4

Chng 1
CU TRC TINH TH VA SU HNH THANH

1.1. Cu to v li n k t nguy n t
nguy n t = h t nh n + electron = (proton + ntron) + electron
ntron khng mang i n
proton mang i n dng = i n t ch ca electron ng/t trung ho
Kh i ni m c b n v c u t o nguy n t
C u h nh electron (electron configuration) ch r: s lng t ch nh (1, 2, 3...), k
hi u ph n lp (s, p, d...), s lng electron thuc ph n lp (s m tr n k hi u ph n
lp). V d: Cu c Z = 29 c c u h nh electron l 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
1
qua bi t
c s electron ngo i cng ( y l 1, ha tr 1).
C c kim lo i chuy n ti p: Fe c Z = 26: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
6
4s
2

1.1.2. Cc dng li n k t nguy n t trong cht rn
C c lo i v t li u kh c nhau c th tn t i c c d ng li n k t ri ng. S kh c nhau ca
c c d ng li n k t cng l nguy n nh n t o n n c c t nh ch t kh c nhau.
a. Li n k t ng ha tr a. Li n k t ng ha tr a. Li n k t ng ha tr a. Li n k t ng ha tr
L li n k t ca hai (ho c nhi u) nguy n t gp chung nhau mt s electron ha tr
c t m electron lp ngo i cng. C th l y ba v d nh sau (h nh 1.1).
Clo c Z=17 (1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
5
), c 7e lp ngo i cng, 2 nguy n t Cl mi nguy n t
gp chung 1 electron lp ngo i cng 8e (h nh 1.1a).


+

a) b) c)


H nh 1.1. S biu din lin kt ng ha tr
a. phn t clo, b. giecmani (Ge), c. mtan (CH
4
)
Giecmani (Ge, z=32) c 4e lp ngo i cng (4s
2
, 4p
2
), 4 nguy n t gp chung
(h nh 1.1b). Li n k t gia c c nguy n t cng lo i (t IVB VIIB nh Cl, Ge) l lo i
ng cc, cn gia c c nguy n t kh c lo i nh CH
4
l lo i d cc.
M tan (CH
4
). Cacbon (z=6), c 4e lp ngo i cng v 4 nguy n t H mi
nguy n t n y gp cho n 1 electron l m cho lp electron ngo i cng 8 (h nh 1.1c).
b. Li n k t ion b. Li n k t ion b. Li n k t ion b. Li n k t ion
KL nhm IB (Cu, Ag, Au), IIB (Zn, Cd, Hg) trao e c c nguy n t : VIB (O, S...),
VIIB (H, F, Cl, Br, I). C c xit kim lo i nh Al
2
O
3
, MgO, CaO, Fe
3
O
4
, NiO... c xu th
m nh vi t o li n k t ion.
Li n k t ion c ng m nh khi lp ngo i cng (cho) cha t e, nh n n m c ng g n
h t nh n.
Li n k t khng nh hng ( nh hng th x c su t li n k t ln nh t theo
phng ni t m c c nguy n t), v t li u c li n k t ion th t nh gin cao.



C
H
H
H
H
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Ge
Cl
Cl
Cl Cl
5












H nh 1.2. S biu din lin kt
ion trong phn t LiF
H nh 1.3. S lin kt kim loi

c. Li n k t kim loi ( c. Li n k t kim loi ( c. Li n k t kim loi ( c. Li n k t kim loi (h nh 1.3)
o /n: l li n k t trong c c cation kim lo i nh n ch m trong m m y electron t
do.
o N ng lng li n k t l tng hp (c n b ng) c c ion kim lo i c v tr x c
nh. C c nguy n t nhm Ia c t nh kim lo i i n h nh, c ng d ch sang b n
ph i t nh ch t kim lo i c ng gi m, t nh ng ha tr trong li n k t c ng t ng.
o T nh ch t ca kim lo i : li n k t n y t o cho kim lo i c c t nh ch t i n h nh:
nh kim hay v s ng, d n nhi t v d n i n tt v t nh d o, dai cao
d. d. d. d. Li n k t hn hp Li n k t hn hp Li n k t hn hp Li n k t hn hp -
Thc ra c c li n k t trong c c ch t, v t li u thng dng thng mang t nh hn
hp ca nhi u lo i. V d: Na v Cl c t nh m i n l n lt l 0,9 v 3,0. V th
li n k t gia Na v Cl trong NaCl gm kho ng 52% li n k t ion v 48% li n k t ng
ha tr .
e. e. e. e. Li n k t y u (Van de Li n k t y u (Van de Li n k t y u (Van de Li n k t y u (Van der Waals) r Waals) r Waals) r Waals)
Do s kh c nhau v t nh m i n t o th nh v ph n t ph n cc. C c cc tr i
d u ht nhau t o ra li n k t Van der Waals. Li n k t n y y u, r t d b ph v khi
t ng nhi t .
1.2. 1.2. 1.2. 1.2. Sp x p nguy n t trong vt cht Sp x p nguy n t trong vt cht Sp x p nguy n t trong vt cht Sp x p nguy n t trong vt cht
1.2.1. Cht kh 1.2.1. Cht kh 1.2.1. Cht kh 1.2.1. Cht kh
Trong ch t kh c s s p x p nguy n t mt c ch hn lo n khng c h nh d ng,
k ch thc x c nh.
1.2.2. 1.2.2. 1.2.2. 1.2.2. Cht rn tinh th Cht rn tinh th Cht rn tinh th Cht rn tinh th









