CUPRINS

CUVNT NAINTE

PARTEA I: MORFOLOGIA
I.0 GENERALITI I.0.1 Morfologia i sintaxa I.0.2 Criterii utilizate n definirea prilor de vorbire I.0.2.1 Criteriul semantic I.0.2.2 Criteriul morfologic I.0.2.3 Criteriul sintactic

1.1 Definiie 1.2 Clasificare 1.2.1 Structura morfologic 1.2.2 Sensul lexical al verbelor 1.2.3 Funcia sintactic a verbelor 1.2.4 Verbe cu sens lexical redus 1.3 Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului 1.4 Timpul 1.5 Timpul prezent simplu 1.5.1 Definiie 1.5.2 Form 1.5.3 Pronunare i ortografie 1.5.4 ntrebuinare 1.6 Timpul trecut simplu 1.6.1 Definiie 1.6.2 Form 1.6.3 Pronunare i ortografie 1.6.4 Verbe neregulate 1.6.5 ntrebuinare 1.6.6 Traducerea lui Past Tense 1.7 Perfectul prezent 1.7.1 Definiie 1.7.2 Form 1.7.3 ntrebuinare 1.8 Mai mult ca perfectul 1.8.1 Definiie 1.8.2 Form 1.8.3 ntrebuinare

1 VERBUL

1.9 Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului 1.9.1 Definiie 1.9.2 Form 1.9.3 ntrebuinare 1.9.4 Be about to 1.9.5 Be to 1.9.6 Viitorul cu going to 1.9.7 ntrebuinare 1.9.8 Prezentul continuu 1.9.9 Prezentul continuu + adeverbele de timp 1.9.10 Prezentul simplu 1.9.11 Prezentul simplu + continuu + verbe de micare 1.9.12 Definiie 1.9.13 Form 1.9.14 ntrebuinare 1.9.15 Aciuni viitoare dintr-o perspectiv trecut 1.10 Apectul 1.10.1 Definiie 1.10.2 Opoziia durativ - non durativ 1.10.3 Verbe de activitate 1.10.4 Aspectul continuu - Form 1.10.5 Ortografie 1.10.6 ntrebuinarea aspectului continuu 1.10.7 Prezentul continuu 1.10.8 Past Tense Continuu 1.10.9 Viitorul Continuu 1.10.10 Traducerea formelor la aspectul continuu 1.10.11 Verbe care nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu 1.10.12 Aspectul perfectiv - definiie 1.10.13 ntrebuinarea 1.10.14 Aspectul perfectiv - aspectul continuu 1.10.15 Mai mult ca perfectul continuu 1.10.16 Viitorul perfect continuu 1.11 Diateza 1.11.1 Definiie 1.11.2 Diateza activ 1.11.3 Diateza pasiv 1.11.4 Be + participiul trecut 1.11.5 Conjugarea unui verb la diateza pasiv 1.11.6 Get/Become + participiul trecut 1.11.7 Complementul de agent 1.11.8 ntrebuinarea diatezei pasive 1.11.9 Traducerea construciilor pasive 1.12 Persoana i Numrul 1.13 Modul

1.13.1 Definiie 1.13.2 Modul indicativ 1.13.3 Modul subjonctiv 1.13.4 Subjonctivul sintetic 1.13.5 Subjonctivul prezent 1.13.6 Subjonctivul trecut 1.13.7 Subjonctivul II trecut 1.13.8 Subjonctivul analitic 1.13.9 ntrebuinarea subjonctivului analitic 1.13.10 Should + infinitiv 1.13.11 May/Might + infinitiv 1.13.12 Would + infinitiv 1.13.13 Could + infinitiv 1.13.14 Subjonctiv sau indicativ 1.14 Formele nepersonale ale verbului 1.14.1 Formele nepersonale 1.14.2 Caracteristici verbale 1.14.3 Caracteristici substantivale 1.15 Infinitivul 1.15.1 Formele infinitivul 1.15.2 Caracteristici verbale 1.15.3 Caracteristici substantivale 1.15.4 Traducere 1.16 Forma n -ing 1.16.1 Definiie 1.16.2 Participiul n -ing 1.16.3 Caracteristici verbale 1.16.4 Caracteristici adjectivale 1.16.5 Funcii sintactice 1.16.6 Traducere 1.17 Gerund 1.17.1 Caracteristici verbale 1.17.2 Caracteristici substantivale 1.17.3 ntrebuinare 1.17.4 Traducere 1.17.5 Infinitivul cu to i Gerund 1.17.6 Folosirea infinitivului cu to 1.17.7 Folosirea formei Gerund 1.17.8 Gerund sau infinitiv 1.17.9 Asemnri de sens 1.18 Participiul Trecut 1.18.1 Definiie 1.18.2 Caracteristici verbale 1.18.3 Caracteristici adjectivale 1.18.4 Forme participiale folosite adjectival

1.18.5 Funcii sintactice 1.18.6 Traducere 1.18.7 Conjugarea verbului Call 1.19 Verbele auxiliare 1.19.1 Caracteristici 1.19.2 Forme contrase 1.19.3 Be 1.19.4 Have 1.19.5 Shall/Should 1.19.6 Will/Would 1.19.7 May/Might 1.19.8 Let 1.19.9 Do 1.20 Verbele modale 1.20.1 Definiie 1.20.2 Caracteristicile verbelor modale 1.20.3 Can, could 1.20.4 May, might 1.20.5 Must, have to, need 1.20.6 Shall, should 1.20.7 Ought to 1.20.8 Will, would 1.20.9 Udes to 1.20.10 Be to 1.20.11 Dare Exerciii

2.1 Definiie 2.2 Clasificare 2.2.1 Formarea substantivelor 2.2.2 Grad de individualizare 2.3 Numrul substantivelor 2.3.1 Substantive numrabile 2.3.2 Clasificarea substantivelor numrabile 2.3.3 Formarea pluralului substantivelor numrabile 2.3.4 Pluralul regulat al substantivelor 2.3.5 Ortografia pluralului regulat 2.3.6 Pluralul neregulat al substantivelor 2.3.7 Substantive nenumrabile 2.3.8 Numrul substantivelor invariabile 2.4 Genul substantivelor 2.4.1 Definiie 2.4.2 Clasificarea substantivelor dup ideea de gen

2 SUBSTANTIVUL

2.4.3 Genul substantivelor nume de persoane 2.4.4 Genul substantivelor nume de animale 2.4.5 Genul substantivelor nume de obiecte 2.4.6 Folosirea stilistic a categoriei gramaticale a genului 2.5 Cazul substantivelor 2.5.1 Definiie 2.5.2 Cazul nominativ 2.5.3 Cazul acuzativ 2.5.4 Cazul dativ 2.5.5 Cazul genitiv 2.5.6 Cazul vocativ Exerciii

3.1 Categoria determinarii 3.1.1 Definiie 3.1.2 Determinanii propriu-zii 3.1.3 Predeterminanii 3.1.4 Postdeterminanii 3.2 Articolul 3.2.1 Definiie 3.2.2 Referin unic 3.2.3 Referin individual 3.2.4 Numele proprii i referina unic 3.3 Articolul hotrt 3.3.1 Forma articolului hotrt 3.3.2 Funciile articolului hotrt 3.4 Articolul nehotrt 3.4.1 Forma articolului nerotrt 3.4.2 Funciile articolului nehotrt 3.5 Articolul zero 3.5.1 Definiie 3.5.2 Funciile articolului zero 3.6 Omisiunea articolului 3.7 Adjectivul demonstrativ 3.7.1 Definiie 3.7.2 Form 3.7.3 ntrebuinare 3.8 Adjectivul posesiv 3.8.1 Definiie 3.8.2 Form 3.8.3 ntrebuinare 3.9 Adjectivul interogativ

3 ARTICOLUL I ALI DETERMINANI

Ali determinani

3.9.1 Definiie 3.9.2 Forma 3.9.3 ntrebuinare 3.10 Adjectivul nehotrt 3.10.1 Definiie 3.10.2 Form 3.10.3 ntrebuinare 3.10.4 Adjectivul negativ Exerciii

4.1 Definiie 4.2 Clasificare 4.2.1 Numeralul ca determinant, n gramatica structuralist 4.2.2 Categoria numeralului n gramatica tradiional 4.3 Numeralul cardinal 4.3.1 Form 4.3.2 ntrebuinare 4.4 Numeralul ordinal 4.4.1 Form 4.4.2 ntrebuinare 4.5 Numeralul fracionar 4.5.1 Forma 4.6 Numeralul colectiv 4.6.1 Form 4.6.2 ntrebuinare 4.7 Numeralul multiplicativ 4.7.1 Form 4.7.2 ntrebuinare 4.8 Numeralul distributiv 4.9 Numeralul adverbial Exerciii

4 NUMERALUL

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

5 PRONUMELE

Definiie Rolul de substitut al pronumelui Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui Clasificarea pronumelui Funciile sintactice ale pronumelui Pronumele personal 5.6.1 Categoria persoanei la pronumele personal 5.6.2 Categoria genului la pronumele personal 5.6.3 Categoria numrului la pronumele personal 5.6.4 Categoria cazului la pronumele personal

5.6.5 Funciile sintactice ale pronumelui personal 5.7 Pronumele reflexiv 5.7.1 Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui reflexiv 5.7.2 ntrebuinarea pronumelui reflexiv 5.7.3 Pronumele de ntrire 5.8 Pronumele posesiv 5.9 Pronumele interogativ 5.10 Pronumele relativ 5.10.1 Definiie 5.10.2 ntrebuinarea pronumelui relativ 5.10.3 Locul pronumelui relativ 5.11 Pronumele nehotrt 5.11.1 Definiie 5.11.2 ntrebuinare 5.12 Pronumele negativ Exerciii

6.1 Definiie 6.2 Comparaia adjectivelor 6.3 Formarea comparativului i superlativului 6.3.1 Comparaia sintetic 6.3.2 Comparaia analitic 6.3.3 Formarea comparativului de egalitate i inferioritate 6.3.4 Formarea superlativului absolut 6.4 Comparaia neregulat a adjectivului 6.5 ntrirea comparativului adjectivului 6.6 Funciile sintactice ale adjectivului 6.7 Locul adjectivului n propoziie Exerciii

6 ADJECTIVUL

7.1 Definiie 7.2 Locuiuni i contrucii adverbiale 7.2.1 Locuiuni adverbiale 7.2.2 Construcii adverbiale 7.3 Forma adverbului 7.4 Modificri de ortografie 7.5 Clasificarea adverbului 7.5.1 Adverbe de mod 7.5.2 Adverbe de loc 7.5.3 Adverbe de timp 7.6 Comparaia adverbului 7.6.1 Gradul comparativ

7 ADVERBUL

7.6.2 Gradul superlativ 7.6.3 Comparaia neregulat 7.7 Adverbe speciale Exerciii

8.1 Definiie 8.2 Caracteristici ale prepoziiilor 8.2.1 Prepoziii cu acuzativ 8.2.2 Prepoziii urmate de substantive cu articol 8.2.3 Prepoziii urmate de substantive nearticulate 8.2.4 Verbe precedate de prepoziii 8.2.5 Cuvinte cu prepoziii obligatorii 8.3 Locul prepoziiilor 8.4 Relaii exprimate de prepoziii 8.5 Paralelisme ntre prepoziia n limba romn i n limba englez 8.6 Diferene ntre prepoziia n limba romn i n limba englez 8.7 Particole adverbiale 8.7.1 ntrebuinarea particolelor adverbiale 8.7.2 Locul particolelor adverbiale n propoziie Exerciii

8 PREPOZIIA

9 CONJUNCIA
9.1 Definiie 9.2 Conjunciile coordonatoare 9.2.1 Clasificare 9.2.2 ntrebuinare 9.2.3 Poziie 9.3 Conjunciile subordonatoare 9.3.1 Clasificare 9.3.2 ntrebuinare 9.3.3 Poziie Exerciii

10 INTERJECIA
10.1 Definiie 10.2 Clasificare 10.3 ntrebuinare Exerciii

PARTEA II: SINTAXA PROPOZIIEI

II.0 GENERALITI II.0.1 Definiie

II.0.2 II.0.3 II.0.4 II.0.5

Clasificare Timpuri de propoziii Subtipuri de propoziii Prile de propoziie

11 SUBIECTUL
11.1 Definiie 11.2 Exprimarea subiectului 11.3 Situaii speciale 11.3.1 Subiectul generic 11.3.2 Subiectul impersonal 11.3.3 Subiectul introductiv 11.4 Locul subiectului n propoziie

12 PREDICATUL

12.1 Definiie 12.2 Clasificare 12.2.1 Predicatul verbal 12.2.2 Predicatul nominal 12.3 Locul predicatului n propoziie

13.1 Acordul n persoan 13.2 Acordul n numr 13.2.1 Acordul gramatical 13.2.2 Acordul dup neles 13.2.3 Acordul prin atracie Exerciii

13 ACORDUL SUBIECTULUI CU PREDICATUL

14.1 Definiie 14.2 Indicii formali ai complementului direct 14.3 Exprimarea complementului direct 14.3.1 Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume personal 14.3.2 Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reflexiv 14.3.3 Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reciproc 14.4 ntrebuinare 14.5 Verbe tranzitive cu un complement direct 14.6 Verbe tranzitive cu dou complemente directe 14.7 Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement indirect 14.8 Verbe tranzitive urmat de un complement direct i un complement prepoziional

14 COMPLEMENTUL DIRECT

15 COMPLEMENTUL INDIRECT
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6

Definiie Indicii formali ai complementului indirect Exprimarea complementului indirect ntrebuinare Locul complementului indirect Transformarea pasiv

16 COMPLEMENTUL PREPOZIIONAL
16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6

Definiie Indicii formali ai complementului prepoziional Exprimarea complementului prepoziional ntrebuinare Locul complementului prepoziional Transformarea pasiv

17 ELEMENTUL PREDICATIV SUPLIMENTAR

17.1 Definiie 17.2 Exprimarea elementului predicativ suplimentar 17.3 Locul elementului predicativ suplimentar

18.1 Definiie 18.2 Caracteristicile contruciilor complexe 18.2.1 Caracteristici predicative 18.2.2 Asemnri ntre construciile complexe 18.2.3 Deosebiri ntre construciile complexe 18.2.4 Funciile sintactice 18.3 Construciile cu acuzativul 18.3.1 Acuzativul cu infinitiv 18.3.2 For + infinitivul 18.3.3 Acuzativul cu participiul prezent 18.3.4 Acuzativul cu participiul trecut 18.4 Construciile cu nominativul 18.4.1 Nominativ cu infinitiv 18.4.2 Nominativul cu participiul prezent 18.5 Nominativul absolut 18.6 Alte construcii complexe

18 CONSTRUCII COMPLEXE

19 COMPLEMENTE CIRCUMSTANIALE
19.1 Definiie 19.2 Clasificare 19.3 Complementul circumstanial de loc 19.3.1 Definiie

10

19.3.2 Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de loc 19.3.3 Locul complementului circumstanial de loc 19.4 Complementul circumstanial de timp 19.4.1 Definiie 19.4.2 Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de timp 19.4.3 Locul complementului circumstanial de timp 19.5 Complementul circumstanial de mod 19.5.1 Definiie 19.5.2 Clasificare 19.5.3 Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis 19.5.4 Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de mod 19.5.5 Locul complementului circumstanial de mod propriu-zis 19.5.6 Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ 19.5.7 Locul complementului de mod comparativ 19.6 Alte complemente circumstaniale

20 ATRIBUTUL

20.1 Definiie 20.2 Exprimarea atributului 20.3 Locul atributului 20.3.1 Atributul prepus 20.3.2 Atributul postpus 20.3.3 Atribute ce pot avea ambele poziii 20.4 Apoziia 20.4.1 Definiie 20.4.2 Apoziia simpl 20.4.3 Locul apoziiei simple 20.4.4 Apoziia dezvoltat 20.4.5 Locul apoziiei dezvoltate

21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6

21 ELEMENTE INDEPENDENTE

Definiie Clasificare Interjeciile Adresarea direct Cuvintele i locuiunile parentetice Locul elementelor independente

22 ORDINEA CUVINTELOR N PROPOZIIE

22.0 Generaliti 22.0.1 Importana studierii ordinii cuvintelor 22.0.2 Comparaia cu limba romn 22.0.3 Caracteristici generale ale ordinii cuvintelor n limba englez 22.0.4 Poziia prilor de propoziie

11

22.1 Reguli privitoare la ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie Exerciii

23 FELURILE PROPOZIIILOR

23.0 Clasificare 23.1 Propoziia enuniativ 23.2 Propoziia negativ 23.2.1 Exprimarea negaiei 23.2.2 Dou negaii ntr-o propoziie 23.2.3 Exprimarea sensului negativ 23.2.4 Sublinierea caracterului negativ 23.2.5 Negarea unei propoziii ntregi 23.3 Propoziia interogativ 23.3.1 Interogativul verbelor 23.3.2 Propoziii interogativ - negative 23.3.3 Folosirea pronumelor i adjectivelor n propoziii interogative 23.3.4 ntrebri generale 23.3.5 ntrebri speciale 23.3.6 ntrebri alternative 23.3.7 ntrebri disjunctive 23.4 Propoziia imperativ 23.4.1 Forma verbal 23.4.2 Intonaia propoziiei imperative 23.4.3 Structura propoziiei imperative 23.4.4 Mijloace de ntrire sau de formulare politicoas 23.5 Propoziia exclamativ 23.5.1 Intonaia 23.5.2 Propoziiile exclamative propriu-zise 23.5.3 Propoziiile exclamative cu form nespecific Exerciii

PARTEA III: SINTAXA FRAZEI

III.0 GENERALITI III.0.1 Propoziia fraza III.0.2 Definiie III.0.3 Raporturile sintactice III.0.4 Legarea propoziiilor

24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4

24 FRAZA PRIN COORDONARE

Coordonare-Definiie Felul coordonrii Coordonarea copulativ Coordonarea disjunctiv

12

24.5 Coordonarea adversativ 24.6 Folosirea timpurilor n frazele prin coordonare

Legarea propoziiilor subordonate Clasificarea propoziiilor subordonate Reducerea propoziiilor subordonate Propoziia completivo-direct 25.4.1 Rolul completivei directe 25.4.2 Propoziia interogativ n vorbirea indirect este completiv direct 25.4.3 Omiterea conjunciei that 25.4.4 Corespondena timpurilor 25.4.5 Reducerea propoziiei completive directe 25.5 Propoziia completiv prepoziional 25.5.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.5.2 Omiterea propoziiei 25.5.3 Anticiparea completivei prepoziionale prin it 25.5.4 Corespondena timpurilor n completiva prepoziional 25.6 Propoziia subiectiv 25.6.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.6.2 Locul propoziiei subiective n fraz 25.6.3 Folosirea timpurilor n Propoziia subiectiv 25.6.4 Reducerea propoziiei subiective 25.7 Propoziia predicativ 25.7.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.7.2 Folosirea timpurilor 25.7.3 Reducerea propoziei predicative 25.8 Propoziiile relative 25.8.1 Felurile propoziiilor relative 25.8.2 Prin ce se introduce propoziia relativ 25.8.3 Propoziia relativ restrictiv 25.8.4 Propoziia relativ descriptiv 25.8.5 Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia relativ 25.8.6 Reducerea propoziiei relative 25.8.7 Propoziia apoziional 25.8.8 Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia apoziional 25.8.9 Reducerea propoziei apoziionale 25.9 Propoziia circumstanial de timp 25.9.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.9.2 Folosirea timpurilor 25.9.3 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de timp 25.10 Propoziia circumstanial de loc 25.10.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.10.2 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de loc 25.11 Propoziia circumstanial de mod propriu-zis

25 FRAZA PRIN SUBORDONARE

25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4

13

25.12 Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ 25.12.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.12.2 Folosirea timpurilor 25.12.3 Traducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de mod comparativ 25.13 Propoziia circumstanial cauzal 25.13.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.13.2 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale cauzale 25.14 Propoziia circumstanial condiional 25.14.1 Tipuri de condiii 25.14.2 Prin ce se introduce propoziia circumstanial condiional 25.14.3 Locul propoziiilor circumstaniale condiionale 25.14.4 Folosirea timpurilor 25.14.5 Traducerea propoziiilor condiionale 25.14.6 Alte timpuri folosite n propoziiile condiionale 25.14.7 Folosirea timpurilor n condiional dup viitorul n trecut 25.14.8 Combinaii ntre cele trei tipuri de propoziii circumstaniale condiionale 25.14.9 Should + infinitiv 25.14.10 Will n propoziii circumstaniale condiionale 25.14.11 Could/Might + infinitiv 25.14.12 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale condiionale 25.15 Propoziia circumstanial de scop 25.15.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.15.2 Folosirea timpurilor 25.15.3 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de scop 25.16 Propoziia circumstanial consecutiv 25.16.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.16.2 Folosirea timpurilor 25.16.3 Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale consecutive 25.17 Propoziia circumstanial concesiv 25.17.1 Prin ce se introduce 25.17.2 Reducerea propoziiilor circumstaniale concesive 25.17.3 Folosirea timpurilor Exerciii

26 VORBIREA DIRECT I INDIRECT

26.1 Vorbirea direct 26.1.1 Definiie 26.1.2 Locul i funcia sintactic a enunului n vorbirea direct 26.1.3 Folosirea timpurilor 26.2 Vorbirea indirect 26.3 Transformarea vorbirii directe n vorbire indirect 26.3.1 Pronumele personal, reflexiv i posesiv 26.3.2 Pronumele/adjectivul demonstrativ 26.3.3 Adverbele de timp 26.3.4 Predicatul la un timp prezent

14

26.3.5 Predicatul la un timp trecut 26.3.6 Predicatul la prezentul simplu 26.3.7 Predicatul - aciune viitoare 26.3.8 Predicatul - Past simple 26.3.9 Predicatul - Past Tense Continuous 26.3.10 Predicatul - Verbe modale 26.3.11 Frazele condiionale 26.3.12 Propoziii enuniative 26.3.13 Propoziii interogative 26.3.14 Propoziii exclamative 26.3.15 Propoziii imperative 26.4 Vorbirea indirect liber

15

CUVNT NAINTE
n tratarea problemelor, s-a avut n vedere modul n care acestea sunt prezentate n majoritatea manualelor i gramaticilor de limb englez din ara noastr. Au fost de asemenea n atenia autorilor progresele nregistrate n analiza fenomenului lingvistic n general, nu numai n Romnia, dar i n rile unde se vorbete limba englez, precum i caracteristica limbii engleze contemporane de a aplica regulile flexibil i nuanat, n funcie de scopul comunicrii, de interlocutor (limbaj oficial sau familiar) i de aspectul limbii (scris sau oral). Lund n consideraie toate aceste aspecte, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz colar prezint fenomenele gramaticale n mod descriptiv. n cadrul prii I, MORFOLOGIA, sunt studiate regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor. Aceast prim parte este considerat ca deosebit de important pentru cel care studiaz limba englez, deoarece primul lucru care se nva n gramatica unei limbi strine este cum se formeaz categoriile gramaticale de baz: timpurile verbului, pluralul substantivelor, comparaia adjectivelor etc. Partea a II-a i partea a III-a, SINTAXA PROPOZIIEI i SINTAXA FRAZEI, cuprind regulile privitoare la mbinarea cuvintelor n propoziii i a propoziiilor n fraze. Aceast parte este considerat de asemenea important, deoarece ea arat celui care studiaz limba englez cum s foloseasc formele gramaticale pe care le-a nvat. n descrierea formei cuvintelor (n cadrul morfologiei) i a funcionrii lor n comunicare (n cadrul sintaxei), lucrarea reia afirmaiile coninute n manualele colare n vigoare. Ceea ce aduce n plus Gramatica limbii engleze este o imagine funcional, de ansamblu, asupra fenomenului gramatical contemporan, prin specificarea att a unor posibile abateri de la reguli, ct i a situaiilor n care se folosesc formele gramaticale: n vorbirea curent sau n limba scris, n stilul oficial sau n literatur, n varianta britanic sau cea american a limbii engleze. n elaborarea lucrrii, s-a pornit de la explicaiile gramaticale i compendiile de gramatic cuprinse n manualele de limb englez actualmente n uz n colile din ara noastr i de la experiena personal i a altor cadre didactice n predarea limbii engleze. n primul rnd, autoarele s-au bazat pe tradiia creat de gramaticile elaborate de: Leon Levichi, Ioan Preda - Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific 1967; Alice Bdescu - Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific, 1963; Catedra de limb i literatur englez; Universitatea din Bucureti - Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific, 1962; Ioana tefnescu - Lectures in English Morphology, Univ. din Buc., 1978. Avnd n vedere tendinele recente din limba englez contemporan, au fost folosite i lucrri publicate n Marea Britanie i n alte ri (vezi cap. Bibliografie); iar pentru a oferi cititorului un cadru de referin familiar i posibilitatea de a face comparaii cu structura limbii romne, definiiile generale, structura lucrrii i terminologia au fost elaborate pe baza unor gramatici ale, limbii romne: Academia R.S.R. - Gramatica limbii romne, Ed. Academiei R.S.R., 1966; C. Dimitriu - Gramatica limbii romne explicat. Morfologia, Junimea, 1979; I. Iordan, VI. Robu - Limba romna contemporan,

16

E.D.P., 1978. Trimiterile la sursele folosite - romneti sau strine - nu au fost de regul menionate pe parcursul lucrrii pentru a nu ngreuia lectura, materialele de referin fiind specificate la sfritul lucrrii. Datorit caracterului practic al lucrrii, faptele de teorie gramatical coninute n Gramatic au fost expuse succint i nsoite de numeroase exemplificri. Exemplele prezente n lucrare sunt dintre cele mai simple, aa cum sunt ele folosite n vorbirea curent sau prezentate n alte gramatici ale limbii engleze, fiind. construite pe baza unui vocabular redus i accesibil, uor de neles pentru elevi. Situaiile n care deosebirile dintre cele dou limbi prezint dificulti pentru elevul romn au fost subliniate n lucrare i practicate n exerciiile care urmeaz fiecrui capitol. Rezolvarea unui mare numr de exerciii a fost inclus la sfritul volumului. Autoarele doresc s-i exprime gratitudinea fa de autorii gramaticilor limbii engleze menionai anterior, care au pus bazele unei solide tradiii de anglistic n Romnia; mulumirile noastre se ndreapt de asemenea ctre asist. univ. Sanda Retinschi de la Universitatea din Bucureti, prof. Alexandra Vasiliu, de la liceul de art George Enescu i prof. Anca Iliescu, de la coala general nr. 50 din Bucureti, pentru competena i rbdarea cu care au parcurs lucrarea n' stadiul de elaborare, oferind binevenite sugestii critice. n egal msur, autoarele in s mulumeasc redaciei de specialitate de la Editura didactic i pedagogic pentru recomandrile preioase date i munca desfurat n pregtirea volumului pentru publicare. Elaborarea unei asemenea gramatici prezentnd numeroase dificulti autoarele ateapt eu interes sugestii i recomandri din partea cititorilor, n vederea mbuntirii lucrrii, pentru o eventual reeditare.

17

Partea I

MORFOLOGIA
(Morphology)
I.0. GENERALITI I.0.1. Morfologia i sintaxa
sintaxa. Cele dou pri constitutive ale gramaticii tradiionale sunt morfologia i Morfologia cuprinde regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor i la modificrile formale ale cuvintelor studiate pe pri de vorbire; sintaxa cuprinde regulile privitoare la mbinarea cuvintelor n propoziii i fraze.

I.0.2. Criterii de utilizare n definirea prilor de vorbire

substantivul, articolul, adjectivul, pronumele, numeralul, verbul, adverbul, prepoziia, conjuncia i interjecia.
vorbire:

Unitatea de analiz n gramatica tradiional este cuvntul. Gramatica tradiional grupeaz cuvintele n 10 clase mari, numite pri de

mprirea cuvintelor n 10 pri de vorbire se bazeaz pe folosirea concomitent a 3 criterii:

a) criteriul semantic = sensul lexical cel mai general al claselor de cuvinte; b) criteriul morfologic = schimbrile ce au loc n forma cuvintelor pentru

exprimarea categoriilor gramaticale de gen, numr, caz, persoan, comparaie, mod, timp, aspect i diatez;

c) criteriul sintactic = posibilitatea cuvintelor de a ndeplini funcii sintactice

n cadrul propoziiei. Definirea prilor de vorbire se bazeaz pe toate cele 3 criterii, un singur criteriu fiind insuficient. I.0.2.1. Din punct de vedere semantic, prile de vorbire se disting dup ceea ce exprim ele: numele unui obiect (substantivul, indirect i pronumele, care ine locul unui substantiv), o nsuire a unui obiect (adjectivul), un numr sau o determinare numeric (numeralul), o aciune sau o stare (verbul), o caracteristic a unei aciuni, stri sau nsuiri (adverbul), exteriorizarea unui sentiment, a unei stri fizice, a unui act de voin sau imitarea unui sunet (interjecia). Din punct de vedere al criteriului semantic, prile de vorbire se mpart n: a) pri de vorbire cu sens lexical de sine stttor, i care pot fi pri de propoziie: substantivul, adjectivul, pronumele, numeralul, verbul, adverbul i interjecia;

18

b) pri de vorbire care nu au ntotdeauna sens lexical de sine stttor, exprimnd raporturi ntre noiuni, i care nu pot fi pri de propoziie: prepoziia, conjuncia i articolul. I.0.2.2. n funcie de criteriul morfologic, cuvintele din limba englez i modific forma pentru exprimarea categoriilor gramaticale de gen, numr, caz, persoan, comparaie, timp, mod, aspect i diatez. Schimbrile n forma cuvintelor care exprim categoriile gramaticale alctuiesc flexiunea. n funcie de prezena sau absena flexiunii, cuvintele se mpart n: a) cuvinte flexibile, care au cel puin o categorie gramatical, pentru exprimarea creia i modific forma; b) cuvinte neflexibile, care nu sunt marcate pentru categorii gramaticale. I.0.2.3. n funcie de criteriul sintactic, cuvintele se mpart n: a) cuvinte care ndeplinesc o funcie sintactic n propoziie, putnd fi o parte principal (subiect, predicat) sau secundar (atribut, complement, element predicativ suplimentar) de propoziie; b) cuvinte care nu au o funcie sintactic, dar care marcheaz funcii sintactice: Ive bought this book for Mary. She receiverd the parcel afeter paying for it.

