV V dA
xyz
+

system
CV CS

r r
r
P
xyz
r
P
xyz
r r
r r
r
r r r r r
r
F F a V r r dV
dP
dt
S B rf xyz
xyz
V
+ + + + =

[ ( )
] 2
(system)
system
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/21/03 9:07 AM Page S-10
GIVEN: Fixed and noninertial frames as shown.
X
r
X
R
z
y
x
Particle
Y
Z
FIND:
XYZ
in terms of
xyz
, , , and
rf
.
SOLUTION:
From the geometry of the sketch, so
Since
we have
or
The problem now is to evaluate d /dt, d /dt, and d /dt that result from the angular motion of frame xyz. To
evaluate these derivatives, we must consider the rotation of each unit vector caused by the three compo-
nents of the angular velocity, , of frame xyz.
Consider the unit vector . It will rotate in the xy plane because of
z
, as follows:
i
r
i
dr
dt
V x
di
dt
y
dj
dt
z
dk
dt
xyz
r
r
+ + +

dr
dt
dx
dt
i
dy
dt
j
dz
dt
k x
di
dt
y
dj
dt
z
dk
dt
r
+ + + + +

r
r xi yj zk + +

r
r r
r
r
r
V
dX
dt
dR
dt
dr
dt
V
dr
dt
XYZ rf
+ +
r r
r
X R r + ,
r
V
r
r
r
r
V
r
V
y(t + t)
i (t + t)
x(t + t)
z
y(t)
x(t)
i (t)
^
i (t + t)
^
i (t + t)
^
^
i (t)
^
i (t)
^
Now from the diagram

But for small angles cos 1 [()
2
/2] and sin , so
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
(
) ( )

i t t i t j i j i + +
,
,
]
]
]

1 1
2
1
2
2
( )
( ) ( ) sin
( )( cos )(
) i t t i t j i + + 1 1 1
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-11
In the limit as t :0, since
z
t,
Similarly, will rotate in the xz plane because of
y
.
i
di
dt
i t t i t
t
t j
t
i
t
di
dt
j
z
z
t t
z
z
z
lim
( )
( )
lim
( )

due to
due to
]
]
]
]

+
,
,
,
]
]
]
]

,
]
]
]
,
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

0 0
1
2
x(t)
z(t)
x(t + t)
z(t + t)
y
Enlarged sketch
i (t + t)
^
i (t + t)
^
i (t + t)
^
i (t)
^
i (t)
^
i (t)
^
Then from the diagram
For small angles
In the limit as t :0, since
y
t,
Rotation in the yz plane because of
x
does not affect . Combining terms,
By similar reasoning,
Thus
x
di
dt
y
dj
dt
z
dk
dt
z y i x z j y x k
y z z x x y

( )
( )
( )
+ + + +
dj
dt
k i
dk
dt
i j
x z y x

and

di
dt
j k
z y
i
di
dt
i t t i t
t
t k
t
i
t
di
dt
k
y
t t
y
y
y
y
lim
( )
( )
lim
( )

due to
due to
]
]
]
]

+
,
,
,
]
]
]
]

,
,
]
]
]
,
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]

0
1
2
( )
( ) ( ) (
) ( )
( )
(
) ( )

i t t i t k i k i + +
j
(
,
\
,
(
1 1
2
1
2
2
( )
( ) ( ) sin (
) ( )( cos )(
) i t t i t k i + + 1 1 1
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-12
4-7 THE ANGULAR-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE S-13
But
Combining these results, we obtain
r r r
r r
r
V V V r
V
XYZ rf xyz
XYZ + +

r r
+ + r
i j k
x y z
z y i x z j y x k
x y z y z z x x y

( )
( )
( )
4-7 THE ANGULAR-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE (continued)

Equation for Rotating Control Volume
In problems involving rotating components, such as the rotating sprinkler of Example
Problem 4.14, it is often convenient to express all uid velocities relative to the rotat-
ing component. The most convenient control volume is a noninertial one that rotates
with the component. In this section we develop a formulation of the angular-momen-
tum principle for a noninertial control volume rotating about an axis xed in space.
Inertial and noninertial reference frames were related in Section 4-6. Figure 4.5
showed the notation used. For a system in an inertial frame,
(4.3a)
The angular momentum of a system in general motion must be specied relative to
an inertial reference frame. Using the notation of Fig. 4.5,
With 0 the xyz frame is restricted to rotation within XYZ, and the equation be-
comes
so that
Since the mass of a system is constant,
or
(4.47)
From the analysis of Section 4-6,
(4.36)
r r
r
V V
dr
dt
XYZ rf
+
r
r
r
r
r
T
dr
dt
V r
dV
dt
dm
XYZ
XYZ
M
system
(system)
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
r
r
r
T
d
dt
r V dm
XYZ
M
system
(system)
( )
r
r
r
T
d
dt
r V dm
XYZ
M
system
(system)

r
r
r
r
r
H r V dm r V dV
XYZ
M
XYZ
V
system
(system)

(system)
r
R
r r
r
r r
r
r
H R r V dm R r V dV
XYZ
M
XYZ
V
system
(system) (system)
( ) ( ) + +

r
r
T
dH
dt
system
system
\
,
(
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-13
With xyz restricted to pure rotation,
rf
0. The rst term under the integral on the
right side of Eq. 4.47 is then
Thus Eq. 4.47 reduces to
(4.48)
From Eq. 4.41 with
rf
0 (since xyz does not translate),
Substituting into Eq. 4.48, we obtain
or
(4.49)
We can write the last term as
(4.50)
The torque on the system is given by
(4.3c)
The relation between the system and control volume formulations is
(4.25)
where
Setting N equal to
xyz
)
system
and
xyz
yields
(4.51)
Combining Eqs. 4.49, 4.50, 4.51, and 4.3c, we obtain
dH
dt t
r V dV r V V d A
xyz
xyz xyz xyz
r
r
r
r
r r r \
,
(

+

system
CV

CS
r
V
r
r
r
H
N dm
M
system

(system)
dN
dt t
dV V dA
xyz
\
,

+

system
CV CS

r r
r
r
r
r r
r
T r F r g dm T
s
M
system shaft
system
+ +
( )
r
r
r
r
r
r
dV
dt
dm
d
dt
r V dm
dH
dt
xyz
M
xyz
M xyz
xyz
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(

\
,
(

(system) system
system xyz

( )

\
,
(

r r r
r
r a dm r
dV
dt
dm
xyz
M
xyz
M
xyz
(system) (system)
r
r r
r
r r r r r
T r V r r dm
xyz
M
system
(system)
[ ( )
] + +
2
r
r r r
r
r r r r r
T r a V r r dm
xyz xyz
M
system
+ + +
[ ( )
]
(system)
2
r r r
r
r r r r r
a a V r r
XYZ xyz xyz
+ + + 2 ( )
r
a
r
r
r
r r
T r
dV
dt
dm r a dm
XYZ
M
XYZ
M
system
(system) (system)

dr
dt
dr
dt
r r
0
r
V
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-14
Since the system and control volume coincided at t
0
,
(4.52)
Equation 4.52 is the formulation of the angular-momentum principle for a (noniner-
tial) control volume rotating about an axis xed in space. All uid velocities in Eq.
4.52 are evaluated relative to the control volume. Comparing Eq. 4.52 with Eq. 4.46
(for inertial XYZ cooordinates) we see that the noninertial (rotating) xyz coordinates
have an extra moment term on the left side that includes three components. As we
discussed following Eq. 4.44, these components arise because of ctitious forces: the
Coriolis force because of uid particle motion within the xyz coordinates, and centripetal
and tangential forces because of the xyz coordinates rotational motion, respectively.
Equation 4.52 reduces to Eq. 4.46 when the control volume is not in motion (when
and are zero). Even though we have the extra term to evaluate, Eq. 4.52 is sometimes
simpler to use than Eq. 4.44 because a problem that is unsteady in XYZ coordinates be-
comes steady state in xyz coordinates, as we will see in Example Problem 4.15.
EXAMPLE 4.15 Lawn Sprinkler: Analysis Using Rotating Control Volume
A small lawn sprinkler is shown in the
sketch below. At an inlet gage pres-
sure of 20 kPa, the total volume ow
rate of water through the sprinkler is
7.5 liters per minute and it rotates at
30 rpm. The diameter of each jet is 4
mm. Calculate the jet speed relative to
each sprinkler nozzle. Evaluate the
friction torque at the sprinkler pivot.
r
r
r
r r
r
r r
r
r r r r r
r
r
r
r r r
r F r g dV T
V dV
t
r V r V V dA
s
xyz
xyz xyz xyz
+ +
+ +

shaft
CV
CV
CV CS
[ ( )
] r r r
dV
2
r
r
r r
r
r r
r
r r r r r
r
r
r
r r r
r F r g dm T
r V r r dm
t
r V r V V dA
s
xyz
xyz xyz xyz
+ +
+

) +
dV
M
M
shaft
(system)
(system)
CV CS
[ (
] 2

V
rel
V
rel
R = 150 mm
Q = 7.5 L/min
= 30 rpm
= 30
p
supply
= 20 kPa (gage)
GIVEN: Small lawn sprinkler as shown.
FIND: (a) Jet speed relative to each nozzle.
(b) Friction torque at pivot.
SOLUTION:
Apply continuity and angular momentum equa-
tions using rotating control volume enclosing
sprinkler arms.
V
rel
V
rel
R = 150 mm
= 30
p
supply
= 20 kPa (gage)
CV
(Control volume
rotates with
sprinkler arm)
Q = 7.5 L/min
= 30 rpm
z
r
T
f
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-15
art to be come
(4.52)
Assumptions: (1) Steady ow relative to the rotating CV.
(2) Uniform ow at each section.
(3) constant.
From continuity
Consider terms in the angular-momentum equation separately. As in Example Problem 4.14, the only ex-
ternal torque acting on the CV is friction in the pivot. It opposes the motion, so
(1)
The second integral on the left of Eq. 4.52 is evaluated for ow within the CV. Let the velocity and
area within the sprinkler tubes be V
CV
and A
CV
, respectively. Then, for one side, the rst term (a Coriolis
effect) is
(The ow in the bent portion of the tube has no r component of velocity, so it does not contribute to the
integral.)
From continuity, Q 2 V
CV
A
CV
, so for both sides the integral becomes
(2)
The second term in the integral (a moment generated by centripetal acceleration) is evaluated as
so it contributes no torque. (The force generated by centripetal acceleration is radial, so it generates no
moment.)
r r r r
r r dV re k k re dV
re k re dV re r e dV
r r
r r r

[ ( )] [
)]
[
] ( )]

CV CV
CV CV
2
0
r r
r
r V dV R Qk
xyz

[ ]
CV
2
2

r r
r
r V dV re k V e A
re V e A
V A r V A k
xyz r
R
r
r
R
R

[ ] [
]

CV
CV
CV
CV CV
2 2
2
2
0
0
0

CV
CV
CV CV
one side
dr
= dr
= dr k = R
2
r
T T k
f shaft

V
Q
A
Q
D
V
V
rel
jet jet
2
3 2
2
rel

rel
. L
min ( ) mm
m
1000 L
mm
m
min
60 s
. m/s

2 2
4
1
2
7 5 4 1
4
10
4 97
2 2
6
CV
dV
CS
V
xyz
dA 0
0(1)

r F
S

CV
r g dV T
shaft

CV
r [2 V
xyz
( r) r] dV
t
0(1)
CV
r V
xyz
dV
CV
r V
xyz
V
xyz
dA
0(3)

Governing equations:
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/14/03 3:07 PM Page S-16
The integral on the right side of Eq. 4.52 is evaluated for ow crossing the control surface. For the
right arm of the sprinkler,
The velocity and radius vectors for ow in the left arm must be described in terms of the same unit vectors
used for the right arm. In the left sprinkler arm, the component has the same magnitude but opposite
sign, so it cancels. For the complete CV,
(3)
Combining terms (1), (2), and (3), we obtain
or
T
f
R(V
rel
cos R) Q
From the data given,
Substituting gives
T
T
T
f
f
f
=

=

150 4 97 30
0 0718
2

mm m
s
0.471 m
s
999 kg
m
7.5 L
m
1000 L 60 s
N m
3
3
. cos
min

min N
.
s
kg
.
m
m
1000 mm
.