Li
+ F
-
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Me
+
Ion dng
M y
Electron
Cht rn tinh th :
- Trt t gn, m cn c c trt
t xa.
- C c ki u m ng tinh th x c
nh: l p phng, lc gi c,...
(h nh 1.4)
H nh 1.4. S m ng tinh th
6
1.2.3. 1.2.3. 1.2.3. 1.2.3. Cht lng, cht rn v nh h nh v vi tinh th Cht lng, cht rn v nh h nh v vi tinh th Cht lng, cht rn v nh h nh v vi tinh th Cht lng, cht rn v nh h nh v vi tinh th
a. a. a. a. Cht lng Cht lng Cht lng Cht lng
Trong ph m vi h p (kho ng 0,25nm) c c nguy n t ch t lng c xu th ti p xc
(x t) nhau t o th nh c c m nh, do v y khng co l i khi n n nh ch t kh , c c
m nguy n t n y lun h nh th nh v tan r . Ch t lng ch c tr t t g n, khng c
tr t t xa.
Gia c c m c kho ng trng do m t x p ca ch t lng th p, khi ng c
thng k m theo gi m th t ch (co ngt).
b. b. b. b. Cht rn v nh h nh Cht rn v nh h nh Cht rn v nh h nh Cht rn v nh h nh
mt s ch t, tr ng th i lng c s t cao, c c nguy n t khng linh
ho t s p x p l i khi ng c; ch t r n t o th nh c c u trc ging nh ch t lng
trc gi l ch t r n v nh h nh. Thy tinh (m c u t o c b n l SiO
2
) l ch t
r n v nh h nh
Nh v y v m t c u trc, c c ch t r n gm 2 lo i: tinh th v v nh h nh.
Kim lo i, hp kim v ph n ln c c ch t v c, r t nhi u polyme - tinh th
Tu theo b n ch t ca v t li u v tc l m ngui khi ng c tinh th ho c v
nh h nh.
Thy tinh nng ch y, c c ph n t SiO
2
[trong ion O
2-
c c nh khi t di n (bn
m t) tam gi c u, t m ca khi l ion Si
4+
nh bi u th h nh 1.5a] l m ngui b nh
thng v nh h nh (h nh 1.5b); l m ngui v cng ch m c c ph n t SiO
2
c
thi gian s p x p l i theo tr t t xa s c thy tinh (c c u trc) tinh th (h nh
1.5c).






a) c)

H nh 1.5. Cu trc khi t din [ SiO
4
]
4-
(a), thy tinh thng SiO
2
(b)
thy tinh tinh th SiO
2
(c)
c. c. c. c. Cht rn vi tinh th Cht rn vi tinh th Cht rn vi tinh th Cht rn vi tinh th
Cng vi v t li u tinh th k tr n khi l m ngui t tr ng th i lng r t nhanh (tr n
di 10
4
/s) s nh n c c u trc tinh th nhng vi k ch thc h t r t nh (c
nm), l v t li u c t n gi l vi tinh th (cn gi l finemet hay nanomet).
Tm l i c c v t li u c ba ki u c u trc: tinh th (thng g p nh t), v nh
h nh v vi tinh th ( t g p).
1.3. 1.3. 1.3. 1.3. Khi ni m v mng tinh th Khi ni m v mng tinh th Khi ni m v mng tinh th Khi ni m v mng tinh th
/n: m ng tinh th l m h nh khng gian bi u di n quy lu t h nh hc ca s s p x p
nguy n t.
Ph n ln v t li u c c u trc tinh th , t nh ch t r t a d ng ph thuc v o ki u
m ng.
1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. 1.3.1. T nh i xng T nh i xng T nh i xng T nh i xng
M ng tinh th mang t nh i xng, l mt trong nhng c i m quan trng, th
hi n c h nh d ng b n ngo i, c u trc b n trong cng nh c c t nh ch t ca v t
r n tinh th .
- Oxy
- Si

(b)
7
T nh i xng l t nh ch t h nh hc khi quay mt i m hay mt ph n t xung
quanh 1 i m hay mt ng vi mt gc chng s trng l p nhau. i m hay
ng c quay xung quanh c gi l t m hay trc i xng. i xng qua
m t ph ng c gi l i xng gng. Gi n = 2/ l b c i xng, ch c n =
1, 2, 3, 4, 6; k hi u L
1
, L
2
, L
3
, L
4
, L
6
.






n=2 (L
2
) n=3 (L
3
) n=4 (L
4
) n=6 (L
6
)

1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. 1.3.2. c s c s c s c s - -- - k hi u phng, mt tinh th k hi u phng, mt tinh th k hi u phng, mt tinh th k hi u phng, mt tinh th
a. a. a. a. c s c s c s c s
/n: l h nh khi nh nh t c c ch s p x p nguy n t i di n
cho to n b m ng tinh th .
Do t nh i xng b ng phng ph p xoay v t nh ti n ta s suy
ra to n b m ng tinh th
Thng s m ng (h ng s m ng) l k ch thc ca c s,
thng l k ch thc c c c nh ca c s t c th H nh 1.6. c s v
h ta
x c nh to n b k ch thc ca c s (h nh 1.6)
b. b. b. b. Nt mng Nt mng Nt mng Nt mng
Nt m ng tng ng vi v tr c c nguy n t trong m ng tinh th .
c. c. c. c. Ch s phng Ch s phng Ch s phng Ch s phng
Phng l ng th ng i qua c c nt m ng, c k hi u b ng [u v w]; Ba ch
s u, v, w l ba s nguy n t l thu n vi ta ca nt m ng n m tr n phng
g n gc ta nh t (h nh 1.7).










Ch : Phng v m t tinh th c k ch thc v h n
Tr n h nh 1.7 gii thi u ba phng i n h nh trong m ng tinh th ca h l p
phng:
- ng ch o khi [111], ng ch o m t [110], c nh [100].
C c phng c c c gi tr tuy t i u, v, w ging nhau, t o n n h phng
<uvw>. V d h <110> gm c c phng sau y chng c cng quy lu t s p x p
nguy n t:
L
a
3
5
2
1
4
H nh 1.7. Cc phng in h nh
ca
H nh 1.8. Cc mt in h nh ca h
lp phng h lp phng
a
x
y
z
[110]
[111]
[100]
[010]
[001]
8
[110], [011], [101], [110], [011], [101], [110], [011], [101], [110], [011], [101] (c c
ng ch o)
d. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th d. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th d. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th d. Ch s Miller ca mt tinh th
M t tinh th l t p hp c c m t c c ch s p x p nguy n t ging h t nhau, song
song v c ch u nhau, chng c cng mt k hi u. Ngi ta k hi u m t b ng ch
s Miller (h k l). C c ch s h, k, l c x c nh theo c c bc nh sau:
. t m giao i m ca m t ph ng tr n ba trc theo th t Ox, Oy, Oz,
. x c nh ta c c giao i m, ri l y c c gi tr ngh ch o,
. quy ng m u s, l y c c gi tr ca t s, ch nh l c c ch s h, k, l
. V d, x c nh c c ch s Miller cho c c m t

m t i m c t c c trc ngh ch o ch s
1 1, 1, 1/2 1, 1, 2 (112)
2 1, 1, 1 1, 1, 1 (111)
3 1, 1, 1, 1, 0 (110)
4 1, , 1, 0, 0 (100)
5 1, 1, 2 1, 1, 1/2 (221)