1. VERBUL (The Verb)

1.1. Definiie
Verbul este partea de vorbire care: a) exprim aciuni, procese sau stri; b) are categorii gramaticale de persoan i numr comune cu alte pri de vorbire i categoriile specifice de timp, mod, aspect i diatez; c) ndeplinete funcia sintactic de predicat.

Verbele pot fi clasificate din punct de vedere al structurii morfologice sau din punct de vedere al sensului lexical i al funciei. 1.2.1 Din punct de vedere al structurii morfologice, verbele pot fi clasificate n: a) verbe simple: go; b) verbe compuse: spotlight; c) verbe cu particul adverbial: put on, put off, put away; d) verbe cu prepoziie obligatorie: look at, listen to, wait, for, succees in;

1.2 Clasificare

19

e) locuiuni verbale: take care of, make use of. Grupele a), b) i e) nu prezint particulariti deosebite. Pentru c) vezi 8.7, iar pentru d) vezi 8.2.5. 1.2.2 Sensul lexical al verbelor. Verbele n limba englez se mpart n: a) verbe cu sens lexical plin, numite de obicei verbe noionale; b) verbe cu sens lexical redus, care sunt folosite mai mult cu funcii gramaticale; n clasa verbelor cu sens lexical redus intr verbele copulative, verbele auxiliare i verbele modale. 1.2.3 Funcia sintactic a verbelor. Pe plan sintactic verbele cu sens lexical plin sunt predicative, adic pot forma singure predicatul unei propoziii, pe cnd verbele cu sens lexical redus sunt nepredicative, au nevoie de o complinire (verb noional, nume predicativ) pentru a deveni predicate: The child is clever. n schimb ele marcheaz anumite categorii gramaticale. n: The film was seen by millions of people. Filmul a fost vzut de milioane de oameni. was are funcia de marc a diatezei pasive, timpul Paste Tense, persoana a III-a singular pentru verbul see. 1.2.4 Verbele cu sens lexical redus se mpart n: a) verbe copulative (be, i, conform gramaticii tradiionale: appear, seem, look, turn, become, get, remain, stay etc.): He seems ill. Pare bolnav. b) verbe auxiliare (be, have, shall/should, will/would, may/might, can/could, do) care ndeplinesc funcia de marc a categoriilor gramaticale de diatez, mod, timp, aspect, persoan i numr, a formei interogative i negative la verbele pe care le nsoesc: He was told a lie. I s-a spus o minciun. - Diateza pasiv. He was trying to catch the ball when he fell. ncerca s prind mingea cnd a czut. - Aspectul continuu etc. c) verbe semiauxiliare sau modale (can/could, must, have to, may/might, shall/should, will/would, ought to etc.) care arat atitudinea vorbitorului fa de enun: - posibilitate: It might rain later. S-ar putea s plou mai trziu; - necesitate: You must finish before noon. Trebuie s termini nainte de prnz etc.

1.3. Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului

n limba englez verbul are forme gramaticale determinate de categoriile specifice de timp, aspect, diatez i mod i de categoriile nespecifice de persoan i numr. n funcie de prezena sau absena categoriilor de timp, persoan i numr, formele verbale n limba englez se mpart n forme personale i nepersonale. Formele personale ale verbului (Finite Forms of the Verb) sunt modurile indicativ i subjonctiv. La aceste forme, verbul este marcat pentru a exprima categoriile de timp, mod, diatez, aspect, persoan i numr, iar din punct de vedere sintactic, ele pot forma singure predicatul i se acord n numr i persoan cu subiectul.

20

Formele nepersonale ale verbului (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) sunt infinitivul Gerund-ul (Gerunziul), participiul prezent i particupiul trecut. Aceste forme nu au categoriile de timp, person i numr i nu pot forma singure predicatul propoziiei.

Categoria gramatical a timpului (Tense), categorie specific verbelor, se refer la ordinea evenimentelor n timp, aa cum este perceput aceasta de vorbitor n momentul vorbirii. Momentul n care are loc actul de vorbire este momentul prezent (now). Fa de acest moment care constituie axa de referin a prezentului, unele evenimente sunt: a) anterioare, cnd ele au loc nainte de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele sunt amintite de vorbitor): Present Perfect; b) posterioare fa de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele fiind anticipate de vorbitor, deoarece vor avea loc dup momentul vorbirii): Future; c) simultane cu momentul vorbirii (avnd loc n acelai timp) Present. Considernd momentul vorbirii punctul prezent, vorbitorul i poate aminti un eveniment care a avut loc la un moment anterior momentului vorbirii (then). n raport cu acest moment amintit then, care d natere axei de referin a trecutului, alte evenimente pot fi: a) anterioare momentului trecut then: Past Perfect; b) simultane cu then: Past Tense; c) posterioare: Future in the Past. De asemenea, in momentul vorbirii (now), vorbitorul poate anticipa anumite evenimente (posterioare momentului vorbirii). n raport cu un anume eveniment posterior momentului prezent (axa de referin a viitorului), alte evenimente pot fi: a) anterioare: Future Perfect; b) simultane: Future; c) posterioare: engleza nu are marc formal pentru aceste evenimente. n analiza timpului, trebuie astfel luate n consideraie trei elemente: a) momentul vorbirii; b) momentul (svririi) aciunii; c) axa sau momentul de referin. a) Momentul vorbirii este momentul n care enunul este pronunat de vorbitor: now. b) Momentul aciunii este momentul n care a avut loc aciunea sau starea: now,

1.4. Timpul (Tense)

then, tomorrow etc.

c) Momentul de referin reprezint axa pe care se plaseaz vorbitorul n perceperea evenimentului: axa prezentului, axa trecutului, axa viitorului. n funcie de cele trei elemente - momentul vorbirii, momentul aciunii i momentul de referin - limba englez cunoate urmtorul sistem de timpuri:

21

- pe axa prezentului: Present, Present Perfect, Future; - pe axa trecutului: Past tense, Past Perfect, Future in the Past; - pe axa viitorului: Future, Future Perfect

1.5. Timpul prezent simplu (Present Tense Simple)

1.5.1. Definiie. Prezentul simplu desemneaz un eveniment (o aciune sau stare) care se ntmpl simultan cu momentul vorbirii (prezentul instantaneu) sau care include momentul vorbirii (prezentul generic i habitual). 1.5.2. Form. Din punct de vedere al formei, prezentul simplu este identic cu infinitivul, la toate persoanele singular i plural, cu excepia persoanei a III-a singular, care adaug -(e)s: I swim. Eu not. You swim. Tu/Voi noi/notai. We swim. Noi notm. They swim. Ei/Ele noat. He swims. El noat. She swims. Ea noat. It swim. El/Ea noat. (neutru) 1.5.3. Pronunarea i ortografierea terminaiei -(e)s la persoana a III-a singular prezint aceleai caracteristici ca i terminaia de plural -(e)s a substantivelor: -(e)s se pronun: [s] dup consoane surde: He thinks [_ts_i_n_ks]. [z] dup consoane sonore i vocale: He studies [st_a_diz]. He runs [r_a_nz]. [iz] dup consoane sibilante: She washes [_w_o__iz] Verbele say i do au la persoana a III-a singular o pronunare deosebit fa de celelalte persoane: I say [sai] - he says [sez]; I do [du:] - he does [d_a_z]. Din punct de vedere al ortografiei, majoritatea verbelor adaug -s ;a persoana a III-a singular: He walks. She sees. Disinena devine -es cnd verbul se termin n s, x, z, sh, ch, tch sau o: She watches. It buzzes. He goes. Verbele terminate n -y precedat de consoan, schimb y n i i adaug -es: I try - he tries. 1.5.4. ntrebuinare. Prezentul simplu are mai multe ntrebuinri: 1) Prezentul generic (Generic Simple Present) exprim aciuni generale care au loc ntr-un interval de timp nespecificat, dar care include momentul vorbirii: The Earth moves round the Sun. Birds fly. Three and three make six.

22

Adverbele de frecven tipice pentru propoziiile generice sunt: always, never, regularly, ever: Wood always floats on water. 2) Prezentul simplu este folosit pentru aciuni obinuite, repetate (Habitual Simple Present), care au loc ntr-o perioad de timp general sau specific, menionat prin adverbe sau locuiuni adverbiale de timp ca: on Mondays, in summer, every day sau adverbe sau locuiuni adverbiale de frecven ca: often, frequently, seldom, rarely, occasionally, sometimes, once a week/month/year: I go to school every day. I usually watch TV in the evening. Not: Prezentul simplu desemnnd aciuni repetate este apropiat de prezentul generic deoarece nici el nu individualizeaz evenimentele sau specific momentul aciunii. Deosebirea ntre cele dou folosiri ale prezentului simplu este urmtoarea: n propoziii care conin aciuni repetate subiectul este individualizat, pe cnd n cele generice subiectul este general: I go skiing in winter. Water boils al 100 Centigrade. A doctor works hard. 3) Prezentul instantaneu (Instantaneous Simple Present) se refer la aciuni care sunt vzute ca avnd loc n ntregime n momentul vorbirii. Aceast ntrebuinare a prezentului simplu se ntlnete n: a) comentarii: The goal-keeper misses the ball and one more goal is scored. Portarul nu prinde mingea i se marcheaz nc un gol. b) demonstraii: I now mix the butter with the cocoa. Acum amestec untul cu cacao. c) exclamaii: Here comes our teacher! Iat (c) vine profesorul nostru! 4) Folosirea prezentului simplu cu alte valori temporale: A) Prezentul cu valoare de viitor este ntrebuinat n propoziii principale: a) pentru exprimarea datei: Tomorrow is December 21st. Mine este 21 decembrie. Tomorrow is Saturday. Mine este smbt. b) pentru redarea unor aciuni planificate, unor aranjamente pentru viitor, conform unui orar sau program stabilit (de exemplu n excursii organizate), mai ales cu verbe de micare ca: go, come, leave, return sau verbe ca begin, start, end, finish: We leave Bucharest at eight. We arrive in Predeal at ten. Plecam din Bucureti la ora 8. Sosim la Predeal la ora 10.

a) de timp, introduse n when, after, before, as soon as: Well get home before it gets dark. Vom ajunge acas nainte s se ntunece. b) condiionale, introduse de if, unless, provided, in case: If it rains on Sunday, Ill repair my bicycle. Dac o s plou duminic, am s-mi repar bicicleta.

B) Prezentul cu valoare de viitor este ntrebuinat i n propoziii subordonate:

C) Prezentul cu valoare de trecut se folosete:

a) n naraiuni, pentru nviorarea povestirii (prezentul istoric): One day, the little boy goes to the woods. There he finds a buried treasure.

23

b) cu verbe ca tell, hear, learn, write, pentru a sublinia efectul prezent al unei comunicri trecute: He tells me that have won the competition. mi spune c ai ctigat concursul.

1.6. Timplul trecut simplu (Past Tense Simple)

1.6.1. Definiie. Past Tense, aspectul simplu, desemneaz un eveniment definit care a avut loc pe axa trecutului (evenimentul este amintit n momentul prezent). 1.6.2. Form. Marca timpului Past Tense simplu este, la verbele regulate, ed: We listened to the concert last night. Am ascultat concertul asear. 1.6.3. Pronunarea i ortografierea terminaiei -ed este n funcie de terminaia infinitivului. -ed se pronun: a) [d] cnd verbele se termin n vocal sau consoan sonor [b,g,l,m,n,v,z,dz,_dj_]: play - played [pleid]; arrived [__raivd]; b) [t] cnd verbele se termin n consoan surd [f,k,p,s,__,t__] like - liked [laikt], cross - crossed [kr_o_st]; c) [id] cnd verbele se termin n -t sau -d: want - wanted [w_o_ntid]; nod nodded [n_o_did]; Particulariti ortografice ale terminaiei -ed: a) consoana final a formei de infinitiv se dubleaz cnd vocala care o precede este scurt i accentuat: stop - stopped; prefer - preferred. Not: 1. Consoana final se dubleaz la cteva verbe, dei silaba final nu este accentuat: kidnap - kidnapped; handicap - handicapped; worship - worshipped; iar la verbe terminate n ic, =c se dubleaz n ck: picnic - picnicked. 2. n engleza britanic, verbele terminate n -l dubleaz aceast consoan, indiferent de accent: control - controlled; travel - travelled. 3. n varianta american a limbii engleze, -l se dubleaz numai dac ultima silab este accentuat: controlled, dar: traveled. b) verbele terminate n -y precedat de consoan l schimb n -i: study -

studied;

c) verbele terminate n -e adaug doar -d: move - moved. 1.6.4. n ceea ce privete verbele neregulate, acestea au fost mprite n apte grupe, n funcie de pronunarea infinitivului, a formei de Paste Tense i a participiului trecut:

24

1. verbe de tipul: burn-burnt-burnt learn-learnt-learnt lend-lent-lent spend-spent-spent 2. creep-crept-crept leave-left-left buy-bought-bought catch-caught-caught 3. cast-cast-cast hit-hit-hit shut-shut-shut wet-wet-wet 4. meet-met-met hang-hung-hung win-won-won sit-sat-sat 5. mow-mowed-mown/mowed sow-sowed-sown/sowed swell-swelled-swollen/swelled 6. wear-wore-worn grow-grew-grown give-gave-given write-wrote-written 7. begin-began-begun sing-sang-sung come-came-come go-went-gone Not: n funcie de formele pe care le au verbele la Past Tense i la participiul trecut, ele se mpart n verbe regulate i verbe neregulate. Verbele regulate formeaz Past Tense i participiul trecut prin adugarea terminaiei -(e)d la forma de infinitiv: listen (a asculta) - litened (a ascultat) - listened (ascultat). Verbele neregulate sunt cele care au forme deosebite pentru infinitiv, Past Tense i participiul trecut, care trebuie nvate pe dinafar.

25

VERBE NEREGULATE
Infinitiv
arise (a) wake(n) Be bear beat become begin bend bid bind bite bleed blow break breed bring build burn burst buy cast catch choose cling come cost creep cut deal dig do draw dream drink drive dwell eat

Past Tense
arose (a) woke was bore beat became began bent bid bound bit bled blew broke bred brought built burnt burst bought cast caught chose clung came cost crept cut dealt dug did drew dreamt drank drove dwelt ate

Participiu trecut
arisen (a) woken been borne beaten become begun bent bid bound bitten bled blown broken bred brought built burnt burst bought cast caught chosen clung come cost crept cut dealt dug done drawn dreamt drunk driven dwelt eaten

Traducerea infinitivului
a se ridica a se trezi a fi a purta a bate a deveni a ncepe a se ndoi a ruga, a porunci a lega a muca a sngera a sufla, a bate a sparge a crete, a educa a aduce a construi a arde a izbucni, a nvli, a crpa a cumpra a arunca a prinde a alege a se aga a veni a costa a se tr, a se furia a tia a trata, a se ocupa de a spa a face a trage, a desena a visa a bea a ofa, a mna a locui a mnca

26

fall feed feel fight find flee fling fly forbid forget forgive freeze get give go grind grow hang have hear hide hit hold hurt keep kneel knit know lay lead lean leap learn leave lend let light lie lose make mean mow pay

fell fed felt fought found fled flung flew forbad forgot forgave froze got gave went ground grew hung had heard hid hit held hurt kept knelt knit knew laid led leant leapt learnt left lent let lit lay lost made meant mowed paid

fallen fed felt fought found fled flung flown forbidden forgotten forgiven frozen got given gone ground grown hung had heard hidden hit held hurt kept knelt knit known laid led leant leapt learnt left lent let lit lain lost made meant mowed,mown paid

a cdea a hrni a (se) simi a (se) lupta a gsi a fugi, a se refugia a arunca a zbura a interzice a uita a ierta a nghea a primi, a obine a da a merge a mcina a crete a atrna a avea a auzi a (se) ascunde a lovi a ine a lovi, a rni, a durea a ine, a pstra a ngenunchia a tricota a ti, a cunoate a pune, a aeza a conduce a se apleca, a se sprijini a sri a nva a pleca, a lsa a da cu mprumut a lsa, a permite a aprinde a zcea, a se afla a pierde a face a nsemna a cosi a plti

27

put read rid ride ring rise run saw say see seek sell send set sew shake shear shed shine shoe shoot show shrink shut sing sink sit slay sleep sling slit smell sow speak speed spell spend spill spin spit split

put read rid rode rang rose ran sawed said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook sheared shed shone shod shot showed shrank shut sang sank sat slew slept slung slit smelt sowed spoke sped spelt spent spilt spun spat split

put read rid ridden rung risen run sawn,sawed said seen sought sold sent set sewn/sewed shaken shorn/sheared shed shone shod shot shown shrunk shut sung sunk sat slain slept slung slit smelt sown spoken sped spelt spent spilt spun spat split

a pune a citi a scpa de, a se descotorosi a clri a suna a rsri, a se ridica a fugi a tia cu fierstrul a spune a vedea a cuta a vinde a trimite a pune a coase a scutura, a tremura a tunde oi a vrsa (lacrimi, snge) a strluci a potcovi a mpuca a arta a se strnge, a se scoroji a nchide a cnta a (se) scufunda a edea a ucide a dormi a arunca a (se) crpa a mirosi a semna a vorbi a grbi, a accelera a ortografia a cheltui, a petrece a vrsa a toarce a scuipa a despica

28

spoil spread spring stand steal stick sting stink strew stride strike string strive sweat swear sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive throw thrust tread understand wear weave wed weep wet win wind wring write

spoilt spread sprang stood stole stuck stung stunk strewed strode struck strung strove sweat swore swept swelled swam swang took taught tore told thought throve threw thrust trod understood wore wove wed wept wet won wound wrung wrote

spoilt spread sprung stood stolen stuck stung stunk strewn strode struck strung striven sweat sworn swept swollen swum swung taken taught torn told thought thriven thrown thrust trodden understood worn woven wed wept wet won wound wrung written

a rsfa a (se) ntinde a izvor, a sri a sta (n picioare) a fura, a se furia a lipi a nepa a mirosi urt a presra a merge cu pai mari a lovi a nira (pe o aa) a nzui a transpira a jura, a njura a mtura a se umfla a nota a legna a lua a nva, a preda a rupe, a sfia a spune, a povesti a (se) gndi a prospera a arunca a nfige a clca a nelege a purta a ese a (se) cununa a plnge a uda a ctiga a rsuci a stoarce a scrie

29

1.6.5. ntrebuinare. Past Tense simplu este folosit pentru a exprima:

1) o aciune svrit i ncheiat ntr-un moment trecut: a) Momentul n care a avut loc aciunea este de obicei menionat prin adverbe de timp ca: two hours ago (acum dou ore), yesterday (ieri), last week (sptmna trecut), in 1970 (n 1970) etc.: I went to the opera last night. Am fost la oper asear. Despre acest moment se pot cere informaii prin ntrebri ncepnd cu when, what time, how long ago: When did you call on him? Cnd ai trecut pe la el? What time did you call on him? La ce or ai trecut pe la el? How long ago did you call on him? Cu ct vreme n urm ai trecut pe la el?
I called on him yesterday. Am trecut pe la el ieri. I called on him at five oclock. Am trecut pe la el la ora 5. I called on him a few days ago. Am trecut pe la el acum cteva zile. b) Aciunea este svrit i ncheiat ntr-un anume moment trecut, chiar dac acesta nu este menionat, el putnd fi dedus din context. (n schimb se poate specifica locul aciunii): He shook his head and said no. Ddu din cap dezaprobator i spuse nu. I met him outside museum. M-am ntlnit cu el n faa muzeului. c) Aciunea este svrit i ncheiat ntr-un moment trecut care este precizat ca rezultat al unei ntrebri i unui rspuns la Present Perfect. A: Have you seen this film? B:Yes, I have. I saw it last week. A:Ai vzut acest film? B: Da, l-am vzut. L-am vzut sptmna trecut. Not: n acest context (c), Past Tense are o funcie anaforic, referindu-se la un eveniment deja introdus n vorbire i deci cunoscut: I have been to Constana. I visited the Aquarium and walked down the pier.

limba romn: I often visited him. l vizitam adesea.

2) o aciune repetat n trecut, care se traduce de obicei prin imperfect n

Not: 1. O aciune repetat n trecut se mai poate exprima i cu ajutorul verbului modal would (cu valoare frecventativ) + infinitiv, aceast construcie fiind caracteristic limbii literare: He would sit for hours in front of his house, looking at the stars. Sttea/obinuia s stea ore n ir n faa casei privind stelele. n vorbirea curent se folosete used to + infinitiv: He used to sit for hours in from of his house. Obinuia s stea ore n ir n faa casei. 2. Past Tense simplu nu se folosete niciodat cu valoare generic sau instantanee, ca Present Tense simplu. 3. Past Tense simplu poate fi folosit i cu alte valori temporale:

30

a) cu valoare de mai mult ca perfect (Past Perfect), pentru redarea unor aciuni succesive n trecut, n special n propoziii circumstaniale de timp introduse de when, after etc.: He went out to play after he finished his homework. I saw him before he saw me. Aceast folosire a lui Past Tense este caracteristic verbelor care exprim aciuni (activity verbs): He addressed and sealed the envelopes. b) cu valoare de prezent, pentru a exprima o rugminte politicoas prin verbe ca wish, want, wonder, like, intend: I wondered if you could lend me this book. M ntrebam dac ai putea s-mi mprumutai cartea. c) cu valoare de prezent, n vorbirea indirect, dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: He told me he was ill. d) cu valoare de viitor, n propoziii circumstaniale de timp, dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: He told me he would show me the photos when he came. Mi-a spus c-mi va arta fotografiile cnd va veni. 1.6.6. Traducerea lui Past Tense. n limba romn, Past Tense se traduce: 1) n propoziiile principale sau independente, prin: a) perfectul compus (de obicei la persoana I i a II-a) i perfectul simplu (aproape exclusiv la persoana a III-a), cnd Past Tense exprim o aciune trecut ncheiat, nsoit sau nu de perioada de timp: I lost my umbrella yesterday. Mi-am pierdut umbrela ieri. I lost my umbrella a few days ago. Mi-am pierdut umbrela acum cteva zile. I lost my umbrella last week. Mi-am pierdut umbrela sptmna trecut. He said goodbye and left. Spuse la revedere i plec. b) imperfect, cnd Past Tense exprim o aciune repetat n trecut, de obicei nsoit de adverbe de frecven: She often left her Englesh textbook at home. Deseori i uita manualul de englez acas.

a) prezent, n vorbirea indirect (dup un verb trecut): He told me he was ill. Mi-a spus c este bolnav. b) viitor, n propoziiile temporale, cnd verbul din principal este la un timp He said he would bring me the book when he came to me place. Mi-a spus c-mi va aduce cartea cnd m va vizita.

2) n propoziii subordonate prin:

trecut:

31

1.7. Perfectul prezent (Present Perfect)

1.7.1. Definiie. Present Perfect desemneaz un eveniment vzut din perspectiva axei prezentului anterior momentului vorbirii, dar a crui anterioritate nu este fixat, avnd un caracter nedefinit: Ive painted a picture. 1.7.2. Form. n structura formei Present Perfect intr verbul auxiliar have la prezent i participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: I/You Have heard a noise. Am/Ai/Au auzit un zgomot. We ve They He She has heard a noise. A auzit un zgomot. It s 1.7.3. ntrebuinare

eveniment anterior momentului vorbirii. Deosebirea ntre cele dou timpuri este n axa pe care se plaseaz vorbitorul: axa prezentului (Present Perfect) sau axa trecutului (Past Tense); i n natura evenimentului descris: a) nedefinit (Present Perfect) i b) definit, unic (Past Tense): a) Ive seen Mary. b) I saw her at the conference.

1) Present Perfect este folosit, la fel ca i Past Tense, pentru a desemna un

perioad de timp deschis, neterminat: today, this week, this month etc. Ive been to the theatre this week. Pe cnd folosirea lui Past Tense este asociat cu adverbe care exprim o perioad de timp nchis, terminat: I went to the theatre last week.

2) Folosirea lui Present Perfect este asociat cu adverbe care exprim o

3) Present Perfect este uneori folosit cu valoare de Past Tense, pentru a exprima o aciune svrit n trecut i terminat recent sau chiar naintea momentului vorbirii: He has come. A sosit. Aceast ntrebuinare a lui Present Perfect este adeseori marcat de adverbe de timp ca just (tocmai), already (deja), up to now, so far (pn acum), lately, recently (n ultima vreme): He has just phoned. Tocmai a telefonat.
Atenie! Cu adverbe ca today, this morning, this month, this year, recently, se poate folosi fie Past Tense, fie Present Perfect, n funcie de: a) caracterul aciunii (definit/nedefinit) i b) al perioadei de timp (ncheiat/nencheiat): a) Did you hear Ion Voicu play recently? (on a certain occasion). Have you heard Ion Voicu play recently? (in the near past, not a long time ago). b) Did you see him this morning? (Now its five oclok p.m.). Have you seen him this morning? (Now its 11 a.m.).

32

4) Past Tense este folosit pentru evenimente care au avut loc n trecut i ai cror autori nu mai exist n prezent, pe cnd la Present Perfect, evenimentele au avut loc n trecut, dar autorii sau efectele evenimentelor mai exist i n prezent:
Past Tense Marin Preda wrote several novels and short stories. (Marin Preda is dead). Did you see the exhibition? (The exhibition is closed now). John injured his arm. (It does not hurt him any longer). Present Perfect Eugen Barbu has written several novels and short stories. (Eugen Barbu is alive). Have you seen the exhibition? (The exhibition is still open). John has injured his arm. (It still hurts him).

trecut i care continu i n momentul vorbirii. Complinirile adverbiale de timp caracteristice pentru aceast ntrebuinare sunt cele indicnd: a) lungimea perioadei de timp: for a long time (de mult vreme), for ten minutes (de 10 minute), for two days (de dou zile) etc. He has been here for half an hour. Not: Prepoziia for poate fi omis n vorbire: He has lived in Bucharest ten years. b) nceputul perioadei de timp: since yesterday (de ieri), since December (din Decembrie), since you came (de cnd ai venit) etc. He has studied English since the beginning of the school year. Studiaz engleza de la nceputul anului colar. Perioada de timp redat printr-o propoziie temporal introdus de since poate fi exprimat: a) printr-un verb la Past Tense, cnd se specific momentul iniial al perioadei: I was born. Ive lived in Bucharest since my parents came to live here. I last met you. b) printr-un verb la Present Perfect, cnd cele dou aciuni sunt paralele: It hasnt stopped raining since Ive been in this town. I have never come across my friends since Ive stayed in this hotel. Atenie! Determinarea for.../since... este obligatorie pentru aceast ntrebuinare a perfectului prezent. Folosirea lui Present Perfect Simple fr determinarea temporal cu for/since... se refer la o aciune ncheiat (vezi

5) Present Perfect este folosit i pentru a exprima o aciune nceput n

33

ntrebuinrile 1, 2, 4, 6) i nu la una care continu i n momentul vorbirii: He has lived in Bucharest (some time in his life; he may live there again, but he is not living there now). A locuit n Bucureti (cndva n viaa lui; poate va mai locui acolo, dar nu locuiete n Bucureti n momentul de fa). He has studied Englesh (some time in the past, so the knows it, but he is not studying it now). A studiat engleza (cndva n trecut, aa c o tie, dar nu studiaz engleza acum). Not: Diferena ntre cele dou ntrebuinri reiese i din modul n care se traduc n limba romn: aciunea care continu i n momentul vorbirii - prin prezent, iar cea ncheiat, petrecut n trecut ntr-un moment de timp nedefinit, deci nespecificat prin perfectul compus: He has stayed in this hotel. A stat n acest hotel. He has stayed in this hotel for a week. St n acest hotel de o sptmn.

6) Present Perfect poate exprima o aciune caracteristic, repetat n trecut, prezent i poate i n viitor: He has performed in public. A interpretat n public. Aceast ntrebuinare este marcat de adverbe de frecven ca: often (adesea), always (totdeauna), never (niciodat), sometimes (uneori) etc.: He has often performed in public. 7) n propoziii subordonate temporale sau condiionale, Present Perfect este

folosit pentru a reda o aciune anterioar aciunii din propoziia principal, cnd aceasta este exprimat printr-un verb la imperativ, indicativ prezent sau viitor: Ring me up when you have finished. Telefoneaz-mi cnd ai terminat. He will help me if he has finished his own work. M va ajuta dac-i va fi terminat treaba lui.