R =

=
30 150 2 rev
min
rad
rev
min
60 s
m
1000 mm
0.471m/s
mm
= T k R Qk RV Qk
f

cos
rel

2
r
r r r
r V V dA RV Qk
xyz xyz
=

rel
CV
cos
r
r r r
r V V dA e V e k V A
RV k e
Q
xyz xyz r
= + +
= +
R [cos ( ) sin
]{ }
[cos (
) sin ( )]
re rel jet
rel
l
CS
2
This problem illustrates use of the angular momentum princi-
ple for a noninertial (rotating) control volume. Note that in
this approach, unlike the inertial control volume of Example
Problem 4.14, the uid particle position vector and velocity
vector are not time-dependent. As we should expect, the re-
sults agree using either an inertial or noninertial control volume.
r
V
r
r
42757_04CD_pS7-S17 4/21/03 9:18 AM Page S-17
S-18 CHAPTER 6 / INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW
6-6 UNSTEADY BERNOULLI EQUATIONINTEGRATION OF EULERS
EQUATION ALONG A STREAMLINE
It is not necessary to restrict the development of the Bernoulli equation to steady
ow. The purpose of this section is to develop the corresponding equation for un-
steady ow along a streamline and to illustrate its use.
The momentum equation for frictionless ow (Eq. 6.1) can be written (with in
the negative z direction) as
(6.17)
Equation 6.17 is a vector equation. It can be converted to a scalar equation by taking
the dot product with d , where d is an element of distance along a streamline. Thus
(6.18)
Examining the terms in Eq. 6.18, we note that
Substituting into Eq. 6.18, we obtain
(6.19)
Integrating along a streamline from point 1 to point 2 yields
(6.20)
For incompressible ow, the density is constant. For this special case, Eq. 6.20
becomes
(6.21)
Restrictions: (1) Incompressible ow.
(2) Frictionless ow.
(3) Flow along a streamline.
To evaluate the integral term in Eq. 6.21, the variation in V/t must be known as a
function of s, the distance along the streamline measured from point 1. (For steady
ow, V/t 0, and Eq. 6.21 reduces to Eq. 6.8.) Equation 6.21 may be applied to
any ow in which the restrictions are compatible with the physical situation.
Application of Eq. 6.21 is illustrated in Example Problem 6.9.
p V
gz
p V
gz
V
t
ds
1 1
2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 2
+ + + + +

dp V V
g z z
V
t
ds
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 1
1
2
2
0

+

+ +

( )
V dV
V
t
ds
dp
g dz +

V
s
ds dV V
p ds dp
k ds dz z
(the change in along )
(the change in pressure along )
(the change in along )

s
s
s
r
r
DV
Dt
ds
DV
Dt
ds V
V
s
ds
V
t
ds p ds gk ds
r
r r r

r
s
r
s
DV
Dt
p gk
r

1
r
g
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-18
6-6 UNSTEADY BERNOULLI EQUATIONINTEGRATION OF EULERS EQUATION ALONG A STREAMLINE S-19
EXAMPLE 6.9 Unsteady Bernoulli Equation
A long pipe is connected to a large reservoir that initially is lled with water to a
depth of 3 m. The pipe is 150 mm in diameter and 6 m long. Determine the ow ve-
locity leaving the pipe as a function of time after a cap is removed from its free end.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 6.9
GIVEN: Pipe and large reservoir as
shown.
FIND: V
2
(t).
SOLUTION:
Apply the Bernoulli equation to the un-
steady ow along a streamline from
point to point .
Governing equation:
Assumptions: (1) Incompressible ow.
(2) Frictionless ow.
(3) Flow along a streamline from to .
(4) p
1
p
2
p
atm
.
(5) V
2
1
0.
(6) z
2
0.
(7) z
1
h constant.
(8) Neglect velocity in reservoir, except for small region near the inlet to the tube.
Then
In view of assumption (8), the integral becomes
In the tube, V V
2
everywhere, so that
Substituting gives
Separating variables, we obtain
Integrating between limits V 0 at t 0 and V V
2
at t t,
dV
gh V gh
V
gh
t
L
V
V
2
1
2 2 2
2
0
1
0
2
2

j
(
,
\
,
(
,
,
,
]
]
]
]

tanh
dV
gh V
dt
L
2
2
2
2 2

gh
V
L
dV
dt
+
2
2
2
2

V
t
ds
dV
dt
ds L
dV
dt
L L
0
2
0
2

V
t
ds
V
t
ds
L
1
2
0
gz gh
V V
t
ds
1
2
2
1
2
2
+

2 1
p
1 1
V
t
ds
1
gz
1

0(5) 0(6)
V
2
2
p
2 2
gz
2

V
2
2
2
2 1
1
2
D = 150 mm
h = 3 m
L = 6 m
V
2
z
Flow
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-19
Since tanh
1
(0) 0, we obtain
For the given conditions,
and
The result is then V
2
7.67 tanh (0.639t) m/s, as shown:
t
L
gh
t
t
2
2
2
1
6
7 67
0 639
m
m
s
.
.
2
2 9 81
3
7 67 gh
.
.
m
s
m
m/s
2
1
2 2 2 2 2
2
1 2 2
2
gh
V
gh
t
L
V
gh
t
L
gh
V t
tanh tanh
( )
j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
\
,

or

0
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
t (s)
V
2

(
m
/
s
)
V
2
= 7.67 tanh (0.639 t)
Notes:
This problem illustrates use of the unsteady Bernoulli
equation.
Initially the head available at state is used to acceler-
ate the uid in the pipe; eventually the head at state
equals the head at state .
This problem is somewhat unrealistic except for the initial
instants the asymptotic ow condition actually corre-
sponds to a turbulent ow!
1
1
*6.7 IRROTATIONAL FLOW
We have already discussed irrotational ows in Section 5-3. These are ows in which
the uid particles do not rotate ( 0). We recall that the only stresses that can gen-
erate particle rotation are shear stresses; hence, inviscid ows (i.e., those with zero
shear stresses) will be irrotational, unless the particles were initially rotating. Using
Eq. 5.14, we obtain the irrotationality condition
(6.22)
leading to
(6.23)

w
y z
u
z
w
x x
u
y
v v
0

r
V 0
r
* Note that Section 5-2 contains background material needed for study of this section.
2
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-20
6-7 IRROTATIONAL FLOW S-21
In cylindrical coordinates, from Eq. 5.16, the irrotationality condition requires that
(6.24)
Bernoulli Equation Applied to Irrotational Flow
In Section 6-3, we integrated Eulers equation along a streamline for steady, incom-
pressible, inviscid ow to obtain the Bernoulli equation
(6.8)
Equation 6.8 can be applied between any two points on the same streamline. In
general, the value of the constant will vary from streamline to streamline.
If, in addition to being inviscid, steady, and incompressible, the ow eld is also
irrotational (i.e., the particles had no initial rotation), so that (Eq. 6.22),
we can show that Bernoullis equation can be applied between any two points in the
ow. Then the value of the constant in Eq. 6.8 is the same for all streamlines. To il-
lustrate this, we start with Eulers equation in vector form,
(6.9)
Using the vector identity
we see for irrotational ow, where , that
and Eulers equation for irrotational ow can be written as
(6.25)
Consider a displacement in the ow eld from position to position + d ; the
displacement d is an arbitrary innitesimal displacement in any direction. Taking the
dot product of d = dx + dy + dz with each of the terms in Eq. 6.25, we have
and hence
or
dp
d V gdz
+ +
1
2
0
2
( )
1
2
2
d V
dp
gdz ( )
1
2
1
2
( )
V dr p dr gk dr
r r r
i
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
1
2
1
2
1
2
( ) ( )
r r
V V V p gk
( ) ( )
r r r r
V V V V
1
2

r
V 0
( ) ( ) ( )
r r r r r r
V V V V V V
1
2
( )
r r
V V p gk
1

r
V 0
p V
gz
+ +
2
2
constant
1 1 1
0
r
V V
z
V
z
V
r r
rV
r r
V
z r z r

42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-21
Integrating this equation for incompressible ow gives
(6.26)
Since d was an arbitrary displacement, Eq. 6.26 is valid between any two points
(i.e., not just along a streamline) in a steady, incompressible, inviscid ow that is also
irrotational (see Example Problem 6.5).
Velocity Potential
We were introduced in Section 5-2 to the notion of the stream function for a two-
dimensional incompressible ow.
For irrotational ow we can introduce a companion function, the potential func-
tion , dened by
(6.27)
Why this denition? Because it guarantees that any continuous scalar function (x, y,
z, t) automatically satises the irrotationality condition (Eq. 6.22) because of a funda-
mental indentity
7
:
(6.28)
The minus sign (used in most textbooks) is inserted simply so that decreases in the
ow direction (analogous to the temperature decreasing in the direction of heat ow
in heat conduction). Thus,
(6.29)
(You can check that the irrotationality condition, Eq. 6.22, is satised identically.)
In cylindrical coordinates,
(3.18)
From Eq. 6.27, then, in cylindrical coordinates
(6.30)
Because 0 for all , the velocity potential exists only for irrotational
ow.
Irrotationality may be a valid assumption for those regions of a ow in which
viscous forces are negligible.
8
(For example, such a region exists outside the bound-
ary layer in the ow over a wing surface, and can be analyzed to nd the lift
produced by the wing.) The theory for irrotational ow is developed in terms of an
imaginary ideal uid whose viscosity is identically zero. Since, in an irrotational
ow, the velocity eld may be dened by the potential function , the theory is often
referred to as potential ow theory.
V
r
V
r
V
z
r z

e
r
e
r
k
z
r
1
u
x y
w
z

, , v and

r
V curl(grad ) 0
r
V
r
r
p V
gz
+ +
2
2
constant
7
That ( ) 0 can easily be demonstrated by expanding into components.
8
Examples of rotational and irrotational motion are shown in the NCFMF video Vorticity.
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-22
All real uids possess viscosity, but there are many situations in which the as-
sumption of inviscid ow considerably simplies the analysis and, at the same time,
gives meaningful results. Because of its utility and mathematical appeal, potential
ow has been studied extensively.
9
Stream Function and Velocity Potential for Two-Dimensional, Irrotational,
Incompressible Flow: Laplaces Equation
For a two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational ow we have expressions for the
velocity components, u and v, in terms of both the stream function , and the veloc-
ity potential ,
(5.3)
(6.29)
Substituting for u and v from Eq. 5.3 into the irrotationality condition,
(6.23)
we obtain
(6.31)
Substituting for u and v from Eq. 6.29 into the continuity equation,
(5.4)
we obtain
(6.32)
Equations 6.31 and 6.32 are forms of Laplaces equationan equation that
arises in many areas of the physical sciences and engineering. Any function or
that satises Laplaces equation represents a possible two-dimensional, incompress-
ible, irrotational ow eld.
It is worth summarizing what weve learned. For a two-dimensional incompress-
ible ow, we can always dene a stream function ; if the ow is also irrotational,
will satisfy Laplaces equation. On the other hand, for an irrotational ow, we can al-
ways dene a velocity potential ; if the ow is also incompressible, will satisfy
Laplaces equation.
In Section 5-2 we showed that the stream function is constant along any
streamline. For constant, d 0 and
d
x
dx
y
dy

2
2
2
2
0

x y

u
x y
v
0

2
2
2
2
0

x y

v
x
u
y
0
u
x y

v
u
y x

v
9
Anyone interested in a detailed study of potential ow theory may nd [46] of interest.
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-23
The slope of a streamlinea line of constant is given by
(6.33)
Along a line of constant , d 0 and
Consequently, the slope of a potential linea line of constant is given by
(6.34)
(The last equality of Eq. 6.34 follows from use of Eq. 6.29.)
Comparing Eqs. 6.33 and 6.34, we see that the slope of a constant line at any
point is the negative reciprocal of the slope of the constant line at that point; lines
of constant and constant are orthogonal. This property of potential lines and
streamlines is useful in graphical analyses of ow elds.
Example 6.10 Velocity Potential
Consider the ow eld given by ax
2
ay
2
, where a 3 s
1
. Show that the ow
is irrotational. Determine the velocity potential for this ow.
dy
dx
x
y
u \
,
(

/
/ v
d
x
dx
y
dy

0
dy
dx
x
y u u
\
,
(

/
/
v v
GIVEN: Incompressible ow eld with ax
2
ay
2
, where a 3 s
1
.
FIND: (a) Whether or not the ow is irrotational.
(b) The velocity potential for this ow.
SOLUTION:
If the ow is irrotational,
2
0. Checking for the given ow,
so that the ow is irrotational. As an alternative proof, we can compute the uid particle rotation (in the xy
plane, the only component of rotation is
z
):
then
so
Once again, we conclude that the ow is irrotational. Because it is irrotational, must exist, and
u
x y

and v
2 2 2 2 2 0
2

z
x
u
y x
ax
y
ay a a z

+

v
( ) ( )

u
y
ax ay ay
x
ax ay ax

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 2 and v
2

z
x
u
y
u
y x
v
v and

( )
+

( )

2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2 0
x
ax ay
y
ax ay a a
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-24
Consequently, Integrating with respect to x gives 2axy f(y),
where f (y) is an arbitrary function of y. Then
Therefore, and f constant. Thus
We also can show that lines of constant and constant are orthogonal.
ax
2
ay
2
and 2axy
The slopes of lines of constant and constant are negative reciprocals. Therefore lines of constant
are orthogonal to lines of constant .
For constant hence d