H nh 1.8 S k hi u m t tinh th theo ch s Miller
C c m t c c c ch s gi tr tuy t i h, k, l ging nhau t o n n h m t {h k l}.
V d, c c m t hp t o n n h {100} gm (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001).
e. e. e. e. Ch s Miller Ch s Miller Ch s Miller Ch s Miller - -- - Bravais trong h Bravais trong h Bravais trong h Bravais trong h lc gic lc gic lc gic lc gic
Ch s Miller - Bravais vi h c bn trc ta Ox, Oy, Ou, Oz (h nh 1.9). Ch s
Miller - Bravais c k hi u b ng (h k i l), trong ch s th ba i (ca trc Ou) c
quan h : i = - (h + k)
H y th so s nh hai ch s n y cho c c m t trong h lc gi c c tr nh b y h nh
1.9:
m t ch s Miller ch s Miller - Bravais
ABHG (100) (1010)
BCIH (010) (0110)
AGLF (110) (1100)
ABCDEF (001) (0001)
ACIG (1120)




H nh 1.9. H ta trong h lc gi c
v cc mt

C ch k hi u theo Miller - Bravais th hi n c c c m t b n cng h v cng
c ch s p nguy n t.
1.3.3. 1.3.3. 1.3.3. 1.3.3. Mt nguy n t Mt nguy n t Mt nguy n t Mt nguy n t
a. a. a. a. Mt x p Mt x p Mt x p Mt x p
L mc d y c ca nguy n t trong m ng tinh th . M t x p theo phng
(chi u d i) M
l
, theo m t M
s
hay trong to n b th t ch m ng M
v
c x c nh theo
c c cng thc: M
l
= l / L, M
s
= s / S, M
v
= v / V
x
y
u
A
B
C
D
E
F
z
G
H
I
J
K
L
3
5
2
1
4
9
trong :
l, s, v l n lt l chi u d i, di n t ch, th t ch b nguy n t (ion) chi m ch,
L, S, V l n lt l tng chi u d i, di n t ch, th t ch xem x t.
b. b. b. b. S phi tr (s sp x p) S phi tr (s sp x p) S phi tr (s sp x p) S phi tr (s sp x p): l s lng nguy n t c ch u g n nh t mt nguy n t
cho. S s p x p c ng ln chng t m ng tinh th c ng d y c.
c. c. c. c. L hng L hng L hng L hng
L khng gian trng gia c c nguy n t (coi nguy n t l h nh c u c). K ch
thc l hng c nh gi b ng ng k nh hay b n k nh qu c u ln nh t c
th t lt v o.
1.4. 1.4. 1.4. 1.4. Cu trc tinh th i n h nh ca cht rn Cu trc tinh th i n h nh ca cht rn Cu trc tinh th i n h nh ca cht rn Cu trc tinh th i n h nh ca cht rn
1.4.1 1.4.1 1.4.1 1.4.1. Cht rn c li n k t kim loi (kim loi nguy n cht) Cht rn c li n k t kim loi (kim loi nguy n cht) Cht rn c li n k t kim loi (kim loi nguy n cht) Cht rn c li n k t kim loi (kim loi nguy n cht)
c t nh c u trc ca kim lo i l : nguy n t (ion) lun c xu hng x p x t
ch t vi ki u m ng n gi n (nh l p phng t m m t, l p phng t m khi, lc
gi c x p ch t).
a. a. a. a. Lp phng tm khi A2 Lp phng tm khi A2 Lp phng tm khi A2 Lp phng tm khi A2
c s l h nh l p phng, c nh b ng a, c c nguy n t (ion) n m c c nh v t m
khi (h nh 1.10a, b v c). S lng nguy n t cho mi : n
v
= 8 nh. 1/8 + 1 gia = 2
nguy n t








(a) (b) (c)








d)

Thng dng c ch v tng trng (h nh c). Nguy n t n m x t nhau theo phng
<111>, do :
- ng k nh nguy n t d
ng.t
=
2
3
a , s s p x p l 8.
C c m t tinh th x p d y c nh t l h {110}. M t x p th t ch M
v
= 68%. C
hai lo i l hng: h nh 4 m t v h nh 8 m t nh tr nh b y h nh d. Lo i 8 m t c
k ch thc b ng 0,154 d
ng.t
n m t m c c m t b n {100} v gia c c c nh a. Lo i 4
m t c k ch thc ln hn mt cht, b ng 0,291 d
ng.t
n m
4
1
tr n c nh ni i m
gia c c c nh i di n ca c c m t b n. Nh v y trong m ng A2 c nhi u l hng
a
l hng 4 m t
l hng 8
a
a
{100}
{110}



H nh 1.10. c s mng lp phng
tm khi (a, b), cc l hng (c) v cch
xp cc mt tinh th {100} v {110} (d)


10
nhng k ch thc u nh, ln nh t cng khng qu 30% k ch thc (ng k nh)
nguy n t.
C c kim lo i c ki u m ng A1 thng g p l : Fe

, Cr, Mo, W.
M ng ch nh phng t m khi ch kh c m ng A2 a = b c

b. b. b. b. Lp phng tm mt A1 Lp phng tm mt A1 Lp phng tm mt A1 Lp phng tm mt A1
o Kh c vi ki u m ng A2 l thay cho nguy n t n m trung t m khi l nguy n t
n m trung t m c c m t b n, nh bi u th c c h nh 1.11a, b v c.








a) b) c)









d)
o S nguy n t trong 1 l : n
v
= 8 nh. 1/8 + 6 m t. 1/2 = 4 nguy n t.
o Trong m ng A1, c c nguy n t x p x t nhau theo phng ng ch o m t <110>,
do :
ng k nh d
ng.t
=
2
2
a