1.8. Mai mult ca perfectul (Past Perfect Tense Simple)

1.8.1. Definiie. Past Perfect este un timp folosit cnd vorbitorul se plaseaz psihologic pe o ax a trecutului, pentru a desemna un eveniment anterior unui moment sau unui eveniment trecut, care este amintit n momentul vorbirii: I had finished the book by ten oclock yesterday. By the time you came. 1.8.2. Form. Mai mult ca perfectul se formeaz din forma de Past Tense a verbului have + participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: I had finished the book before you came. Id finished the book before you came. Terminasem cartea nainte s vii tu. He had already left by ten oclock. El plecase deja la ora 10. 1.8.3. ntrebuinare. Mai mult ca perfectul este ntrebuinat pentru a

exprima:

1) o aciune trecut, ncheiat naintea unui moment trecut: I had finished my lessons by ten oclock yesterday. mi terminasem leciile nainte de ora 10 ieri. 2) o aciune trecut, ncheiat naintea altei aciuni trecute: When Doris got to the theatre, the show had (already) started. Cnd a ajuns Doris la teatru spectacolul

34

(deja) ncepuse. Mother had cooked the dinner by the time father arrived home. Mama gtise deja cina cna a ajuns tata acas. 3) o aciune trecut, ncheiat imediat naintea unei alte aciuni trecute: I had just got into the classroom when the bell rang. No sooner had I got into the classroom than the bell rang. Tocmai/de abia intrasem n clas cnd a sunat clopoelul. I had hardly got into the classroom when the bell rang. No sooner had I got into the classroom than the bell rang. Tocmai/de abia intrasem n clas cnd a sunat clopoelul. 4) o aciune trecut, svrit ntr-o perioad de timp anterioar unei alte aciuni trecute, dar ajungnd pn la aceasta (cu compliniri adverbiale ncepnd cu for sau since): He had been in the classroom for two minutes when the teacher came in. Era n clas de dou minute cnd a intrat profesorul. He had lived in Bucharest since 1975 when I met him. Locuia n Bucureti din 1975 cnd l-am cunoscut. Not: 1. Mai mult ca perfectul este un timp utilizat mai frecvent n limba englez dect n limba romn pentru exprimarea anterioritii. (n limba romn se folosete adeseori perfectul compus cu valoare de mai mult ca perfect: The passengers got out as soon as the train had stopped. Pasagerii au cobort ndat ce s-a oprit trenul). 2. n limba englez se poate folosi Past Tense n loc de Past Perfect n urmtoarele situaii: a) dup conjucia after, care indic prin sensul ei raportul de anterioritate nemaifiind necesar i o form verbal special: The driver started the car after he cheked the engine. oferul porni maina dup ce verific motorul. b) n propoziiile subordonate temporale transformate n vorbire indirect cnd verbul din principal este la un timp trecut: He told me had seen a bear when he was in the mountains. Mi-a spus c a vzut un urs cnd a fost la munte. 3. n propoziiile subordonate introduse de after sau until, folosirea mai mult ca perfectului, prin contrast cu folosirea lui Past Tense, subliniaz raportul de anterioritate, faptul c aciunea din principal nu a avut loc dect dup ce aciunea din subordonat a fost ncheiat: The pupil on duty left the classroom AFTER she had turned off the lights. Eleva de servici a prsit clasa (numai) dup ce a stins lumina. The waiter didnt take the plates away UNTIL they had finished their dinner. Chelnerul n-a strns farfuriile pn n-au terminat masa. Mai mult ca perfectul poate fi folosit: 5) n vorbirea indirect, pentru a nlocui Present Perfect sau Past Tense, cnd verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: Tom: I have spoken to Mary about it. I spoke to her last week. Tom said he had spoken to Mary about it. He added he had spoken to her the week before.

35

1.9. Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului

Exist mai multe posibiliti de redare a ideii de timp viitor n limba englez.

A. Viitorul simplu (Shall/Will Future) 1.9.1. Definiie. Viitorul simplu desemneaz un eveniment posterior fa de momentul vorbirii. 1.9.2. Form n structura viitorului simplu intr verbul auxiliar shall la persoana I singular i plural, will la persoana a II-a i a III-a singular i plural, i infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: I shall go to the seaside tomorrow. Voi merge la mare mine. We shall go to the seaside tomorrow. Vom merge la mare mine. You will go to the mountains next week. He will go to the mountains next week. They will go to the mountains next week. Vei/Vei/Va/Vor merge la munte sptmna viitoare. n engleza britanic vorbit i n engleza american n general se folosete will i la persoana I singular i plural, fr nici o schimbare de sens: I will go the seaside tomorrow. Voi merge la mare mine. We will go the seaside tomorrow. Vom merge la mare mine. Forma contras a viitorului este ll + infinitiv la toate persoanele: Ill go, Hell

go etc.

Aceast form este ntrebuinat cu precdere n engleza vorbit, mai ales cnd subiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume personal. 1.9.3. ntrebuinare. 1) Viitorul simplu este un viitor pur, indicnd doar c aciunea are loc ntr-un moment viitor, mai apropiat sau adeseori mai ndeprtat de momentul vorbirii: Hell come back tomorrow. Se va ntoarce mine. Hell come back next year. Se va ntoarce anul viitor. 2) Viitorul simplu nu este de obicei ntrebuinat n propoziiile subordonate, fiind nlocuit de prezedntul simplu: He will come when he has time. Va veni cnd va avea timp. Viitorul simplu apare doar n propoziiile subordonate completive directe sau prepoziionale, dup verbele think, suppose, expect, believe, doubt, assume, hope, wonder, be sure, be afraid, pentru a exprima opiniile sau presupuneriule vorbitorului despre o aciune viitoare: Im sure youll feel better tomorrow. Sunt sigur c te vei simi mai bine mine.

36

3) Viitorul simplu poate fi folosit i cu valori modale (pct. 3-7). Viitorul simplu reprezentat prin will + infinitiv, de exemplu, poate fi folosit la persoana I singurlar i plural, pentru a exprima: a) neaccentuat, o intenie nepremeditat, spontan, aprut n momentul vorbirii: A: Its hot in here. B: Ill open the window. A: E cal aici. B: Am s/M duc s deschid fereastra. b) accentuat, hotrrea, determinarea de a svri aciunea: A: Dont sell that dictionary. It is very good. B: I will sell it, no matter what you are saying. A: Nu vinde dicionarul, e foarte bun. B: Am s-l vnd/sunt hotrt s-l vnd indiferent ce spui. 4) Will + infinitivul poate fi folosit i cu valoare de prezent habitual (frecventativ): Every Sunday thay will go to the seaside. n fiecare duminic obinuiesc se duc la mare. obiceiul s se duc la mare. Children will be children. Copiii tot copii. 5) La forma negativ, la persoana I i a III-a singular i plural, wont + infinitiv exprim: a) neaccentuat, refuzul: I wont go there. Nu vreau s m duc acolo. b) accentuat, refuzul absolut: I wont go there. Nici nu m gndesc s m duc

acolo. 6) Will + infinitiv este folosit, la forma interogativ, pentru a exprima: a) o ntrebare despre o aciune viitoare: Will they open the exhibition tomorrow? Vor deschide expoziia ei mine? b) o invitaie (la persoana a II-a): Will you come in, please? Vrei s intrai, v rog? c) o rugminte (de asemenea la persoana a II-a): Will you help me? Te rog s m ajui. 7) La interogativ, Shall + infinitiv exprim: a) viitorul simplu: Shall I find them at home if I go now? Am s-i gsesc acas dac m duc acum? b) solicitarea unei opinii: Shall I buy this watch? S cumpr acest ceas? Datorit n mare parte implicaiilor modale pe care le prezint viitorul simplu nu este frecvent folosit n vorbirea curent, fiind o form caracteristic limbii scrise (limbajul jurnalistic, emisiuni de tiri, anunuri oficiale, limbajul literar etc.). n vorbire se prefer viitorul cu going to pentru exprimarea ideii de viitor apropiat sau viitorul continuu pentru redarea ideii de aciune neutr, obinuit, n desfurarea normal a evenimentelor viitoare. B) Be about to + infinitiv 1.9.4. Be about to + infinitiv exprim un viitor imediat: We are about to leave. Suntem pe punctul de a pleca.

37

C) Be to + infinitiv 1.9.5. Be to + infinitiv exprim: 1) un aranjament: I am to move house soon. Urmeaz s m mut n curnd. 2) un ordin: You are to return before nightfall. Trebuie s v ntoarcei nainte de cderea nopii. D) Viitorul cu going to (Going to - future) 1.9.6. Viitorul cu going to se formeaz cu ajutorul formei be going to la prezent, urmat de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: I am going to write letters tomorrow. Voi scrie scrisori mine. You are going to see a film tomorrow. We are going to see a film tomorrow. They are going to see a film tomorrow. He is going to play tennis tomorrow. She is going to play tennis tomorrow. 1.9.7. ntrebuinare. Viitorul cu going to este ntrebuinat pentru a exprima: 1) o activitate viitoare apropiat de momentul vorbirii (vezi exemplele de mai

sus).

Not: Verbele go i come nu pot fi precedate de going to. Pentru a reda ideea de viitor apropiat, ele sunt ntrebuinate la prezentul continuu: Where are you going ? Unde te duci? He is coming tonight. El vine disear. 2) o activitate viitoare ce va avea loc ca urmare a unei intenii prezente: We are going to spend our holiday in the mountains. (Weve already booked a room in Poiana Braov). Avem de gnd/Intenionm s ne petrecem vacana la munte. (Am rezervat deja o camer la Poiana Braov). Not: O intenie spontan, nepremeditat, se exprim cu ajutorul verbului auxiliar will + infinitiv: A: Im thirsty. (mi-e sete). B: I will fetch you a glass of water. (M duc s-i aduc un pahar cu ap). (vezi 1.9.3. pct. 3a.). 3) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc ca rezultat al unei cauze prezente: Its going to rain. Look at the clouds. Cred c o s plou./Are s plou. Uit-te la nori. 4) Viitorul cu going to nu este folosit de regul n propoziiile principale, cnd ele sunt urmate de o propoziie subordonat condiional sau temporal (se folosete infinitivul cu shall/will). Totui aceast form poate aprea n propoziii temporale, cnd vrem s subliniem intenia vorbitorului: He is going to be a pilot when grows up. Are de gnd/intenioneaz s se fac pilot cnd va crete. E) Prezentul continuu (Present Tense Continuous) 1.9.8. Prezentul continuu, format din verbul be la prezent i participiul prezent (forma in -ing) a verbului de conjugat, este folosit pentru a exprima o aciune

38

viitoare care a fost planificat sau proiectat ntr-un moment prezent: We are leaving tomorrow. (This is our plan). Plecm mine. Acesta este planul nostru). 1.9.9. Prezentul continuu exprimnd o aciune viitoare este de obicei nsoit de un adverb de timp viitor: We are having a meeting at 3 oclock/this afternoon/later. Avem/Vom avea edin la ora 3/dup amiaz/mai trziu. F) Prezentul simplu (Simple Present) 1.9.10. Prezentul simplu exprim: 1) o aciune viitoare definit, care va avea loc ca parte a unui program oficial, orar stabilit etc. : The plane takes off at 7 p.m. Avionul decoleaz la ora 19.00. Term starts in September. coala ncepe n septembrie. 2) o aciune viitoare n proporii subordonate temporale i condiionale (vezi 1.5.4 pct. 4b). 1.9.11. Atenie! Att prezentul continuu ct i cel simplu exprim o aciune viitoare conform unui plan sau aranjament cnd sunt folosite cu verbe de micare ca go, leave, arrive, come etc. Deosebirea este urmtoarea: Wee are leaving tonight. Plecam disear. (Acesta este planul nostru personal). We leave tonight. Plecm disear. (Acesta este programul oficial, stabilit (al excursiei etc.). G) Viitorul perfect (Future Perfect Simple) 1.9.12. Definiie. Viitorul perfect desemneaz un eveniment anterior unui moment sau eveniment care este la rndul su posterior momentului vorbirii. 1.9.13. Form. Viitorul perfect conine n structura sa viitorul simplu al verbului have, urmat de participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: I shalll/will have done my homework by the time return. mi voi fi fcut leciile pn te ntorci tu. 1.9.14. ntrebuinare. Viitorul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc naintea unui moment viitor: He will have finished the book by Monday. El va fi terminat cartea pn luni. 2) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc naintea unei alte aciuni viitoare: He will have finished the book by the time you come back home. El va fi terminat cartea pn cnd te ntorci tu acas. 3) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc ntr-o perioad de timp anterioar unei aciuni viitoare, dar ajungnd pn la aceasta: He will have worked in this factory for forty years when he retires. Va fi lucrat n aceast fabrica timp de 40 de ani cnd se va pensiona. Not: Viitorul perfect este o form verbal caracteristic limbii scrise, fiind rar folosit n vorbirea curent. 1.9.15. Aciuni viitoare dintr-o perspectiv trecut. Evenimentele viitoare sunt posterioare momentului vorbirii, care este now. Dar evenimentele pot fi posterioare

39

i unui moment trecut then, care este amintit n momentul vorbirii. De pe aceast ax a trecutului, posibilitile de exprimare a ideii de viitor sunt urmtoarele: 1) whould + infinitiv. (Construcie puin frecvent n vorbirea curent, caracteristic stilului narativ literar): The times was not far off when he would realize his mistake. Nu era departe momentul cnd i va da seama de greeal. 2) be going to la Past Tense + infinitiv, adesea cu sensul de intenie nerealizat: You were going to invite me to the cinema. (But you didnt). Urma/Trebuia s m invii la cinema. (Dar n-ai fcut-o). 3) Past Tense aspectul continuu (aciune conform unui plan, aranjament): I was meeting them in Tulcea the next day. i ntlneam/urma s-i ntlnesc n Tulcea a doua zi. 4) Be to la Past Tense + infinitiv (construcie folosit n engleza literar, cu sensul de urma s; era aranjat): He was to change his mind later. The festival was to be held at the end of term. 5) be about to la Past tense + infinitiv (a fi pe punctul de): She was about to cry.

1.10. Aspectul (Aspect)

1.10.1. Definiie. n limba englez aspectul este categoria gramatical specific verbului, care se refer la felul n care este reprezentat aciunea exprimat de verb: ca avnd durat sau nu, ca fiind terminat sau nu. 1.10.2. Exist dou contraste n limba englez: durativ - non-durativ (denumit de obicei continuu - non-continuu) i perfectiv - non-perfectiv. n primul opoziia este ntre o aciune care are o anumit durat, este n desfurare ntr-un anumit moment sau ntr-o anumit perioad de timp i este raportat la momentul de referin now, then etc. i ntre o aciune pentru care o asemenea informaie nu este important. Comparai: John is reading an English newspaper (now). John citete un ziar englezesc (acum), cu: John reads English newspaper (every day). John citete un ziar englezesc (n fiecare zi). n al doilea aciunea este ntre aciuni vzute ca terminate n momentul vorbirii: I have read an interesting article on pollution. Am citit un articol interesant despre poluare. i ntre aciuni despre care nu se d o asemenea informaie: I have been reading since 10 oclock. 1.10.3. Pentru a analiza contrastul durativ - non-durativ i perfectiv - nonperfectiv n limba englez trebuie pornit de la sensul lexical al verbelor: A) Verbe care exprim activiti n limba englez (activity verbs) sunt de dou

feluri:

40

- verbe de activitate durativ (exprimnd aciuni a cror svrire necesit o anumit durat de timp): eat, dress, drink, read, walk etc. - verbe de activitate non-durativ, care exprim aciuni momentane, fr durat, fiind ncheiate aproape n acelai timp cu efectuarea lor: catsh, hit, kick, slam, slap, snap etc. Not: Adeseori sensul non-durativ al unor verbe este semnalat de prezena unor particule adverbiale ca down, out, up, care le deosebesc de verbele de activitate durativ. Comparai: sit - sit down stand - stand up drink - drink up pick - pick up La rndul lor, verbele de activitate durativ se mpart n: - verbe care nu implic nici un scop: rub, run, walk etc. - verbe care implic atingerea unui scop: iron a shirt, make a dress, read a book, write an essay. B) Pe lng verbele care definesc activiti (durative sau non-durative) exist i verbe care denumesc stri. Acestea sunt durative, deoarece exprim existena unor fapte pe o perioad ndelungat de timp: be clever, be able, know how, exist, live.

Aspect continuu (The Continuous Aspect)

1.10.4. Form. Timpurile aspectului continuu se formeaz dintr-un timp al verbului be i participiul prezent (forma n -ing) a verbului de conjugat: Present Continuous : I am reading Past Continuous: I was reading Present Perfect Continuous: I have been reading Past Perfect Continuous: I had been reading Future Continuous: I will be reading Future Perfect Continuous: I will have been reading 1.10.5. Ortografia participiului prezent depinde de forma verbului la infinitiv: a) consoana final se dubleaz dac vocala care o precede e scurt i accentuat: stop - stopping; refer - referring. Not: n engleza britanic, -l final se dubleaz indiferent de accent: control controlling; travel - travelling. n engleza american -l final se dubleaz numai dac accentul cade pe ultima silab: controlling; dar: traveling. b) -y final se pstreaz, indiferent dac este precedat de consoan sau de vocal: study - studying; play - playing, iar -ie final se transform n -y: lie - lying; die dying; c) -e final se omite: have - having

41

Excepii: agree - agreeing; be - being; see - seeing; dye - dyeing (a vopsi). 1.10.6. ntrebuinarea aspectului continuu: a) Folosirea aspectului continuu cu verbele de activitate durativ fr scop arat c aciunile denumite de verbe sunt n desfurare pe axa prezentului, a trecutului sau a viitorului: They are walking n the park now. He was swimming n the lake at this time yesterday. b) Cu verbele de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop, folosirea aspectului continuu arat c scopul nu a fost atins, aciunea nu a fost terminat: He is reading a book now. Citete o carte acum (Nu a terminat-o).She was ironing a shirt. Ea clca o cma. c) Verbele de activitate non-durativ arat o aciune reperat atunci cnd sunt folosite la aspectul continuu: He is kicking. D din picioare. d) Verbele care exprim o stare arat c aceast stare este limitat atunci cnd sunt folosite la aspectul continuu: I live in Braov (thats where my house is). Im living in Bucharest this year. Anul acesta locuiesc n Bucureti. ntrebuinrile aspectului continuu la diverse timpuri sunt cele enumerate la 1.10.6. Diferenele de la un timp la altul constau n momentul n care are loc aciunea i n momentul de referin. 1.10.7. Prezentul continuu este utilizat pentru a exprima: 1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop: a) o aciune n desfurare n momentul vorbirii: Listen! He is singing in the bathroom! Ascult! Cnt n baie! Aceast ntrebuinare este marcat de obicei de adverbe de timp ca: now (acum) right now (chiar acum), at this moment (n acest moment): A: What ia Dan doing? B: He is shaving right now, dar poate aprea i fr ele, momentul de fa al aciunii reieind din forma continu a verbului: A: What is Dan doing? B: He is shaving. A: Ce face Dan (acum)? B: Se brbierete. b) o aciune obinuit, repetat, prezentat n desfurarea ei n anumite circumstane: I always take my umbrella when it is raining. Totdeauna mi iau umbrella cnd plou. I never read while I am walking in the Botanical Gardens. l ntlnesc ori de cte ori m plimb n Grdina botanic. 2) cu verbele de activitate durativ implicnd un scop, o aciune care nu a fost terminat la momentul vorbirii: He is doing his homework. i face temele. 3) cu verbe de activitate non-durativ, o aciune repetat n momentul vorbirii: He is knocking on the door sau o aciune repetat n mod frecvent, care deranjeaz sau imit pe vorbitor: My neighbour is always starting his car when I want to have a rest. Vecinul meu totdeauna i pornete maina cnd vreau s m odihnesc. Aceast folosire a prezentului continuu este obligatoriu nsoit de adverbe de frecven ca: always, forever (totdeauna), continually, all the time (tot timpul). Acestea se aeaz ntre auxiliarul be i forma n -ing, cu excepia lui all the time care ocup poziie final n propoziie: That little child is continually crying dar: He is crying all the time.

42

4) cu verbe care denumesc o stare, o aciune cu caracter temporar care are loc pentru o perioad limitat de timp, (incluznd i momentul vorbirii): Ann is attending the Poly. Ana urmeaz politehnica (studiaz politehnica). Complinirile adverbiale pentru aceast ntrebuinare a prezentului continuu sunt: today (astzi), this week (sptmna aceasta), these days (zilele acestea), this month (luna aceasta), this year (anul acesta) etc: My father usually teaches geometry, but he is teaching algebra this year. Tatl meu pred geometria de obicei, dar anul acesta pred algebra. 5) Prezentul continuu este de asemenea folosit pentru a desemna o aciune viitoare planificat din prezent (vezi 1.9.8): We are leaving tomorrow. Plecm mine. 1.10.8. Past Tense Continuous exprim: 1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop: a) o aciune n desfurare ntr-un moment trecut, amintit n momentul

vorbirii:

I was walking at two oclock yesterday. I was walking at this last week. Not: Aceast form verbal este frecvent folosit n descrieri, pentru redarea unor activiti durative, n desfurare, care contrasteaz cu activiti nondurative, succesive i terminate, pentru redarea crora se folosete Past Tense simplu (forma caracteristic naraiunilor): It was a cold winter evening. Outside, the wind was blowing. A big fire was burning in the fireplace. The old woman came in and went near the fire. She warmed her hands and sat down. b) o aciune durativ n desfurare, ntrerupt de o aciune non-durativ, momentan: He came in when/while I was eating. A intrat cnd/n timp ce mncam. When he rang up I was (just) going out. Cnd a telefonat (tocmai) ieeam. He called me just as I was leaving. M-a strigat exact cnd plecam. c) dou aciuni paralele n desfurare n trecut: She was eating while I was washing. Ea mnca n timp ce eu m splam. Not: Dac nu ne intereseaz aspectul de desfurare, de durat al aciunilor, ci doar c aciunile au avut loc ntr-un moment din trecut putem spune: She ate while I washed. sau: She ate while I was washing. (ate - aciunea a fost mai scurt, terminat; was washing aciune - mai de durat, nencheiat n momentul n care cealalt a fost ncheiat). 2) cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop: - o aciune trecut, dar nencheiat: He was reading a book last night. Citea o carte asear. (Comparai cu: He read a book last night. a citit o carte asear.

43

3) verbe de activitate non-durativ, o aciune repetat n trecut, iritant pentru ceilali (+ always, forever, continually, all the time): He was always coming late to the English lesson. Totdeauna ntrzia la ora de englez. 4) cu verbe care exprim o stare, o aciune trecut cu caracter temporar: He was living in Braov when I met him. 5) Past Tense aspectul continuu mai poate exprima i o aciune viitoare, planificat ntr-un moment trecut, fiind subneleas nendeplinirea ei (Vezi 1.9.15 pct.3): We were leaving the next day. 1.10.9. Viitorul continuu (Future Continuous) 1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop, viitorul continuu exprim: a) o aciune n desfurare ntr-un moment viitor, posterior momentului vorbirii: I shall be walking at two oclock tomorrow. I will be walking at this time next week. M voi plimba mine la ora dou. M voi plimba sptmna viitoare la ora asta. b) o aciune n desfurare n viitor ntrerupt de o aciune momentan. When he comes, I will be eating. Cnd va veni, eu voi fi n mijlocul mesei. c) o aciune n desfurare n viitor, n paralel cu o alt aciune n desfurare de asemenea n viitor: She will be walking while I am sleeping. Ea se va plimba n timp ce eu voi dormi. Atenie! A doua aciune viitoare n desfurare nu poate fi pus tot la viitorul continuu deaorece face parte dintr-o propoziie subordonat temporal (n care nu se folosete viitorul n limba englez). 2) cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop, o aciune nencheiat: She will be having her piano lesson when you come. 3) Viitorul continuu exprim i ideea de aciune viitoare care va avea loc n desfurarea fireasc a evenimentelor: Ill be seeing him tomorrow morning (This happens every morning). l vd mine diminea. (l vd n fiecare diminea). Ill be passing the grocers on my way to school. Trec prin faa bcniei n drum spre coal. 1.10.10. Traducerea formelor aspectului continuu n limba romn: Verbul romnesc nu are o categorie marcat formal pentru redarea contrastului aspectual continuu-noncontinuu. Ideea de desfurare sau durat limitat a aciunii este redat n limba romn cu ajutorul adverbelor de timp: He is teaching now. Pred/Are or acum. He is teaching arithmetic this year. Pred aritmetica anul acesta.

44

Singura form verbal din limba romn care exprim, ca i aspectul continuu din limba englez, o aciune neterminat la un moment dat, sau de durat limitat, este imperfectul i acesta este folosit de obicei pentru traducerea lui Past Tense continuu n limba romn: She was working in the garden when I arrivied. Muncea n grdin cnd am sosit. Mai dificil ns este traducerea imperfectului n limba englez, deoarece exist tendina de a folosi Past Tense Continuous i atunci cnd imperfectul romnesc are alt valoare, cea de aciune repetat n trecut pentru care limba englez folosete Past Tense Simple: Romn: Munceam n grdin cnd m duceam la bunici. Englez: I worked the garden when I went to my grandparents. 1.10.11. Verbe care nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu. Exist mai multe clase de verbe, care datorit sensului lor lexical nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu. Acestea sunt: A) verbe de activitate non-durativ, care sunt considerate ca fiind ncheiate n momentul n care au fost iniiate: He kicks, slams, bangs the door. B) verbe care exprim aciuni desfurate att de rapid sub ochii vorbitorului, nct pot fi considerate non-durative: score, shoot, place in the oven. Aceasta se ntmpl de obicei n comentarii sportive sau demonstraii practice (aa numitul prezent simplu instantaneu - vezi 1.5.4 pct.3). C) verbe care exprim un adevr universal sau o caracteristic general: Fish swim. Cows give milk. The Danube flows into the Black sea. D) verbe care exprim o percepie senzorial (Verbs of inert perception): see, hear, smell, feel, sound. The flower smells nice. Floarea are un miros plcut. Atenie! Verbele de percepie se folosesc cu verbul modal can pentru a reda o aciune unic, concret n desfurare: I can see him now. l vd acum. I see him every day. l vd n fiecare zi. Verbele care redau percepia senzorial pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu dac ele indic o folosire contient a simurilor: a) prin folosirea unor perechi sinonimice: listen to, look at, watch: Aspectul simplu: I (can) hear music. I (can) see him. I (can) see the TV set. Aspectul continuu: I am listening to music. I am looking at him. I am watching TV.

45

b) prin folosirea tranzitiv (ca activiti) a unor verbe care exprim o calitate permanent (folosite intranzitiv): The cake tastes good. I am tasting the cake. c) verbele de percepie pot avea forme ale aspectului continuu cnd sunt folosite cu alte sensuri: Ive been hearing all about her exams. Am auzit (Mi s-a spus totul) despre examenele ei. (hear = a primi veti). Im seeing him tonight. M ntlnesc cu el disear. He is seeing the sights. Viziteaz obiectivele turistice. (see = a ntlni, a vizita locuri turistice). E) verbele care exprim o activitate mintal (Verbs of cognition): believe, know, think, imagine, mean, mind, remember, recollect, recall, suppose, forget, suspect, guess, presuppose, realize, understand. Aceste verbe sunt urmate de obicei de o propoziie subordonat introdus de that sau de un cuvnt relativ ncepnd cu wh-: I think (that) you are right. Cred c ai dreptate. I dont remember what he said. Nu-mi amintesc ce-a spus. Unele din ele pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu dac sunt folosite ca verbe de activitate: A: What is he doing? B: He is thinking of his future. A: Ce face el? B: Se gndete la viitor. F) Verbe care exprim sentimente, stri sufleteti: love, like, carefor, adore, hate, dislike, detest, regret, prefer, wish. I like my job. mi place serviciul meu. I detest lazy people. Detest oamenii lenei, dar i: How are you liking the trip? Cum i place cltoria/Cum te distrezi? G) Verbe exprimnd o relaie: apply to, be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, own, possess, have, require, resemble, seem: This book belongs to him. Aceast carte i aparine lui. He owns this house. Aceast cas e proprietatea lui. Helen resembles her mother. Elena seamn cu mama ei. Aceste verbe nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu, cu excepia lui be i have cnd ele nu exprim starea, respectiv posesia: He is kind. El este amabil (n general). Why, he is being kind today! Ei, se poat cu amabilitate (este amabil astzi!) (este o situaie necaracteristic, temporar). He has a new bike. Are o biciclet nou. He is having a ride now. Se plimb cu bicicleta acum. n vorbirea curent verbe ca resemble, cost, etc. sunt uneori ntrebuinate la aspectul continuu, dac exprim o intensificare treptat a aciunii: Peter is resembling his father more and more. Petre seamn din ce n ce mai mult cu tatl su. Groceries in britain are costing so much more these days! n Anglia, preul articolelor de bcnie a crescut aa de mult n zilele noastre! H) Verbe care exprim o senzaie fizic. (Verbs of body sensation). Aceste verbe pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu sau simplu, cu mici diferene de sens: How do you feel today? How are you feeling today? Cum te simi astzi?