\
,

, ; 0 2 2 ay dx ax dy
dy
dx
y
x
c
For constant hence d

\
,

, ; 0 2 2 axdx ay dy
dy
dx
x
y
c
+

2axy constant

2 2 2 0 ax ax
f y
y
ax
df
dy
df
dy
( )
, so
v

+ 2 2 ax
y y
axy f y
[ ( )]
u
x
ay
x
ay

2 2 and .
This problem illustrates the relations among the stream func-
tion, velocity potential, and velocity eld.
The stream function and velocity potential are
shown in the Excel workbook. By entering the equations
for and , other elds can be plotted.
Elementary Plane Flows
The and functions for ve elementary two-dimensional ows a uniform ow, a
source, a sink, a vortex, and a doublet are summarized in Table 6.1. The and
functions can be obtained from the velocity eld for each elementary ow. (We saw
in Example Problem 6.10 that we can obtain from u and v.)
A uniform ow of constant velocity parallel to the x axis satises the continuity
equation and the irrotationality condition identically. In Table 6.1 we have shown the
and functions for a uniform ow in the positive x direction.
For a uniform ow of constant magnitude V, inclined at angle to the x axis,
(V cos )y (V sin )x
(V sin )y (V cos )x
A simple source is a ow pattern in the xy plane in which ow is radially out-
ward from the z axis and symmetrical in all directions. The strength, q, of the source
is the volume ow rate per unit depth. At any radius, r, from a source, the tangential
velocity, V
, is zero; the radial velocity, V

r
, is the volume ow rate per unit depth, q,
divided by the ow area per unit depth, 2r. Thus V
r
q/2r for a source. The
and functions for a source are shown in Table 6.1.
In a simple sink, ow is radially inward; a sink is a negative source. The and
functions for a sink shown in Table 6.1 are the negatives of the corresponding func-
tions for a source ow.
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-25
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42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-26
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=

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x
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42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-27
The origin of either a sink or a source is a singular point, since the radial veloc-
ity approaches innity as the radius approaches zero. Thus, while an actual ow may
resemble a source or a sink for some values of r, sources and sinks have no exact
physical counterparts. The primary value of the concept of sources and sinks is that,
when combined with other elementary ows, they produce ow patterns that ade-
quately represent realistic ows.
A ow pattern in which the streamlines are concentric circles is a vortex; in a free
(irrotational) vortex, uid particles do not rotate as they translate in circular paths around
the vortex center. The velocity distribution in an irrotational vortex can be determined
from Eulers equation and the Bernoulli equation. For irrotational ow, the Bernoulli
equation is valid between any two points in the ow eld. For ow in a horizontal plane,
The component of Eulers equation normal to the streamline is
Combining these equations yields
From the last equality
Integrating this equation gives
The strength, K, of the vortex is dened as K 2rV
; the dimensions of K are L

2
/t
(volume ow rate per unit depth). The irrotational vortex is a reasonable approxima-
tion to the ow eld in a tornado (except in the region of the origin; the origin is a
singular point).
The nal elementary ow listed in Table 6.1 is the doublet of strength . This
ow is produced mathematically by allowing a source and a sink of numerically
equal strengths to merge. In the limit, as the distance, s, between them approaches
zero, their strengths increase so the product qs/2 tends to a nite value, , which
is termed the strength of the doublet.
Superposition of Elementary Plane Flows
We saw earlier that both and satisfy Laplaces equation for ow that is both in-
compressible and irrotational. Since Laplaces equation is a linear, homogeneous
partial differential equation, solutions may be superposed (added together) to
develop more complex and interesting patterns of ow. Thus if
1
and
2
satisfy
Laplaces equation, then so does
3

1

2
. The elementary plane ows are
the building blocks in this superposition process. There is one note of caution:
While Laplaces equation for the stream function, and the stream function-
velocity eld equations (Eq. 5.3) are linear, the Bernoulli equation is not; hence, in
the superposition process we will have
3

1

2
, u
3
u
1
u
2
, and v
3

V r
constant
V dr r dV

+ 0
dp
V
V
r
dr
dV
2
1
2
dp
dr
V
r

dp V dV
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-28
v
1
v
2
, but p
3
p
1
p
2
! We must use the Bernoulli equation, which is nonlinear
in V, to nd p
3
.
We can add together elementary ows to try and generate recognizable ow pat-
terns. The simplest superposition approach is called the direct method, in which we try
different combinations of elementary ows and see what kinds of ow patterns are pro-
duced. This sounds like a random process, but with a little experience it becomes a quite
logical process. For example, look at some of the classic examples listed in Table 6.2.
The source and uniform ow combination makes sensewe would intuitively expect a
source to partially push its way upstream, and to divert the ow around it. The source,
sink, and uniform ow (generating what is called a Rankine body) is also not surpris-
ingthe entire ow out of the source makes its way into the sink, leading to a closed
streamline. Any streamline can be interpreted as a solid surface because there is no ow
across it; we can therefore pretend that this closed streamline represents a solid. We
could easily generalize this source-sink approach to any number of sources and sinks
distributed along the x axis, and as long as the sum of the source and sink strengths
added up to zero, we would generate a closed streamline body shape. The doublet-
uniform ow (with or without a vortex) generates a very interesting result: ow over a
cylinder (with or without circulation)! We rst saw the ow without circulation in
Fig. 2.12a. The ow with a clockwise vortex produces a top-to-bottom asymmetry. This
is because in the region above the cylinder the velocities due to the uniform ow and
vortex are in the same overall direction and lead to a high velocity; below the cylinder
they are in opposite directions and therefore lead to a low velocity. As we have learned,
whenever velocities are high, streamlines will be close together, and vice versa
explaining the pattern shown. More importantly, from the Bernoulli equation we know
that whenever the velocity is high the pressure will be low, and vice versahence, we
can anticipate that the cylinder with circulation will experience a net upward force (lift)
due to pressure. This approach, of looking at streamline patterns to see where we have
regions of high or low velocity and hence low or high pressure, is very useful. We will
examine these last two ows in Example Problems 6.11 and 6.12. The last example in
Table 6.2, the vortex pair, hints at a way to create ows that simulate the presence of a
wall or walls: for the y-axis to be a streamline (and thus a wall), simply make sure that
any objects (e.g., a source, a vortex) in the positive x quadrants have mirror-image ob-
jects in the negative x quadrants; the y axis will thus be a line of symmetry. For a ow
pattern in a 90 corner, we need to place objects so that we have symmetry with respect
to both the x and y axes. For ow in a corner whose angle is a fraction of 90 (e.g., 30),
we need to place objects in a radially symmetric fashion.
Because Laplaces equation appears in many engineering and physics applica-
tions, it has been extensively studied. One approach is to use conformal mapping with
complex notation. It turns out that any continuous complex function f(z) (where z x
iy, and i ) is a solution of Laplaces equation, and can therefore represent
both and . With this approach many elegant mathematical results have been de-
rived [710]. We mention only two: the circle theorem, which enables any given ow
[e.g., from a source at some point (a, b)] to be easily transformed to allow for the pres-
ence of a cylinder at the origin; and the Schwarz-Christoffel theorem, which enables a
given ow to be transformed to allow for the presence of virtually unlimited stepwise
linear boundaries (e.g., the presence on the x axis of the silhouette of a building).
Much of this analytical work was done centuries ago, when it was called hy-
drodynamics instead of potential theory. A list of famous contributors includes
Bernoulli, Lagrange, dAlembert, Cauchy, Rankine, and Euler [11]. As we discussed
in Section 2-6, the theory immediately ran into difculties: In an ideal uid ow no
1
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-29
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42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-30
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42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-31

T
a
b
l
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.
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42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-32
body experiences dragthe dAlembert paradox of 1752a result completely
counter to experience. Prandtl, in 1904, resolved this discrepancy by describing how
real ows may be essentially inviscid almost everywhere, but there is always a
boundary layer adjacent to the body. In this layer signicant viscous effects occur,
and the no-slip condition is satised (in potential ow theory the no-slip condition is
not satised). Development of this concept, and the Wright brothers historic rst hu-
man ight, led to rapid developments in aeronautics starting in the 1900s. We will
study boundary layers in detail in Chapter 9, where we will see that their existence
leads to drag on bodies, and also affects on the lift of bodies.
An alternative superposition approach is the inverse method in which distributions
of objects such as sources, sinks, and vortices are used to model a body [12]. It is called
inverse because the body shape is deduced based on a desired pressure distribution.
Both the direct and inverse methods, including three-dimensional space, are today
mostly analyzed using computer applications such as Fluent [13] and STAR-CD [14].
EXAMPLE 6.11 Flow over a Cylinder: Superposition of Doublet and Uniform Flow
For two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational ow, the superposition of a doublet
and a uniform ow represents ow around a circular cylinder. Obtain the stream
function and velocity potential for this ow pattern. Find the velocity eld, locate
the stagnation points and the cylinder surface, and obtain the surface pressure distri-
bution. Integrate the pressure distribution to obtain the drag and lift forces on the
circular cylinder.
GIVEN: Two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational ow formed from superposition of a doublet and a
uniform ow.
FIND: (a) Stream function and velocity potential.
(b) Velocity eld.
(c) Stagnation points.
(d) Cylinder surface.
(e) Surface pressure distribution.
(f) Drag force on the circular cylinder.
(g) Lift force on the circular cylinder.
SOLUTION:
Stream functions may be added because the ow eld is incompressible and irrotational. Thus from Table
6.1, the stream function for the combination is
The velocity potential is
The corresponding velocity components are obtained using Eqs. 6.30 as
V
r r
U

1
2
sin
sin
V
r r
U
r

cos
cos
2

+

d u f
r
Ur
cos
cos

+ +

d u f
r
Ur
sin
sin

42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-33
The velocity eld is
Stagnation points are where
Thus
Thus V
0 when 0, .
Stagnation points are (r, ) (a, 0), (a, ).
Note that V
r
0 along r a, so this represents ow around a circular cylinder, as shown in Table 6.2. Flow is
irrotational, so the Bernoulli equation may be applied between any two points. Applying the equation between
a point far upstream and a point on the surface of the cylinder (neglecting elevation differences), we obtain
Thus,
Along the surface, r a, and
since Ua
2
. Substituting yields
or
Drag is the force component parallel to the freestream ow
direction. The drag force is given by
since dA a d b, where b is the length of the cylinder normal
to the diagram. Substituting
F p ab d U ab d
p ab U ab U ab
F
F
D
D
D
+

]
]
]

]
]
]
+
]
]
]

0
2
1
2
0
2
2 2
0
2
1
2
2
0
2
1
2
2 4
3
3
0
2
1 4
0

cos ( sin ) cos
sin sin sin

p p U +
1
2
2 2
1 4 ( sin ),
F p dA pa d b
D
A

cos cos
0
2
p p
U
1
2
2
2
1 4
sin
Pressure
distribution
p p U U U
1
2
2 2 2 1
2
2 2
4 1 4 ( sin ) ( sin )
V V
a
U U
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
4
j
(
,
\
,
(
sin sin
p p U V
1
2
2 2
( )
p U p V
+ +

2 2
2 2
Stagnation points

V
r
U U
r
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
sin
sin sin
2 2
V r
U
a
r
0 when . Also,
V
r
U U
r
r
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
cos
cos cos

2 2
r
V V e V e
r r
+

0
r r
V V e V e
r
U e
r
U e V
r r r
+ +
j
(
,
\
,
( +
j
(
,
\
,
(

cos
cos
sin
sin

2 2
a
p dA
U
p
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-34

Lift is the force component normal to the freestream ow direction. (By convention, positive lift is an up-
ward force.) The lift force is given by
Substituting for p gives
F p ab d U ab d
p ab U ab U ab
F
F
L
L
L

]
]
]
+
]
]
]
+
,
,
]
]
]

0
2
1
2
0
2
2 2
0
2
1
2
2
0
2
1
2
2
3
0
2
1 4
4
3
4
0

sin ( sin ) sin

cos cos
cos
cos

F p dA pa d b
L
A

( sin ) sin
0
2
This problem illustrates:
How elementary plane ows can be combined to generate
interesting and useful ow patterns.
dAlemberts paradox, that potential ows over a body do
not generate drag.
The stream function and pressure distribution are plot-
ted in the Excel workbook.
Example 6.12 Flow over a Cylinder with Circulation: Superposition of Doublet,
Uniform Flow, and Clockwise Free Vortex
For two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational ow, the superposition of a dou-
blet, a uniform ow, and a free vortex represents the ow around a circular cylinder
with circulation. Obtain the stream function and velocity potential for this ow pat-
tern, using a clockwise free vortex. Find the velocity eld, locate the stagnation
points and the cylinder surface, and obtain the surface pressure distribution. Integrate
the pressure distribution to obtain the drag and lift forces on the circular cylinder. Re-
late the lift force on the cylinder to the circulation of the free vortex.
GIVEN: Two-dimensional, incompressible, irrotational ow formed from superposition of a doublet, a
uniform ow, and a clockwise free vortex.
FIND: (a) Stream function and velocity potential.
(b) Velocity eld.
(c) Stagnation points.
(d) Cylinder surface.
(e) Surface pressure distribution.
(f) Drag force on the circular cylinder.
(g) Lift force on the circular cylinder.
(h) Lift force in terms of circulation of the free vortex.
SOLUTION:
Stream functions may be added because the ow eld is incompressible and irrotational. From Table 6.1,
the stream function and velocity potential for a clockwise free vortex are
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-35
Using the results of Example Problem 6.11, the stream function for the combination is
The velocity potential for the combination is
The corresponding velocity components are obtained using Eqs. 6.30 as
(1)
(2)
The velocity eld is
Stagnation points are located where . From Eq. 1,
Thus V
r
0 when
The stagnation points are located on r a. Substituting into Eq. 2 with r a,
Thus V
0 along r a when
Stagnation points: r a
,
]
]
]

sin
Stagnation points
1
4
K
Ua

sin or sin
,
]
]
]
K
Ua
K
Ua 4 4
1
V U
K
a

2
2 sin
V
a
U
K
a
U
U
K
a
sin
sin
sin
sin
2
2
r a
U

Cylinder surface
V
r
U U
r
r
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
cos
cos cos