, s s p x p l 12.
o C c m t tinh th d y c nh t l h {111}. M t x p th t ch M
v
=74%,
m ng A1 n y l ki u x p d y c hn A2 v l mt trong hai ki u x p d y c
nh t.
C 2 lo i l hng h nh 4 m t v h nh 8 m t nh tr nh b y c c h nh 1.11c.
Lo i bn m t c k ch thc 0,225 d
ng.t
( nh1 v t m ba m t 2,3,4). ng ch l
lo i l hng h nh t m m t, n c k ch thc ln hn c , b ng 0,414d
ng.t
, n m trung
t m khi v gia c c c nh a. So vi m ng A2, m ng A1 tuy d y c hn song s
lng l hng l i t hn m k ch thc l hng l i ln hn h n (0,225 v 0,41 so vi
0,154 v 0,291). Ch nh i u n y (k ch thc l hng) mi l y u t quy t nh cho
s ha tan di d ng xen k .
Kh nhi u kim lo i i n h nh c ki u m ng n y: s t (Fe

), Ni, Cu, Al vi h ng
s a m ng l n lt b ng 0,3656, 0,3524, 0,3615, 0,4049nm; ngo i ra cn c Pb, Ag,
Au.


a
1
2 3
4
A
B
{100}
{111}
B
A C



H nh 1.11. c s mng lp phng tm
mt (a, b), cc l hng (c) v cch xp
cc mt tinh th {100} v {111} (d)

11
c. c. c. c. Lc gic Lc gic Lc gic Lc gic x p cht A3 x p cht A3 x p cht A3 x p cht A3
C c nguy n t n m tr n 12 nh, t m ca 2 m t y v t m ca ba khi l ng
tr tam gi c c ch u nhau (h nh 1.12a, b v c).







a) b) c) d)
H nh 1.12. c s mng lc gic xp cht (a,b,c) v
cch xp cc mt tinh th {0001} (d)

S lng nguy n t trong 1 : n
v
= 12 nh/6 + 2 gia m t/2 + 3 t m = 6 nguy n
t
Nguy n t x p x t nhau theo c c m t y (0001). 3 nguy n t gia song song vi
m t y s p x p nguy n t ging nh 2 m t y, nhng n m c c hm c ch u
nhau (h nh 1.12d). M ng lc gi c x p ch t th c/a = 3 8 hay 1,633. Tuy nhi n trong
thc t c/a c x d ch n n quy c:
c/a = 1,57 1,64 th m ng c coi l x p ch t, 1,57 < c/a < 1,64 khng x p ch t.
C c kim lo i c ki u m ng n y t thng dng hn l :
Ti

vi a = 0,2951nm, c = 0,4679nm, c/a = 1,5855 (x p ch t),

Mg vi a = 0,3209nm, c = 0,5210nm, c/a = 1,6235 (x p ch t),
Zn vi a = 0,2664nm, c = 0,4945nm, c/a = 1,8590 (khng x p ch t).
1.4.2. 1.4.2. 1.4.2. 1.4.2. Cht rn c li n k t ng ha tr Cht rn c li n k t ng ha tr Cht rn c li n k t ng ha tr Cht rn c li n k t ng ha tr
a. a. a. a. Kim cng A4 Kim cng A4 Kim cng A4 Kim cng A4
Kim cng l mt d ng tn t i (th h nh) ca cacbon vi c u h nh electron l
1s
2
2s
2
2p
2
, v y s e lp tham gia li n k t l N = 4, s s p x p s l 4 tc l mi mt
nguy n t cacbon c 4 nguy n t bao quanh g n nh t.








H nh 1.14. c s ca mng tinh th kim cng (a),
v tr cc nguyn t (b) v lin kt (c)
c s m ng kim cng (h nh 1.14a), c t o th nh tr n c s ca c s A1 c
th m bn nguy n t b n trong vi c c ta (xem h nh 1.14b):
1/4, 1/4, 1/4 (1); 3/4, 3/4, 1/4 (2); 1/4, 3/4,3/4 (3); 3/4, 1/4, 3/4 (4).
n m t m ca bn khi 1/8 c ch u nhau.
C c nguy n t cacbon u c li n k t ng ha tr vi n ng lng ln n n kim
cng c cng r t cao (cao nh t trong thang cng).
A
B
12
b. b. b. b. Mng grafit Mng grafit Mng grafit Mng grafit
C m ng lc gi c lp (h nh 1.15a), trong mt lp kho ng c ch gia c c nguy n t a =
0,246nm, li n k t ng ho tr . Kho ng c ch gia c c lp c = 0,671nm, tng ng vi
li n k t y u Van der Waals, grafit r t d b t ch lp , r t m m, n c coi nh l
mt trong nhng ch t r n c cng th p nh t.
c. c. c. c. Cu trc ca si cacbon v fullerene Cu trc ca si cacbon v fullerene Cu trc ca si cacbon v fullerene Cu trc ca si cacbon v fullerene
Ph n t cacbon C
60
gi l fullerene do hai nh khoa hc H. Kroto (Anh) v R. Smalley
(M) t o ra 1985 (Nobel n m 1995) (h nh 1.15c): 60 nguy n t C n m tr n m t c u
gm 12 ng gi c v 20 lc gi c u, n m xen k nhau t o i xng trn, ng vi
b n v cng r t cao ca n ch c ch n ha h n s c nhng ng dng k l trong
k thu t.
Si cacbon c tr nh b y h nh 1.15b














H nh 1.15. Cu trc mng ca grafit (a), si cacbon (b) v fullerene (c).
d. d. d. d. Cu trc ca SiO Cu trc ca SiO Cu trc ca SiO Cu trc ca SiO
2 22 2

H nh 1.5a, l m h nh s p x p khng ca c c khi t di n tam gi c u
SiO
4
4-
ca SiO
2
.
Th ch anh vi c u trc lc gi c (h nh 1.16a), cristobalit vi c u trc l p
phng (h nh 1.16b). Trong i u ki n ngui nhanh s nh n c thy tinh (v nh
h nh) nh h nh 1.5b.