46

Aspectul perfectiv (The Perfective Aspect)

1.10.12. Definiie. Aspectul perfectiv arat c un eveniment (o aciune sau stare) este reprezentat ca ncheiat de ctre vorbitor n momentul n care este discutat. 1.10.13. ntrebuinare. n funcie de sensul lexical al verbelor i adverbele care le nsoesc, aspectul perfectiv are tradiional mai multe valori: 1) aspectul perfectiv rezultativ (Resultative Perfect) apare cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic un scop i arat c acest scop a fost atins: a) I have broken the vase. Am spart vaza. b) He had read the book. (El) citise cartea. n consecin, vorbitorul simte efectul sau rezultatul unei aciuni anterioare: a) The vase is broken now. Vaza este spart acum. b) He knew what the book was about. tia despre ce este vorba n carte. 2) aspectul perfectiv continuativ (Continuative Perfect) este folosit cu verbe care exprim o stare i sunt nsoite de adverbe de durat, pentru a exprima o aciune nceput nainte i care continu i n momentul prezent, amintit sau anticipat: We have lieved in Bucharest for ten years. Locuim n Bucureti de zece ani. London has stood on the Thames for thousands of years. Londra este situat pe Tamisa de mii de ani. 3) aspectul perfectiv al experienei (The Perfect of Experience) arat c aciunea a avut loc o dat sau de mai multe ori n experiena vorbitorului. They had lived in several touwns in Romania. Locuiser n mai multe orae din Romnia. Whenever I have asked my father a question, I have received a straightforward anwer. Ori de cte ori iam pus tatlui meu o ntrebare, am primit un rspuns fr ocoliuri. 1.10.14. Aspectul perfectiv i aspectul continuu sunt combinate n urmtoarele forme verbale: perfectul prezent continuu, mai mult ca perfectul continuu i viitorul perfect continuu. Perfectul prezent continuu (Present Perfect Continuous) este alctuit din forma de Present Perfect a verbului be urmat de participiul prezent (n -ing) al verbului de conjugat: I have been reading for three hours. Citesc de trei ore. Ive been reading for three hours. He has been reading for three hours. Hes been reading for three hours. Citete de trei ore. Aceast form verbal exprim: 1) o aciune nceput ntr-un moment trecut, care continu n prezent i poate i n viitor: They have been playing tennis for half an hour. Joac tenis de jumtate de or. (= They began playing tennis half an hour ago. They are stil playing tennis an they may continue doing so.)

47

Aceast ntrebuinare a lui Present Perfect continuu poate fi redat i cu ajutorul lui Present Perfect simplu n cazul unor verbe ca live, stay, work, study etc. Folosirea aspectului continuu, prin contract cu acea a aspectului simplu, scoate n eviden continuitatea, in Bucharest for ten years. Un alt contrast poate fi cel de aciune tocmai ncheiat - aciune nencheiat: Ive worked on this composition since five oclock. (Ive just finished it). Ive been working on this composition since five oclock. (and Im still working). 2) o aciune repetat frecvent, ntr-o perioad de timp care se ntinde dint trecut pn n prezent: Ive been riding a bicycle for three years. Merg cu biciclete de trei ani. He has been writing poems since he was a child. Scrie poezii de cnd era copil. n aceast situaie (2) se folosete Present Perfect simplu (i nu continuu) dac se specific de cte ori a fost svrit aciunea repetat: Ive ridden my bicycle hundreds of times. Am mers cu bicicleta de sute de ori. He has written fifty poems. A scris cincizeci de poezii. ntrebuinrile 1 i 2 ale lui Present Perfect sunt marcate de compliniri adverbiale indicnd: a) lungimea perioadei de timp: for ages (de mult vreme), for a few minutes (de cteva minute), for three hours (de trei ore) etc. b) nceputul perioadei de timp: since December 25th (de la 25 decembrie), since last year (de anul trecut), since Monday (de luni) etc. 3) o aciune trecut, ncheiat recent, care este cauza unui efect simit n prezent: A: Why are your hands dirty? B: Ive been repairing my bike. A: De ce ai minile murdare? B: Mi-am reparat bicicleta. 1.10.15. Mai mult ca perfectul continuu (Past Perfect Continuous) se formeaz din verbul be la mai mult ca perfect i din participiul n -ing al verbului de conjugat. El are aceleai valori ca i Present Perfect continuu, momentul de referin fiind ns axa trecutului. Acest form verbal exprim: 1) o aciune trecut, nceput naintea unei alte aciuni trecute i continund pn la ea: I had been waiting for my friend since two oclock when he finally. I had been waiting for my friend for half an hour arrived. l ateptam pe prietenul meu de la ora dou cnd n sfrit a sosit. l ateptam pe prietenul meu de jumtate de or cnd n sfrit a sosit. 2) o aciune trecut nceput naintea unui moment sau a unei aciuni trecute, continund pn n acel moment sau pn la acea aciune i poate i dup aceea: The boys where still playing football at noon. They had been playing football all morning. They had been plaing football since ten oclock.

48

Bieii mei jucau fotbal la ora prnzului. Ei jucaser fotbal toat dimineaa./ Ei jucau fotbal de la ora zece. 3) o aciune repetat frecvent ntr-o perioad de timp trecut, anterioar unui moment sau unei aciuni de asemenea trecute: He had been writing poems for two years when I met him. Scria poezii de doi ani cnd l-am cunoscut. Atenie! Dac se face o precizare numeric, se folosete Past Perfect simplu: He had written fifty poems when I met him. Scrisese cincizeci de poezii cnd l-am cunoscut. 4) o aciune anterioar unei alte aciuni de asemenea trecut terminat cu puin naintea ei, i fiind cauza acesteia: He was carrying a hammer and nails because he had been mending the fence. Avea n mn un ciocan i cuie pentru c reparase gardul. 5) Present Perfect i Past Tense continuu devin mai mult ca perfect continuu n vorbirea indirect, dup un verb trecut n propoziia principal: Ive been reading for three hours. She said she had been reading for three hours. Atenie! Timpul Past Tense continuu devine Past Perfect continuu numai dac se refer la o aciune ncheiat.(vezi 26.3.9): I was thinking of going away, but I have changed my mind. He said he had been thinking of going away, but he had changed his mind. Altminteri Past Tense aspectul continuu rmne neschimbat n vorbirea indirect mai ales dac el apare ntr-o proproziie subordonat temporal (vezi 26.3.8 pct.f): When I was attending the secondary school in Craiova, I often met Dan. He said that when he was attending the secondary school in Craiova, he (had) often met Dan. 1.10.16. Viitorul perfect continuu (Future Perfect Continuous) se formeaz din viitorul perfect al verbului be i din participiul n -ing a verbului de conjugat. Viitorul perfect continuu exprim o aciune n desfurare n viitor, nainte i pn la o alt aciune viitoare (i poate i dup aceea): when the bell rings, we shall/will have been writing for fifty minutes. Cnd va suna clopoelul noi vom fi ocupai cu scrisul/Noi vom fi scris de cincizeci de minute. Atenie! Aciunea svrit n aceast perioad de timp viitoare, anterioar unui moment sau unei aciuni de asemenea viitoare, este la viitorul perfect continuu dac se specific lungimea perioadei de timp sau nceputul ei: By six oclock p.m. i will have been selling blouses for eight hours. Pn la ora 18 ea va fi vndut bluze timp de opt ore; i la viitorul perfect simplu dac este prezent o precizare numeric n legtur cu aciunea: By six oclock p.m. i will have sold eighty blouses. Pn la ora 18 ea va fi vndut 80 de bluze. Not: Viitorul perfect continuu este rar folosit n vorbire, fiind o form caracteristic limbii scrise.

49

1.11. Diateza (Voice)

1.11.1. Definiie. Diateza este categoria gramatical specific verbului care exprim raportul dintre verbului predicat, pe de o parte, i subiectul i obiectul. (complementul direct sau de agent) al verbului predicat, pe de alt parte. n limba englez exist dou diateze marcate formal: diateza activ, diateza pasiv. 1.11.2. Diateza activ (Active Voice). Verbul este la diateza activ cnd subiectul gramatical svrete aciunea care, la verbele tranzitive, se rsfrnge asupra obiectului: Lucy (subiect) has written (predicat) a letter (obiect). Lucia a scris o scrisoare. Not: Pentru clasificarea verbelor din punct de vedere al tranzitivitii, vezi 14.5 - 14.8. 1.11.3. Diateza pasiv (Passive Voice). Verbul este la diateza pasiv cnd subiectul gramatical sufer aciunea svrit de obiect: This letter (subiect) has been written (predicat) by Lucy (obiect). Aceast scrisoare a fost scris de Lucia. 1.11.4. Be + participiul trecut. Indicii formali ai diatezei pasive sunt: a) verbul be sau uneori get, b) complementul de agent introdus de prepoziia by. a) Verbul be marcheaz categoriile de mod, timp, persoan i numr la diateza pasiv. El este urmat de un verb noional la participiul trecut: She was met at the station by my brother. Ea a fost ateptat la gar de fratele meu. (Was - modul indicativ, Past Tense, persoana a III-a singular). 1.11.5. Conjugarea unui verb la diateza pasiv, modul indicativ este: Aspectul simplu Present: I am seen. He is seen. We are seen. Past: I was seen. We were seen. Present Perfect: I have been seen. He has been seen. Past Perfect: I had been seen. Future: I shall be seen. He will be seen. Future Perfect: I shall have been seen. He will have been seen. Aspectul continuu este folosit la diateza pasiv doar la Present i Past Tense. Forma continu de la diateza pasiv are n structura sa verbul be la aspectul continuu (timpul Present sau Past) i participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: The classrooms are being cleaned now. Se face curenie n clase acum. The school was being cleaned when we wented to visit it. Se fcea curenie n coal cnd am vrut s-o vizitm.

50

1.11.6. Get/become + participiul trecut. n afar de verbul be se mai poate folosi i verbul get pentru formarea diatezei pasive. Verbul get + participiul trecut este utilizat mai ales n vorbirea curent, pentru a indica trecerea dintr-o stare n alta: Her skirt got caught in the door. I s-a prin fusta n u. All our glasses got broken when we moved. S-au spart toate paharele cnd ne-am mutat. Un sinonim al verbului get cu sensul de schimbare treptat este verbul become, nsiit deseori de more and more, increasingly: The production of this factory is becoming increasingly specialized. Producia acestei fabrici devine din ce n ce mai specializat. 1.11.7. Complementul de agent. Complementul de agent introdus de prepoziia by indic cine a svrit aciunea suferit de subiectul gramatical al propoziiei: The poem was recited by Mary. (not by Lucy or Ann). Poezia a fost recitat de Maria (nu de Lucia sau Ana). Not: Complementul de agent este considerat subiectul logic sau real al propoziiei, deoarece el svrete aciunea. Complementul de agent nu este menionat n majoritatea proproziiilor pasive. El se omite cnd: a) nu se cunoate subiectul real, cel care a svrit aciunea: All villages in Romania are supplied weve electricity. Toate satele din Romnia sunt alimentate cu curent electric. A doctor has been send for. Au/s-a trimis dup doctor. b) Vorbitorul nu dorete s menioneze subiectul real al aciunii: This subject will be. Treated fully in the next charter. Aceast problem va fi tratat pe larg n urmtorul capitol. c) subiectul real al aciunii se poate deduce din context: He was elected President of the Teacher - Parent - Association. A fost ales preedinte al comitetului de prini. n aceste cazuri subiectul verbului la diateza activ este de obicei exprimat printr-un pronume personal cu valoare generic: You, they, one, printr-un pronume nehotrt: everybody, somebody, all, sau printr-un substantiv ca people: Activ: They speak English over the world. People speak English all over the world. Pasiv: English is spoken all over the world. Atenie! Complementul de agent se omite i cnd forma pasiv este get + participiul trecut: The little boy got hurt on his way to school. Bieelul s-a lovit n drum spre coal. 1.11.8. ntrebuinarea diatezei pasive. n limba englez ca i n limba romn se folosesc contrucii pasive i nu active cnd intenia vorbitorului este de a se sublinia aciunea i nu pe cel care a svrit-o. Activ: Millions of people have seen this film. (Accentul cade pe subiect: Milioane de oameni au vzut acest film). Pasiv: This film has been seen by millions of people.

51

(Accentul cade pe verb: Acest film a fost vzut de milioane de oameni). Construciile pasive sunt ntrebuinate mai frecvent n limbajul tiinific i n cel jurnalistic, caracterizate printr-o exprimare impersonal, obiectiv. Diateza pasiv se folosete cu majoritatea verbelor tranzitive i cu unele verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie n care verbul formeaz o unitate semantic cu prepoziia, devenind practic echivalent cu un verb tranzitiv. Verbele cel mai frecvent folosite din aceast categorie sunt: care for/look after = tend, come to = reach, deal with = analyse, laugh at = ridicule, listen to = hear, look upon = regard, rely on = trust, send for = call, talk of = discuss, think of = consider. This metter will be dealt with at once. Ne von ocupa ndat de aceast problem. An alternative was not tought of. La o alternativ nu s-au gndit. Pe plan sintactic, trecerea unei propoziii de la diateza activ la cea pasiv aduce cu sine mai multe schimbri: Diateza activ: Our form teacher has lent me this book. Diateza pasiv: a) subiectul activ al aciunii devine complement de agent pasiv (care poate fi omis n cazurile de la 1.11.7): This book has been lent to me by our form teacher. b) obiectul activ (complementul direct sau indirect) devine subiectul verbului pasiv: This book has been lent to me by our form teache, sau: I have been lent this book by our form teacher. c) prepoziia by este introdus naintea agentului: I have been lent this book BY our form teacher. Not: Pentru descrierea transformrilor pasive, vezi paragraful 14.8. 1.11.9. Traducerea construciilor pasive n limba romn. Un verb englezesc la diateza pasiv se traduce de obicei tot printr-o construcie pasiv: The car was repaired yerterday. Maina a fost reparat ieri. n cazul verbelor urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, se pot folosi i construcii reflexive cu valoare pasiv cnd complementul indirect al persoanei devine indirect: The teacher was offered flowers by her pupils. Profesoarei i s-au oferit flori de ctre elevi. Verbele intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie se traduc prin diatez pasiv, diateza activ sau prin forme reflexiv-pasive, de la caz la caz: The children were well looked after. Copiii au fost bine ngrijii. A doctor has been sent for. Au trimis/S-a trimis dup un doctor. Not: n limba englez exist o categorie aparte de verbe intranzitive folosite la diateza activ cu valoare pasiv i care se traduc n limba romn fie prin construcii reflexive pasive, fie prin verbe la diateza pasiv: The book has sold very well. Cartea s-a vndul foarte bine. The cake cuts easly. Prjitura se taie uor. The clause reads both waiys. Clauza poate fi interpretat n dou feluri.

1.12. Persoana i numrul (Person and Number)

Spre deosebire de verbul romnesc verbul englez are puini indici formali care s marcheze persoana i numrul.

52

Singura desinen specific este -s pentru persoana a III-a singular indicativul prezent, adugate la forma de infinitiv a verbelor noionale. (Verbele modate nu primesc -s): He plays the piano. El cnt la pian. Datorit absenei formelor flexionare, persoana i numrul n limba englez sunt identificate de obicei cu ajutorul subiectului, mai ales cnd aceasta este exprimat printr-un pronume personal. n consecin subiectul este de regul exprimat n limba englez mai ales cnd este un pronume personal spre deosebire de limba romn: I work very hard. (Eu) muncesc foarte mult. We work very hard. (Noi) muncim foarte mult.

1.13. Modul (Mood)

1.13.1. Definiie. Modul este categoria gramatical specific verbului care arat felul n care vorbitorul consider aciunea din punctul de vedere al posibilitii de ndeplinire a ei n realitate. Pentru redarea acestui raport al aciunii cu realitatea, limba englez dispune de dou moduri marcate formal: indicativul (aciune real) i subjonctivul (aciune posibil sau presupus). Not: Unele gramatici menioneaz i modurile condiional i imperativ. n aceast lucrare formele de condiional (prezent i trecut) sunt tratate n cadrul modului subjonctiv (vezi 1.13.10 i 1.13.12) datorit formei identice cu unele forme ale sunjonctivului analitic i funciei similare (aciune posibil sau presupus, n acest caz condiionat de ndeplinirea unei altei aciuni), iar folosirea condiionalului este tratat n cadrul Sintaxei frazei: 25.14.4. Formele folosite pentru exprimarea unei aciuni poruncite (aa-numitul mod imperativ) sunt analizate n cadrul capitolului Felurile propoziiilor, Propoziia imperativ, 23.4. Dup categoria gramatical a persoanei i a posibilitii de a forma predicatul unei propoziii, formele verbale n limba englez se mpart n personale (indicativul i subjonctivul) i nepersonale (infinitivul, participiul i gerundul).

FORMELE PERSONALE ALE VERBULUI (The Finite Forms of the Verb)

1.13.2. Modul Indicativ (The Indicative Mood) Modul indicativ prezint aciunea, starea etc. exprimat de verb ca real ndeplinit chiar. Modul indicativ are urmtoarele timpuri, n nvecinarea lor cronologic: Pe axa trecutului: Past Past Perfect Future in the Past Pe axa prezentului: Present

53

Present Perfect Future Pe axa viitorului: Future Future Perfect He returned the book to the library after he had read it. A inapoiat cartea la bibliotec dup ce a citit-o. I can return the book to the library now. I have read it. Pot s napoiez cartea la bibliotec (acum). Am citit-o. He will return the book to the library next Monday. He will have read it by then. Va napoia cartea la bibliotec lunea viitoare. O va fi citit pn atunci. Not: Pentru analiza folosirii timpurilor, vezi 1.5 - 1.9. 1.13.3. Modul subjonctiv (The Subjonctive Mood). Modul subjonctiv prezint aciunea ca posibil, cnd aciunea este proiectat n viitor, sau ca virtual, nerealizat, deci ireal, cnd aciunea trebuia s aib loc n trecut. Modul subjonctiv n limba englez are forme sintetice i analitice. 1.13.4. Subjonctivul sintetic (The Synthetical Subjonctive). Subjonctivul sintetic are forme de prezent i trecut. 1.13.5. Subjonctivul prezent (The Present Subjonctive) este identic ca form cu infinitivul scurt al verbului: It is necessary that he be here. It is necessary that he come in time. Este necesar ca el s fie aici. Este necesar ca el s vin la timp. Subjonctivul prezent exprim o aciune considerat posibil, deci nu contrar realitii. Subjonctivul prezent este puin folosit n engleza contemporan, fiind de obicei nlocuit de alte contrucii: subjonctivul analitic, infinitivul. ntrebuinrile lui sunt limitate la: 1) propoziii principale coninnd: a) urri: Long live peace! Triasc pacea! b) anumite expresii, n construcii fixe (Formulaic Subjonctive): So be it then! Aa s fie! Suffice it to sauy that... Este de ajuns s spun c... 2) propoziii subordonate introduse de that, cnd propoziia principal exprim o recomandare, decizie, rugminte, speran sau intenie pentru viitor ori un sentiment de surprindere (Mandative Subjonctive). Astfel subjonctivul sintetic este folosit n urmtoarele tipuri de propoziii subordonate: a) n propoziii subiective: It is necessary that the chairman inform the committee of the decision. Este necesar ca preedintele s informeze comitetul asupra deciziei. b) n propoziii atributive apropoziionale: There was a proposal that he be elected peace chairman. Exista o propunere ca el s fie ales preedinte.

54

c) n propoziii completive directe: They suggested that steps be taken to consolidate peace and security in Europe. S-a propus luarea de msuri pentru consolidarea pcii i securitii n Europa. d) n propoziii condiionale sau concesive introduse de o conjuncie: If this rumour be true, we cannot stay here. Dac acest zvon e cumva adevrat nu putem rmne aici. Though everyone desert you, I will not. Chiar dac lumea te va prsi, eu nu o voi face. Folosirea subjonctivului prezent este caracteristic stilului oficial, fiind ntlnit n tratate, rezoluii, regulamente sau n stilul tehnico - tiinific. Subjonctivul prezent este mai frecvent folosit n engleza american (literar i vorbit). Engleza britanic curent prefer construcii cu: a) infinitivul: It is necessary for him to come in time. b) should + infinitivul: They suggest that steps should be taken. 1.13.6. Subjonctivul trecut (The Past Subjonctive). Subjonctivul trecut coincide ca form cu Past Tense simplu, modul indicativ: I wish he told the truth. A dori s spun adevrul. Verbul be are o form unic pentru toate persoanele: were: I wish he/they were here. n vorbirea curent ns, exist tendina de a-l nlocui pe were cu was la persoana I i a III-a singular: If he were/was ill, I would send for the doctor. Dac ar fi bolnav, a trimite dup doctor. Forma de subjonctiv trecut poate fi folosit i la aspectul continuu. Ea conine n structura sa forma were urmat de participiul n -ing al verbului de conjugat: I wish he were revising for his exam now. A dori s repete pentru examen acum. Subjonctivul trecut este folosit n propoziii subordonate, pentru a exprima o aciune contrar realitii: a) n propoziii subiective, dup its (high) time: Its time you went to bed. E de mult timpul s v ducei la culcare (Este foarte trziu). Not: Comparai cu: Its time + infinitiv: Its time for you to go bed. E timpul s v ducei la culcare. (E ora de culcare). b) n completive directe, dup verbul wish: I wish you were telling the truth. A dori s spui adevrul. c) n propoziii condiionale: If I saw him, I would give him your message. Dac l-a vedea i-a transmite mesajul tu. d) n circumstaniale de mod comparative: She talked as if she were ill. Vorbea de parc era bolnav. e) n propoziii concesive: Even though he were ill, he would not miss school. Chiar dac ar fi bolnav, n-ar lipsi de la coal. Subjonctivul trecut este utilizat att n stilul literar ct i n limba vorbit. El este confundat de obicei cu Past Tense, cu care este identic ca form. Not: n capitolele de sintax a frazei s-a folosit termenul de Past Tense i nu de subjonctiv trecut n discuia propoziiilor subordonate n care apare aceast form, pentru simplificare i uurarea memorrii.

55

1.13.7. Subjonctivul II trecut. Forma de mai mult ca perfect a indicativului are i valoare de subjonctiv perfect, cnd exprim o aciune contrar unei realiti trecute, deci ireal, n unele propoziii subordonate: a) n propoziii completive directe, dup verbul wish: I wish I had been there too. (but I wasnt). A fi dorit s fiu i eu acolo. b) n circumstaniale de mod comparative: He talkes as if he had seen her. Vorbea de parc ar fi vzut-o. c) n propoziii condiionale: If he had read the book, he would have written a better term paper. Dac ar fi citit cartea ar fi scris o tez mai bun. 1.13.8. Subjonctivul analitic (The Analytical Subjonctive). n limba englez contemporan exist tendina de a folosi subjonctivul analitic, mai frecvent dect subjonctivul sintetic, pentru a exprima fapte sau aciuni ipotetice, sub forma unor presupuneri, ndoieli, urri, condiii, concesii sau a unui scop. Formele subjonctivului analitic conin n structura lor verbe modale urmate de verbe noionale la infinitiv. (prezent sau perfect). Exist mai multe posibiliti de exprimare a subjonctivului analitic (cu o form unic pentru toate persoanele): should + infinitiv : should leave should + infinitivul perfect : should have left would + infinitiv : would leave would + infinitivul perfect : would have left may + infinitiv : may leave may + infinitivul perfect : may have left might + infinitiv : might leave might + infinitivul perfect : might have left could + infinitiv : could leave could + infinitivul perfect : could have left Formele de subjonctiv alctuite din verbe modale urmate de infinitivul prezent se refer la o aciune simultan sau posterioar aciunii din propoziia principal, pe cnd cele urmate de infinitivul perfect redau o aciune anterioar aciunii din propoziia principal. Atenie! Dei conin verbe modale, formele subjonctivului analitic i-au pierdut n multe cazuri nelesul modal, verbele modale devenind simple verbe auxiliare: He left early so that he might arrive in time. A plecat devreme ca s ajung la timp. 1.13.9. ntrebuinarea subjonctivului analitic. Formele de subjonctiv analitic sunt folosite att n propoziiile principale, ct i n propoziiile subordonate. Folosirea acestor forme n propoziiile principale este limitat de obicei la exprimarea unor urri, n expresii fixe, sau pentru exprimarea ideii de condiional: May he live long! I should like to go now. Formele subjonctivului analitic (mai ales should + infinitiv) sunt mai frecvente n propoziiile subordonate (n special cele introduse de that), pentru a exprima o

56

aciune posibil, presupus, pentru a sublinia ideea de aciune i nu aciunea propriu-zis sau ndeplinirea ei, care sunt redate prin indicativ. Comparai: The idea is that sport facilities should be improved. Ideea este s se mbunteasc baza material pentru sport. (Aceasta se poate ntmpla sau nu). The fact is that sport facilities will be improved. Faptul este c baza material pentru sport va fi mbuntit. (Aceasta se va ntmpla). 1.13.10. Should + infinitivul. Should + infinitivul este folosit: 1) n propoziii principale, n alctuirea formelor de condiional prezent i trecut: a) Should + infinitivul prezent este utilizat pentru a reda condiionalul prezent n limba englez, la persoana I singular i plural: I/we should like to see him. A/Am dori s-l vedem. Not: n vorbirea curent exist tendina de a folosi would n loc de should: I/We would like to see him. b) Should + infinitivul perfect este folosit cu funcie de condiional trecut la persoana I singular i plural: I/We should have liked to see him. i aici este prezent tendina de a nlocui should cu would: I/We would have liked to see him. c) Tot n propoziii principale, should + infinitivul este folosit pentru exprimarea unei atitudini emoionale, n ntrebri ncepnd cu why sau how: Why should we quarrel about such a trifle? De ce s ne certm pentru un asemenea fleac? 2) n propoziii subordonate: a) n propoziii subiective introduse it is/was necessary, strnge, unusual, important, impossible, natural, (un)fortunate, remarkable, suprising etc.: It is necessary that the chairman should inform the committee of the decision taken. Este necesar ca preedintele s informeze comitetul despre decizia luat. b) n propoziii subiective introduse de it/was a pity, shame, surprise, wonder: It is wonder that they should come so early. E o minune ca ei s vin aa devreme. c) n propoziiile atributive apoziionale, dup substantivele reason, supposition, though, idea, hint: This is no reason why he should be late. Aceasta nu este un motiv pentru care s ntrzie. d) n propoziiile completive directe dup verbe care exprim un ordin, o sugestie, o hotrre: order, command, demand, request, insist, suggest, propose, offer, arrange, agree, settle: They demanded that the meeting should be held without delay. Au cerut ca edina s fie inut fr ntrziere. e) n propoziii completive prepoziionale dup adjective ca: I am glad, pleased, anxious, sorry etc., care redau sentimentele vorbitorului: She was anxious that they should see her dancing. Era nerbdtoare ca ei s o vad dansnd. f) n propoziii condiionale, pentru exprimarea unei condiii puin probabile: If he should come, tell him to wait in the room. Dac vine cumva/se ntmpl s vin, spune-i s atepte n camera de zi.

57

g) n propoziii circumstaniale de scoip negative introduse de lest, for fear (that), in case (that), urmate de un verb la forma afirmativ: He hurried for fear he should be late. Se grbea de fric s nu ntrzie. h) n propoziii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever pentru a exprima o aciune ipotetic: Whatever he should do, he is not likely to succeed. Orice ar face nu are anse s reueasc. i) n propoziii subordonate temporale (rar): He was advised to keep a diet till he should feel better. A fost sftuit s in regim pn se va simi mai bine. 1.13.11. May/might + Infinitivul. Subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin may/might + infinitivul prezent sau perfect este folosit: 1) n propoziii principale, pentru a exprima o urare, dorin: May you live long! S trieti muli ani! Oh, that he might recover soon! O, de s-ar nsntoi repede! 2) n propoziii subordonate. Atenie! Dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp prezent, n propoziia subordonat se poate folosi may sau might + infinitiv (perfect). Utilizarea lui might + infinitiv indic o nesiguran mai mare dect may: It is possible that he may come later. Este posibil/Se poate s vin mai trziu. It is possible that he might come later. S-ar putea s vin mai trziu. Might + infinitivul este ntrebuinat ntotdeauna dup un verb trecut n propoziia principal: He spoke loudly so that everybody might hear him. A vorbit tare ca s-l aud toat lumea. May/might + infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) este folosit n urmtoarele tipuri de propoziii subordonate: a) n propoziii subiective introduse de it is/was possible, probable, likely, la forma afirmativ: It was possible that they might have visited the Exhibition the day before. Era posibil ca ei s fi vizitat expoziia cu o zi nainte. Not: La forma interogativ sau negativ, aceste construcii sunt urmate de should + infinitiv: Was is possible that should have visited the Exhibition alread? Era pozibil ca ei s fi vizitat deja expoziia? b) n propoziii completive prepoziionale dup be afraid: He was afraid I might turn down his offer. Se temea s nu-i resping oferta. c) n propoziii circumstaniale de scop introduse de conjunciile that, so that, in order that: She repeated the explanation so that de pupils might understand the lesson better. A repetat explicaia ca elevii s neleag mai bine lecia. d) n propoziii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever, however, no matter etc., pentru a reda o aciune nesigur, presupus: However tiredhe might be, he must come down and talk to us. Orict de obosit ar fi, trebuie s coboare s vorbeasc cu noi.