2 2
r
V V e V e
r r
+

0
r r
V
r
U e
r
U
K
r
e V
r
+
j
(
,
\
,
( +
j
(
,
\
,
(

cos
cos
sin
sin

2
2

r
V V e V e
r r
+

V
r r
U
K
r

1
2
2
sin
sin
V
r r
U
r

cos
cos
2

+

cos
cos
r
Ur
K
2

+ +
d uf fv
+ +

sin
sin n
r
Ur
K
r
2
l

+ +
d u f f v
f f
K
r
K
v v

2 2
ln
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-36
As in Example Problem 6.11, V
r
0 along r a, so this ow eld once again represents ow
around a circular cylinder, as shown in Table 6.2. For K 0 the solution is identical to that of Example
Problem 6.11.
The presence of the free vortex (K 0) moves the stagnation points below the center of the cylinder.
Thus the free vortex alters the vertical symmetry of the ow eld. The ow eld has two stagnation points
for a range of vortex strengths between K 0 and K 4Ua.
A single stagnation point is located at /2 when K 4Ua.
Even with the free vortex present, the ow eld is irrotational, so the Bernoulli equation may be ap-
plied between any two points. Applying the equation between a point far upstream and a point on the sur-
face of the cylinder we obtain
Thus, neglecting elevation differences,
Along the surface r a and V
r
0, so
and
Thus
Drag is the force component parallel to the freestream ow direction. As in Example Problem 6.11,
the drag force is given by
since dA a d b, where b is the length of the cylinder normal to the diagram.
Comparing pressure distributions, the free vortex contributes only to the terms containing the factor
K. The contribution of these terms to the drag force is
(3)
Lift is the force component normal to the freestream ow direction. (Upward force is dened as posi-
tive lift.) The lift force is given by
F p dA pa d b
A
L

sin sin
0
2
F
U
K
Ua
ab
K
U a
ab
F
D
f
D
v
1
2
2
2
0
2
2
2 2 2
0
2
2
2 4
0

]
]
]
+
]
]
]

sin
sin

F
U
K
Ua
K
U a
ab d
D
fv
1
2
2
2
2 2 2
0
2
2
4
+
j
(
,
\
,
(
sin cos
F p d A pa d b
D
A

cos cos
0
2
p p U
K
Ua
K
U a
p
+
j
(
,
\
,
(

1
2
1 4
2
4
2 2
2
2 2 2

sin sin
( )

V
U
K
Ua
K
U a
j
(
\
,
+ +
2
2
2
2 2 2
4
2
4
sin sin
V V U
K
a
2 2
2
2
2

j
(
\
,
sin
p p U V U
U
V

j
(
\
,
,
,
,
]
]
]
]
1
2
1
2
1
2 2 2
2
( )
p U
gz
p V
gz
+ + + +

2 2
2 2
p
a
p
U
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-37
Comparing pressure distributions, the free vortex contributes only to the terms containing the factor K. The
contribution of these terms to the lift force is
The circulation is dened by Eq. 5.18 as
On the cylinder surface, r a, and so
Substituting into the expression for lift,
or the lift force per unit length of cylinder is
F
b
U
L

L
F
b
F UKb U b U b
L
( )

j
(
\
,

2
2
2
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
U
K
a
e a d e
Ua d
K
d
K
sin
sin
Circulation

r
V V e

,

V ds
Thus, F UKb
F
L
f
L
v

F
U
K
Ua
K
U a
ab d
K
Ua
ab d
K
U a
ab d
Kb
U
K b
U a
F
L
L
f
v
1
2
2
2
2 2 2
0
2
2
2
2 2 2
0
2
0
2
2
0
2
2
2 2
0
2
2
4
2
4
2
2 4 4

+
j
(
,
\
,
(
+

,
,
]
]
]

]
]
]

sin sin
sin sin
sin
cos
ff
U
Kb
U
Kb
U
v
1
2
2
2 2
2
2

,
]
]
]

This problem illustrates:
Once again dAlemberts paradox, that potential ows do
not generate drag on a body.
That the lift per unit length is U. It turns out that this
expression for lift is the same for all bodies in an ideal
uid ow, regardless of shape!
The stream function and pressure distribution are plotted
in the Excel workbook.
42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:20 PM Page S-38
9-3 LAMINAR FLAT-PLATE BOUNDARY LAYER: EXACT SOLUTION S-39
9-3 LAMINAR FLAT-PLATE BOUNDARY LAYER: EXACT SOLUTION
The solution for the laminar boundary layer on a horizontal at plate was obtained by
Prandtls student H. Blasius [2] in 1908. For two-dimensional, steady, incompressible
ow with zero pressure gradient, the governing equations of motion (Eqs. 5.27) re-
duce to [3]
(9.3)
(9.4)
with boundary conditions
at y 0, u 0, v 0
at y , u U, 0
(9.5)
Equations 9.3 and 9.4, with boundary conditions Eq. 9.5 are a set of nonlinear, cou-
pled, partial differential equations for the unknown velocity eld u and v. To solve
them, Blasius reasoned that the velocity prole, u/U, should be similar for all values
of x when plotted versus a nondimensional distance from the wall; the boundary-
layer thickness, , was a natural choice for nondimensionalizing the distance from
the wall. Thus the solution is of the form
(9.6)
Based on the solution of Stokes [4], Blasius reasoned that and set
(9.7)
We now introduce the stream function, , where
(5.4)
satises the continuity equation (Eq. 9.3) identically. Substituting for u and v into Eq.
9.4 reduces the equation to one in which is the single dependent variable. Dening
a dimensionless stream function as
(9.8)
makes f () the dependent variable and the independent variable in Eq. 9.4. With de-
ned by Eq. 9.8 and dened by Eq. 9.7, we can evaluate each of the terms in Eq. 9.4.
The velocity components are given by
(9.9)
u
y y
xU
df
d
U
x
U
df
d

f
xU
( )

u
y x

and v
y
U
x
x U
u
U
g
y
( ) where
u
y
u
u
x
u
y
u
y
v
2
2

u
x y
v
0
42757_09CD_pS39-S43 4/15/03 7:22 AM Page S-39
S-40 CHAPTER 9 / EXTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW
and
or
(9.10)
By differentiating the velocity components, it also can be shown that
and
Substituting these expressions into Eq. 9.4, we obtain
(9.11)
with boundary conditions:
(9.12)
The second-order partial differential equations governing the growth of the laminar
boundary layer on a at plate (Eqs. 9.3 and 9.4) have been transformed to a nonlin-
ear, third-order ordinary differential equation (Eq. 9.11) with boundary conditions
given by Eq. 9.12. It is not possible to solve Eq. 9.11 in closed form; Blasius solved it
using a power series expansion about 0 matched to an asymptotic expansion for
: . The same equation later was solved more preciselyagain using numeri-
cal methods by Howarth [5], who reported results to 5 decimal places. The numeri-
cal values of f, df /d, and d
2
f /d
2
in Table 9.1 were calculated with a personal com-
puter using 4th-order Runge-Kutta numerical integration.
The velocity prole is obtained in dimensionless form by plotting u/U versus ,
using values from Table 9.1. The resulting prole is sketched in Fig. 9.3b. Velocity
proles measured experimentally are in excellent agreement with the analytical solu-
tion. Proles from all locations on a at plate are similar; they collapse to a single
prole when plotted in nondimensional coordinates.
From Table 9.1, we see that at 5.0, u/U 0.992. With the boundary-layer
thickness, , dened as the value of y for which u/U 0.99, Eq. 9.7 gives
(9.13)

5 0 5 0 . .
U x
x
x
Re
at
,
df
d
1
at
0 0 , f
df
d
2 0
3
3
2
2
d f
d
f
d f
d
+

2
2
2 3
3
u
y
U
x
d f
d

u
x
U
x
d f
d
u
y
U U x
d f
d
2
2
2
2
2
v
,
,
]
]
]
1
2
U
x
df
d
f
v

+
,
,
]
]
]

j
(
\
,
+
,
,
]
]
]

x
xU
f
x
U
x
f xU
df
d x
U
x
f
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
42757_09CD_pS39-S43 4/15/03 7:22 AM Page S-40
The wall shear stress may be expressed as
Then
(9.14)
and the wall shear stress coefcient, C
f
, is given by
(9.15)
Each of the results for boundary-layer thickness, , wall shear stress,
w
, and
skin friction coefcient, C
f
, Eqs. 9.13 through 9.15, depends on the length Reynolds
number, Re
x
, to the one-half power. The boundary-layer thickness increases as x
1/2
,
and the wall shear stress and skin friction coefcient vary as 1/x
1/2
. These results
characterize the behavior of the laminar boundary layer on a at plate.
EXAMPLE 9.2 Laminar Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate: Exact Solution
Use the numerical results presented in Table 9.1 to evaluate the following quantities
for laminar boundary-layer ow on a at plate:
(a) */ (for 5 and as :).
(b) v/U at the boundary-layer edge.
(c) Ratio of the slope of a streamline at the boundary-layer edge to the slope of versus x.
C
U Re
f
w
x

1
2
2
0 664 .

w
x
U U x
U
Re
0 332
0 332
2
.
.

w
y
u
y
U U x
d f
d
]
]
]

]
]
]

0
2
2
0
Table 9.1 The Function f() for the Laminar Boundary Layer along a Flat Plate at
Zero Incidence
f f
0 0 0 0.3321
0.5 0.0415 0.1659 0.3309
1.0 0.1656 0.3298 0.3230
1.5 0.3701 0.4868 0.3026
2.0 0.6500 0.6298 0.2668
2.5 0.9963 0.7513 0.2174
3.0 1.3968 0.8460 0.1614
3.5 1.8377 0.9130 0.1078
4.0 2.3057 0.9555 0.0642
4.5 2.7901 0.9795 0.0340
5.0 3.2833 0.9915 0.0159
5.5 3.7806 0.9969 0.0066
6.0 4.2796 0.9990 0.0024
6.5 4.7793 0.9997 0.0008
7.0 5.2792 0.9999 0.0002
7.5 5.7792 1.0000 0.0001
8.0 6.2792 1.0000 0.0000
f
u
U
y
U
x
42757_09CD_pS39-S43 4/15/03 7:22 AM Page S-41
S-42 CHAPTER 9 / EXTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE VISCOUS FLOW
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 9.2
GIVEN: Numerical solution for laminar at-plate boundary layer, Table 9.1.
FIND: (a)
*
/ (for 5 and as :).
(b) v/U at boundary-layer edge.
(c) Ratio of the slope of a streamline at the boundary-layer edge to the slope of versus x.
SOLUTION:
The displacement thickness is dened by Eq. 9.1 as
In order to use the Blasius exact solution to evaluate this integral, we need to convert it from one involving u and
y to one involving f (u/U) and variables. From Eq. 9.7,
Thus,
(1)
Note: Corresponding to the upper limit on y in Eq. 9.1,
max
, or
max
5.
From Eq. 9.13,
so if we divide each side of Eq. 1 by each side of Eq. 9.13, we obtain (with f df/d)
Integrating gives
Evaluating at
max
5, we obtain
The quantity f () becomes constant for 7. Evaluating at
max
8 gives
Thus, *
:
is 0.24 percent larger than *
5
From Eq. 9.10,

v
v

j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(

j
(
,
\
,
(
1
2
1
2
1
2
U
x
df
d
f
U Ux
df
d
f
Re
df
d
f
x
, so
*
( )

*
( . . ) .
1
5
8 0 6 2792 0 344
*
( . . ) .
*
( )

1
5
5 0 3 2833 0 343 5

*
( )
max
[ ]
1
5
0
f
*
max

j
(
,
\
,
(
1
5
1
0
df
d
d
5
U x

* ( ) ( )
max max

1 1
0 0
f
x
U
d
x
U
f d

y
U
x
y
x
U
dy d
x
U
, so and
*
j
(
\
,

j
(
\
,

1 1
0 0
u
U
dy
u
U
dy
42757_09CD_pS39-S43 4/15/03 7:22 AM Page S-42
Evaluating at the boundary-layer edge ( 5), we obtain
Thus v is only 0.84 percent of U at Re
x
10
4
, and only about 0.12 percent of U at Re
x
5 10
5
.
The slope of a streamline at the boundary-layer edge is
The slope of the boundary-layer edge may be obtained from Eq. 9.13,
so
This result indicates that the slope of the streamlines is about 1/3 of the slope of the boundary layer
edgethe streamlines penetrate the boundary layer, as sketched below:
Thus
.
.
.
streamline streamline
dy
dx
d
dx
d
dx
dy
dx
\
,

\
,

0 84
2 5
0 336

d
dx U
x
Ux Re
x

5
1
2
2 5
2 5
1 2
.
.