H nh 1.15. Sp xp khi t din (SiO
4
)
4-
trong thch anh (a), cristobalit (b).
1.4.3. 1.4.3. 1.4.3. 1.4.3. Cht rn c li n k t ion Cht rn c li n k t ion Cht rn c li n k t ion Cht rn c li n k t ion
C u trc tinh th ca hp ch t ha hc c li n k t ion ph thuc v o hai y u t:
13
T s ca ion m v ion dng m b o trung ha v i n.
Tng quan k ch thc gia ion m v ion dng: trong tinh th ion, c c ion
lun c xu hng s p x p x p ch t v t nh i xng cao nh t.
M ng tinh th ca hp ch t vi li n k t ion v n c c c ki u m ng n gi n (A1,
A2) nhng s ph n b c c ion trong kh phc t p n n v n c coi l c m ng
phc t p.
C th h nh dung m ng tinh th c c hp ch t ha hc vi li n k t ion c t o
th nh tr n c s ca c s ca ion m, c c ion dng cn l i chi m mt ph n hay
to n b c c l hng.
T m v c u trc ca ch t r n c li n k t ion c tr nh b y chng 7.
1.4.4. 1.4.4. 1.4.4. 1.4.4. Cu trc ca polyme Cu trc ca polyme Cu trc ca polyme Cu trc ca polyme
Kh c vi kim lo i v c c ch t v c, c s ch t o n n bi s lng h n ch
(t v i n v i chc) nguy n t (ion), mi ph n t polyme c th gm h ng tri u
nguy n t. V d PE (C
2
H
4
)
n
:
H H H H H H H H

C = C C C C C C C

H H H H H H H H
m ch k n b li n k t k p t o m ch th ng
C c ph n t (m ch) polyme c li n k t Van der Waals vi nhau (li n k t y u).
Mt s vng c c m ch s p x p c tr t t t o n n c u trc tinh th , ph n cn l i l v
nh h nh.
1.4.5. 1.4.5. 1.4.5. 1.4.5. Dng th h nh Dng th h nh Dng th h nh Dng th h nh
Th h nh hay a h nh l s tn t i hai hay nhi u c u trc m ng tinh th kh c
nhau ca cng mt nguy n t hay mt hp ch t ha hc, mi c u trc kh c bi t
c gi l d ng th h nh: k hi u , , , , .... Qu tr nh thay i t d ng th
h nh n y sang d ng th h nh kh c c gi l chuy n bi n th h nh. C c y u t
d n n chuy n bi n th h nh thng g p hn c l nhi t , sau l p su t.
Cacbon ngo i d ng v nh h nh cn tn t i: c c d ng th h nh (c c h nh 1.13,
1.14): kim cng (A4), grafit (A9). si cacbon (c u trc lp cun), fullerene (c u trc
m t c u C
60
) trong . grafit l d ng thng g p v n nh nh t.
S t (Fe) c hai ki u m ng l : Fe

-A2, T < 911

o
C, Fe

-A1, T= 911 1392

o
C, Fe

T>
1392
o
C -1539
o
C; t nh ch t .
Chuy n bi n th h nh bao gi cng i k m vi s thay i v th t ch (n hay
co) v c t nh. V d: khi nung nng s t qua 911
o
C s t l i co l i t ngt (do t ng
m t x p t 68 l n 74% khi chuy n t Fe

Fe

) v ho n to n ngc l i khi l m
ngui (i u n y hi tr i vi quan ni m thng g p l nung nng th n ra, cn l m
ngui th co l i) r n khun?.
1.5. 1.5. 1.5. 1.5. Sai l ch mng tinh th Sai l ch mng tinh th Sai l ch mng tinh th Sai l ch mng tinh th
Trong thc t khng ph i 100% nguy n t u n m ng v tr quy nh, g y
n n nhng sai l ch c gi l sai l ch m ng tinh th hay khuy t t t m ng. Tuy s
nguy n t n m l ch v tr quy nh chi m t l r t th p (ch 1 2%) song nh
hng ln n c t nh: kh n ng bi n d ng d o, bi n cng...).
Ph thuc v o k ch thc theo ba chi u trong khng gian, sai l ch m ng chia
th nh: i m, ng v m t.
14
1.5.1. 1.5.1. 1.5.1. 1.5.1. Sai l ch i m Sai l ch i m Sai l ch i m Sai l ch i m
l lo i sai l ch c k ch thc r t nh (c k ch thc nguy n t) theo ba
chi u khng gian, c d ng bao quanh mt i m. H nh 1.17 tr nh b y tng qu t c c
d ng sai l ch i m n y.
a. a. a. a. Nt trng v nguy n t t xen k Nt trng v nguy n t t xen k Nt trng v nguy n t t xen k Nt trng v nguy n t t xen k (H nh 1.17a)
Do dao ng nhi t quanh v tr c n b ng, mc ph n b n ng lng khng
u, mt s nguy n t bt khi nt m ng l i nt trng v t o nguy n t xen k
gia.









H nh 1.17. Cc dng sai lch im: nt trng v nguyn t
t xen k (a) v cc nguyn t tp cht (b).
M t ca nt trng t ng nhanh theo nhi t (n=
KT
Q
e

), khi s p ch y lng n
max
.
Nt trng c nh hng ln n c ch v tc khu ch t n ca kim lo i v hp
kim tr ng th i r n.
b. b. b. b. Nguy n t tp cht Nguy n t tp cht Nguy n t tp cht Nguy n t tp cht
Trong thc t v t li u ho c kim lo i thng c t p ch t: xen k (h nh 1.17b).
Do s sai kh c v ng k nh nguy n t gia c c nguy n t n n v t p ch t
sai l ch
1.5.2. 1.5.2. 1.5.2. 1.5.2. Sai l ch Sai l ch Sai l ch Sai l ch ng ng ng ng - -- - L ch L ch L ch L ch
Sai l ch ng l lo i c k ch thc nh (c k ch thc nguy n t) theo hai
chi u v ln theo chi u th ba, tc c d ng ca mt ng (c th l th ng, cong,
xo y trn c). Sai l ch ng c th l mt d y c c sai l ch i m k tr n. Chng
gm: hai d ng l bi n v xo n.
a. a. a. a. L ch bi n L ch bi n L ch bi n L ch bi n (edge dislocation hay dislocation line) (h nh 1.18a)
C th h nh dung l ch bi n c t o th nh nh ch n th m b n m t ABCD v o
na ph n tr n ca m ng tinh th l tng (h nh 1.18a), khi , c c m t nguy n t
kh c hai ph a tr n n khng cn song song vi nhau na.