Comm

Comm

58

1.13.12. Would + infinitivul. Subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin would + infinitivul prezent sau perfect este utilizat: 1) n propoziii principale, pentru construirea formelor de condiional: a) condiionalul prezent, la toate persoanele, este format din would + infinitivul prezent: They would like to come now. Ei ar dori s vin acum. b) would + infinitivul perfect este ntrebuinat pentru formarea condiionalului trecut la toate persoanele: They would have liked to come now. Ei ar dori s vin acum. 2) n propoziii subordonate: a) n propoziii completive directe, dup verbul wish, pentru a exprima o aciune dorit, dar avnd puine anse de realizare n viitor: I wish he would lend me his book. (but I dont think he will). A dori s-mi mprumute cartea (dar nu cred c o va face). b) n propoziii circumstaniale de scop introduse de so that: She kept the food in the oven so that they would eat it hot. A inut mncarea n cuptor ca s-o mnnce cald. 1.13.13. Could + infinitivul. Could + infinitivul este folosit de obicei n circumstaniale de scop, ca o alternativ a lui may/might + infinitivul. Deosebirea dintre cele dou construcii este urmtoarea: may/might este mai formal i indic un grad mai mare de nesiguran; could este utilizat n vorbire i indic un grad mai mare de nesiguran; could este utilizat n vorbire i indic de obicei o aciune real: She sent him money so that he could buy the dictionary. I-a trimis bani ca s poat cumpra / s cumpere dicionarul. 1.13.14. Subjonctivul sau indicativul. n unele din situaiile de mai sus n care se ntrebuineaz subjonctivul analitic se poate folosi i indicativul. Acesta este utilizat de obicei cnd aciunea este menionat ca un faptreal i nu ca o presupunere; Its a pity you have missed such an opportunity. E pcat c ai pierdut o asemenea ocazie. (Se subliniasz ideea de a pierde o asemenea ocazie). Not: Pentru analiza mai detaliat a folosirii modurilor i timpurilor n propoziiile subordonate, vezi Sintaxa frazei, 25.4 - 25.17.

1.14. Formele nepersonale ale verbului (The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb)
1.14.1. Formele nepersonale ale verbului n limba englez sunt infinitivul, participiul n -ing, forma Gerund (gerunziul) i participiul trecut. Formele nepersonale ale verbului nu au categoriile gramaticale de mod, persoan i numr i nu pot ndeplini n propoziie funcia de predicat. n unele situaii ns ele pot forma construcii cu caracter predicativ n care forma verbal se afl ntrun raport predicativ implicit fa de elementul nominal: Father coming home early, we went for a walk. Tata venind devreme acas, ne-am dus la plimbare. The preparations for

59

the exam completed, the candidates were allowed to enter the examination room. Pregtirile pentru examen (fiind) terminate, li s-a permis candidailor s intre n sala de examen. Formele nepersonale ale verbului cu att caracteristici verbale, ct i caracteristici nominale. 1.14.2. Caracteristicile verbale comune cu cele ale formelor nepersonale

sunt:

a) Formele nepersonale ale verbului au tradiional categoria de timp, diatez iar infinitivul are i categoria de aspect. b) Pe plan sintactic, pot avea subiect (formnd construcii predicative implicite), complement direct (dup verbe tranzitive) sau complemente circumstaniale, ca i forme personale: I can imagine them worrying about it. mi imaginez c-i fac probleme despre acest lucru. Having read the book, she returned it to the library. Dup ce a citit cartea a napoiat-o la bibliotec. We noticed some pupils running in the playground. Am observat civa elevi alergnd n curtea colii. 1.14.3. Pe lng aceste caracteristici verbale, infinitivul i gerundul au i caracteristici substantivale, datorit crora ele pot ndeplini n propoziie i funcii specifice substantivului, iar participiul are i caracteristici adjectivale, datorit crora se poate comporta ca un adjectiv n propoziie: To see her again was his only desire. S-o vad din nou era singura lui dorin. Running is good for you. Crosul i face bine. He would add stamp after stamp to his growing collection of old Romanian stamps. Aduga timbru dup timbru la colecia lui n cretere, de vechi mrci potale romneti. There is the Lost Property Office. Acolo este Biroul de obiecte gsite.

1.15. Infinitivul (The Infinitive)

1.15.1. Formele infinitivului. Infinitivul are dou forme: infinitivul lung (The Long Infinitive), marcat de particula to i infinitivul scurt (The Short Infinitive), fr particula to. Not: Infinitivul cu adverb intercalat (The Split Infinitive). Gramaticile mai menioneaz i infinitivul cu adverb intercalat, o construcie destul de frecvent n engleza contemporan, alctuit dintr-un infinitiv lung i un adverb de mod, aezat ntre verbul principal. De exemplu: to clearly understand = a nelege clar to fully appreciate = a aprecia cum trebuie to flaty refuse = a refuza categoric etc They came to fully realize the importance of the event. Au ajuns s-i dea seama pe deplin de importana evenimentului. 1.15.2. Caracteristicile verbele ale infinitivului. a) Infinitivul are categoriile gramaticale de timp (prezent i perfect), aspect (simplu i continuu) diateza (activ i pasiv).

60

Infinitivul (timp, aspect, diatez)

Timpul
Prezent

Aspectul continuu Diateza activ Diateza pasiv

wash a spla have washed a fi splat be washed a fi splat have been washed a fi fost splat

Aspectul continuu Diateza activ

be washing a spla have been washing a fi splat

Perfect

1.15.3. Caracteristicile substantivale ale infinitivului. n proproziie, infinitivul ndeplinete de regul funciile unui substantiv. Infinitivul este folosit: 1) la nceputul propoziiei: a) cu funcie de subiect: To err is human. A grei este omenesc. Not: n vorbirea curent, subiectul exprimat printr-un infinitiv este anticipat de pronumele it: It is quite easy to learn English. Este destul de uor s nvei englezete. b) ca element independent n propoziie, n construcii parentetice: to be sure, to put it mildly, to speak frankly, to tell the truth etc.: To tell the truth, I dont like him. 2) dup substantive ndeplinind funcia de atribut: He is not the man to do it. El nu este omul (care) s fac acest lucru. New blocks of flats will be built in this area in the years to come. n anii ce vor veni se vor construi noi blocuri de locuine n aceast zon. Not: Unele dintre aceste substantive provin din verbele de la 1.15.3, pct.6: attempt, decision, intention, wish etc.: He announced his decision to resign. i-a anunat hotrrea de a demisiona. 3) dup verbe modale, ca parte a predicatului: a) infinitivul lung, dup: ought (to), have (to), be (to), used (to) i uneori dup dare i need (vezi 1.20.5 i 1.20.11), ca parte a predicatului: We have to get up early every day. Trebuie s ne sculm devreme n fiecare zi. b) infinitivul scurt, dup can, may, must, need, dare, shall/should, will/would: You should see a doctor. Ar trebui s mergi la doctor. 4) dup verbe copulative (n special be), ndeplinind funcia de nume predicativ: To see her is to like her. A o vedea nseamn a o plcea. 5) ca o complinire a unor adjective care exprim stri sufleteti, folosite predicativ: afraid, certain, content, eager, glad, pleased sorry, sure, wrong etc.: He is eager to help you. Este dornic s te ajute. Im very glad to have seen them. Sunt foarte bucurod c i-am vzut.

61

6) dup verbe tranzitive: arrange, attempt, decide, learn, offer, promise, refuse, want, wish etc. ndeplinind funcia de complement direct. a) singure: They have decided to repeat the experiment. Au hotrt s repete experiena. b) n construcia Acuzativ cu infinitiv, dup verbe exprimnd o activitate mintal (believe, consider, think etc.), permisiunea (allow, permit), un ordin sau o rugminte (order, command, request, beg, ask etc.): We requested them to complete the survey. Le-am cerut s termine ancheta. c) Atenie! Dup verbele de percepie: hear, see, watch, notice, observe, perceive i dup have, let i make n construcia Acuzativ cu infinitiv (vezi 18.3.1.) se folosete infinitivul scurt: I heard them come. I-am auzit venind. I made her work harder. Am fcut-o s munceasc mai mult. Not: 1. Verbul notice poate fi urmat i de infinitivul cu to: I noticed them (to) come. I-am observat venind. 2. Verbele de la pct. 6c) sunt urmate de infinitivul cu to n transformarea pasiv a construciei Acuzativ cu infinitiv - Nominativ cu infinitiv: They were heard to come. She was made to work harder. 7) n construcia Infinitivul cu for - to: They were anxious for her to begin her song. Erau nerbdtori ca ea s-i nceap cntecul. 8) n construcia Nominativ cu infinitiv: They were requested to complete the survey. Li s-a cerut s termine ancheta. 9) dup verbe tranzitive sau intranzitive, ndeplinind funcia de complement circumstanial de scop: I came to talk to you. Am venit (ca) s stau de vorb cu tine. Not: Infinitivul cu funcie de complement circumstanial de scop poate fi precedat de in order to, so as to: He repetead the new words everyday in order) not to forget them. Repeta cuvintele noi n fiecare zi ca s nu le uite. 10) pentru a nlocui o propoziie subordonat, precedat de un pronume/adverb interogativ, sau de o conjuncie: Show me where to go (= where I must go). He has told me what to buy (= what I must buy). how to do it. (= how I should do it). Not: 1. Verbul know cu sensul de a ti cum s ... este urmat de how+infinitiv: She knows how to captivate her audience. tie cum s-i captiveze auditoriul. 2. Forget, learn i teach sunt folosite n mod similar: She taught me how to catch butterflies. M-a nvat cum s prind fluturi. 11) Particula to poate fi folosit pentru a nlocui un verb care a fost deja menionat: A: Lets go. B: I dont want to. A: Hai s mergem. B: Nu vreau (s mergem). She bought the book although I had told her not to. Ea a cumprat cartea dei i-am spus s n-o cumpere.

62

1.15.4. Traducere. Infinitivul se traduce de obicei n limba romn printr-o propoziie subordonat: I want to see her. Vreau s-o vd. He could come. A putut s vin.

1.16. Forma n -ing (The -ing Form)

1.16.1. Forma n -ing reprezint dou forme verbale distincte: participiul n ing i Gerund-ul. Acestea au form identic, putnd fi difereniate numai dup funciile pe care le ndeplinesc n propoziie, pe baza determinrilor pe care le au. Forma n -ing se construiete din infinitivul verbului de conjugat, la care se adaug terminaia -ing: read + -ing = reading; writw + -ing = writing; cry = -ing = crying; lie + -ing =lying; sit + -ing = sitting. (Pentru ortografierea acestei forme verbale, vezi 1.10.5). Funciile ndeplinite de cele dou forme verbale deriv din caracteristicile lor: participiul n -ing are caracteristici verbale i adjectivale: He is sleeping. El doarme. The sleeping child. Copilul care doarme. iar Gerund-ul, caracteristici verbale i substantivale: We had the adavantage of working in a factory near our school. Am avut avantajul s lucrm ntr-o fabric lng coala noastr. Working in a factory is useful for our future careers. Munca n fabric este folositoare pentru viitoarea noastr profesiune. 1.16.2. Participiul n -ing sau participiul prezent (the -ing Partciple, the Present Participle) exprim o aciune n desfurare sau o stare nelegate de un agent prin categoriile de persoan sau numr. 1.16.3. Caracteristicile verbale ale participiului n -ing. a) Participiul n -ing are categoriile gramaticale de timp i diatez: Participiul n -ing (timp i diatez)

Timp Present participle Present Participle

Participiul Prezent Participiul Perfect

Diatez activ reading

citind citind

pasiv being read

fiind citit fiind citit

having read

heaving been read

Participiul prezent exprim o aciune simultan cu verbul la mod personal din propoziie: Running across the park, he heard somebody call his name. n timp ce traversa parcul n fug, a auzit pe cineva strigndu-l pe nume. Participiul perfect se formeaz din participiul prezent al verbului have din participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat. El exprim o aciune anterioar verbului predicativ din propoziie: Having run across the park, he felt tired. Dup ce a traversat parcul n fug s-a simit obosit.

63

b) Participiul n -ing este folosit pentru formarea aspectului continuu al verbelor: They are going home. Se duc acas. I was playing ches when the telephone rang. Jucam ah cnd a sunat telefonul. c) Pe plan sintactic, participiul n -ing poate avea subiect, complement direct (dup verbe tranzitive) i complemente circumstaniale, ca i formele personale: I saw him reading an English book in the library. L-am vzut citind o carte englezeasc la bibliotec. 1.16.4. Caracteristicile adjectivale ale participiului n -ing. Parcicipiul n ing poate fi folosit i ca adjectiv. El se aeaz naintea substantivului, dac se accentueaz latura sa adjectival i dup substantiv, dac latura verbal este mai evident: All sleeping children are beautiful (sleeping = not awake). Toi copii adormii sunt frumoi. The child sleeping in the next room is my baby brother (sleeping = who is sleeping). Copilul care doarme n camera alturat este friorul meu. 1.16.5. Funciile sintactice ale participiului n -ing. Participiul n -ing este folosit (singur sau precedat de conjucii, n special when sau while): 1) n expresii parentetice: generally speaking = n general, judging by appearances = judecnd dup aparene; beginning with September 15 = ncepnd cu 15 septembrie, considering the circumstances = lund n considerare condiiile. Judging by appearances, nobody is to blame. Judecnd dup aparene nimeni nu este vinovat. 2) ca nume predicativ, dup verbele stand, sit, lie: She STOOD gazing at the brightly lit shop windows. Se uita cu admiraie la vitrinele viu luminate. 3) ca nlocuitor al unor propoziii subordonate, ndeplinind n propoziie funcia de: a) atribut: She looked at the children playing in the garden (= who were playing): Se uita la copii care se jucau n grdin. b) parte dintr-un complement direct complex (Acuzativ cu participiu n -ing): She heard somebody knocking at the door. (= that somebody was knocking). A auzit pe cineva btnd la u. c) complement circumstanial, mai ales de: - timp: Arriving at the station, he started looking for his friend (= when he arrived...) Sosind la gar, a nceput s-i caute prietenul. - cauz: Having read the book, he was able to comment on ir. (= As he had read the book...) Deaorece citise cartea, a putut s o comenteze. - mprejurri nsoitoare: She came out of the room wearing a long evening dress. (She came out... She was wearing...) A ieit din camer purtnd o rochie lung de sear. Not: Exprimarea complementului circumstanial printr-un participiu n -ing este o trstur caracteristic englezei literare. n vorbire se refer propoziiile subordonate (Vezi parantezele).

64

1.16.6. Traducere. Participiul n -ing se traduce n limba romn printr-un gerunziu sau printr-o propoziie subordonat: Passing the shop, he saw his mother inside. Trecnd/n timp ce trecea prin faa magazinului, o vzu pe mama sa nuntru.

1.17. Forma -ing ca Gerund (The Gerund)

1.17.1. Caracteristicile verbale ale formei Gerund. Gerund are, la fel ca i participiul n -ing, caracteristici verbale: a) are categoriile gramaticale de timp i diatez: Diateza activ: Gerund: I enjoy learning English. mi place s nv engleza. Perfect Gerund: He denies having taken the books. Neag c a luat crile. Diateza pasiv: Gerund: He cant stand being interrupted. Nu poate suferi s fie ntrerupt. Perfect Gerund: He denies having been invited to the party. Neag c a fost invitat la petrecere. Gerund denumete de regul o aciune simultan cu aciunea verbului predicativ (cu excepia situaiilor n care Gerund-ul este precedat de prepoziia before sau after). The teacher enjoyed taking the children to the museum last Sunday. Profesorului i-a fcut plcere s-i duc pe copii la muzeu duminica trecut. Forma perfect (Perfect Gerund) denumete o aciune anterioar verbului predicativ. Aceast form este mai rar folosit dect Gerund i ea apare mai ales dup verbul deny: He DENIES having seen her. Neag c a vzut-o. n cazul altor verbe, mai ales remember, excuse, forgive, thank i dup prepoziiile on, after, without, raportul de anterioritate poate fi exprimat i de Gerund. I cant remember doing this exercise before. I cant remember having done this exercise before. Nu - mi amintesc s mai fi fcut acest exerciiu. I thanked him for helping me. I thanked him for having helped. I-am mulumit c m-a ajutat. Not: Sensul pasiv al Gerund-ului este redat de obicei prin forma pasiv: The children enjoied being taken to the museum. Copiilor le-a fcut plcere s fie du-i la muzeu. Dup verbele want, need, require, deserve, i dup adjectivul worth se folosete ns Gerund-ul activ pentru redarea sensului pasiv: Your shoes NEED mending. Trebuie s-i repari pantofii/Pantofii ti trebuie reparai. What is WORTH doing is WORTH doing well. Ce merit fcut merit fcut bine. b) Pe plan sintactic, Gerund poate avea subienct, complement direct n cazul verbelor tranzitive, complemente circumstaniale: I cant imagine him driving a car in this weather. Nu mi-l imaginez conducnd maina pe o asemenea vreme.

65

1.17.2. Caracteristicile substantivale ale formei Gerund. Spre deosebire de participiul n -ing, care are i caracteristici adjectivale, Gerund are i caracteristici substantivale: a) poate fi determinat de articole, adjective, substantive la cazul genitiv sintetic: The sound of a loud knocking on the door interrupted their discussion. The sound of her coming in interrupted their discussion. The sound of a babys crying interrupted their discussion. Not: Dac un verb tranzitiv + complementul su direct este folosit la Gerund precedat de un articol, complementul direct se transform ntr-un atribut prepoziional cu of. Comparai: The stranghening of peace and security in Europe is an essential prerequisite for strengthening peace and security throughout the world. ntrirea pcii i securtii n Europa este o condiie esenial pentru ntrirea pcii i securitii n ntreaga lume. The writting of books takes a great deal of time. Writting books takes a great deal of time. Scrierea crilor ia foarte mult timp. b) este ntrebuinat dup prepoziii: AFTER walking for an hour, we went to the cinema. Dup ce ne-am plimbat o or, ne-am dus la cinema. He is in the habit OF going fishing every week. Are obiceiul/Obinuiete s mearg la pescuit n fiecare sptmn. c) pe plan sintactic, Gerund-ul ndeplinete funcii proprii substantivului: 1) subiect: Camping is the ideal way to spend a holiday. Not: Subiectul exprimat prin Gerund este adeseori introdus de un it anticipativ: Its no good worring. Its hopeless trying to get this car going. 2) parte dintr-un predicat verbal, dup verbele indicnd nceputul begin, start; continuarea: continue, go on, keep (on) i sfnitul aciunii: stop, end, finish, cease: He BEGAN searching for the document. He WENT ON searching for the document. He FINISCHED searching for the document. 3) nume predicativ (rar): Seeing is document. 4) complement direct: Fancy meeting you here! 5) parte dintr-un complement prepoziional: He was succeeded in collecting all the material.

66

6) parte dintr-un complement complex: I can imagine her getting upset. I can imagine Marys getting upset. 7) parte dintr-un complement circumstanial (precedat de o prepoziie care indic i felul complementului: - de timp: After cycling douwn the avenue, he turned right. - de mod: He won the competition by quessing all the answers. 8) parte dintr-un atribut prepoziional: I had the pleasure of travelling with

them.

1.17.3. ntrebuinarea formei Gerund 1) Forma Gerund este folosit: a) dup prepoziii ca after, before, by, for, from, on etc., care indic relaii temporale, cauzale, de mod, de scop, etc.: ON waking up, he found himself in a hospital ward. Cnd s-a trezit s-a vzut ntr-un salon de spital. Read your paper again BEFORE handing it in. Citete nc o dat lucrarea nainte s o predai. Youll get a ticket FOR parking here. Ai s primeti amend pentru c ai parcat aici. She keeps healthy BY keeping a strict diet. i menine sntatea innd un regim strict. b) dup pri de vorbire urmate n mod obligatoriu de anumite prepoziii: - substantive cu prepoziie obligatorie: - doubt + about; - cause, reason + for; - belief, confidence, delight, difficulty, experience, faith, interest, luck, pride + in; charge, favour, habit, hope, intention, opportunity, point + of; - contribution, objection, opposition + to; etc. He has a lot of EXPERIENCE IN foreign language teaching. Are mult experien n predarea limbii strine. - adjective i participii trecute cu prepoziie obligatorie: - angry, anxious, certain, enthusiastic, happy, optimistic, pleased, sure, worried + about; - angry, astonished, bad, clever, delighted, expert, good, pleased, skiful, surprised + at; excellent, famous, responsible, sorry, suitable, useful + for; - consistent, correct, diligent, experienced, expert, fortunate, helpful, interested, late, prompt, quick, conscious, convinced, fond, guilty, proud, tired + of; - based, dependent, intent, keen + on; - accustomed, equal, equivalent, opposed, used + to; - annoyed, bored, content, delighted, furious, disappointed, happy, pleased, satisfied, sick, upset + with. I am DELIGHTED AT her winning the first prize. Sunt ncntat c a ctigat premiul nti. I am USED TO getting up early. Sunt obinuit s m scol devreme. - verbe cu prepoziie obligatorie: - complain, dream, learn, worry + about; aim, hesitate +; - fight, struggle + against; - begin, conclude, end + by; - apologize, care + for; - prevent, recover. refrain, retire + from; - believe, consist, delight, participate, succeed + in; - accuse, approve, boast, complain, consit, hear, think + of; - agree, concentrate, congratulate, count, decide, focus, insist, live, rely + on; - agree, contribute, look forward, object, resort + to; - agree + with. I dont AGREE TO your leaving earlier than the others. I OBJECT TO your leaving earlier than the others.

67

Nu sunt de acord s pleci mai devreme dect ceilali. I wont HEAR OF buying a new TV set. Nu vreau s aud s cumprm un televizor nou. Im LOOKING FORWARD TO seeing you again. Atept cu nerbdare s te vd din nou. These measures CONTRIBUTE TO strengthening peace and security. Aceste msuri contribuie la ntrirea pcii i securitii. 2) Gerund este ntrebuinat dup substantivul use n contrucia it is no use sau there is no use i dup adjectivul worth: This book is WORTH reading. Aceast carte merit citit. ITS NO USE trying to mend the vacuum-cleaner. Degeaba ncerci s repari aspiratorul. 3) dup verbe tranzitive: admit, avoid, consider, deny, detest, dislike, escape, fancy, finish, give up, cannot help, keep (on), dont mind, miss, postpone, practise, put off, resent, resist, risk, cannot stand, stop, suggest etc. You must AVOID being late in future. Trebuie s evii s ntrzii n viitor. He HAS GIVEN UP smoking. S-a lsat de fumat. I CANNOT HELP laughing at his jokes. Nu pot s nu rd la glumele lui. I CANNOT STAND being interrupted in my work. Nu pot suferi s fiu ntrerupt din lucru. 4) dup verbe exprimnd o activitate mintal: forget, remember, understand etc sau o stare sufleteasc: cannot bear, dread, hate, like, love, neglect, prefer, regret, etc. n alternan cu infinitivul: I remember being disappointed. mi amintesc c am fost dezamgit. I HATE their arriving late. Nu-mi place c ntrzie. 5) dup verbe indicnd un proces: plan, try, undertake; nceputul: begin, start; continuarea: continue sau sfritul aciunii: cease, n alternan cu infinitivul. They STARTED comparing notes. They CONTINUED comparing notes. They CEASED comparing notes. 1.17.4. Traducere. Forma Gerund nu are corespondent perfect n limba romn. Ea se traduce de obicei, n funcie de context, prin: a) un gerunziu: He ented his speech by thanking everybody for their attention. i-a ncheiat cuvntarea mulumind tuturor pentru atenie. b) un substantiv: Swimming keeps you fit. notul te menine n form. c) o propoziie subordonat: He is fond of reading aloud. i place s citeasc cu glas tare. 1.17.5. Infinitivul cu to i forma Gerund. Infinitivul cu to i forma Gerund au unele caracteristici substastantivale i verale comune, datorit crora: a) pot avea: - subiect: I want you to go first. I cant stand Tom interrupting me all the time; - complement direct: I intend to read this tomorrow. I remember spending a holiday with them.

68

- complement circumstanial: We wanted to go to the theatre. He had the benefit of studying at a Romanian university. b) pot ndeplini acelelai funcii n propoziie: - subiect, nume predicativ: To see her is to like her. Seeing is believing. - complement direct: I love to swim in the sea. I love swimming. - atribut prepoziional: He has no desire to go. He has no intention of going

etc.

n alte cazuri ns, numai una din cele dou forme este posibil. Vom analiza deci cazurile: 1) cnd se folosete numai infinitivul; 2) cnd se folosete numai forma Gerund; 3) cnd se poate folosi sau infinitivul sau Gerund-ul i care sunt diferenele de sens. 1.17.6. Folosirea infinitivului cu To este obligatorie: a) dup verbele enumerate la 1.15.3 pct. 6: arange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand etc. + agree, aim, consent, determine, hope, manage, etc.: They DECIDED to make another attempt. They AGREED to make another attempt. They CONSENTED to make another attempt. b) dup verbe, substantive sau adjective, pentru a exprima scopul: We hurried to explored the cave. We had no time explored the cave. We found it exciting explored the cave. c) n construcia Acuzativ cu infinitiv, dup verbe care exprim un ordin sau o rugminte: He ORDERED us to leave immediately. He REQUESTED us to leave immediately. He ASKED us to leave immediately. 1.17.7. Folosirea formei Gerund este obligatorie: a) dup verbele enumerate la 1.17.3 pct. 3: He AVOIDS mentioning the subject. Why do you PUT OFF telling her the truth? I DONT MIND doing it again. b) dup prepoziii: BEFORE going out, switch off the lights please. He is keen ON reading poetry. c) dup adjectivele worth, like i dup there is no: Its WORTH listening to him. THERE IS NO accounting for tastes.

69

1.17.8. n alte situaii se poate folosi fie Infinitivul cu to i forma Gerund. Deosebirile principale ntre cele dou forme, n anumite situaii, sunt urmtoarele: a) Gerund indic n general, infinitivul - svrirea aciunii n anumite circumstane: Its no use to deny that I was frightened at first. Nu are rost s neg c mi-a fost team la nceput. Its no use crying over spilt milk. b) Gerund indic o aciune anterioar verbului la mod personal, infinitivul - o aciune viitoare: I remember giving her the parcel. mi amintesc c i-am dat pachetul. I must remember to give her the parcel. Trebuie s nu uit s-i dau pachetul. c) Gerund indic o aciune anterioar, infinitivul - scopul aciunii exprimate de verbul predicativ: He stopped reading. S-a oprit din citit. He stopped to read the advertisement. S-a oprit s citeasc reclama. d) Gerund-ul se refer la o aciune deliberat, infinitivul, la o aciune involuntar: She began speaking. A nceput s vorbeasc. She began to weep. A nceput s plng, etc. Deoasebirile de ntrebuinare dintre infinitiv i forma Gerund, detaliate pe verbe, sunt urmtoarele: Deosebirile de ntrebuinare dintre infinitiv i Gerund

Verb, Substantiv, Adjectiv

+ Infinitiv
Sens Exemplu Sens

+ Gerund
Exemplu I hate getting up early. I like going to concents. I remember posting the letter. Ill never forget seeing her dance. I regret saying it wasnt true. He began writing when he was fifty.

Hate, like, dislike, prefer

- cu referire la o anumit ocazie:

I hate to get up earluy on Mondays. - aciune I like to go to vzut n concerts general: conducted by Ion Voicu. I must remeber to post the letter. I forgot to phone her last night. I regret to say it wasnt true. It began to rain while they were

Remember Forget

- aciune posterioar:

- aciune anterioar:

Regret Begin Cease

- aciune simultan cu regretul: - aciune involuntar

- aciune anterioar: - aciune deliberat:

70

walking. He began to realize his mistake. Stop - scopul aciunii: - frecvent n vorbire i n exprimarea scris familiar: He stopped to talk to her. (= in order to talk) I intend to spend the holidays at the seaside. His statement needs to be checked. - ncetarea aciunii: He stopped talking. (He became silent). I intend spending my holidays at the seaside.

continue, dread, fear, intend, neglect

- n limba scris, literar:

deserve, + infinitiv need, require, pasiv: want

- construcia cu Gerund Your shoes mai frecvent need dect cu mending. infinitivul pasiv: I tried writting with my left hand when I was a child. His coming tomorrow means mothers working extra hard today. He doesnt allow / permit talking during tests. I had the opportunity of meeting him. I cant play records here as Im afraid of disturbing him.

Try

- a ncerca, a face un efort: -a inteniona:

Try to write with your left - a trece hand.(your prin, a right hand is experimenta: in plaster) I meant to - a nsemna: tell you, but I forgot.

mean

allow, permit

+ complement indirect al persoanei: + verbul be = un moment convenabil, ocazie: - ntr-o anumit situaie:

He doesnt - fr allow / permit complement pupils to talk indirect: during tests. Thjis will be a good opportunity (for you) to meet him. Im afraid to disturb him at this late hour.

opportunity

- posibilitate:

afraid

- n general:

71

1.17.9. Exist i situaii n care folosirea infinitivului cu to sau a Gerund-ului nu implic diferene mari de sens: a) Unele substantive, ca ambition, change, charge, honour, intention, possibility, pot fi urmate fie de infinitiv, fir de of + Gerund: We had the HONOUR OF meeting the great sinbger. Am avut onorea de a fi prezentai marei cntree. I do not have the HONOUR to belong to this association. Nu am onoarea de a fi membru al acestei asociaii. She had no INTENTION OF going on the trip. Nu avea nici o intenie s mearg n excursie. She left at eight, with the INTENTION to go to bed early. A plecat la 8 cu intenia s se culce devreme. b) Unele substantive, adjective sau verbe pot fi folosite uneori fr prepoziie, i atunci sunt urmate de un infinitiv, iar alteori cu prepoziie i atunci sunt urmate de un Gerund: She AGREED to come. A fost de acord s vin: I AGREE TO her coming. Sunt de acord s vin. We DECIDED to visit the exhibition. Am hotrt s vizitm expoziia. We DECIDED ON visiting the exhibition. You were quite RIGHT to refuse his offer. Ai avut dreptate s-i refuzi oferta. She was RIGHT IN refusing him. (Ea) a fcut bine c l-a refuzat. Atenie la urmtoarele situaii care prezint deseori dificulti pentru elevii romni: a) manage + infinitiv; succeed + in + Gerund; He MANAGED to set everything right, dar: He SUCCEEDED IN setting everything right. b) aim + infinitiv; aim + at + Gerund: This book AIMS to give description of the structure of present - day English. This book AIMS AT giving description of the structure of present - day

English.

c) occasion + infinitiv; opportunity + of + Gerund: I hope I wont have OCCASION (= reason for/need to) to punish you. Sper c nu voi avea motive s te pedepsesc. If I have OCCASION to meet him, Ill give him your message. Dac am motiv s-l ntlnesc, am s-i transmit mesajul tu. If I have an OPPORTUNITY OF meeting him, Ill him your message. Dac se ivete vreo ocazie/Dac am pozibilitatea s-l ntlnesc am s-i transmit mesajul tu. d) (un)able + infintiv; (un)capable + of + Gerund: He was (UN)ABLE to do it. He was (UN)CAPABLE OF doing it.