5
5
U x
x
U
dy
dx u U Re
x
\
,

streamline
. v v 0 84
v v
U Re Re Re U
x x x

1
2
5 0 9915 3 2833
0 837 0 84
5
[ ( . ) . ]
. .
( )
U U
u
This problem illustrates use of numerical data from the Bla-

sius solution to obtain other information on a at plate lami-
nar boundary layer, including the result that the edge of the
boundary layer is not a streamline.
42757_09CD_pS39-S43 4/15/03 7:22 AM Page S-43
S-44 CHAPTER 12 / COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
12-3 FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION (continued)
Isothermal Flow
Gas ow in long constant-area ducts, such as natural gas pipelines, is essentially
isothermal. Mach numbers in such ows are generally low, but signicant pressure
changes can occur as a result of frictional effects acting over long duct lengths.
Hence, such ows cannot be treated as incompressible. The assumption of isothermal
ow is much more appropriate.
For isothermal ow with friction (as opposed to the adiabatic ow with friction we
previously discussed), the heat transfer Q/dm is not zero. On the other hand, we have
the simplication that the temperature is constant everywhere. As for adiabatic ow,
we can start with our set of basic equations (Eqs. 12.1), describing one-dimensional
ow that is affected by area change, friction, heat transfer, and normal shocks,
1
V
1
A
1
2
V
2
A
2
VA constant (12.1a)
R
x
p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
V
2
V
1
(12.1b)
(12.1c)
(12.1d)
p RT (12.1e)
h h
2
h
1
c
p
T c
p
(T
2
T
1
) (12.1f)
(12.1g)
We can simplify these equations by setting T 0, so T
1
T
2
, and A
1
A
2
A. In
addition we recall from Section 12-1 that the combination, h V
2
/2 is the stagnation
enthalpy, h
0
. Using these, our nal set of equations (renumbered for convenience) is
(12.22a)
(12.22b)
(12.22c)
(12.22d)
(12.22e)
(12.22f)
Equations 12.22 can be used to analyze frictional isothermal ow in a channel of
constant area. For example, if we know conditions at section (i.e., p
1
,
1
, T
1
, s
1
,
h
1
, and V
1
) we can use these equations to nd conditions at some new section 2
1
s s s R
p
p

2 1
2
1
ln
p RT
( )
CS
m s s
T
Q
A
dA
2 1
1
j
(
,
\
,
(
q
Q
dm
h h
V V

0 0
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
R p A p A mV mV
x
+
1 2 2 1

1 1 2 2
V V V G
m
A

constant
s s s c
T
T
R
p
p
p

2 1
2
1
2
1
ln ln
( )
CS
m s s
T
Q
A
dA
2 1
1
j
(
,
\
,
(
Q
dm
h
V
h
V
+ + +
1
1
2
2
2
2
2 2
m m
m
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-44
12-3 FLOW IN A CONSTANT-AREA DUCT WITH FRICTION S-45
after the uid has experienced a total friction force R
x
. We have ve equations (not
including the constraint of Eq. 12.22d) and ve unknowns (p
2
,
2
, s
2
, V
2
, and the heat
transfer q that was necessary to maintain isothermal conditions). As we have seen be-
fore, in practice this procedure is unwieldywe once again have a set of nonlinear,
coupled algebraic equations to solve.
Before doing any calculations, we can see that the Ts diagram for this process
will be simply a horizontal line passing through state . To see in detail what hap-
pens to the ow, in addition to Eqs. 12.22, we can develop property relations as func-
tions of the Mach number. For isothermal ow, c constant, so V
2
/V
1
M
2
/M
1
, and
from Eq. 12.22a we have
Combining with the ideal gas equation, Eq. 12.22e, we obtain
(12.23)
At each state we can relate the local temperature to its stagnation temperature using
Eq. 11.20b,
(11.20b)
Applying this to states and , with the fact that T
1
T
2
, we obtain
(12.24)
To determine the variation in Mach number along the duct length, it is necessary
to consider the differential momentum equation for ow with friction. The analysis
leading to Eq. 12.18 is valid for isothermal ow. Since T constant for isothermal
ow, then from Eq. 12.18, with dT 0,
and
(12.25)
Equation 12.25 shows (set dx 0) that the Mach number at which maximum length
L
max
is reached is M 1/ . Since T is constant, then the friction factor, f f (Re),
is also constant. Integration of Eq. 12.25 between the limits of M M at x 0 and
M 1/ at x L
max
, where L
max
is the distance beyond which the isothermal ow
may not proceed, gives
(12.26)
f L
D
kM
kM
kM
h
max
ln

+
1
2
2
2
k
k
f
D
dx
kM d M
kM
h
( ) ( ) 1
2 2
4
f
D
kM
dx
kM d M
M
h
2 2 2
2
2
1
2

j
(
,
\
,
(
( )
T
T
k
M
k
M
0
0
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
+

+

2 1
T
T
k
M
0 2
1
1
2
+

p
p
V
V
M
M
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2

2
1
1
2
1
2

V
V
M
M
1
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-45
The duct length, L, required for the ow Mach number to change from M
1
to M
2
can be obtained from
(12.27)
The distribution of heat exchange along the duct required to maintain isothermal
ow can be determined from the differential form of Eq. 12.22c as
or, since T constant,
Substituting for dM
2
from Eq. 12.25,
(12.28)
From Eq. 12.28 we note that as M :1/ , then dq/dx : . Thus, an innite rate
of heat exchange is required to maintain isothermal ow as the Mach number ap-
proaches the limiting value. Hence, we conclude that isothermal acceleration of ow
in a constant-area duct is only physically possible for ow at low Mach number.
We summarize the set of Mach number based equations (Eqs. 12.23, 12.24, and
12.27, respectively, renumbered) we can use for analysis of isothermal ow of an
ideal gas in a duct with friction:
(12.29a)
(12.29b)
(12.29c)
12-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS (continued)
Supersonic Diffuser
Analysis of the effects of area change in isentropic ow (Section 12-2) showed that a
converging channel reduces the speed of a supersonic stream; a converging channel is a
f L
D
kM
kM
kM
kM
M
M
h

+
1 1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
ln
T
T
k
M
k
M
0
0
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
+