(a) (b) (c)
H nh 1.18. Lch bin: tinh th khng lch (a), m h nh to thnh (b),
s sp xp nguyn t trong vng lch (c)

B
A
C
D

v c t
5
4
3
2
1
1
2 3
4
15
Nh th y r h nh 1.18b: ng AD c gi l trc l ch, n ch nh l bi n ca b n
m t n n c t n l l ch bi n. Vi s ph n b nh v y na tinh th c cha b n m t s
ch u ng su t n n, na cn l i ch u ng su t k o.
V c t Burgers: l v c t ng k n vng trn Burgers v tr n mf vung gc vi trc
l ch khi chuy n t tinh th khng l ch sang tinh th c l ch. L ch th ng AD b
r

c. c. c. c. L ch xon L ch xon L ch xon L ch xon (screw dislocation) (h nh 1.19a)






a) b) c)
H nh 1.19. Lch xon: tinh th khng lch (a), m h nh to thnh (a),
c im sp xp nguyn t trong vng lch (c).

C c nguy n t trong vng h p gia hai ng AD v BC s p x p l i c d ng ng
xo n c ging nh m t v t n n l ch c t n l l ch xo n nh th y r h nh 1.19c.
V c t Burgers song song vi trc l c AD=L
c. c. c. c. c trng v h nh thi ca l ch c trng v h nh thi ca l ch c trng v h nh thi ca l ch c trng v h nh thi ca l ch
M t l ch (k hi u l ) l tng chi u d i trc l ch trong mt n v th t ch
ca tinh th , c th nguy n l cm/cm
3
hay cm
-2
. M t l ch ph thuc r t m nh v o
s ch v tr ng th i gia cng. V d, i vi kim lo i c gi tr nh nh t (~ 10
8

cm
-2
) ng vi s ch cao v tr ng th i ; hp kim v kim lo i sau bi n d ng ngui,
ti... ti 10
10
10
12
cm
-2
) (c th coi m t l ch l trc l ch ch y qua/1 cm
2
).
ngh a: l ch bi n gip cho d bi n d ng (trt), khi m t qu ln l i g y
c n trt (t ng b n). Ngo i ra, l ch xo n gip cho m m ph t tri n nhanh khi k t tinh.
1.5.3. 1.5.3. 1.5.3. 1.5.3. Sai l ch mt Sai l ch mt Sai l ch mt Sai l ch mt
Sai l ch m t l lo i sai l ch c k ch thc ln theo hai chi u o v nh theo chi u th
ba, tc c d ng ca mt m t (c th l ph ng, cong hay un ln).
C c d ng i n h nh ca sai l ch m t l :
- bi n gii h t v si u h t (s tr nh b y mc sau) v b m t tinh th .
1.6. 1.6. 1.6. 1.6. n tinh th v a tinh th n tinh th v a tinh th n tinh th v a tinh th n tinh th v a tinh th
1.6.1. 1.6.1. 1.6.1. 1.6.1. n tinh th n tinh th n tinh th n tinh th
n tinh th (h nh 1.20a): l mt khi ch t r n c m ng ng nh t (cng ki u
v h ng s m ng), c phng m ng khng i trong to n b th t ch. Trong thi n
nhi n: mt s kho ng v t c th tn t i di d ng n tinh th . Chng c b m t
ngo i nh n, h nh d ng x c nh, l nhng m t ph ng nguy n t gii h n (thng
l c c m t x p ch t nh t). C c n tinh th kim lo i khng tn t i trong t nhi n,
mun c ph i dng cng ngh "nui" n tinh th .
c i m: c t nh ch t r t c th l d hng v theo c c phng m t x p
ch t nguy n t kh c nhau. n tinh th ch c dng trong b n d n.
1.6.2. 1.6.2. 1.6.2. 1.6.2. a tinh th a tinh th a tinh th a tinh th
a. Ht a. Ht a. Ht a. Ht
Trong thc t h u nh ch g p c c v t li u a tinh th . a tinh th gm r t nhi u
(n) tinh th nh (c m) c gi l h t tinh th , c c h t c cng c u trc v
B
A
C
D
B
A
C
D
B
A
C
D
v c t
L
16
thng s m ng song phng l i nh hng kh c nhau (mang t nh ng u nhi n) v
li n k t vi nhau qua vng ranh gii c gi l bi n h t (hay bi n gii h t) nh
tr nh b y h nh 1.20b.
T m h nh th y r:
- Mi h t l mt khi tinh th ho n to n ng nh t, th hi n t nh d hng.
- C c h t nh hng ng u nhi n vi s lng r t ln n n th hi n t nh ng hng
- Bi n h t ch u nh hng ca c c h t xung quanh n n c c u trc trung gian v v
v y s p x p khng tr t t (x l ch) nh l v nh h nh , k m x t ch t vi t nh ch t
kh c vi b n th n h t.
- C th quan s t c u trc h t a tinh th hay c c h t nh k nh hi n vi quang hc
(h nh 1.20c).









b. b. b. b. ht ht ht ht
h t c th quan s t nh t nh qua m t g y, ch nh x c ph i x c nh tr n t
chc t vi.
C p h t theo ti u chu n ASTM: ph n th nh 16 c p ch nh nh s t 00, 0, 1,
2...., 14 theo tr t t h t nh d n, trong t 1 n 8 l thng dng.
C p h t N=3,322lgZ+1, vi Z l s h t c trong 1inch
2
(2,54
2
6,45cm
2
) di
phng i 100 l n.
Ngi ta thng x c nh c p h t b ng c ch so s nh vi b ng chu n
phng i (thng l x100) ho c x c nh tr n t chc t vi. C c s li u ph n c p
h t xem trong b ng 1.2.
B ng 1.2. Cc cp ht chun ch nh theo ASTM
C p h t 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Z(x100)/inch
2
0,25 0,5 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Z thc/mm
2
4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 2048
S h t, mm
2
0,258 0,129 0,0645 0,032 0,016 0,008 0,004 0,002 0,001 0,0005

C p h t 9 10 11 12 13 14
Z(x100)/inch
2
256 512 1024 2048 4096 8200
Z thc/mm
2
4096 8200 16400 32800 65600 131200
S h t, mm
2
2.10
-4
1.10
-4
6.10
-5
3.10
-5

1,6.10
-5
7,88.10
-6






H nh 1.20. M h nh n
tinh th (a),
a tinh th (b),
t chc t vi kim loi a
tinh th (c),
cu trc ca siu ht
(d).
17
























H nh 1.21. Thang nh cp ht chun ng vi phng i x100

c. c. c. c. Si u ht Si u ht Si u ht Si u ht
N u nh khi a tinh th gm c c h t (k ch thc h ng chc - h ng tr m m)
vi phng m ng l ch nhau mt gc ng k (h ng chc ), n lt mi h t n
cng gm nhi u th t ch nh hn (k ch thc c 0,1 10m) vi phng m ng l ch
nhau mt gc r t nh ( 1-2
o
) gi l si u h t hay block (h nh 1.20d). Bi n gii si u
h t cng b x l ch nhng vi mc r t th p.
1.6.3. 1.6.3. 1.6.3. 1.6.3. Textua Textua Textua Textua




H nh 1.22. M h nh textua trong dy nhm sau khi ko si
(vect V biu th hng ko, trc textua l [111]).