1.18. Participiul trecut (The Past Participle)

1.18.1. Participiul trecut este forma nepersonal a verbului care denumete aciunea ca rezultat. Participiul trecut al verbelor regulate se formeaz de la infinitiv, la care se adaug terminaia -ed: listen - listened, move - moved, carry - carried, stop stopped, etc. Pentru particilaritile fonetice i ortografice ale formei n -ed, vezi 1.6.3. Pentru forma de participiu trecut a verbelor neregulate, vezi lista principalelor verbe neregulate, pp.12 - 16.

72

1.18.2. Caracteristicile verbale ale participiului trecut: a) Participiul trecut este folosit la formarea diatezei pasive, mpreun cu verbul be: Fresh fruit and vegetables are sold here. Aici se vnd fructe i legume proaspete. b) Participiul trecut este ntrebuinat la formarea timpurilor perfecte ale verbelor, mpreun cu verbul auxiliar have: Present Perfect: He has read the book. El a citit cartea. Past Perfect: He had read the book. El citise cartea. Future Perfect: He will have read the book. El va fi citit cartea. Past Conditional: He would have read the book. El ar fi citit cartea. Not: Verbul go i mai rar come pot reda idea de perfect prezent i respectiv de mai mult ca perfect, cu ajutorul verbului be la prezent sau Past Tense (n loc de auxiliarul have): The plumber is come. A sosit instalatorul. The quest were gone. Musafirii plecaser. 1.18.3. Caracteristicile adjectivale ale participiului trecut. Participiul trecut are i caracteristici adjectivale, putnd funciona ca un adjectiv n propoziie. Sublinierea, fie a naturii verbale a participiului trecut, fie a celei adjectivale, reiese din poziia acestuia. Cnd se accentueaz caracterul verbal, participiul urmeaz substantivul, funcionnd ca un nlocuitor al unei propoziii relative: The things not wanted were given away (= which were not wanted). Cnd este accentuat aspectul adjectival al participiului, el se aeaz naintea substantivului: These are portraits of wanted persons. 1.18.4. Atenie! Unele verbe au forme speciale pentru participiile trecute folosite adjectival: a) participiul unor verbe regulate (aged, beloved, learned, cursed, blessed) i schimb pronunia, adugnd un [id] silabic:

Participiul trecut
He was aged.???? He was beloved ???? by his students. He has learned ???? this lesson.

Adjectiv din participiu

He is an aged ???? man. Our beloved ???? country. He is a learned ???? man.

b) Unele verbe neregulate au forme la participiul trecut: una folosit ca participiu, cealalt ca adjectiv (care poate aprea fie singur, fie n anumite combinaii):

Participiu trecut

Adjectiv din participiu

The little child was beaten by the He was dead-beat (mort de oboseal) bigger boys. after the days work.

73

We have drunk too much coffee.

The steel has melted.

The tree was struck by lightning. The lawn was mown/mowed yesterday. She has sewn/sewed a dress. He has just shaved. They have shourn/sheared the sheep. The shirt has shrunk. The ship has sunk. He has sown/sowed the field. He has spilt/spilled the milk. They have spoilt/spoiled the child. They have worked here.

A drunken man is unpleasant to look at. (folosirea atributiv a adjectivului) dar i: He was half drunk. (folosirea predicativ a adjectivului) Molten steel gold/lava (atributiv), pentru metale, dar: melted butter/snow. He was grief stricken (folosit predicativ). He was panic stricken (folosit predicativ). He was terror stricken (folosit predicativ). He was stricken with fever. Mown grass/hay (doar atributiv) A handsewn dress. A cleanshaven man. A shorn lamb. Shrunken clothes. Sunken eyes. Sown seeds. Spilt milk. A spoilt child. Wrought iron; wrought-up nerves.

1.18.5. Funciile sintactice ale participiului trecut. Participiul trecut ndeplinete funciile sintactice de: a) atribut: There is the Lost Property Office. Acolo este biroul de obiecte gsite. b) nume predicativ: He was, impressed by her kindness. A fost impresionat de buntatea ei. c) parte dintr-un complement direct complex (Acuzativ cu participiu trecut): I want it done immediately. Vreau ca aceasta s fie fcut imediat. d) parte dintr-un complement circumstanial (de timp, cauz, condiie, comparaie), deseori precedat de conjunciile when, if, as if/as though etc.: Struck with the emotion in his tone, she turned and looked at him.Impresionat de emoia care se simea n vocea lui, (ea) se ntoarse i-l privi. She kept silent AS IF puzzled by my words. Tcea ca i cnd cuvintele mele i-ar fi strnit nedumerirea. 1.18.6. Traducere. Participiul trecut se traduce de obicei n limba romn printr-un participiu sau printr-o propoziie subordonat: He looked at the clerk bent over the papers. Privi la funcionarul aplecat peste hrtii. The preparations for the

74

birthday party completed, I went out to buy a birthday cook. Dup ce am terminat pregtirile pentru aniversare, am ieit s cumpr un tort. 1.18.7. Conjugarea verbului

call
Diateza pasiv
Aspectul simplu I am called I have been called I was called I had been called I am going to be called Aspectul continuu I am being called I was being called Aspectul continuu

Timpul
Indicativul prezent Perfectul prezent Past Tense Mai mult ca perfect Viitorul apropiat Viitorul simplu Viitorul perfect Subjonctivul Condiionalul prezent Condiionalul trecut

Diateza activ
Aspectul simplu I call I have called I called I had called I am going to call I shall/will call I shall/ will have called I call I should call etc. I should/ would call I should/ would have called Let me call! Call! call have called calling having

I am calling I have been calling I was calling I had been calling I am going to be calling I shall/ will be calling I shall/will have been calling I be calling I should be calling etc. I should/would be calling I should/would have been calling Let me bbe calling! Be calling! be calling have been calling -

I shall/will be called I shall/will have been called I be called I should be called etc. I should/would be called. I should/would have been called Let me be called! Be called! be called have been called being called having been -

Imperativul Infinitivul prezent Infinitivul perfect Participiul prezent i Gerund Participiul i

75

Gerund-ul perfect Participiul trecut

called called -

called Called -

1.19. Verbele auxiliare (Auxiliary Verbs)

1.19.1. Verbele auxiliare au urmtoarele caracterisitici: 1) sunt golite de sens lexical: I shall leave after he comes. Voi pleca dup ce Not: Unele verbe auxiliare (will/would, shall/should, may/might) pot fi folosite i ca verbe modale: You should see this film. Trebuie s vezi filmul acesta. Alte verbe auxiliare pot fi folosite i ca verbe noionale, avnd un sens lexical propriu n anumite contexte: I have a book. Am o carte. Do this translation, please, will you. F te rog aceast traducere. 2) ndeplinesc funcia de marc a categoriilor gramaticale de diatez, mod, timp, persoan i numr la verbele pe care le nsoesc: She was offered flowers. I s-au oferit flori. 3) nlocuiesc verbele noionale n rspunsurile scurte i ntrebrile disjunctive (la fel ca i verbele modale): A: Do you like this book? B: Yes, I do. He has written a good composition, hasnt he? 4) din punct de vedere al pronunrii i ortografiei, verbele auxiliare apar adesea sub forme reduse, contrase, ele fiind de obicei neaccentuate n vorbire. Folosirea formelor contrase este caracteristic vorbirii curente i exprimrii familiare n scris. Not: Unele forme contrase sunt caracteristice exprimrii dialectale sau vorbirii necultivate. He aint no fool (= He is no fool) El nu e prost deloc. Ele apar ca forme incorecte din punct de vedre gramatical n raport cu limba standard. 1.19.2. Forme contrase constau n scrutarea berbelor auxiliare la forma afirmativ i a negaiei not la forma negativ: Ive got a book. I havent got a book. O form contras poate avea mai multe valori: Hes come = He has come. Hes here = He is here. Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare i modale (la afirmativ i la negativ cu adverbul not contras) sunt urmtoarele: Forme verbale contrase vine el.

Forma contras
ve (ive, youve, ..) s (hes etc.)

n loc de
have 1) has 2) is

Forma contras
havent hadnt

n loc de
have not had not

76

1) had 2) should 3) would am are 1) shall 2) will do not does not did not cannot could not must not

isnt arent wasnt werent shant

is not are not was not were not shall not

m (Im) re (youre etc.) ll (Ill, youll etc.)

dont doesnt didnt cant couldnt mustnt

shouldnt wont wouldnt darent neednt lets lemme aint

should not will not would not dare not need not let us let me 1) am not 2) is not

Atenie! Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare la afirmativ nu pot fi folosite: a) n rspunsurile scurte: Has he got a new bicycle? Yes, he has. b) n propoziii interogative: Shall we go to cinema? Where did he go? c) n partea final a ntrebrilor disjunctivale: He wasnt there, was he? d) cnd sunt accentuate, pentru subliniere: He was at the conference. I did see him there. 1.19.3. Be, was/were, been (a fi). Verbul be, Past Tense: was, were, participiul trecut been, apare n structura: a) aspectului continuu (be + participiul prezent):

Diateza activ
Infinitive: be reading Present: He is reading. Past: He was reading. Future: He will be reading. Conditional: He would be reading. Infinitive Perfect: Have been reading. Present Perfect: He had been reading. Future Perfect: He will have been reading. Conditional Perfect: He would have been reading.

Diateza pasiv
I is being read. It was being read. -

b) a diatezei pasive (be + participiul trecut): Infinitive: be read. Perfect Infinitive: have been read. Gerund: being read. Perfect Gerund: having been read. Present: It is read. Present perfect: It has been read.

77

Past Perfect: It had been read. Future Perfect: It will have been read. Conditional Perfect: It would have been read. 1.19.4. Have, had, had (a avea). Verbul have, Past Tense: had, participiul trecut: had, apare, att la diateza activ, ct i la cea pasiv, n structura formelor perfecte:

Past: It was read. Future: It will be read. Conditional: It would be read.

Diateza activ
Perfect Infinitive: Have read Perfect Gerund: Having read. Present Perfect: He has read. Past Perfect: He had read. Future Perfect: He will have read. Conditional Perfect: We would have read.

Diateza pasiv
Have been read. Having been read. It has been read. It had been read. It will have been read. It would have been read.

1.19.5. Shall, should shall, should apare: a) la ambele diateze, n structura timpurilor viitoare, modul indicativ i ale timpurilor modului condiional, la persoana I singular i plural:

Diateza activ
Future: I shall give. Future Perfect: I shall have given. Conditional:I should give. Conditional Perfect: I should have given.

Diateza pasiv
I shall be given. I shall have been given. I should be given. I should have been given.

Not: Should + infinitiv este folosit i ca viitor-n-trecut (Future in the Past): I said I should do it. Am spus c am s-o fac. b) la toate persoanele, pentru formarea subjonctivului analitic: Its strange that they should be here now. Its strange that they should have been here. 1.19.6. Will, would intr n componena acelorai forme verbale ca i shall, should (viitor i condiional), la persoanele a II-a i a III-a singular i plural, iar n vorbire, i la persoana I singular i plural:

Diateza activ
Future: He will give. Future Perfect: He will have given. Conditional: He will give. Conditional Perfect: He would have given. He He He He

Diateza pasiv
will be given. will have been given. would be given. would have been given.

Not: Would + infinitiv este folosit i ca viitor-n-trecut: He said be would do it. A spus c o s-o fac. 1.19.7. May, might apare n structura subjonctivului analitic, folosit mai ales n propoziiile circumstaniale de scop: Hurry up, so that we may arrive in time.

78

Grbete-te ca s ajungem la timp. They hurried so that they might arrive in time. S-au grbit ca s ajung la timp. 1.19.8. Let apare n structura imperativului, persoana I i a III-a singular i Let me think! Let us think! Let him think! Let them think!

plural:

1.19.9. a) Do, does, forma de Past Tense did, intr n alctuirea formei interogative i negative a verbelor noionale la timpul Present Simple, respectiv Past Tense Simple: Do you live in this town? Locuieti n acest ora? Does he work here? Lucreaz aici? Did he attend this school? A urmat aceast coal? I dont like it. He doesnt understand. They didnt go. Not: 1. Verbul auxiliar be primete auxiliarul do la imperativul negativ: Dont be silly! Nu fi prost(u)! 2. Verbul have formeaz interogativul i negativul cu ajutorul lui do n engleza vorbit i n varianta american a limbii engleze: I dont have enough time to do this. Nam destul timp ca s fac asta. b) Do apare n structura formei negative a modului imperativ: Dont listen to that nonsense. Dont lets listen to that nonsense. c) Do este ntrebuinat pentru sublinierea predicatului la forma afirmativ a indicativului, timpurile prezent i Past Tense i a imperativului, n care situaie este accentuat: She does make all her dresses herself. ntr-adevr i face toate rochiile singur. Do read this letter to me. Citete-mi te rog, scrisoarea.

1.20. Verbele modale (Modal Verbs)

1.20.1. Verbele modale exprim atitudinea vorbitorului fa de enun, aciunea din cadrul acestuia fiind vzut ca posibil, probabil, necesar, obligatorie, de dorit etc.: It might rain later. S-a putea s plou mai trziu. You must meet him at the station. Trebuie s-l atepi la gar. Din punct de vedere al caracteristicilor formale, verbele modale englezeti se mpart n: 1) verbe noionale exprimnd modalitatea (want, wish, order, oblige, advise, intend, mean, prefer, etc.) care se comport ca celelalte verbe noionale: He wants to see the play. Vrea s vad piesa. Dont oblige him to do this. Nu-l obliga s fac asta. 2) verbe modale defective (Defective Modal Verbs) (can/could, may/might, must, have to, shall/should, will/would, ought to, be to, used to, need, dare), care

79

exprim de asemenea modalitatea, dar care din punct de vedere formal, prezint anumite caracteristici. Not: Termenul de verbe modale folosit pe parcursul lucrrii se refer la verbele modale defective. 1.20.2. Caracteristicile verbelor modale. Verbele modale au urmtoarele caracterisitici: a) sunt defective, adic le lipsesc anumite forme verbale. n consecin, nu pot fi conjugate la toate modurile i timpurile. Formele pe care le au verbele modale pot fi folosite pentru redarea mai multor timpuri i moduri. Can, may, must, need i dare, de exemplu, exprim indicativul prezent: I can help you. Dac ele sunt ns urmate de un adverb de timp viitor, aciunea exprimat de verbul la infinitiv se refer la un moment viitor: I can only help you next week. Am s te pot ajuta abia sptmna viitoare. Formele aparent trecute ale verbelor modale au valori: - de Past Tense, condiional i subjonctiv (could, would, might): I could skate when I was a child. tiam s patinez cnd eram copil. I could help you if you wanted me to. A putea s te ajut dac ai dori. She lent him the camera so that he could take photos on the trip. I-am mprumutat aparatul de fotografiat ca s fac fotografii n excursie. Not: Might poate fi folosit cu valoare de Past Tense doar n vorbirea indirect: She said you might go. - de condiional i subjonctiv (should): I should like to come tomorrow if you dont mind. A dori s vin mine, dac nu te deranjeaz. He demanded we should come the next day. A cerut s venim a doua zi. - la unele forme care le lipsesc, verbele modale sunt nlocuite de perifraze modale, de anumite construcii cu sens modal (Modal Equivalents): can - be able to; must - have to; may - be allowed to/permitted to: Present: You may go now. Poi/Ai voie s pleci acum. Past Tense: He was allowed go to. I s-a permis/dat voie s plece. Past Perfect: He had been allowed to go out and play before they left. I se permisese s ias afar s se joace nainte ca ei s plece. b) nu primesc s la persoana a III-a singular (cu excepia lui be to i have to): He must see this play. Trebuie s vad aceast pies. c) formeaz interogativul i negativul fr ajutorul auxiliarului do/did (cu excepia lui have to): Must you do this? Trebuie s faci asta? She cannot swim. Nu tie s noate, dar: Do you have to type that report? Trebuie s dactilografiezi raportul?

80

d) sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt al verbelor noionale (cu excepia lui be to, have to, ought to): She can cook. tie s gteasc, dar: He has to get up early every day. Trebuie s se scoale devreme n fiecare zi. Cnd sunt urmate de infinitivul prezent, verbele modaqle se refer la o aciune prezent sau viitoare: He might be there now. S-ar putea ca el s fie acolo acum. She might come later. Ea s-ar putea s vin mai trziu. Cnd sunt urmate de infinitivul prezent, verbele modale se refer la o acfiune prezent sau viitoare: He might be there now. S-ar putea ca el s fie acolo acum. She might come later. ea s-ar putea s vin mai trziu. Cnd sunt urmate de infinitivul perfect, aciunea exprimat de verbul noional are un caracter trecut, de anterioritate: He might have been here before we arrived. Sar putea s fi fost aici nainte s sosim noi. e) pe plan sintactic, verbele modale defective alctuiesc un predicat verbal compus mpreun cu un alt verb la infinitiv: You can buy a TV-set in instalments. Poi s cumperi un televizor n rate. n cadrul predicatului verbal compus, verbele modale ndeplinesc o funcie dubl: - funcia gramatical de marc a timpului: He can skate now. tie s patineze acum. He could skate when he was a child. tia s patineze cnd era copil. - funcia lexical de exprimare a modalitii: She can type. tie s bat la main. You neednt type this. Nu este nevoie s bai asta la main. 1.20.3. CAN/COULD. Can este folosit pentru toate persoanele la indicativ Could este folosit pentru toate persoanele la Past Tense i subjonctivcondiional. Can/could poate exprima: 1) capacitatea (fizic sau intelectual) de efectuare a unei aciuni: Tom can speak three foreign languages. Tom tie trei limbi strine. I could run faster than you last year. Puteam s alerg mai repede dect tine anul trecut. Not: Can urmat de un verb de percepie senzorial (see, hear etc,) corespunde aspectului continuu al verbului respectiv: I can see the car now. I can hear footsteps. Can exprimnd capacitatea fizic sau intelectual (ability) este nlocuit de be able to/be capable of/know how to: Prezent: I can ski now/I am able to ski now. (mai puin frecvent) Past Tense: I could skate when I was a child. tiam s patinez cnd eram copil. (capacitatea de a patina n general). Although it was very cold yesterday, we were able to skate for an hour. Dei a fost foarte frig ieri, am reuit s patinm o or. (capacitatea de a patina - manifestat n anumite condiii, n special nefavorabile). Viitor: Ill be able to skate next year. Condiional: Would you be able to manage by yourself if it was necessary? Could you manage by yourself if it was necessary? prezent.

81

Te-ai putea descurca singur dac ar fi nevoie? Atenie! Diferena de sens ntre could i was/were able to se pierde la negativ sau cu verbe de percepie: I couldnt ski yesterday as the weather was very bad. I wasnt able to ski yesterday as the weather was very bad. I couldnt see him in the dark. I wasnt able to see him in the dark. 2) Can este folosit pentru a exprima permisiunea, ca o alternativ a lui many n exprimarea familiar: A: Can I borrow your umbrella? B: Of course you can. Pot s iau umbrela ta? Desigur. Could este folosit pentru a exprima permisiunea n trecut: On Sundays we could stay in bed until ten oclock. Duminic aveam voie s stm n pat pn la ora 10. n acest sens, can/could poate fi nlocuit de be allowed to, be permitted to: On Sundays we were allowed to stay in bed until ten oclock. 3) Posibilitatea datorit circumstanelor se exprim astfel: Prezent: You can ski at Predeal now. There is enough snow. Past Tense: We could ski at Predeal last year. There was enough snow. Viitor: It will be possible for you to ski at Predeal, there will be plenty of snow in December. You will be able to ski at Predeal, there will be plenty of snow in December. Forme de condiional: Its foggy. The airport could be closed. If he had enough money he could buy a bicycle. 4) Can/could sunt folosite pentru a exprima: o cerere, rugminte politicoas: Can you wait a few moments? Could este mai politicos dect can. 5) Could + infinitivul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima capacitatea nerealizat de efectuare a unei aciuni n trecut: She could have helped me. (But she didnt). Ar fi putut s m ajute. 6) Cant/couldnt + infinitivul prezent al verbului be exprim o deducie negativ despre un eveniment prezent: A: Im hungry. B: You cant be hungry. Youve just had your dinner. Cant/Couldnt + infinitivul perfect exprim o deducie negativ despre un eveniment trecut: A: Did Ann type the report? B: She cant/couldnt have typed it. She hasnt learned to type yet. 1.20.4. MAY/MIGHT. May este folosit la toate persoanele cu valoare de indicativ prezent i viitor. Might este folosit pentru toate persoanele cu valoare de condiional i subjonctiv.

82

Might este ntrebuinat cu valoare de Past Tense doar n vorbirea indirect. It may rain later. , he said. He said it might rain later. May este folosit: 1) pentru a cere (a) sau a acorda (b) permisiunea (mai oficial dect can): a) May I go? Pot s plec? b) You may go. Poi s pleci. Forma negativ de neacordare a permisiunii de may not, rar maynt: A: May I go out? B: No, you may not. Must not (musnt) este folosit pentru a exprima interdicia, mai ales n regulamente, instruciuni: You mustnt walk on the grass. Nu clcai pe iarb. Echivalentul modal pentru exprimarea permisiunii este be allowed to/be permitted to: He was allowed to go. I s-a permis/I s-a dat voie s plece. He was permitted to go. I s-a permis/I s-a dat voie s plece. 2) May/might poate exprima o cerere, o rugminte politicoas (may este mai politicos i oficial dect can/could): May I use your phone? mi dai voie s dau telefon? Folosirea lui might n acest sens indic un grad de nesiguran mai mare dect may (cu privire la rspuns): Might I use your phone? A putea s dau un telefon? 3) May/might + infinitivul prezent exprim o posibilitate prezent sau viitoare (n sau dup momentul vorbirii): He may come today. Se poate s vin azi. He might come tomorrow. S-ar putea s vin mine. Might este folosit: a) pentru a exprima o posibilitate mai ndeprtat (s-ar putea...) b) dup un verb trecut, n vorbirea indirect: He said he might come. c) n fraze coninnd subordonate condiionale: If you shouted, he might hear you. Dac ai striga, s-ar putea s te aud. La forma interogativ i negativ, may exprimnd posibilitatea este nlocuit de construciile do you think + prezent/viitor sau be likely + infinitiv: Do you think hell come today? Crezi c o s vin astzi? Is he likely to come today? Crezi c o s vin astzi? May/might + infinitivul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima o speculaie despre o aciune trecut: He may have arrived. Se poate s fi sosit. He might have arrived. S-ar putea s fi sosit. 4) Might mai este folosit: a) n cereri insistente sau atunci cnd vorbitorul este iritat de nendeplinirea unei aciuni (might + infinitivul prezent): You might give me a copy of that paper. (Please give me a copy. Im annoyed that you havent given me one.)

83

b) pentru a exprima iritarea, reproul n legtur cu neefectuarea unei aciuni trecute (might + infinitivul perfect): You might have told me what had happened. Ai fi putut s-mi spui ce s-a ntmplat. 1.20.5. MUST/HAVE TO/NEED. Must este folsit la toate persoanele, la indicativul prezent i viitor. Have to este folosit ca nlocuitor a lui must exprimnd obligaia, iar need este folosit cu valoare de prezent i viitor, mai ales n propoziii negative i interogative. Must se folosete pentru a exprima: 1) obligaia: They must stop because the traffic light is red now. Must exprimnd obligaia poate fi nlocuit de have to sau ve got to. HAVE TO. ntre must i have to exist urmtoarele diferene de sens: a) Must exprim o obligaie impus de ctre vorbitor, pe cnd have to exprim o obligaie impus din exterior: I must go. (Its my decision). We have to go. (The shop is closing). b) Must exprim o obligaie important, urgent: I must be at the hospotal at two. Its most important. Have to exprim o obligaie obinuit, repetat (habitual obligation): I have to be at the hospital at seven oclock every morning. I begin work ar seven. Prezent: You must stay in bed for a few days. Youve got flu. You have to stay in bed when you have flu. Past Tense: He had to stay in bed last week. He was quite ill. Viitor: You must stay in bed tomorrow if you dont feel better. Youll have to stay in bed when you feel feverish again. Have got to n vorbirea familiar, se adaug got la have to, iar have se contrage obinndu-se Ive got/I havent got to phone her. Aceast form exprim de obicei obligaia mplinirii unei singure aciuni. Forma must not (mustnt) exprim interdicia, sau un sfat la prezent sau viitor: You must not move. You mustnt walk on the grass. You mustnt miss that film, it is very good. Lipsa obligativitii se exprim cu ajutorul lui neednt, sau not have to/not need to: You neednt come early. You dont have to come early. Forma negativ a lui have to exprim o obligaie extern sau repetat, habitual: We dont have to get up early Sundays. (We dont go to schoool on Sundays). We wont have to get up early Sundays. (We dont go to schoool on Sundays). Need poate fi folosit la mai multe timpuri (ca i not have to): Prezent: A: Need I go there now? B: No, you neednt. A: Do I need to come every day? B: You dont need to.

84

Past Tense: Did you need to go there yesterday? I didnt need to go. Viitor: You neednt/wont need to go there tomorrow. Not: n propoziiile interogative, folosirea lui need n locul lui must arat v vorbitorul se ateapt la un rspuns negativ: A: Need I wash the dishes? (I hope not.) Atenie! Need i neednt sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt. Celelalte forme sunt urmate de infinitivul lung: You neednt have bought two loaves of bread. Ive bought a loaf myself. Not: Need poate fi folosit i ca verb principal, nsemnnd: He needs help. Are nevoie de ajutor. Did she need the dictionary? A avut nevoie de dicionar? 2) Must poate exprima i deducia logic: She must be at home. She left an Deducia negativ se exprim cu ajutorul lui cannot/cant + infinitivul prezent al verbului to be: She left ten minutes ago, she cant be at home now. Must + infinitivul perfect exprim o deducie logic (n prezent) despre o aciune trecut: Shes got a ten in her term paper. She must have worked very hard. Deducie logic negativ se exprim cu ajutorul lui cant/couldnt + infinitivul perfect: She cant have baked this pie. She cant cook. She couldnt have baked this pie. She cant cook. n vorbirea indirect se folosete must sau have to dup caz, dup un verb declarativ la un timp trecut: She said she would have to leave early in the morning (obligaie). We thought she must be ill. Am crezut c este bolnav (deducie logic). 1.20.6. SHALL/SHOULD. Shall este folosit: 1) pentru a exprima obligaie, n stil oficial - acte, regulamente, etc. la persoana a II-a i a III-a: The seller shall supply the spare parts in due time. Vnztorul va furniza piesele de schimb n timp util. Vnztorul este obligat s furnizeze piesele de schimb n timp util. 2) Shall este folosit n propoziii interogative, la persoana I singular sau plural: a) pentru a cere un sfat, o sugestie, un ordin: Where shall we put the flowers? Unde s punem florile? Shall we go to the cinema tonight? (Ce spui), mergem la cinema disear? What shall I do? Ce trebuie s fac? b) pentru a face o ofert: Shall I help you? S te ajut? Should este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) obligaia, necesitatea logic de nfptuire a unei aciuni, de obicei sub form de sfat de ctre vorbitor: The book is very interesting. You should read it. Cartea e foarte interesant. Ar trebui s-o citeti. He shouldnt tell lies. N-ar trebui s mint. hour ago.