+

p
p
V
V
M
M
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2

k
dq
c T k kM
k
M kM
f
D
dx
p
h

+

j
(
\
,

0
4
2 2
1
2 1
1
2
1
( )
( )
dq c T
k
dM
c T k
k
M
dM
p
p

j
(
\
,

+

j
(
\
,
1
2
1
2 1
1
2
2 0
2
2
( )
dq dh c dT c d T
k
M
p p
+

j
(
\
,
,
,
]
]
]
0 0
2
1
1
2
f
L
D
f
L L
D
f
L
D
kM
kM
kM
kM
M
M
h h
h

+
max max
ln
1 2
1 1
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-46
12-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS S-47
2
Boundary layers develop rapidly in adverse pressure gradients, so viscous effects may be important or
even dominant. In the presence of thick boundary layers, supersonic ows in diffusers may form com-
plicated systems of oblique and normal shocks.
supersonic diffuser. Because ow speed decreases, pressure rises in the ow direction,
creating an adverse pressure gradient. Isentropic ow is not a completely accurate
model for ow with an adverse pressure gradient,
2
but the isentropic ow model with a
normal shock may be used to demonstrate the basic features of supersonic diffusion.
For isentropic ow, a shock cannot stand in a stable position in a converging
passage; a shock may stand stably only in a diverging passage. Real ow near M 1
is unstable, so it is not possible to reduce a supersonic ow exactly to sonic speed.
The minimum Mach number that can be reached at a throat is 1.2 to 1.3.
Thus in real supersonic diffusers, ow is decelerated to M 1.3 in a converging
passage. Downstream from the throat section of minimum area, the ow is allowed to
accelerate to M 1.4, where a normal shock takes place. At this Mach number, the
stagnation pressure loss (from Eq. 12.41b) is only about 4 percent. This small loss is
an acceptable compromise in exchange for ow stability.
Figure 12.22 shows the idealized process of supersonic diffusion, in which ow
is isentropic except across a normal shock. The slight reduction in stagnation pres-
sure all takes place across the shock.
In the actual ow, additional losses in stagnation pressure occur during the super-
sonic and subsonic diffusion processes before and after the shock. Experimental data
must be used to predict the actual losses in supersonic and subsonic diffusers [3, 4].
Supersonic diffusion also is important for high-speed aircraft, where a super-
sonic external freestream ow must be decelerated efciently to subsonic speed.
Some diffusion can occur outside the inlet by means of a weak oblique shock system
[5]. Variable geometry may be needed to accomplish efcient supersonic diffusion
within the inlet as the ight Mach number varies. Multi-dimensional compressible
ows are discussed in Section 12-7, and are treated in detail elsewhere [6, 7].
4
5
3 2 1
Flow
4
3 2
1
5
p
1
p
0
1
p
0
4
p
1
*
T
1
T
0
= constant
T* = constant
T
s
Fig. 12.22 Schematic Ts diagram for ow in a
supersonic diffuser with a normal shock.
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-47
Supersonic Wind Tunnel Operation
To build an efcient supersonic wind tunnel, it is necessary to understand shock be-
havior and to control shock location. The basic physical phenomena are described by
Coles in the NCFMF video Channel Flow of a Compressible Fluid. In addition to
chokingsonic ow at a throat, with upstream ow independent of downstream condi-
tionsColes discusses blocking and starting conditions for supersonic wind tunnels.
A closed-circuit supersonic wind tunnel must have a converging-diverging nozzle
to accelerate ow to supersonic speed, followed by a test section of nearly constant area,
and then a supersonic diffuser with a second throat. The circuit must be completed by
compression machinery, coolers, and ow-control devices, as shown in Fig. 12.23 [9].
Consider the process of accelerating ow from rest to supersonic speed in the
test section. Soon after ow at the nozzle throat becomes sonic, a shock wave forms
in the divergence. The shock attains its maximum strength when it reaches the nozzle
exit plane. Consequently, to start the tunnel and achieve steady supersonic ow in the
test section, the shock must move through the second throat and into the subsonic dif-
fuser. When this occurs, we say the shock has been swallowed by the second throat.
Consequently, to start the tunnel, the supersonic diffuser throat must be larger than
the nozzle throat. The second throat must be large enough to exceed the critical area
for ow downstream from the strongest possible shock.
Blocking occurs when the second throat is not large enough to swallow the
shock. When the channel is blocked, ow is sonic at both throats and ow in the test
Fig. 12.23 Schematic view of NASA-Ames closed-circuit, high-speed wind tunnel with sup-
porting facilities [9]. (Photo courtesy of NASA.)
A. Dry Air Storage Spheres G. Cooling Tower
B. Aftercooler H. Flow Diversion Valve
C. 3-Stage Axial Flow Fan I. Aftercooler
D. Drive Motors J. 11-Stage Axial Flow Compressor
E. Flow Diverson Valve K. 9- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section
F. 8- by 7-Foot Supersonic Test Section L. 11- by 11-Foot Transonic Test Section
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-48
12-6 SUPERSONIC CHANNEL FLOW WITH SHOCKS S-49
section is subsonic; ow in the test section cannot be controlled by varying condi-
tions downstream from the supersonic diffuser.
When the tunnel is running there is no shock in the nozzle or test section, so the en-
ergy dissipation is much reduced. The second throat area may be reduced slightly during
running to improve the diffuser efciency. The compressor pressure ratio may be
adjusted to move the shock in the subsonic diffuser to a lower Mach number. A combi-
nation of adjustable second throat and pressure ratio control may be used to achieve
optimum running conditions for the tunnel. Small differences in efciency are important
when the tunnel drive system may consume more than half a million kilowatts [10]!
Supersonic Flow with Friction in a Constant-Area Channel
Flow in a constant-area channel with friction is dominated by viscous effects. Even
when the main ow is supersonic, the no-slip condition at the channel wall guarantees
subsonic ow near the wall. Consequently, supersonic ow in constant-area channels
may form complicated systems of oblique and normal shocks. However, the basic be-
havior of adiabatic supersonic ow with friction in a constant-area channel is revealed
by considering the simpler case of normal-shock formation in Fanno-line ow.
Supersonic ow along the Fanno line becomes choked after only a short length of
duct, because at high speed the effects of friction are pronounced. Figure E.2 (Appendix
E) shows that the limiting value of L
max
/D
h
is less than one; subsonic ows can have
much longer runs. Thus when choking results from friction and duct length is increased
further, the supersonic ow shocks down to subsonic to match downstream conditions.
The Ts diagrams in Figs. 12.24a through 12.24d illustrate what happens when
the length of constant-area duct, fed by a converging-diverging nozzle supplied from
a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, is increased. Supersonic ow on the
Fanno line of Fig. 12.24a is choked by friction when the duct length is L
a
. When
additional duct is added to produce L
b
L
a
, Fig. 12.24b, a normal shock appears.
Flow upstream from the shock does not change, because it is supersonic (no change
in downstream condition can affect the supersonic ow before the shock).
In Fig. 12.24b the shock is shown in an arbitrary position. The shock moves to-
ward the entrance of the constant-area channel (toward higher initial Mach number)
as more duct is added.
Flow remains on the same Fanno line as the shock is driven upstream to state
by adding duct length; thus the mass ow rate remains unchanged. The duct length,
L
c
, which moves the shock into the channel entrance plane, Fig. 12.24c, may be cal-
culated directly using the methods of Section 12-3.
When duct length L
c
is exceeded, the shock is driven back into the C-D nozzle,
Fig. 12.24d. The mass ow rate remains constant until the shock reaches the nozzle
throat. Only when more duct is added after the shock reaches the throat does the
mass ow rate decrease, and the ow move to a new Fanno line.
If the shock position is known, ow properties at each section and the duct
length can be calculated directly. When length is specied and shock location is to be
determined, iteration is necessary.
Supersonic Flow with Heat Addition in a Constant-Area Channel
Supersonic ow with heat addition in a frictionless channel of constant area is shown
in Fig. 12.25a. Assume the channel is fed by a converging-diverging nozzle, supplied
from a reservoir with constant stagnation conditions, and ow is supersonic at state
. Heat addition causes state points to move up and to the right along the Rayleigh 1
1
f
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-49
line. Fig. 12.25a illustrates the condition in which the heat addition is just sufcient to
choke the ow. Flow is sonic at the exit, so p
e
p* and T
e
T*; the heat addition per
unit mass, T ds, is represented by the shaded area beneath the Rayleigh line.
A normal shock involves no heat addition, so T
0
is constant across a shock. Con-
sequently, a shock in the constant-area channel would not change the heat addition
s
s
e
1
1
1
*
T
0
p
0
p
1
p*
p
0
*
p
0
1
T* = constant
T
0
= constant
T
1
L
a
1
*
T
0
p
0
L
a
L
b
Shock
1
*
T
0
p
0
L
a
L
c
1
1
y
y
x
x
*
T
0
p
0
L
a
L
d
Shock
Process path
T
s
(a) Choked supersonic flow in channel.
1 p
1
p*
p
0
*
p
0
1
T* = constant
T
0
= constant
T
1
T
s
(b) Choked flow in channel with shock.
M > 1
M < 1
M = 1
Shock
M = 1
M < 1
1 p
1
p*
p
0
*
p
0
1
T* = constant
T
0
= constant
T
1
T
1
p
1
T
s
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle exit
plane.
p*
p
0
*
p
0
p
0
1
T* = constant
T
0
= constant
T
s
(d) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; subsonic
flow in channel.
Fig. 12.24 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Fanno-line ows with normal shocks.
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-50
t e
1
1
M > 1 M > 1
M
t
= 1 M
e
= 1 M
1
= 2
p
0
1
T
0
1
t
8 7
M < 1 M < 1
M
t
< 1 M
8
= 1 M
7
= 0.35
p
0
1
T
0
1
t e
2 1
M < 1 M > 1
M
t
= 1 M
e
= 1
p
0
1
T
0
1
4 5 6 3
M < 1
M < 1 M > 1
M
t
= 1 M
4
= 0.701 M
6
= 1
M
3
= 1.5 M
5
= 0.407
p
0
1
T
0
1
p
0
1
T
0
1
T
1
p
1
T
0
e
p
0
e p
e
T
e
0
0
400
800
1200
1 2
Nondimensional entropy, (s* s)/R
3
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
K
)
(a) Choked supersonic flow.
0
800
1600
2000
1 2
3
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
K
)
(c) Choked flow with shock in nozzle; same
mass flow rate, but flow shifts to a new
Rayleigh line.
p
0
1
p
0
2
T
0
1
T
1
p
1
p
2
T
2
T
0
e
p
0
e
p
e
T
e
0
0
400
800
1200
1 2
3
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
K
)
(b) Choked flow with shock at nozzle exit
plane.
0
800
400 400
1200 1200
1600
2000
1 2
3
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
K
)
(d) Subsonic flow throughout; decreased mass flow
rate and flow shifted to another new Rayleigh
line.
p
0
6
p
6
T
5
T
4
T
3
T
t
T
6
T
0
6
T
0
4
p
0
1
p
0
2
p
3
T
0
1
p
0
8
p
0
1
T
0
1
p
8
T
8
T
7
T
t
T
0
8
t
Fig. 12.25 Schematic Ts diagrams for supersonic Rayleigh-line ows with normal shocks.
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-51
required to change the ow state from the inlet condition to choking. When the shock
stands at the channel inlet, Fig. 12.25b, the heat addition needed to reach Mach one
at the exit is the same as in Fig. 12.25a; the shaded areas also must be identical.
If more thermal energy is added to ow at the conditions shown in Fig. 12.25b,
the shock will be pushed from the entrance of the constant-area duct back into the di-
verging portion of the nozzle, where the Mach number is lower.
With a shock in the nozzle, conditions at the duct entrance are changed, and heat
addition occurs along a different Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 12.25c. There is no
change in T
0
or T* across the shock (thus T
0
3
T
0
4
and T
3
* T*
4
), but the Mach
number downstream changes. Additional subsonic diffusion occurs from state to
the nozzle exit (state ), thus moving the choked condition upward on the Ts plane,
allowing for increased heat addition on the new Rayleigh line. All of these changes
occur at the same mass ow rate, because nozzle throat conditions remain un-
changed.
The Mach number immediately upstream from the shock (state ) is less than
M
1
of Fig. 12.25b; the corresponding temperature, T
3
, is higher than T
1
. Since the shock
strength is reduced, the entropy rise across the shock is less, (s
4
s
3
) (s
2
s
1
). The
subsonic diffusion following the shock results in a lower Mach number and higher
temperature at the duct entrance. Thus M
5
M
2
and T
5
T
2
.
When the heat addition rate is increased enough to drive the shock to the nozzle
throat, a further increase in heat addition will result in a decrease in mass ow rate.
The Mach number at the channel inlet is reduced, M
7
M
5
, and the channel ow
shifts to another new Rayleigh line, as shown in Fig. 12.25d.
Thus for specied mass ow rate, there is a maximum rate of heat addition for
supersonic ow throughout. For higher rates of heat addition, a shock occurs in the
nozzle and ow is subsonic in the constant-area channel, but the exit ow remains
sonic. If the shock position is specied, the heat addition along the Rayleigh line can
be calculated directly. If the heat addition is specied but the shock position or mass
ow rate are unknown, iteration is required to obtain a solution.
Additional consideration of ow with shock waves is given in [11].
3
5
4
42757_12CD_pS44-S52 4/15/03 7:28 AM Page S-52
S-53
Appendix H
A BRIEF REVIEW OF MICROSOFT
EXCEL
INTRODUCTION
Microsoft Excel is one of several available spreadsheet applications. All of these
spreadsheets work in a very similar fashion, with minor variations in syntax and
built-in features, so that most of our discussion of Excel will be directly applicable to
other spreadsheet applications.
There are several versions of Excel in widespread use (e.g., Excel XP, Excel
2000, Excel 98, even Excel 97); we will use Excel 2000, again with the understanding
that most current versions are 100% compatible, and that most menu items are un-
changed from version to version.
In this brief review we will discuss such fundamental features as how to create
formulas, how to format cells, how to create graphs, and so on. The review of these
fundamentals will presuppose that you are familiar with the Windows environment,
and it will be brief more detailed explanations are available from a number of
sources, e.g., [1], [2], as well as from Excels built-in Help. We will then go on to
explore use of Excels Goal Seek and Solver features, and more sophisticated, less
commonly used features such as use of macros and custom functions using Excels
built-in Visual Basic for Applications (VBA).
INSTALLING EXCEL FEATURES
We assume that you already have Excel installed on your personal computer (PC)
it comes with many different versions of Microsoft Ofce. If not, you may purchase a
stand-alone copy or a version of Ofce that includes it (and note that your college
bookstore will have heavily discounted academic versions available!); simply follow
the default instructions for installation.
Although spreadsheets were initially developed for use in business for such
things as tabulating and analyzing nancial data, they are now so computationally
powerful that engineers and scientists are increasingly using them. Because the ma-
jority of users are still people such as accountants, the standard or default installation
of Excel does not include some features that engineers and scientists nd useful. (In a
42757_AppHCD_pS53-S78 6/2/03 2:31 PM Page S-53
S-54 APPENDIX H / A BRIEF REVIEW OF MICROSOFT EXCEL
similar way default installation of the word processor Microsoft Word does not in-
clude the equation-creating component, which in Word is called the Equation Editor.)
As an engineer you will nd useful some features of Excels Analysis Toolpak, Visual
Basic for Applications (VBA), and we will use its Solver, so we will install them. The
Analysis Toolpak has some useful mathematical features such as regression analysis;
VBA is used for creating custom functions; the Solver will be very useful for solving
equations, optimizing a function, and so on.
To install these, use the following steps:
Quit all programs.
On the Windows Start menu, point to Settings, and then click Control Panel.
Double-click the Add/Remove Programs icon.
Next, do one of the following:
o If you installed Excel with Ofce, click Ofce on the Install/Uninstall tab, and
then click Add/Remove.
o If you installed only Excel, click Excel on the Install/Uninstall tab, and then
click Add/Remove.
INSTALLING EXCEL FEATURES S-55
A window similar to the one below will appear. Click on Add or Remove Features.
A window similar to the one below will appear. Click on the plus sign next to
Microsoft Excel for Windows to expand the tree structure, and then on the plus
sign next to Add-ins.
A window similar to the following one will appear. You can now select add-ins you
would like. Start by selecting Analysis Toolpak, and select Run from My Com-
puter. Follow the instructions for installing the add-in (you will probably need your
Ofce or Excel CD). Repeat this last step for the Solver, and any other add-ins you
like (a useful one is Internet Assistant VBA).
EXCEL FUNDAMENTALS S-57
The add-ins should now be available the next time you use Excel; depending on the
version, you may rst have to restart your computer.
To proceed with this brief review, you should have Excel running. It will look some-
thing like:
Note that your collections of icons may be different. You can view, hide, or customize
toolbars (collections of icons) using the same procedure used for other Ofce
applications.
EXCEL FUNDAMENTALS
Excel is an application for manipulating and performing calculations on data that are
in a tabular format. Originally developed for nancial calculations that lend them-
selves to this format, Excel is also an extremely powerful tool for performing engi-
neering calculations, whether or not data are tabular.
Entering Data into Cells
To enter data (numeric or text), simply click on a cell or use the arrow keys on the
keyboard to maneuver to the cell of interest, and type in the data. To conclude the en-
try, press the Enter key. We can make some comments here:
You can do only limited editing while entering data into a cell: You can use the
Backspace key to delete, but cannot use the left arrow to move to earlier digits or let-
ters (using this or any other arrow key leaves the cell).
Excel internally recognizes whether a cells contents are numeric or text, and by
default left-aligns text and right-aligns numbers.
Spaces should not be used in entering a number (e.g., 123 456) because Excel will
interpret this as text. Commas are allowed (but are not necessary) (e.g., 123,456).
Excel will use a general number format for numerical data; if the number is too large
to t in a cell it will change to scientic format, e.g., 1.23E45 (or an error format
######, which can be changedsee below for how to widen columns). The font
and many other formatting properties of cells can be done by selecting the cell or
cells and then using the Formatting toolbar:
or by right-clicking and choosing the cell-formatting option. To select several con-
tiguous cells, simply drag over them with the mouse (or hold down the Shift key
while using the arrow keys); for noncontiguous cells, hold down the Ctrl key while
selecting with the mouse. If a text data entry is too large to t into its cell it will ap-
pear to spill into the cell to the right. If you have several cells with text data Excel
will display them as if they were a deck of cards. For example, the words Data in
a cell typed into three adjacent cells looks like:
even though Excel still remembers all three cells contents. There are several ways to
widen a cell to display the full contents one is to select the cell or cells and click
on menu item Format . . . Column . . . Autot Selection.
Once data have been entered in a cell (i.e., after pressing Enter), to edit the data
simply double-click on them, or select the cell and press F2. You will now be in edit
mode and can use the left and right arrow keys, the Del and BackSpace key, etc., and
nish by pressing Enter.
ENTERING FORMULAS INTO CELLS
The real power of Excel is its computational abilities. This involves creating formulas
in cells for automatic calculation. As an example, suppose we wish to compute any
number to any (reasonable!) power, e.g., 2
3
, 12
1.5
, e
, etc. The crude way is to type