Do bi n d ng d o l m phng m ng nh hng t o n n textua. V d, khi k o
si nhm (h nh 1.22), tinh th h nh tr khi c, khi ph.
C u trc a tinh th c textua v t li u c t nh d hng. ng dng cho th p
bi n th , t/c t cc i theo chi u textua, cc ti u theo phng vung gc gi m tn
th t.


18
1.7. 1.7. 1.7. 1.7. S k t tinh v h nh thnh t chc ca kim loi S k t tinh v h nh thnh t chc ca kim loi S k t tinh v h nh thnh t chc ca kim loi S k t tinh v h nh thnh t chc ca kim loi
Ph n ln kim lo i hp kim c ch t o (luy n) ra c, tc qua k t tinh, sau
c n b n th nh ph m v s n ph m.
K t tinh l bc khi t o h nh th nh t chc h t, tinh th . h t, t chc
mong mun.
1.7.1. 1.7.1. 1.7.1. 1.7.1. i u ki n xy ra k t tinh i u ki n xy ra k t tinh i u ki n xy ra k t tinh i u ki n xy ra k t tinh
a. a. a. a. Cu trc trng thi lng Cu trc trng thi lng Cu trc trng thi lng Cu trc trng thi lng
Ch t lng ch c tr t t g n, trong c nhng nhm nguy n t s p x p tr t t,
chng tr ng th i c n b ng ng. V m t c u trc tr ng th i lng g n tr ng th i
tinh th hn, c c m nguy n t l t m m m gip cho k t tinh.
b. b. b. b. Bi n i nng lng khi k t tinh Bi n i nng lng khi k t tinh Bi n i nng lng khi k t tinh Bi n i nng lng khi k t tinh
H nh 1.23 bi u th s bi n i n ng lng G ca c c tr ng th i lng (G
L
) v
r n (G
R
) (tinh th ) theo nhi t :









- nhi t T > T
O
v t th tn t i tr ng th i
lng G
L
<G
R
- nhi t T
o
< T
O
, G
R
<G
L
ng c
T
O
c gi l nhi t k t tinh hay nng ch y
T = T
O
k t tinh (nng ch y) cha x y ra
KT&NC ch x y ra khi c T 0

H nh 1.23. Bin i nng lng t do ca h
c. c. c. c. qu ngui qu ngui qu ngui qu ngui
qu ngui T: ngui di T
O

T = T - T
O
< 0
T thay i t r t nh (1 2
o
C) n r t ln (h ng chc, tr m n ngh n
o
C) ty
theo tc l m ngui khi k t tinh. Ngui ch m trong khun c t T ln hn khi ngui
nhanh trong khun kim lo i.
Khi nung nng: s nng ch y s x y ra nhi t T > T
O
, T c gi l qu
nung.
1.7.2. 1.7.2. 1.7.2. 1.7.2. Hai qu tr nh ca s k t tinh Hai qu tr nh ca s k t tinh Hai qu tr nh ca s k t tinh Hai qu tr nh ca s k t tinh
Gm hai qu tr nh c b n ni ti p nhau x y ra l t o m m v ph t tri n m m.
a. To mm a. To mm a. To mm a. To mm
T o m m l qu tr nh sinh ra c c ph n t r n c c u trc tinh th , vi k ch
thc ln, chng khng b tan i nh trc m ph t tri n l n nh l trung t m
ca tinh th (h t), hai lo i m m: t sinh v ngo i lai.
M m t sinh
C c m nguy n t c k ch thc ln r r
th
(coi chng l c c h nh c u b n
k nh r) m theo t nh to n v nhi t ng hc, r
th
(b n k nh ti h n ca m m) c
t nh theo cng thc: r
th
=
v
G
2
,
trong : - sc c ng b m t gia
r n v lng, G
v
- ch nh l ch n ng lng t do (G
L
- G
R
) t nh cho mt n v th
t ch.
Mt khi m m c r r
th
ph t tri n l n th nh h t.
G
G
R
G
L
nhi t

T
O
19
Khi qu ngui T c ng ln th G
V
cng c ng ln, r
th
c ng nh s lng
m m c ng ln h t nh.
M m k sinh
L c c h t r n n m l lng trong kim lo i lng, th nh khun c m m ngo i
lai. Thc t l trong nhi u trng hp ngi ta cn c t o ra v a c c ph n t r n
v o gip k t tinh, s c ni ti mc sau.
b. b. b. b. Pht tri n mm Pht tri n mm Pht tri n mm Pht tri n mm
M m ph t tri n l nh c c m nguy n t b m l n b m t m m c bi t l tr n c c
b c l ch xo n.













H nh 1.24. Kt tinh nhnh
cy (a), tinh th nhnh cy (b)
Khi c l m ngui tng i nhanh, tho t
ti n s ph t tri n m m mang t nh d hng tc l
ph t tri n r t nhanh theo mt s phng t o n n
nh nh c y, trc b c I (A) (h nh 1.24), ri t trc
ch nh n y t o n n trc b c II (B) vung gc vi
trc b c I, ri t trc b c II ph n nh nh ti p t o
n n trc b c III (C)... c nh v y nh nh c y c
h nh th nh.
Sau kim lo i gia c c nh nh c y mi k t
tinh t o n n h t (tinh th ) c k n, khng th y trc
ti p c nh nh c y na. Nh nh c y ch c
ph t hi n thi c ln, ph n k t tinh trc l m tr
ra nh nh c y m khng cn kim lo i lng i n
y. Cng c th t m thc hp kim th y c
nh nh c y.