85

2) o presupunere (indicnd un grad de nesiguran mai mare dect will): He should be there by now. Ar trebui s fi ajuns acolo deja. He should have left by now. Ar trebui s fi plecat deja. 3) Should este frecvent folosit n propoziiile subordonate (vezi cap. 25): a) n propoziii subiective: Its strange that he should behave like that. b) n propoziii completive directe: I suggest we should leave at once. c) n propoziii condiionate pentru a exprima o condiie mai puin probabil: If she should come, tell her to wait for me. Dac se ntmpl s vin, spune-i s m atepte. d) n propoziii de scop, n paralel cu would: She put on her sun glasses so that ne one should/would see her tears. i puse ochelarii de soare ca s nu-i vad nimeni lacrimile. e) n propoziii de scop negative, dup lest i uneori dup in case: She was afraid in case she should slip on the icy road. i era team s nu alunece pe drumul ngheat. Should + infinitivul perfect exprim nendeplinirea unei obligaii sau a unei aciuni n trecut:You should have sent her a telegram. Why didnt you? Ar fi trebuit s-i trimii o telegram. De ce n-ai fcut-o? 1.20.7. OUGHT TO. Ought to indic obligaia sau datoria, de obicei sub form de sfat dat de ctre vorbitor (la fel ca should): A: You ought to finish the book before going on holiday. A: Ar trebui s termini cartea nainte s pleci n vacan. B: I know I should. B: tiu c-ar trebui. Exprimarea unui sfat, a unei recomandri, sugestii, prin ought to/should este mai puin puternic dect prin must: Comparai: You should see a doctor. Ar trebui s te duci la doctor. You ought to see a doctor. Ar trebui s te duci la doctor. You must see a doctor. Trebuie s te duci la doctor. Ought to + infinitivul perfect exprim o datorie nendeplinit, o aciune care ar fi trebuit efectuat (la fel ca should): You ought to have crossed when the lights were green. You should have crossed when the lights were green. Ar fi trebuit s traversezi cnd lumina semaforului era verde. You oughtnt to have crossed when the lights were red. You shouldnt have crossed when the lights were red. N-ar fi trebuit s traversezi pe lumina roie a semaforului. Ought to/should rmne neschimbat n vorbirea indirect, dup un verb la un timp trecut: He told me you ought to attent the conference. He told me you should attent the conference. Mi-a spus c ar trebui s vii la conferin.

86

1.20.8. WILL/WOULD. Will este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) o comand impersonal (similar cu must, be to): You will come here at once. Vino ncoace imediat. 2) insistena, hotrrea de a efectua o aciune: He will study chemistry whatever his father says. Va studia/este decis s studieze chimia, indiferent de prerea tatlui su. 3) o aciune repetat, un obicei al unei persoane (will frecventativ): He will sit on the bench for hours and gaze at the stars. Obinuiete s stea ore-n ir pe banc i s se uite la stele. 4) o invitaie, n propoziii interogative, la persoana a II-a: Will you have another sanwich? Mai vrei/ia te rog un sandvi. 5) o cerere sau rugminte (pe un ton politicos, dar mai autoritar dect would): Will you sign the register? V rog s semnai n registru. 6) o intenie spontan, nepremeditat, n momentul vorbirii la persoana I (de obicei contras n ll): A: Im thirsty. Mi-e sete. B: Ill fetch you a glass of water. S-i aduc un pahar cu ap. Will devine would sau infinitiv n vorbirea indirect, n funcie de sens: Would este folosit: 1) pentru a exprima o cerere, o rugminte politicoas: Would you do me favour? Vrei s-mi facei un serviciu? Would you do me a favour? V rog s-mi facei un serviciu? Not: Would like este de obicei folosit n locul lui want, fiind o form de exprimare mai politicoas: I would like to talk to the manager. I want to talk to the manager. A dori s vorbesc cu directorul. Would you like to talk to him now? Dorii cu el acum? 2) Ca forma de Past Tense a lui will, woud este folosit pentru a exprima: a) intenia (n vorbire indirect): I said, I will help her. I said I would help her. b) intenia negativ (refuzul): Present: He wont help me. Nu vrea s m ajute. Past tense: He wouldnt help me. Nu voia s m ajute. c) insistena, hotrrea de a efectua o aciune n trecut: He would keep silent for hours, no metter what arguments I used.

87

d) o activitate repetat, un obicei n trecut (would frecventativ): She would wait for me in front of the school gates. 3) Would este folosit i pentru a exprima probabilitatea: That would be their car. Probabil c aceea este maina lor. (Aceea trebuie s fie maina lor). Atenie! Would + rather/sooner + infinitivul scurt este folosit pentru a exprima preferina: I would rather listen to the concert than see the film. I d sooner listen to the concert than see the film. A prefera s ascult concertul dect s vd filmul. 1.20.9. USED TO. Used to este folosit doar la Past Tense, pentru a

exprima:

1) o aciune repetat, un obicei trecut, care nu mai este practicat n prezent: I used to swim in the Olt river when I was a child, but I dont do this any longer. Obinuiam s not n Olt cnd eram copil, dar acum nu mai not. 2) o aciune repetat, un obicei trecut, care mai este practicat i n prezent: They used to spend their holidays in the mountains. (Its very likely they still do it.). Atenie! 1. Used to poate fi nlocuit de would la sensul. 2. Would este frecvent: They would spend their holidays in the mountains. i petreceau vacanele la munte. Obinuiau s-i petreac vacanele la munte. Atenie! Used to nu are form la prezent. Pentru a exprima un obicei prezent, folosii prezentul simplu: I (usually) spend my holidays in the mountains. De obicei mi petrec vacanele la munte. Obinuiesc s-mi petrec vacanele la munte. 1.20.10. BE TO. Be to este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) o comand sau instruciuni ntr-un mod impersonal (de obicei la persoana a III-a): He is to stay here till we return. Trebuie: Va sta s stea aici pn ne ntoarcem. Urmeaz: Va sta s stea aici pn ne ntoarcem.

2) o aciune planificat (construcie des folosit n limbajul jurnalistic): The competition is to start in a weeks time. 3) un ordin sau comand, n vorbirea indirect: He says, Wait here till I come. He says that I am to wait here till he comes.

88

La Past Tense, be poate fi urmat: a) de un infinitiv prezent: He was to go. Urma s plece. Propoziie din care nu aflm dac aciunea planificat a fost ndeplinit sau nu. b) de un infinitiv perfect, pentru a exprima o aciune plnuit dar nendeplinit: He was to have gone (but he didnt). 1.20.11. DARE. Dare se folosete cu saensul de a ndrzni, a avea curajul, n special n propoziii interogative i negative: How dare you contradict me? Cum ndrzneti s m contrazici? The boy dared not tell his father what he had done. Biatul n-a ndrznit s-i spun tatlui su ce a fcut. La afirmativ, dare se conjug ca un verb principal: Prezent: dare, dares; Past Tense: dared. La negativ i interogativ, dare poate fi conjugat ca un verb noional sau ca un verb modal: Dare he speak? ndrznete s vorbeasc? Does he dare (to) speak? Dare ca verb modal este urmat: a) de infinitivul fr to dup forma invariabil dare (persoana a III-a singular sau Past Tense): I wonder whether he DARE come. M ntreb dac va ndrzni s vin. He felt that he DARENT try. i-a dat seama c n-are curajul s ncerce. b) de infinitivul cu to, dup participiul prezent sau dup persoana a III-a singular: Now he dares to attack me ! Acum ndrznete s m atace! c) de infinitivul cu sau fr to dup forma de infinitiv a verbului, forma de Past Tense dared i participiul trecut: He wouldnt dare (to) tell me this. N-ar ndrzni s-mi spun acest lucru. He dared (to) write upon the subject. A avut curajul s scrie despre acea problem. He had never dared (to) ask me. Nu ndrznise niciodat s m ntrebe. Atenie! Verbul dare este urmat de infinitivul cu to cnd este folosit ca verb principal: He dared me to compete with him. M-a provocat la ntrecere.

EXERCIII:
forma n -ing i participiul trecut: study, ply, pay, write, stop, cut, travel, occur, die, dye, refer, wash, watch,go to, begin, cry, see, regret, free, show, sew.

I. Ortografiai urmtoarele verbe la persoana a III-a singular Past Tense,

1. Look! It (rain). Take you umbrelle. 2. Why (he, drive) so fast today? 3. It (start) to rain while she (walk) in the park yesterday. 4. The telephone (ring) just as he (go) out a few minutes ago. 5. If the weather (be) fine tomorrow, we (go) on a trip to Poiana Braov. 6. What (you, go) tonight? 7. What time (the train leave)? It (leave) at 8 oclock according to schedule.

II. Punei verbele din parantez la timpul potrivit.

89

R: 1. It is raining. 2. Is he driving; drives; 3. started, was walking. 4. rang, was going out; 5. is, shall be skiing; 7. does the train leave, leaves.

1. Plou. Plou adesea toamna. 2. Plou de cnd ai venit. 3. A plouat. 4. A plouat i ieri. 5. Ploua cnd m-am uitat pe fereastr. 6. St s plou. 7. Vom face o plimbare dup ce va fi stat ploaia. 8. Nu vom merge n parc dac nu va sta ploaia.

III. Traducei n limba englez:

R: 1. It is raining. It often rains in autumn. 2. It has been raining since you came. 3. It has rained. 4. It rained yesterday too. 5. It was raining when I looked out of the window. 6. Is looks like rain. 7. Well go for a walk when the rain has stopped. 8. We shant go for a wak unless it stops raining.

R: 1. They are being shown the museum. 2. He has been appointed president. 3. I have been given a good dictionary. 4. You will be told what time the bus leaves. 5. The carpender will be paid for his work. 6. They were promised new bicycles.

Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la diateza complementul persoanei n subiect. Exemplu: They offered her flowers. She was offered flowers. 1. The guide is showing them the museum. 2. They have appointed him president. 3. She has given me a good dictionary. 4. They will tell you what time the bus leaves. 5. Ill pay the cartenter for his work. 6. He promised them new bicycles.

IV.

pasiv,

transformnd

pasiv:

V. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, folosind verbe la diateza

1. Aceast problem trebuie analizat. 2. Nu s-a dormit n acest pat. 3. Copiii au fost bine ngrijii. 4. Cinele a fost clcat de un autobuz. 5. Vor rde de tine dac vei purta rochia asta.

R: 1. This matter must be looked into. 2. This bed has not been slept in. 3. The children were well looked after. 4. The dog was run over by a bus. 5. You will be laughed at if you wear this dress.

analitic cu should sau may: Exemplu: a) It is necessary that he sand the letter at once. It is necessary that he shoul send the letter at once. b) Whoever the woman be, you must send for a doctor. Whoever the woman may be, you must send for a doctor. 1. Father insisted that his son read books in Romania history. 2. It is imperative that they exceed production. 3. The doctor recommended that the old woman keep to bed for a few days. 4. Long she be happy.

VI. n propoziiile de mai jos, nlocuii, subjonctivul sintetic cu subjonctivul

90

5. The chairman demanded that proposals be made.

analitic:

VII. Traducei n limba englez folosind forme ale subjonctivului sintetic sau
1. Este recomandabil s fii acolo la ora 8 fix. 2. Ei cer ca trupele inamice s fie retrase de pe teritoriul lor. 3. De ce s facem noi asta? 4. Dorina lui ca noi s devenim profesori s-a ndeplinit. 5. Fie ce-o fi, voi porni motorul.

R: 1. It is advisable that you be/should be there at eight oclock sharp. 2. They require that the enemy troops be/should be withdrawn from their territory. 3. Why should we do this? 4. His wish that we should become teachers has been fulfilled. 5. Come what may, Ill start the engine.

to).

VIII. Punei verbele din paranteze la infinitivul lung (cu to) sau scurt (fr
Exemplu: a) You must (hel) him. You must help him. b) They want (come) now. They want to come now. 1. He has decided (become) a mechanic. 2. Will you (come) to the theatre with me? 3. You ought (revise) for your exams this week. 4. We can (wait) for you here. 5. I saw them (cross) the street.
R: 1. to become; 2. come; 3. to revise; 4. wait; 5. cross.

paranteze la forma Gerund. Exemplu: He finally succeeded ... (sell) his old car. He finally succeeded in selling his old car. 1. The bad weather prevent him... (leave) last Monday. 2. Our teacher doesnt approve... (study) late at night. 3. He worries... (lose) his position. 4. He finally succeeded... (post) the letter. 5. She insists... (do) everything herself. 6. This research aims... (find) a more efficient method.

IX. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziiile necesare. Punei verbele din

R: 1. from leaving; 2. of studying; 3. about losing; 4. in posting; 5. on doing; 6. at finding.

X. Punei verbele din paranteze la forma Gerund. Punei pronumele personale la acuzativ (pentru o exprimare familiar), sau transformai-le n pronume posesive (pentru o exprimare mai literar). Exemplu: I cant understand (he, forget) to come to the meeting. I cant understand him/his forgeting to come to the meeting.

91

R: 1. me/my reading; 2. him/his coming; 3. me for interrupting you/my interrupting you; 4. her/her wearing; 5. them/their making; 6. us/our coming.

1. My mother hates (I, read) while Im while Im eating. 2. I dont remember (he, come) late before. 3. Excuse (I, interrupt) you. 4. I dont like (she, wear) my dresses. 5. I object to (they, make) so much noise. 6. He doesnt agree to (we, come) late to school.

XI. Punei verbele din paranteze la infinitivul cu to sau forma Gerund n funcie de sens: 1. I will remember (give) your mother your message. 2. I remember (meet) him at your birthday last year. 3. Please stop (interrupt) me in the middle of a sentence. 4. He stopped (talk) to his former pupils. 5. Did you forget (give) him that message? 6. I definitely recall (leave) my coat in this room.
R: 1. to give; 2. meeting; 3. interrupting; 4. to talk; 5. to give; 6. leaving.

participiu trecut: Exemplu: a) We saw an (entertain) programme on TV last night. We saw an entertaining programme on TV last night. b) The carpenter repaired the (break) chair. The carpenter repaired the broken chair. 1. Well have to work hard the (follow) weeks. 2. The police were on the tracks of the (follow) man. 3. That was a very (interest) book. 4. The (interest) parties signed the agreement. 5. They sell (freeze) goods here. 6. The temperature is below (freeze) point.

XII. Punei cuvintele din paranteze la forma corect: participiu n -ing sau

R: 1. following; 2. followed; 3. interesting; 4. interested; 5. frozen; 6. freezing

R: 1. Books borrowed from the library must be returned in time. 2. The windows of the drawing-room opened on to a terrace overlooking the sea. 3. Hearing footsteps, he turned with a start. 4. All long known objects are dear to us. 5. He kept silent, as if puzzled by my behaviour. 6. Having completed her piece of work, she rose to switch off the machine.

1. Crile mprumutate de la bibliotec trebuie napoiate la timp. 2. Ferestrele salonului se deschideau spre o teras cu privire la mare. 3. Auzind pai, se ntoarse tresrind. 4. Toate lucrurile pe care le tim de mult ne sunt dragi. 5. Tcu, prnd mirat de purtarea mea. 6. Dup ce a terminat ce avea de fcut, se ridic s opreasc maina.

XIII. Traducei n limba englez:

92

XIV. nlocuii cuvintele scrise cursiv cu verbe potrivite ca sens i verbe noionale la infinitivul prezent sau perfect: Exemplu: We are obliged to do our homework every day. We have to do our hemwork every day. 1. You are given permission to leave. 2. Perhaps they have heard the news. 3. He probably went to Oradea on business. 4. Children are forbidden to play with matches. 5. She didnt forget about the appointment; it is impossible. 6. As you dont feel well its good for you to see a doctor.
R: 1. may leave; 2. may have heard; 3. must have gone; 4. must not play; 5. couldnt have forgotten; 6. should see.

R: 1. Will you fetch me the newspaper, please. 2. Shall I buy some bananas? Youd rather buy some oranges. 3. Would you sign in the register, please. 4. Could you help me with my luggage? 5. Would you like a cup of coffee? No, thank you. 6. She cant speak English yet, but she will be able to do so in a few years time.

1. Vrei s-mi aduci ziarul, te rog? 2. S cumpr nite banane? A prefera s cumpr nite portocale. 3. Vrei s semnai n registru, v rog? 4. Putei s m ajutai la bagaje? 5. Dorii o ceac de cafea? Nu, mulumesc. A dori o ceac de ceai. 6. Ea nu tie ns englezete dar va ti aceast limb peste civa ani.

XV. Traducei n limba englez, folosind verbe modale potrivite ca sens:

2. Substantivul (The Noun)

2.1. Definiie. Substantivul:
a) denumete obiecte n sens foarte larg, adic fiine, lucruri, fenomene (man, chair, snow, walk, wisdom); b) are categorii gramaticale de gen, numr i caz; c) poate ndeplini n propoziie funciile de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie, complement, element predicativ suplimentar, sau poate fi echivalentul unei propoziii sau fraze.

2.2. Clasificare. Substantivele din limba englez pot fi clasificate din mai multe
puncte de vedere. 2.2.1. Din punct de vedere al formrii lor, substantivele se mpart n: a) substantive simple: boy, meal, day; b) substantive formate din derivare cu sufixe sau prefixe: childhood, disgust, unhappiness;

93

c) substantive formate prin compunere (substantivele compunse): schoolboy, classroom; d) substantive formate prin conversiune, din alte pri de vorbire: - adjective: the good, the evil, the rich, the poor; - verbe la infinitiv: cook, fall; - verbe la Gerund: reading, boxing; - verbe la participiul trecut: the injured; e) substantive formate prin contragere: ad (advertisement), fridge (refrigerator), gym (gymnasium), lab (laboratory), liv (livingroom), poly (polytechnic), pram (perambulator), pub (public house); f) abrevieri: MP (Member of Parliament), Dr (doctor), Mr Brown (Dl. Brown), Mrs Brown (dna Brown), Miss Brown (dra Brown), Ms Brown (apelativ pentru femei, cstorite sau necstorite). 2.2.2. Din punct de vedere al gradului de individualizare, substantivele n limba englez se mpart n dou clase mari: substantive comune i substantive proprii. A. Substantivele comune sunt lipsite de posibilitatea de a individualiza prin ele nsele. Ele denumesc un element printr-o categorie de obiecte de acelai fel: table, school. Substantivele comune se subclasific n: a) substantive apelative, care denumesc un element dintr-o categorie: table, school; b) substantive colective, care denumesc obiecte constnd din mai multe elemente de acelai fel: family, people; c) substantive concrete, care denumesc obiecte sau substana constitutiv a unor obiecte: table, wood, steel; d) substantive abstracte, care denumesc abstraciuni: difficulty, worry, peace, love, music. B. Substantivele (numele) proprii au capacitatea de a individualiza un obiect dintr-o categorie de obiecte de acelai fel, denumind n principiu un singur element dintr-o categorie. n limba englez, substantivele proprii denumesc: a) nume de persoane: Churchill; b) denumiri geografice: - nume de localiti - nume de tri i continente - nume de ape i muni c) diviziuni temporale: - lunile anului - zilele sptmnii - srbtori d) nume de cri, ziare, reviste e) nume de instituii

94

Ortografia substantivelor proprii. n limba englez substantivele proprii se scriu cu liter mare, ca i n limba romn: Helen - Elena; Rome - Roma. Exist ns unele situaii n care uzajul n limba englez este diferit de cel din limba romn: a) numele lunilor anului i ale zilelor sptmnii se scriu cu liter mare n limba englez, fiind considerate substantive proprii: April - aprilie, Sunday - duminic; b) toate cuvintele (cu excepia articolelor, prepoziiilor i conjuciilor) dintrun substantiv propriu exprimat printr-o perifraz substantival se scriu cu liter mare n limba englez: - titluri de cri: Dombey and Son - Dombey i fiul; - titluri de ziare: The Daily Mirror; - titluri de reviste: English Language Teaching Journal; - titluri de capitole, articole, lucrri, instituii etc.: The Conference for Peace an Security in Europe - Conferina de pace i securitate n Europa; the United Nations Organization - Organizaia Naiunilor Unite; c) numele de naionaliti i limbi se scriu de asemenea cu liter mare n limba englez: He speaks English. (El) Vorbete englezete. We are Romanians. Noi suntem romni.

2.3. Numrul substantivelor (Number of Nouns)

Substantivele n limba englez au categoriile gramaticale de gen, numr i caz. Numrul este categoria gramatical care se recunoate cel mai uor, datorit desinenei -s, specific pentru forma de plural a substantivelor. Din punct de vedere al ideii de numr, substantivele n englez se mpart n numrabile (Count nouns) i nenumrabile (Mass nouns). Substantivele numrabile sunt de obicei variabile ca form (Variable Nouns), avnd att singular ct i plural, iar cele nenumrabile sunt de regul invariabile ca form (Invariable nouns), avnd forma numai de singular sau numai de plural. 2.3.1. Substantivele numrabile (Count Nouns). Substantivele numrabile denumesc noiunile ca uniti separate, care pot fi numrate: a boy, two boys, a few boys, etc. Substantivele numrabile au urmtoarele caracteristici: a) sunt variabile ca form, avnd att numrul singular, ct i numrul plural: museum - museums, child - children; b) pot fi precedate de numerale cardinale sau cuantificatori: one book, three books, several apples, a lot of brushes; c) la numrul singular se acord cu verbe la singular: The book is on the table. iar la numrul plural, cu verbe la plural: The apples are in the basket. 2.3.2. Clasificarea substantivelor numrabile. Substantivele numrabile pot fi: apelative: garden, pencil; sau colective: committee, audience; concrete: child, school; sau abstracte: difficulty, question. Substantivele colective sunt o diviziune a substantivelor numrabile. Ele se comport:

95

1) ca substantive numrabile propriu-zise cnd denumesc o colectivitate considerat ca un ntreg: The two football teams are in the field now. Cele dou echipe de fotbal sunt acum pe teren. n acest caz ele au numrul singular i numrul plural i se acord cu verbe la singular sau la plural: His family is larger than mine. Familia lui este mai numeroas dect a mea. On each floor live two families. La fiecare etaj locuiesc dou familii. 2) Cnd aceste substantive se refer la membrii componeni ai colectivitii, ele se comport ca substantive colective propriu-zise. n aceast situaie, substantivele colective se folosesc ca forma de singular, referirea fiind la o colectivitate: family, team, care se acord cu verbul la plural, referirea fiind la membrii colectivitii: My family are at home. Familia mea este acas. (=All the members of my family...). Din grupa substantivelor colective fac parte substantivele: army, assembly, audience, class, club, committee, company, crew, crowd, family, government, jury, party, press, public, regiment, troop, flight (of birds, insects, planes), flock (of sheep), herd (of cattle), pack (of wolves), poultry, shoal (of fish), swarm (of bees). 2.3.3. Formarea pluralului substantivelor numrabile. Substantivele numrabile au dou forme: o form de singular i o form de plural. Forma de singular este nemarcat: book, box, child. Formele de plural sunt de dou feluri: A. regulate, cnd pluralul se formeaz prin adugarea desinenei -s la forma de singular: book - books. B. Neregulate, cnd pluralul se formeaz n alte moduri. A. Pluralul regulat al substantivelor se formeaz prin adugarea desinenei s la forma singular al substantivului. 2.3.4. Pronunarea pluralului regulat este urmtoarea: a) [-s] dup consoane surde: books, proofs, lamps, carpets, months; b) [-z] dup consoane sonore i vocale: gloves, tables, boys, tree; c) [iz] dup sunete: classes, noses, brushes, matches, villages. 2.3.5. Ortografia pluralului regulat 1) Desinena -s se scrie -s dup majoritatea substantivelor, incluznd substantivele terminate n -e mut: book - books, table - tables. 2) Excepii: Exist unele situaii care fac excepie de la aceast regul a) Substantivele terminate n -s, -z, -x, -ch, -sh adaug es: bus - buses; glass glasses; buzz - buzzes; box - boxes; watch - watches; brush - brushes; b) La cteva dintre substantivele din acest grup se dubleaz consoana final: fez - fezzes, quiz - quizzes. c) Substantivele terminate n -o: adaug desinena -s: - cnd -o e precedat de o vocal: cuckoos; kangaroos; radios; scenarios; studios, zoos; general:

96

- la substantive proprii: Neros, Romeos; - n abrevieri: kilos (kilogrammes), (profesionals);

photos

(photographs),

pros

- la unele substantive strine: concertos, dynamos, pianos, solos, sopranos, tangos, tabaccos; - adaug -es la substantive ca: echoes, heroes, mosquitoes, Negroes, potatoes, tomatoes; - au dou forme de plural: banjos - banjoes; buffalos - buffaloes; cargos - cargoes; mementos - mementoes; mottos - mottoes; volcanos - volcanoes; d) Substantivele terminate n -y precedat de o consoan transform pe y n i i adaug -es: city - cities; factory - factories. Transformarea nu are loc: - dup vocale: boy - boys, play - plays; - n substantive proprii: the Kennedys; - n substantive compuse: stand-bys; e) Literele, numeralele i abrevierile formeaz pluralul prin adugarea unui apostrof i -s: As, 1920s; MPs: There are two As and three 2s in the number of that Enghish car. There are two MPs in the lobby. n engleza contemporan exist tendina ca numeralele i abrevierile s formeze pluralul i prin adugarea doar a unui -s la singular: in the 1930s; MP (Member of Parliament) - Mps; Mt (Mountain) - Mts. Forma de plural fr apostrof este mai frecvent folosit dect cea cu apostrof. 3) Pluralul substantivelor compuse: a) Majoritatea substantivelor compuse adaug -s la ultimul element: classroom - classrooms; forget-me-not - forget-me-nots; race horse (cal de curse) - race horses; b) Unele substantive compuse, de obicei cele alctuite dintr-un substantiv i dintr-o construcie prepoziional, adaug -s la primul element: looker-on - lookers-on; mother-in-low - mothers-in-low; c) substantivele compuse n care primul element este man sau woman transform la plural ambele elemente: man singer - men singers; woman doctor - women doctors. 2.3.6. B. Pluralul neregulat al substantivelor se formeaz n mai multe a) consoana surd [], [f], sau [s] n care se termin substantivul se transform n perechea ei sonor: [v], [z] (voicing) la unele substantive: 1) -th ths: bath - baths; mouth - mouths; path - paths; 2) -f(e) [f] ves [vz]: calf - calves; elf - elves; half - halves; knife - knives; leaf - leaves; life - lives; loaf - loaves; self - selves; shelf - shelves; 3) -se [s] ses [ziz]: house - houses. Atenie! Acest fenomen de sonorizare a consoanei finale nu se produce la toate substantivele terminate n [], [f], sau [s]. Exist i forme de plural regulat i oscilaie ntre cele dou forme: Plural regulat (1): Forme duble (1): feluri:

97

consoan + -th: vocal + -th: berth - berths cloth - cloths earth - earts death - deaths lengh - lengths faith - faiths

oath - oaths truth - truths

Plural regulat (2): Forme duble (2): belief - beliefs dwarf - dwarfs - dwarves chief - chiefs handkerchief handkerchiefs handkerchieves cliff - cliffs hoof - hoofs - hooves proof - proofs scarf - scarfs - scarves roof - roofs wharf - wharfs - wharves safe - safes - Sonorizarea lui [s] se produce numai la substantivul house.

b) vocala sau diftongul final se schimb n alt vocal sau diftong (mutation): man - men; woman - women; foot - feet; goose - geese; tooth - teeth; mouse mice; louse - lice. c) Trei substantive adaug desidena -en (cu sau fr mutaie vocalic): ox oxen; child - children; brother - brethren. d) Unele substantive numrabile au aceeai form la singular i plural (primesc desidena zero - plural zero). Pluralul zero este folosit: - cu unele substantive n -s: barracks - barac; headquarters - sediu; means mijloc; series - serie. This is an army barracks. These are army barracks. The bus, trolleybus and the underground are modern means of transport. Autobuzul, troleibuzul i metroul sunt mijloace moderne de transport; - cu numele de naionaliti terminate n -ese: the Chinese, the Japanese, the Portuquese, the Vietnamese: He is speaking to a Portuquese. El vorbete cu un portughez. The Portuquese live in Europe. Portughezii triesc n Europa; - cu substantivele denumind animale. Acestea pot avea: 1) doar pluralul zero: carp - carp; deer - deer; game - game; grouse - grouse; sheep - sheep; pike - pike. 2) pluralul zero (folosit mai ales n limbajul vntoresc) i pluralul regulat n -s, folosit pentru indicarea unor varieti: antelope - antelope - antelopes; cod - cod - cods; duck - duck )rae slbatice) - ducks (rae de ferme); 3) doar pluralul regulat: cow - cows; dog - dogs; hen - hens; horse - horses; e) Plurale strine (Foreign Plurals). Exist mai multe desidene de plural de origine strin care sunt folosite n limba englez, mai ales n limbajul tiinific:

98

Plurale strine Singular Terminaia Exemple

-us stimulus corpus genus alga larva stratum codex thesis criterion, phenomenon tableau chamois, chassis, corps graffito

Plural Terminaia
-i -ora -era -ae -a -ices -es -a -eaux zero -i

Exemple
stimuli corpora genera algae larvae strata codices theses criteria, phenomena tableaux chamois, chassis, corps graffiti (de obicei plural)

-a -um -ex -is -on -eau zero -o

Unele dintre aceste desinene sunt mai bine reprezentate n limba englez: -us -i: stimulus stimuli; bacillus bacili; -um -a: addendum addenda; datum data; agendum agenda; erratum errata; bacterium bacteria; stratum strata. -is -es: analysis analyses; ellipsis ellipses; axis axes; hypothesis hypotheses; basis bases; crisis crises; paralysis paralyses; diagnosis diagnoses; parenthesis parentheses; synthesis syntheses; thesis theses. n ceea ce privete pluralele strine exist mai multe situaii: 1. Unele substantive de origine strin i-au pstrat forma de plural din limba din care au fost mprumutate. 2. Unele substative au numai pluralul cu -s: -us uses : bonus bonuses campus campuses chorus choruses circus circuses ignoramus ignoramuses -a as : arena arenas drama dramas dilemma dillemas encyclopedia encyclopedias diploma diplomas era eras

99

-um ums: album albums gymnasium geranium geraniums museum museums -on ons: demon demons electron electrons lexicon lexicons -o -os:soprano sopranos

gymnasiums

3. Alte substantive de origine strin au dou forme de plural: pluralul regulat cu -s i pluralul de origine strin: -us -uses: cactus cactuses cacti -i genius geniuses genii (spirite, duhuri) (oameni de geniu) syllabus syllabuses syllabi terminus terminuses termini -a -as: antenna antennas antennae -ae formula formulas formulae vertebra vertebras vertebrae -um -ums: aquarium aquariums aquaria -a curriculum curriculums curricula medium mediums media sanatorium sanatoriums sanatoria symposiums symposia symposium -ix -ixes: appendix appendixes appendices -ex -ices index (n anatomie) (n cri) indexes indices (cuprinsuri) (indici - n matematic) -on -ons -on -a automaton automatons automata -eau -eaus: bureau bureaus bureaux -eaux plateau plateaus plateaux -o -os: libretto librettos libretti -i virtuoso virtuosos virtuosi Not: Formele de plural n i sunt rare. La substantivele cu dou forme de plural, formele strine de plural sunt de obicei folosite n limbajul tehnic, iar pluralul n s este ntlnit n vorbirea curent. 2.3.7. Substantivele nenumrabile (Mass Nouns). Substantivele nenumrabile denumesc noiuni vzute ca un ntreg. Substantivele nenumrabile pot fi concrete: sugar, coal, steel sau abstracte: beauty, kindness. Substantivele nenumrabile au urmtoarele caracteristici: a) sunt invariabile ca form: tea, information, cattle; b) neavnd contrastul singular - plural, ele nu pot fi numrate cu ajutorul numeralelor sau al altor cuantificatori: I need (some) tea. I need (some) information. I need (some) scissors.