in a new formula each time we have two new numbers. Lets do this rst. The key
rule in Excel is that you must use the equals sign ( ) at the beginning of a formula
so that Excel knows its a formula and not numeric or text data. Hence to compute 2
3
,
select a cell and type 2^3 and press Enter (the exponential is created with ^). The
result (8) will be displayed. The disadvantage of this formula is that we need to
retype the formula for each new computation, e.g., for 12
1.5
we would need to type
12^1.5 in a cell. A much better approach is to use formulas with cell references.
A cell reference is simply the cell coordinates of the cell. For example, type 2 in
cell B3 and 3 in cell C3; B3 and C3 are cell references. Now, in cell D3, instead of
computing 2
3
by typing 2^3, we can type B3^C3. Excel interprets this formula
to say take the contents of cell B3 and raise it to the value of cell C3, and displays
the result. You should have the following:
ENTERING FORMULAS INTO CELLS S-59
We have a live worksheet we can type new numbers into cells B3 and C3 and
get, after pressing Enter, the result immediately (e.g., 12 in B3 and 1.5 in C3 should
produce 41.56922 in D3).
Typing formulas with cell references can get tedious and can produce errors, espe-
cially when there are many such references. A very useful mouse technique is to start
creating a formula, and instead of typing in a cell reference, use the mouse to click on
the cell you wish to reference. As long as you dont press Enter, Excel will remain in
this formula creation mode, and you can continue typing the rest of the formula, using
the mouse to click on additional cells while building the formula. For example, we can
select cell D3 and replace its current contents by typing , then clicking on cell B3
with the mouse, then typing ^, then clicking on cell C3 with the mouse, and nally
pressing Enter (you can also use the arrow keys for this kind of formula building).
This is obviously a trivial example, but very complex spreadsheets can be devel-
oped in which we have multiple formulas with multiple cell references. In addition, a
workbook can have multiple worksheets, indicated by the tabs (and you can add
more, rename them, and so on):
A formula on one worksheet can contain references to cells on other worksheets. To
do this you would start creating the formula, and when you needed to reference a cell
on another worksheet, still in formula creation mode, click on the appropriate tab,
then the cell, and then continue typing the formula.
We can copy and paste cells using any of the standard Windows techniques such
as using menu items, right-clicking, etc., and Excel has additional methods [1], [2].
When we copy and paste a cell containing a formula, we need to be careful about how
Excel interprets the pasting. Excel pastes the logic of the formula, not the specic cell
references. For example, if we copy and paste our cell D3 to cell D5, we get (depend-
ing on what else you have done to the worksheet), 0 or #NUM!, or some other result,
not 8! If you click on cell D5 to see the formula, you will see that instead of the origi-
nal formula B3^C3 we have B5^C5. Excel has copied the logic, which in this
case is take the contents of the cell two cells to the left and raise it to the power of the
contents of the cell one cell to the leftwhich in this example doesnt compute be-
cause in cells B5 and C5 we currently have zeros, and 0
0
is undened. You only begin
to get a result that makes sense if you now type numbers into cells B5 and C5.
In many cases we want this kind of pasting to happen. For example, suppose we
wish to compute the mass of air in a container when the air is pressurized over a
range of pressures. The formula for this is
(H.1) m
pV
RT
=
where p is the pressure, is the container volume, T is the air temperature, and
R 287 J/kg-K is the air gas constant. Suppose 1 m
3
and T 20C 293K,
and p varies from 10 to 100 kPa in steps of 10 kPa.
Hence,
(H.2)
In this formula p is the pressure in Pa and m will be the mass in kg.
We can start a new worksheet (e.g., by clicking on the top left icon on the tool-
bar or by using menu item File . . . New) and type in column headings for the pres-
sure and mass, and enter the pressure data (and note that there are ways in Excel to
automatically ll in the p sequence, and that weve done some formatting, and added
borders):
m p =
1
287 293
V
V
We can now create Eq. H.2 in cell C4, for the mass due to the rst pressure: The for-
mula should be 1/287/293*B4. (Note that Excel follows the conventional prece-
dents of exponentiation, then multiplication/division, then addition/subtraction, etc.)
We could then create similar formulas for the other cells; e.g., cell C5 should have
1/287/293*B5. A better approach is simply to copy cell C4 into cells C5
through C13. The result is (after a little formatting):
We have just introduced what is called the idea of a relative referencethe reference
is to a cell relative to the cell containing the formula. Sometimes we want instead an
absolute reference. This is a reference to a xed cell, so that if the formula is copied
to another cell the reference does not change. An example in which this would be de-
sired is as follows: Suppose we wanted to be able to repeat the above computations
for a different temperature or container volume. We want to have cells containing
these so that we can easily change them. Lets put them in cells E4 and F4 (with ti-
tles can you create m
3
?):
We now need the following formula in cell C4 (corresponding to Eq. H.1):
B4*E4/287/F4. The problem now is that if we copy this formula to the other
cells in the mass column, we will get errors (try it, then click Undo!): The formula
logic says that each cell should obtain the volume and temperature data two and
three cells to the immediate right, e.g., cell C5s formula as pasted would be
B5*E5/287/F5. The reference to B5 (the pressure) is correct, but E5 and F5 refer
to blank cells! What we wish to have in cell C5 is B5*E4/287/F4, i.e., we wish to
copy and paste our formula, but not have the E4/287/F4 part change. To do this we
make these references absolute. Before copying our original cell C4, we edit it (e.g.,
by double-clicking on it) and place $ signs as follows: B4*$E$4/287/$F$4.
Excel understands that any cell reference that has the $ sign in front of it is absolute,
and does not change it when copied and pasted. Note that E4, for example, has two
$ signs, so that neither E nor 4 will change (strictly speaking, in this example E does
not change anyway, so we dont really need to $ it). If this formula is copied and
pasted to the mass column, we get the correct results: Each computation obtains the
pressure from the cell to the left, and the volume and temperature from cells E4 and
E5. We can now change the temperature to, say, 100C 373K, and obtain new data
(dont worry about the circle and square shown belowwell discuss them shortly):
Note that Excel will automatically create the $ signs in a reference, if you press the
F4 key during either formula creation or editing.
Our last comment on formula creation is that Excel has many mathematical
functions built in, but you need to use the correct syntax and spelling. For example,
to create 2, you must type 2*pi(). Many functions are obvious, e.g., to obtain
sin(/4) type sin(pi()/4); others are less so (e.g., !). Note that trigonometric
functions in Excel use arguments in radians by default.
You can always search for functions while creating a formula by clicking on the
Paste Function icon (circled above) to get a useful menu:
Lets see how we can now graph the data we computed.
Creating Graphs
Excel has powerful graphing features. There are a number of ways to access these,
but the main decision is whether you select the data to graph rst and then go into
graphing mode, or vice versa. Both approaches work, but beginners will probably
nd it easier to start graphing mode without rst having selected the data. As in all
Windows applications, there are several ways to perform any action; here the sim-
plest is to click on the Graph Wizard icon (squared in the spreadsheet image shown
above). If we do this we get the rst of four self-explanatory windows:
Most of the time engineers will plot x-y data using XY (Scatter) (not Line, which
forces data to appear uniformly on the x axis!). There is nothing to preview yet so
click Next to get:
Click in Data Range and then drag the entire window out of the way a little as neces-
sary so that you can select the range to plot (or alternatively click on the little icon in
Data Range on the right to go directly to the worksheet); select the cells containing
our data (cells B4 to C13); and proceed with the rest of the steps. We end up with a
graph something like:
It is not too interesting! It can be improved a lot by customizing the trace, adding ti-
tles, etc. To do this we can right-click on any graph feature (e.g., a data point) for a
menu of options, and we can also use the Formatting toolbar, and end up with some-
thing like:
We have created a basic x-y graph: Excel can create many sophisticated graph types
such as bar charts, pie charts, radar plots, and surface plots. In addition, it can be used
to t a curve to experimental data. We will not do this here, but it involves: plotting the
data on an x-y plot; right-clicking any point on the curve to get a menu that includes
Add Trendline . . . ; selecting this (leading to the window shown next); choosing the
type of curve (Linear, Logarithmic, etc.), and specifying options with the Options
tab; clicking OK and observing the results.
This concludes our introduction to Excel basics. As you use Excel you will dis-
cover many features as the need arises, and the references have additional help. We
mention one nal feature to illustrate the usefulness of some of these features. We
earlier copied and pasted a formula from a single cell to a column using conven-
tional Windows copy and paste techniques. Excel has an additional convenient
shortcut for this: Simply click once on the cell to be copied, then move the mouse
(without clicking) over the cells lower right corner until the Excel pointer changes
to a ll handle (); you can then press and drag down a column (or a block of
cells) to immediately copy the cell contents. Even neater is that if you have two or
more cells with contents that make a sequence (e.g., 12, 24, or Jan, Feb) and se-
lect them, then move the mouse to the lower right to get the ll handle () and -
nally drag down or across, Excel will ll with the sequence (e.g., 36, 48, . . . etc.,
or Mar, Apr, . . . etc.!).
MORE ADVANCED FEATURES
Excel has a number of more advanced features. We will consider several of them:
Goal Seek, Solver, use of macros, and creation of custom functions.
Goal Seek and Solver
Many problems in engineering end in an equation or equations to be solved for an
unknown or unknowns. In some cases the equation or equations are not directly solv-
able, and we need to use numerical techniques to obtain a solution. For example, sup-
pose we wish to solve the following equation for x:
(H.3)
We cannot solve explicitly for x. We could make guesses for x until we converged on
a solution, or we could use one of several classic methods to converge to a solution in
a more systematic way. Most scientic calculators, and certainly all spreadsheets, in-
cluding Excel, also have equation solution techniques built in.
To use Excels Goal Seek feature, we rst need to convert Eq. H.3 into a func-
tion, the root of which we need to nd:
(H.4)
The problem then becomes, nd the root (or roots) of f (x). While not necessary for
using Goal Seek, the best procedure for this is rst to plot the function over a range
of x values to see the locations of the roots. After some experimentation with x
ranges, we obtain, using Excel,
f x e x
x
( ) =
2
2
e x
x
2
2
=
MORE ADVANCED FEATURES S-67
This dialog box is almost self-explanatory: Click on the Set cell: window, then on the
cell we wish to nd the root of (C23); click on the To value: window and type 0;
click on the By changing cell: window and click on the cell we wish to vary to nd
the root (in this example, B23); click OK. If Excel can nd a root, it tells us so:
and we have:
It looks like we have roots at approximately x 0.8 and x 1.4. We would like more
accurate answers. To use Goal Seek, set up another table containing a single x and f (x):
Note that cell B23 contains 0.0, an arbitrary starting point, and cell C23 contains the
formula EXP(B23/2)-B23^2. Goal Seek is accessed by using menu item Tools
. . . Goal Seek . . . , which brings up the following dialog box:
We can repeat this process by typing in another guess value for x (try 1) to nd the
second solution (x 1.4296). When using this method you sometimes have to try
several guess values in order to nd all the roots (in this example there is a third
root . . . can you nd it?) and of course, as with all numerical methods, sometimes
it simply fails.
Note that we can also use Goal Seek to nd an x at which f (x) attains any given
value, e.g., when does f (x) 2?
Goal Seek is quick and easy. A more powerful feature is Solver. Solver is ac-
cessed by using menu item Tools . . . Solver . . . , which brings up this dialog box:
As for Goal Seek, we can still select an x cell that we will allow Excel to vary in
order to make a formula-connected f (x) cell attain a certain valuebut we can do
much more! We can
Find the minimum or maximum of f (x).
Find the roots (or any other value) of a function of several variables, e.g., f (x,y),
f (x, y, z) etc.
Do all of the above while applying constraints, e.g., while x 2 and y x
2
.
The window is fairly self-explanatory, so we will not go into the details here. We will
demonstrate its use by nding the maximum of our function f (x) in Eq. H.4, graphed
earlier. In the Set Target Cell: window select cell C23; for the Equal To: select
Max; click on the By Changing Cells: window and click on cell B23; click Solve.
We end up with:
Finally, lets consider an example of two variables:
f (x, y) x
2
6x y
2
5
Suppose we wish to nd its minimum value. We can set up a new worksheet, with
cells for x and y (guess values of 0), and a formula cell (in the worksheet below the
formula is B3^26*B3C3^25):
Then all we need to do is use Solver with the following information:
The solution is f (x, y) has a minimum value of 14 when x 3 and y 0.
Macros
A macro is nothing more than a set of instructions for automating a sequence of ac-
tions in Excel (or Word or any number of other applications). We will illustrate the