1.7.3. 1.7.3. 1.7.3. 1.7.3. S h nh thnh ht S h nh thnh ht S h nh thnh ht S h nh thnh ht
a. a. a. a. Ti n tr nh k t tinh Ti n tr nh k t tinh Ti n tr nh k t tinh Ti n tr nh k t tinh
Ta th y: t mi m m t o n n mt h t, c c h t ph t tri n trc to hn; h t sau
s nh hn k ch thc h t (ch nh l ch t)











b. b. b. b. H nh dng ht H nh dng ht H nh dng ht H nh dng ht
H nh d ng h t ph thuc v o phng thc l m ngui:
- Ngui u theo mi phng h t c d ng a c nh hay c u (h nh 1.25).
- Ngui nhanh theo hai phng (tc theo mt m t) h t c d ng t m, l , phi n nh
grafit trong gang x m.
- do c c m m nh hng ng u nhi n
h t khng ng hng, l ch nhau mt
c ch ng k vng bi n h t vi m ng
tinh th b x l ch.


H nh 1.25. Qu tr nh to v pht trin
mm theo thi gian (cc h nh a,b,c) v
kt thc giy th n (d).
20
- Ngui nhanh theo mt phng n o , h t s c d ng a, ct hay h nh tr.
- D ng tinh th h nh kim ( u nhn) ch khi nhi t luy n.
1.7.4. 1.7.4. 1.7.4. 1.7.4. Cc phng php to ht nh khi c Cc phng php to ht nh khi c Cc phng php to ht nh khi c Cc phng php to ht nh khi c
H t nh c t nh cao hn (b n v d o hn = dai cao hn) ? h t nh.
a. a. a. a. Nguy n l Nguy n l Nguy n l Nguy n l
K ch thc h t cng ph thuc v o tng quan ca hai qu tr nh: t o m m v ph t
tri n m m. S m m c t o ra c ng nhi u th h t c ng nh, m m ln l n (ph t
tri n) c ng nhanh th h t c ng ln. K ch thc h t A ph thuc v o tc sinh m m
n v tc ph t tri n v (mm/s) theo cng thc thc nghi m: A = 1,1
4
3
n
v

, t o
h t nh t ng n v gi m v
b. b. b. b. Cc phng php lm ht nh khi c Cc phng php lm ht nh khi c Cc phng php lm ht nh khi c Cc phng php lm ht nh khi c
T ng tc ngui
Khi t ng qu ngui T
o
, tc sinh m m n v tc ph t tri n d i ca m m v
u t ng (h nh 1.26)




. T < T
1
(~10
3
/s): T c n&v u
. T
1
<T < T
2
(~10
4
-10
5
/s): T n, v nano
. T > T
2
: T v nh h nh
. c khun c t khun kim lo i h t nh
Bi n t nh:
. T o m m ngo i lai : 2 lo i:
- kim lo i c cng ki u m ng ho c g n ging nhau:
FeSi, FeSiCa (gang), Ti (th p) H nh 1.26. nh hng ca T n
n v v
- cho ch t t o oxit, nitrit : Al
2
O
3
, AlN khi c th p
. H p ph : Na cho Silumin (AlSi)
. C u ho graphit : Mg, Ce, h
T c ng v t l:

Rung, si u m b g y tinh th h t nh
c ly t m h t nh
1.7.5. Cu to tinh th ca thi c 1.7.5. Cu to tinh th ca thi c 1.7.5. Cu to tinh th ca thi c 1.7.5. Cu to tinh th ca thi c
a. a. a. a. Ba vng tinh th ca thi c Ba vng tinh th ca thi c Ba vng tinh th ca thi c Ba vng tinh th ca thi c








T
2

T
1

T
n,v
n
v
C c thi (th p) c thng c ti t di n trn
ho c vung, chng c c trong khun kim
lo i, i khi khun cn c l m ngui b ng
nc chng thng c c u trc 3 vng i n
h nh (h nh 1.27):
H nh 1.27. C u trc 3 vng ca thi
c
21
V ngo i cng l lp h t nh ng trc 1: do T ln, m m ngo i lai nhi u h t nh
m n. Do th nh khun c nh p nh c c m m ph t tri n theo c c phng ng u
nhi n c t nhau, ch n p nhau h t ph t tri n u theo mi ph a.
Vng ti p theo l lp h t tng i ln h nh tr 2: vung gc vi th nh khun, do
th nh khun mi b t u nng l n T
o
, h t ln hn v ph t tri n m nh theo
phng ph p tuy n vi th nh khun l phng truy n nhi t h t h nh tr.

Vng gia l vng c c h t ln ng trc 3.
Kim lo i lng gia k t tinh sau cng, th nh khun nng l n nhi u do :
- T h t ln,
- nhi t t n u theo mi phng h t ng trc.
. Vng ngo i cng lun lun l lp v mng, 2 vng sau ph thuc v o i u ki n l m
ngui khun:
+ ngui m nh li t th vng 2 s l n t vng 3, th m ch m t vng 3 xuy n tinh
kh bi n d ng d o, khng ph hp vi thi c n
+ ngui ch m th vng 3 l i l n t vng 2, thi tr n n d c n hn.

b. b. b. b. Cc khuy t tt ca vt c Cc khuy t tt ca vt c Cc khuy t tt ca vt c Cc khuy t tt ca vt c
R co v lm co: Do khi k t tinh kim lo i co l i khng c b co: r co n m ph n
t n, r i r c gia c c nh nh c y tr n kh p v t c c gi l r co gia cng p lc
nhi t cao th chng c h n k n khng nh hng ng k n c t nh.
co t p trung lm co thng n m ni k t tinh sau cng: ch d y, ph a tr n. Ph n
thi c lm co ph i c c t b t l s dng ch cn kho ng 85 n 95%. c
li n tc o c lm co
i vi chi ti t c ph i ph n lm co u ngt c t b i.
R kh
Kh ho tan tho t ra khng k p r kh hay bt kh . Khi c n khng th h n
k n c (lp xyt ng n c n khu ch t n l m li n ch b p), g y ra trc v ho c nt
khi s dng kh kh tt trc khi rt khun, s y kh khun c t ho c c trong
ch n khng.
Thi n t ch (segregation)
L s khng ng nh t v th nh ph n v t chc ca s n ph m c, c vi hp
kim (khi th nh ph n phc t p) v kim lo i do t ch t t p ch t. C nhi u d ng thi n
t ch: theo trng lng, trong b n th n h t, ca P, S trong th p.