use of macros by considering a fairly complicated but ultimately very useful exam-
ple: We will create a worksheet that can be easily used to numerically evaluate a de-
nite integral. The formula we will use to approximate the denite integral is a form of
Simpsons Rule:
(H.5)
where N (which must be even) is the number of segments of size that the
range (b a) is divided into, and x
0
a with x
i1
x
i
x, leading to x
N
b.
Within limits, the accuracy of the evaluation increases with N. As a good check, we
would like to have the worksheet automatically evaluate the integral for N 10, 20,
40, and 60 segments.
Before we automate this task with a macro for use with an arbitrary integral,
lets see how we create such a worksheet entirely from scratch for a specic integral.
Suppose we wish to numerically evaluate the following:
x
b a
N
=
( )
f x f x f x
N N
+ + + +
]
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 4
4 1
I f x dx
x
f x f x f x f x
a
b
= + + +
[
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3
4 2 4
0 1 2 3
(H.6)
Obviously we can easily evaluate this analytically and nd I 2; we can use this re-
sult to test whether or not our worksheet is working. The following worksheet shows
the calculations for N 10, and part of the calculations for the other N values:
I x dx =
sin( )
0
Lets discuss in detail the construction of the calculations for N 10 (the others are
very similar). In cell C4 we compute the value of x: The cell contains the formula
pi()/10. The rst x value is generated by entering the lower integration limit (0),
and the other x values are created with formulas that add x to each previous x value;
e.g., cell C8 has C7$C$4. The f (x) column contains the integrand formula, with
x assumed to be in the cell to the left; e.g., cell D7 has sin(C7). The w column
contains the weightings 1, 4, 2, 4, 2, . . . 4, 1 used in Eq. H.5, and the Prod. column
contains the products of the f (x) and w columns (e.g., cell F7 contains the formula
D7*E7). We now need to sum the Prod. column, shown in cell F18 (it contains the
formula SUM(F7:F17)), and this is the series in brackets in Eq. H.5. Finally,
the integral I is given in cell D21 (it contains the formula C4/3*F18). The value
we obtain for the integral, 2.00011, is very close to the exact result of 2.
This entire procedure needs to be done for the other computations, for N 20,
40, and 60 (with obvious changes, such as the computation of x). Your four values
of I for Eq. H.6 should agree closely.
We now wish to modify the workbook so we can evaluate other integrals (differ-
ent integrands and limits).
First, we can tidy up the entire workbook by relegating these calculations to a
secondary Calculations worksheet (double-click the tab to edit its name; click and
In this worksheet we enter the formula for the integrand, assuming x is to the left (in the
present case sin(C6)), and the lower and upper limits, as shown. The Calcu-
lations sheet must be modied so that x in four locations is now automatically
calculated from the limits on the Results sheet (e.g., cell C4 now contains
(Results!D11-Results!D10)/10), and the rst x value in each column is
now computed from the lower limit (these cells contain the formula Results!D10).
The workbook is now almost nished. To use it to evaluate the integral, we must
copy the formula for f (x) in cell C6 from the Results sheet and paste it to the four f (x)
columns in the Calculations sheet. Finally, the four cells in the Results sheet showing
the integration results contain formulas for picking up these results from the Calcula-
tions sheet (e.g., cell F15 contains the formula Calculations!D21). If all goes
according to plan, the four evaluations appear as shown above.
It took quite a bit of effort, but we now have a workbook for numerically evalu-
ating denite integrals! The workbook is fairly easy to use to evaluate an integral. We
use the following steps:
1. Enter the integrand formula in cell D6, assuming x is to the immediate left.
2. Enter the lower and upper limits.
3. Copy the formula in cell D6 to the four f(x) columns in the Calculations sheet, and return
to the Results sheet to view the answers.
drag the worksheet tab to move the worksheet), and create a user-friendly Results
worksheet as shown next:
This procedure works: You can test whether your worksheet is working correctly by
trying the following integral:
You should get the following results (the exact result is e 2 0.71828):
10 segments: 0.71830
We are now (nally!) ready to see how we can use a macro to automate this proce-
dure. Steps 1 and 2 are straightforward, but step 3, involving a lot of copying and
pasting from one sheet to another, is tedious and prone to error. We can automate this
step by creating some Visual Basic code. If you are familiar with Visual Basic you
can write your own code, but Excel has a built-in macro-recording feature that will
generate the code for you. The idea is that you switch on macro recording, and then
perform exactly the actions you wish to record that accomplish a task, and nally
switch off recording. Lets do this now.
Click on menu item Tools . . . Macro . . . Record New Macro . . . to get the
following window:
I x e dx
x
=
2
0
1
You may type in a name if you wish (e.g., Integration) and even assign a shortcut key
(such as Ctrl i), then click OK. You will now be in macro-record mode, as indi-
cated at the lower left of the screen:
You should be careful now because every action will be recorded! Select and copy
cell D6 on the Results sheet (try Ctrl C); switch to the Calculations sheet, select
the f (x) column for N 10, and paste (try Ctrl V); select each of the other f (x)
columns and paste; to end up at the Results sheet, click on it and select a conven-
ient cell, e.g., the lower limit cell D10. Now stop recording, by selecting menu item
Tools . . . Macro . . . Stop Recording. . . . We have our macro! Your code should
look something like the following (to see it, use menu item Tools . . . Macro . . .
Macros . . . and select your code for editing; close the window when youre done):
The code is almost self-explanatory and shows the steps used to accomplish our task.
If you make a procedural error you can simply stop recording and use menu item
Tools . . . Macro . . . Macros . . . where you can delete the macro and start over.
How do we use this macro? Whenever we enter a new integrand in cell D6, we can
run the macro by using menu item Tools . . . Macro . . . Macros . . . and selecting and
running our macro. The macro will do all the copying and pasting for us! A more con-
venient procedure is to assign an accelerator keystroke combination to run the macro (the
code above runs whenever Ctrl i is typed). An even better idea is to create an object
such as a picture or WordArt piece of text (click menu item Insert . . . Object . . . and
choose WordArt); we can then right-click on it and choose Assign Macro . . . and assign
our macro to the object. Then, whenever you click on the object the macro will run!
Before nishing this example, we can protect the Results and Calculations
sheets (after unlocking cells we wish to be able to copy and paste to, or enter data
into) so a future user is not able to wreak havoc with the formulas we have hard-
wired, and hide the grid lines, etc., and end up with something like the sheet shown
next. To use this worksheet we use the following steps:
1. Enter the integrand formula in cell D6, assuming x is to the immediate left.
2. Enter the lower and upper limits.
3. Click on the Integrate! icon (or type, if you created them, the shortcut keys, e.g., Ctrl i).
The user does not need to worry about complicated copying and pasting procedures,
and has a very convenient integrator! Most of the needed formulas are hard-wired,
and the needed copying and pasting is done by our macro.
Sub Integrate()
Integrate Macro
Macro recorded 12/6/02 by Philip J. Pritchard
Keyboard Shortcut: Ctrl i
Range(D6).Select
Selection.Copy
Sheets(Calculations).Select
ActiveWindow.SmaIlScroll ToRight: 5
Range(D7:D17).Select
ActiveSheet.Paste
Range(J7:J27).Select
ActiveSheet.Paste
Range(P7:P47).Select
ActiveSheet.Paste
ActiveWindow.SmallScroll ToRight: 8
Range(V7:V67).Select
ActiveSheet.Paste
Sheets(Results).Select
Range(D10).Select
Application.CutCopyMode False
End Sub
In this example we saw how to create a simple macro. The potential of macros is
obviousyou can include automatic graph generation, le saving, etc. in fact, virtu-
ally any actions you can perform in Excel can be recorded and hence made into a macro.
Customized Functions
Excel comes with a plethora of useful built-in functions, including many mathemati-
cal, logical, database, and statistical functions. To see the list of available functions,
click the menu item Insert . . . Function . . . (or click on the Paste Function icon we
discussed earlier) to get a window like the following:
Note that we have scrolled down to the collection of Engineering functions, which
Microsoft has apparently decided should contain not only obviously engineering-ori-
ented functions such as CONVERT(number,from_unit,to_unit) (for performing unit
system conversions such as lb to kg), but also such things as complex math, and ad-
vanced functions such as Bessels functions Excels Math & Trig. group does not
contain these last two items but does contain equally advanced functions such has hy-
perbolic functions! When searching for a function in Excel, it is a good idea to search
under All functions so you do not accidentally fail to nd a built-in function.
Even with this impressive collection, there will be occasions when you wish to
dene your own functions. This can be easily done in Excel. We will illustrate the
method for dening a customized function by considering the following example.
Suppose we wish to compute the friction factor f for pipe-ow problems:
(H.7a)
(H.7b)
where is the pipe relative roughness and Re is the Reynolds number of the ow. If
Re 2300, the computation is simple; for Re 2300 we have a slight problem, be-
cause f is implicit in Eq. H.7b. To solve Eq. H.7b for f we need to iterategiven
and Re, we guess a value for f (e.g., 1) on the right side, and compute f on the left.
This value is fed back into the right side, and the computation is repeated, until con-
vergence to a suitable accuracy is obtained.
Lets dene a function in Excel that computes f from given values of and Re, us-
ing Eq. H.7a or Eq. H.7b as needed. (Note that we could just dene a function that
solves Eq. H.7b, and then use a cell containing an If function to decide which equation to
use, but it is neater to dene a function that incorporates both equations automatically.)
In Excel we use its built-in Visual Basic editor to write the code for a function.
To access this, use menu item Tools . . . Macro . . . Visual Basic Editor, to get a
window looking something like:
1
2 0
3 7
2 51
2300
f Re f
Re = +
. log
.
.
(Turbulent flow)
f
Re
Re = <
64
2300 (Laminar flow)
Note that your window may be slightly different, showing more or fewer subwin-
dowsyou can make subwindows visible or not using menu item View. You may or
may not have a Module subwindow visibleif not, create a module (a storage area for
code) using menu item Insert . . . Module.
We now need to create code for computing f from Eq. H.7a or H.7b. A possible
owchart for the logic of the computation is:
Note that we have two decision boxes: The rst is obvious; the second involves iterat-
ing Eq. H.7b until a suitable convergence has been obtained. We will iterate Eq. H.7b
until the change in f is less than 0.1%.
We need to write Visual Basic code for this owchart. In this introduction to
Excel, we cannot discuss in detail the Visual Basic syntax and grammar we must use
to accomplish the tasks described in the owchart, but there are several texts avail-
able, e.g., [3]. However, next we present the code we need, which you can now type
into the module subwindow (and note that as we type the rst line the Declarations
tab changes to f, our new function):
The code works as follows:
We rst perform the test for Reynolds number.
If Re 2300, we compute f from Eq. H.7a and go to the end of the function.
If Re 2300, we go to the Else line and dene the error (Er) and initial values
for f
n
(oldf) and f(deltaf), the error between successive values of f. Be-
tween the Do While and Loop lines we iterate to converge on an accurate value of
f. For each iteration:
o We compute a value for f
n1
(newf) from the current value of f
n
and Re and
(represented by Re and e, respectively). [Note that we multiply the log by
0.434294482 because Visual Basic treats Log as a natural log, so we convert
to base 10 by multiplying by log(l0)/ln(10).]
o Next we compute the change f (deltaf) in the value of f, and update the
value of f.
o Finally, we return to the Do While line to perform the accuracy test: If f/f
0.1% we repeat the iteration; if f/f 0.1% we nish iterating and output the
value of f.
We can now close the Visual Basic window and return to the spreadsheet. We now have
a new function f that computes Eq. H.7a or H.7b as appropriate! We can test the func-
tion for laminar (Re 2300) and turbulent (Re 2300) ows, e.g., something like:
The procedure we just outlined showed how to create a custom function in Excel. We
demonstrated this with a function that was fairly complicatedEqs. H.7a and H.7b,
with two decision branches neededbut the procedure can obviously be used for
dening simple functions, or ones of unlimited complexity.
REFERENCES
1. Gottfried, B. S., Spreadsheet Tools for Engineers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
2. Bloch. S. C., Excel for Engineers and Scientists. New York: John Wiley, 1999.
3. McKeown, P. G., and C. A. Piercy, Learning to Program with Visual Basic, 2nd ed. New
York: John Wiley, 2001.

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CHAPTER 3 FLUID STATICS

net pressure force

42757_03CD_pS1-S6 4/14/03 2:54 PM Page S-3

This Example Problem shows that:

EXAMPLE 3.10 Liquid in Rigid-Body Motion with Constant Angular Speed

Now from the diagram

4-7 THE ANGULAR-MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE (continued)

(the change in along )

, is zero; the radial velocity, V

; the dimensions of K are L

42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-31

42757_06CD_pS18-S38 4/14/03 3:19 PM Page S-34

sin ( sin ) sin

From Eq. 9.10,

This problem illustrates use of numerical data from the Bla-

, etc. The crude way is to type

Keyboard Shortcut: Ctrl i

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