100

c) Se acord cu verbul singular: Chinese tea is very good. Ceaiul chinezesc este foarte bun, sau la plural: The scissors are on the table. Foarfeca este pe mas. d) Unele substantivel englezeti fac parte att din clasa substantivelor numrabile, ct i din a celor nenumrabile, cu diferene de sens: She is a beauty. (Ea) este o frumusee. Beauty is to be admired. Frumuseea trebuie admirat. The main character of the story is on old fisherman. Eroul/personajul principal al nuvelei este un btrn pescar. He is a man of character. (El) este un om de caracter. I had an interesting experience when travelling in the North of country. Mi sa ntmplat ceva interesant cnd am cltorit n nordul rii. This teacher has a great deal of experience. Acest profesor are foarte mult experien. Give me an ice, please. D-mi o ngheat te rog. That block of ice is very dangerous. Acest bloc de ghea este foarte periculos. She has got a new iron. Are un nou fier de clcat. This tool is made of iron. Aceast unealt este din fier. e) Uneori diferenele de sens dintre substantivele numrabile i cele nemumrabile sunt exprimate prin cuvinte diferite. Ive bought two loaves. Am cumprat dou pini. Ill buy bread at the supermarket. Am s cumpr pine la autoservire. There are two sheep in the field. Sunt dou oi pe cmpie. I like mutton. mi place carnea de oaie. This pig is very fat. Porcul acesta este foarte gras. Ive bought some pork for dinner. Am cumprat nite carne de porc. f) n limba englez fac parte din clasa substantivelor invariabile la singular unele substantive care sunt numrabile sau invariabile la plural n limba romn: advice, business, furniture, homework, income, information, knowledge, luggage, merchandise, money etc. He always gives me good advice. Totdeauna mi d sfaturi bune. You must do your homework carefully. Trebuie s-i faci cu atenie leciile. I need further information. Am nevoie de informaii suplimentare. His knowledge of English is poor. Cunotinele lui de englez sunt slabe. 2.3.8. Numrul substantivelor invariabile. Substantivele invariabile nu au opoziia singular - plural. Ele au numai singular: gold, sau numai plural the police, cattle etc. A. Substantivele invariabile la singular Un numr de substantive invariabile au numai form de singular: sugar, wisdom, news, measles, the good. Wales. Acestea se acord cu verbul la singular: Phonetics is a branch of linguistics.

101

Folosirea lor cu form de plural i/sau cu un verb la plural se face doar n situaii speciale. Din clasa substantivelor invariabile la singular fac parte: a) substantivele nenumrabile concrete: bread, butter, chalk, food, fruit. Fruit is good to eat. Este bine s mnnci fructe. b) Substantive nenumrabile abstracte: advice, cleanliness, homework, information. c) Unele substantive terminate n -s, care exprim urmtoarele noiuni: 1) substantivul news: Here is the 9 oclock news. Acestea sunt tirile de la ora nou. 2) nume de boli: measles - pojar; mumps - oreion; rickts - rahitism: Measles is a catching disease. Pojarul este o boal contagioas. 3) nume de tiine i obiecte de studiu terminate n -ics: acoustics, cybernetics, economics. Acoustics is the scince of sound. Acustica este tiina sunetelor. De asemenea: athletics, ethics, gymnastics. 4) Unele nume de jocuri: billiards, bowls, cards, darts. Dominoes is a game for children. Dar: a billiard-table, a bowling-alley, a dart-board. 5) Unele substantive proprii: Athens, Brussels, Naples, Wales, the Thames: Wales is in the sounth-west of great Britain. ara Galilor se afl n partea de sud-est a Marii Britanii. d) Adjective abstracte substantivizate: the beautiful, the sublime, the good, the evil: In fairy-stories the good always wins. n basme binele nvinge totdeauna. Cuatificarea substantivelor invariabile la singular se poate realiza cu ajutorul unor cuvinte ca: a piece of, an item of, a bar of, a bag of etc.

Substantive concrete:

Substantive abstracte:

a piece of bacon a slice of cake a pice of bread a loaf of bread a pice of land a strip of land a piece of furniture an article of furniture a bit of grass a blade of grass a piece of paper a sheet of paper a piece of advice a word of advice a pice of information an item of news

102

an item of business a bit of business a piece of work a bit of work a word of abuse a fit of passion an attack of fever B. Subtantive invariabile la plural Substantivele invariabile la plural au numai form de plural i se acord de regul cu un verb la plural: The binoculars are on the table. Binoclul este pe mas. Din clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural fac parte: a) substantivele care denumesc obiecte formate din dou pri egale. Aceste substantive se numesc summnation plurals n limba englez. Ele denumesc: 1) unelte: binoculars, compasses, glasses, pincers, pliers. Where are the scissors? Unde este foarfeca? 2) articole de mbrcminte: braces, clothes flannels, jeans, overalls, pants, pyjamas, shorts, trousers: These trousers are too long for you. Aceti pantaloni sunt prea lungi pentru tine. Not: 1. Observai forma de singular a unora dintre aceste substantive cnd sunt folosite atributiv: a spectacle case- toc de ochelari, a pyjama cord - cordon de pijama, a suspender belt - portjartier, a trouser leg - crac de pantalon. 2. Substantivele care denumesc obiecte din dou pri se numr cu ajutorul cuvntului pair: a pair of scissors, a pair of trousers; two pairs of glasses; three pairs of skis, etc. b) alte substantive folosite numai la plural (pluralia tantum), terminate de regul n -s: He lives in the outskirts of the touwn. Locuiete la periferia oraului. Exemplele de pluralia tantum n limba englez sunt numeroase: Pluralia tantum n s annals anale the antipodes antipozi arms arme auspices auspicii effects efecte, mbrcminte funds fonduri grounds za, drojdie letters litere the Lords Camera Lorzilor regards salutri remains resturi suds clbuc de spun stairs scri

103

thanks mulumiri troops trupe tropics tropice Unele substantive fac parte din clasa pluralia tantum doar n limba englez, n limba romn ele fiind substantive variabile sau invariabile la singular: archives arhiv ashes cenu contents coninut goods marf holydays vacan minutes proces-verbal pains osteneal sands plaj spirits dispoziie wages salariu Atenie! Exist unele substantive care au dou form, cu nelesuri diferite: o form invariabil la singular i o form invariabil la plural: Subst. invariab. Subst. invariab. advice-sfaturi air-aer ash-scrum de igar brace-pereche (de potrnichi) honour-onoare middle age-vrst mijlocie respect-stim, consideraie

la singular

advices-ntiinri, avize airs-aere (figurat) ashes-cenu (n general) braces-bretele honours-onoruri; distincie la examene the Middle Ages-Evul mediu respects-omagii

la plural

Substantivele pluralia tantum i summation plurals se confund uneori cu forma de plural a unor substantive numrabile: colour = culoare; pl. colours colours (pl. tantum) = drapel compass = busol; pl. compasses compasses (pl. tantum) = compas damage = avarie; pl. damages damages (pl. tantum) = despgubiri effects (pl. tantum) = efecte, haine glass = pahar; pl. glasses glasses (pl. tantum) = ochelari ground = motiv, cauz; pl. grounds grounds (pl. tantum) = za, teren letter = scrisoare; pl. letters letters (pl. tantum) = literatur, litere minute = minut; pl. minutes

104

minutes (pl. tantum) = proces-verbal pain = durere; pl. pains pains (pl.tantum) = osteneal quarter = sfert, cartier; pl. quarters quarters (pl. tantum) = locuin, cantomament scale = gam muzical, solz; pl. scales scales (pl. tantum) = balan spectacle = spectacol; pl. spectacles spectacles (pl.tantum) = ochelari term = perioad, termen, trimestru; pl. terms terms (pl.tantum) = termeni, relaii, raporturi, condiii c) Substantive nemarcate la plural. n clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural intr i unele substantive folosite numai la plural dar nemarcate formal pentru acest numr. Aceste substantive sunt: cattle, clergy, gentry, people, police. The cattle are in the field. Vitele sunt pe cmp. There are a lot of people in the street. Sunt muli oameni pe strad. d) Adjectivele sau participiile personale substantivizate: the handicapped, the injured, the poor, the rich, the sick, the wounded: The injured were taken to hospital. Rniii au fost dui la spital. e) Unele substantive proprii: the Alps, the East/West Indies, the Hebrides, the Highlands: The Highlands are mountainous region. Regiunea Highlands este o regiune muntoas. Numrul substantivelor Substantive variabile

Felul pluralului
Plurale regulate

Forma pluralului
+s [s] +s [z] +es [iz] sonorizarea consoanei [0]-[_tz_]+[z] [f]-[v]+[z] [s]-[v]+[iz]

Exemple Singular
book pencil, boy watch

Plural
books pencils, boys watches

bath knife house

baths knives houses

mutaie vocalic

man foot mouse

men feet mice

105

plural n -en +- mutaie ox vocalic child Zero sheep works the Japanese stimulus corpus genus larva desideratum codex analysis phenomenon chassis tempo

oxen children sheep works the Japanese stimuli corpora genera larvae desiderata codic s analyses phenomena chassis tempi

-us: -i; -ora; -era; -a:-ae; -um: -a; Plurale -ex, -ix: -ices; strine -is: -es; -on: -a zero -o: -i

Substantive invariabile Forma invariabil

Felul substantivelor
a) nemumrabile concrete b) nenumrabile abstracte c) substantive n -s d) adjective abstracte substantivizate e) substantive proprii a) summation plurals b) pluralia tantum n -s c) substantive cu plural nemarcat d) adjective personale substantivizate e) unele substantive proprii

Exemple
gold, milk, honey art, patriotism news the beautiful, the good Helen, Brown, Antarctica scissors customs, goods cattle, police the rich, the poor the Carpathians, the Hebrides, the United States

Singular

Plural

2.4. Genul substantivelor (Gender of Nouns)

2.4.1. Genul este categoria gramatical caracteristic n primul rnd substantivelor, adic cuvintelor care indic numele obiectelor. Coninutul categoriei gramaticale a genului const n aceea c obiectele din lumea inconjurtoare, dac

106

reprezint fiine, sunt unele de sex brbtesc (masculin) i altele de sex femeiesc (feminin), iar dac reprezint lucruri, sunt n afar sexului (neutre). Spre deosebire de limba romn, n care partea final a substantivelor constuie marca categoriei gramaticale a genului: mas, frate etc., n limba englez genul substantivelor este rareori marcat formal. n afara cazurilor n genul este marcat formal: boy - girl, lion - lioness, genul substantivelor n limba englez se identific de obicei cu ajutorul pronumelor care se refer la substantive i care au forme diferite dup gen: The librarian is at his desk. He is written something. Bibliotecarul este la biroul su. El scrie ceva. The librarian is at her desk. She is writting something. Bibliotecara este la biroul ei. Ea scrie ceva. 2.4.2. Clasificarea substantivelor dup ideea de gen. Din punct de vedere al apartenenei la genul masculin, feminin sau neutru, substantivele din limba englez se mpart n trei grupe mari: A. substantive nume de persoane; B. substantive nume de animale i C. substantive nume de obiecte. 2.4.3. Genul substantivelor nume de persoane (Gender of Personal Nouns). n limba englez, substantivele care denumesc persoane de sex brbtesc sunt de gen masculin: man, brother, iar substantivele care denumesc persoane de sex femeiesc sunt de genul feminin: woman, sister. La substantivele nume de persoane, categoria gramatical a genului poate fi marcat: 1) lexical; 2) morfologic; 3) identificat cu ajutorul unor cuvinte care marcheaz genul, iar substantivele nemarcate pentru gen (genul comun). 1) la substantive nume de persoane genul este marcat lexical, prin cuvinte diferite: brother sister earl countess father mother king queen lord lady man woman uncle aunt

2) la alte substantive nume de persoane, genul este marcat morfologic, prin adugarea unui sufix la forma de masculin: a) ess: actor actress count countess god goddess master mistress waiter waitress b) -ine: hero heroine; sau prin adugarea unui sufix la forma de feminin:

107

a) -er: window widower b) -groom: bride bridegroom 3) alte substantive nume de persoane au o singur form att pentru masculin ct i pentru feminin. Ele aparin genului comun. E.: artist, chairman, cook, cousin, doctor, foreiner, friend, quest, musician, parent, teacher, writer. Apartenena la genul masculin sau feminin se precizeaz n context: cu ajutorul pronumelor: The teacher asked the pupil a few more questions as she wanted to give him a better mark; cu ajutorul unor cuvinte la care genul este marcat lexical, ca boy, male, female: boy-friend girl-friend; male-student female-student; chairman chairwoman; cu ajutorul unor adjective folosite doar pentru un singur sex: My neighbour is pregnant. 2.4.4. Genul substantivelor nume de animale (Gender of Animate Nouns) Substantivele nume de animale de subclasific n: 1) nume de animale mari i 2) nume de animale mici. 1) Substantivele nume de animale mari sunt considerate de obicei de genul masculin, fiind nlocuite de pronumele he: The horse was rather restive at first, but he soon become more manageable. La unele dintre aceste animale, distincia de sex masculin-feminin este marcat formal, situaie n care substantivele sunt nlocuite de pronumele he sau she: The mare whinnied when she saw her master. Iapa a nechezat cnd i-a vzut stpnul. Marca genului poate fi realizat: a) lexical: horse: stallion mare ox: bull cow sheep: ram ewepig: boar sow deer: stag hind b) morfologic: lion lioness, tiger tigress. 2) Substantivele nume de animale mici sunt considerate de obicei neutre, fiind nlocuite de pronumele it: I saw a frog by the lake. It was big and ugly. n unele cazuri ns se pot indica diferenele de sex: a) lexical: cock hen dog bitch drake duck b) prin cuvinte marc ale genului: cock sparrow hen sparrow he goat she goat Tom cat she cat 2.4.5. Genul substantivelor nume de obiecte (Gender of Inanimate Nouns)

108

Substantivele nume de obiecte sunt de genul neutru: Wheres your umbrelle? It is my bag.

2.4.6. Folosirea stilistic a categoriei gramaticale a genului A. Unele substantive nume de obiecte care sunt de regul neutre n vorbirea curent sunt uneori personificate n literatur, unde ele pot fi tratate ca substantive masculine sau feminine. Sunt masculine substantivele care denumesc: a) pasiuni intense i aciuni violente: anger, fear, murder. b) fenomene naturale puternice: ocean, river, sun. c) nume de fluvii: the Danube, the Thames. d) nume de muni: the Carpathians, the Cheviot. Sunt feminine: a) substantivele care sugereaz o caracteristic feminin, un caracter blnd, afectuos, cele care indic fertilitatea: affection, devotion, faith, hope, justice; b) substantivele care denumesc trsturi negative de caracter: ambition, folly, jealousy, revenge, vanity; c) substantive abstracte ca: fortune, liberty, mercy, nature, peace, science. B. Substantivele nume de obiecte, de animale sau persoane se pot ndeprta de la folosirea lor obinuit, la genul neutru masculin sau feminin, n vorbirea curent. Exist dou tendine: 1) substantivele inanimate sunt personificate, devenind she sau he ntr-o exprimare afectuoas, iar substantivelor animate folosite de obicei la genul neutru li se atribuie genul masculin sau feminin. n aceast categorie intr: denumirile de vehicule, maini, ambarcaiuni: boat, bus, car, engine, locomotive, motor, ship. Persoanele care manipuleaz aceste vehicule le consider de genul feminin ntr-o exprimare afectuoas: I am very fond of my car and I wash her every day. numele de ri, inuturi, localiti, cnd sunt privite ca uniti politice economice: Romania has gratly developed her tourism. animale domestice sunt n general de genul neutru, dar cnd intervin din considerente de ordin afectiv li se atribuie genul masculin sau feminin: Where is the cat? She is on the bed. Have you seen the dog? I dont know where he is. substantivele baby, infant, child, care sunt de obicei neutre, pot fi folosite i la genul masculin sau feminin, ntr-o exprimare afectuoas: The child hasnt eaten his breakfast. Fetch the baby from her cot; she is crying. 2) Exist i o alt situaie, opus celei menionate anterior, referitoare la substantive nume de persoane. Cnd o persoan este tratat cu dispre, aceasta poate fi considerat un obiect nensufleit, referirea la ea fcndu-se cu pronumele it: So youve found the girl at last. Where did you find it?

109

2.5. Cazul substantivelor (Case of Nouns)

2.5.1. Cazul este categoria gramatical care indic raporturile dintre obiecte sau dintre obiecte i aciuni. Sistemul cazului este folosit pentru a marca funciile sintactice ale substantivelor. Astfel, n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, raporturile stabilite ntre obiecte i ntre obiecte i aciuni se pot reda prin cinci cazuri, fiecare dintre ele fiind folosit mai ales pentru exprimarea unui anumit raport. Nominativul este mai ales cazul subiectului, acuzativul, cazul complementului direct, dativul, cazul complementului indirect, genitivul, cazul atributului, iar vocativul este n afara funciile sintactice. n limba romn, categoria gramatical a cazului este marcat de obicei prin desinene (crile copiilor), i prepoziii (pe mas). n limba englez, categoria gramatical a cazului este marcat prin: desinen: the childs book; topic: The man (N) opened the window (Ac); prepoziii: I bought it for Mary. 2.5.2. Cazul nominativ (The Nominative Case). Cazul nominativ este cazul substantivelor care ndeplinesc funcia de subiect, nume predicativ i apoziie. Un substantiv n cazul nominativ n limba englez se poate identifica cu ajutorul topicii. Observai exemplele: The audience liked the play. These women are nurses. My neighbour, a very experienced engineer, helped me to mend the car. Funciile sintactice ale cazului nominativ sunt: a) subiect al propoziiei: The boy is waiting for his friend. b) nume predicativ: He is a teacher. c) apoziie, sau parte a unei propoziii: Charles, a friend of mine, will help you to do it. 2.5.3. Cazul acuzativ (The Acusative Case). Cazul acuzativ este cazul complementului direct: I ate an icecream an hour ago. Cazul acuzativ nu este marcat prin desinene n engleza modern. De aceea el este identificat cu ajutorul topicii: a) Dac exist numai un complement n propoziie, acesta este, n majoritatea cazurilor, un complement direct n cazul acuzativ i este aezat imediat dup verbul tranzitiv: Shut the window, please. b) Dac n propoziie exist dou complemente, unul este n cazul acuzativ, iar cellalt este tot n cazul acuzativ, sau n cazul dativ, n funcie de verbele dup care urmeaz: I asked him (Ac) a question (Ac). I lent her (D) my umbrella (Ac). Urmtoarele verbe sunt urmate de dou acuzative: ask, envy, excuse, forgive, save, strike:

110

The teacher asked the pupils several questions. I envy you your garden. That saved us a lot of trouble. n timp ce verbe ca: deny, give, hand, lend, pay, read sunt urmate de un complement indirect n cazul dativ i un complement direct n cazul acuzativ: Can you lend me this book? She told the children an interesting story. I wish you a good journey. Cazul acuzativ este folosit dup: a) verbe tranzitive, pentru a denumi obiectul care sufer aciunea verbului: drink, eat, meet. b) dup unele verbe intranzitive, tranformndu-le n verbe tranzitive: weep, tears, look compassion. c) dup unele verbe intranzitive care au aceeai rdcin ca i substantivul n acuzativ, formnd aa-numitul acuzativ intern: fight terrible fight, sing a song. d) dup prepoziii. Majoritatea prepoziiilor n limba englez sunt urmate de substantive/pronume n cazul acuzativ: Im looking at John. Im looking at him. Funciile n propoziie ale unui substantiv n cazul acuzativ sunt: a) complement direct: She met my brother in the street. b) parte dintr-un complement prepoziional: The boys were talking about the c) parte dintr-un atribut: I know him to be a man of honour. d) parte dintr-un complement circumstanial: They arrived in the evening. 2.5.4. Cazul dativ (The dative Case). Un substantiv n cazul dativ ndeplinete funcia de complement indirect i arat ctre cine sau ctre ce este ndreptat aciunea exprimat de verb. n limba englez, cazul dativ este marcat de prepoziia to sau for sau prin topic: She gave some sweets to the children. I bought a present for my mother. I lent her (D) a book (Ac). Cazul dativ este folosit: a) dup unele verbe intranzitive, urmate de un complement indirect al persoanei: come, happen, occur, propose: He came to me. It happened to my mother. He proposed to her. b) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de complement direct i complement indirect precedat de prepoziia to: deny, give, hand, offer, read, tell: I paid the money to the cashier. Im wiriting a postcard to my friends. Exist ns un numr de verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de cazul dativ + prepoziia to: address, announce, communicate: I introduced him to my friends. c) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de complement direct i complement indirect precedat de prepoziia for: buy, choose, do, leave, make, order, save: She made a new dress for her daughter. d) dup unele substantive:

match.

111

Her attitude to animals surprised us. Her cruelty to animals surprised us. Her kindess to animals surprised us. e) dup unele adjective: Dint be cruel to animals. She advised me to be kind to the little boy. f) dup adjective de comparaie ca: adequate, corresponding, equal, equivalent, similar, inferior: The result was not equal to his effort. Man is superior to animals. 2.5.5. Cazul genitiv (The Genitive Case). Substantivul n cazul genitiv exprim n principal ideea de posesiune i ndeplinete funcia de atribut n propoziie: Anns bag is new. n limba englez, cazul genitiv este marcat de regul de desinena -s, precedat de un apostrof. De aceea genitivul cu s se mai numete genitivul n s sau genitivul sintetic. Ortografia desinenei genitivului: a) Desinena -s precedat de un apostrof se adaug: la forma de singular a substantivului: the girls dress; the pupils question la cteva substantive cu form neregulat de plural: Mens clothes are more expensive than womens. We keep the childrens toys here. la cteva substantive comune terminate n sunetul -s i urmate de cuvntul sake : for goodness sake; for convenience sake. Not: Apostroful nu este obligatoriu n acest caz, construciile de mai sus ntrebuinndu-se i sub forma: for goodness sake; for convenience sake. b) Apostroful singur, fr desinena -s se adaug: - la forma de plural a substantivelor regulate: the boys bicycles; the drivers - la substantivele nume de persoane terminate n -s: Dickens life; Charles Not: 1. La numele proprii terminate n -s se poate ntlni i genitivul cu s: Dickenss novels. Tendina n limba englez contemporan favorizeaz ns scrierea fr -s dar pronunarea cu [iz], ca i n cazul scrierii cu s: Burns [b__:nziz] poems. 2. La unele nume proprii care nu se termin n -s se observ tendina de dispariie a apostrofului i uneori i a substantivului determinat: Earls Court; Harrods; St. Davids; St. Albans. (Earls Court; St. Davids etc). Cazuri speciale: a) Grupurile de cuvinte i titulaturile compuse au marca genitivului adugat la ultimul cuvnt: a year and a halfs delay; my sister-in-laws job. b) dou substantive legate prin and care reprezint` posesorii aceluiai obiect adaug marca genitivului la ultimul cuvnt: Tom and Marys parents (Tom i Mary sunt frai). With Mr and Mrs Browns compliments. books.

attention.

112

c) Dac obiectul nu aparine amndorura, marca genitivului o primete fiecare substantiv n parte: Toms and marys friends. d) Apoziia primete de obicei semnul genitivului la ultimul cuvnt. Have you met my brother Jimmys son? Pronunarea desinenei genitivului sintetic se realizeaz dup regulile de pronunare a desinenei de plural a substantivelor: [s] [z] [iz] Spots the boys the judges the architects the teachers Bruces Dicks Henrys Alices Locul substantivului n cazul genitiv: a) Substantivul n cazul genitiv, determinantul, precede substantivul determinat cnd este folosit atributiv: This is my sisters schoolbag. b) Substantivul n genitiv poate aprea singur, substantivul determinat fiind omis. Asemenea situaii apar: cnd substantivul determinat a fost menionat anterior: This is Toms book. Marys is in her bag. cnd substantivul determinat este cuvntul shop, house, place, museum: I bought these at the grocers (shop). I was at the Browns (house) yesterday. c) Substantivul n cazul genitiv poate urma substantivul determinat cnd este desprit de acesta prin prepoziia of (genitiv dublu): a book of the teachers; those skates of Peters. Folosirea genitivului sintetic: Genitivul sintetic este folosit cu: a) nume proprii: Toms car b) substantive nume de persoane: the boys new shirt c) substantive colective: the nations security d) substantive care denumesc animale mari: the lions mane e) denumiri geografice i ale unor instituii: Europes future; Romanias foreign policy; the schools programme f) substantive care denumesc uniti de timp, spaiu, msur: todays work; a moments talk; a days journey g) cteva substantive comune urmate de cuvntul sake: for pitys sake; for mercys sake; h) substantive nume de obiecte care pot deveni masculine sau feminine prin personificare, n literatur: truths victory, Loves Labours Lost; the oceans roar; i) unele pronume nehotrte ca: another, either, neither, one i compuii lui some, any, no, every precum i adverbul else; somebodys advice; nobodys fault; j) n unele expresii: a needles eye; her hearts desire; to a hairs breadth; k) cnd substantivul determinat este omis: St Pauls (Cathedral) is one of Tussauds (museum). Construcia cu OF (The OF Construction)

113

Construcia cu prepoziia of este uneori folosit ca un echivalent al genitivului sintetic: Shakespeares plays - the plays of Shakespeare. Locul construciei cu of este dup substantivul determinat: the life of the great writer; the roof of the house. Folosirea construciei cu of Construcia cu of se folosete: a) cu substantivele nume de obiecte: the title of the book; b) cu denumiri geografice urmate de un nume propriu: the City of London the Gulf of Mexico. c) cu nume proprii, n locul genitivului sintetic: cnd numele proprii sunt exprimate prin substantive coordonate: the teacher of Peter and Mary cnd numele propriu const dintr-un substantiv cu apoziie: the reign of Queen Elisabeth cnd dorim s subliniem numele propriu: the sonnets of William Shakespeare d) cu substantivele nume de persoan: cnd substantivul determinat este precedat de articolul nehotrt sau de un demonstrativ: I am a great admirer of this writer. e) pentru ntrire: The arrival of his grandfather surprised him. f) cu nume de animale mici: the tail of the mouse; the wings of a butterfly. Genitivul implicit (The Implicit Genitive) Genitivul implicit este o contrucie genitival n care substantivului determinat i lipsete desinena de genitiv: audience participation, student hostel, afternoon tea. Genitivul dublu (The Double Genitive) Genitivul dublu const din genitivul sintetic + construcia cu of. Aceast construcie este folosit cu substantive nume de persoane: This joke of Peters A threat of our teachers. Genitivul dublu difer ca sens de constrcuia cu of folosit singur. a description of Galsworthys = o descriere fcut de Galsworthy; a description of Galsworthy = o descriere a lui Galsworthy (fcut de altcineva). 2.5.6. Cazul Vocativ (The Vocative Case) - (vezi 21.4)

EXERCIII:
I. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, folosind substnative proprii i abrevieri: 1. coala ncepe n septembrie. 2. Noi mergem la not duminica. 3. Dl. Brown este membru al parlamentului. 4. n fiecare an la data de 4 iulie, americanii srbtoresc Ziua Independenei. 5. Dunrea se vars n Marea Neagr. 6. Doctorul Ionescu consult elevii n fiecare luni. 7. Spania se nvecineaz cu Frana. 8. Chinezii, vietnamezii i japonezii triesc n Asia. 9. Hotelul Intercontinental din Bucureti se afl, lng Teatrul

114

R: 1. School begins in September. 2. We go swimming on Sunday(s). 3. Mr Brown is an MP. 4. On July 4th every year the Americans celebrate Independence Day. 5. The Danube flows into the Black Sea. 6. Dr. Ionescu consults the pupils every Monday. 7. Spain borders on France. 8. The Chinese, the Vietnamese and the Japanese live in Asia. 9. The Intercontinental Hotel in Bucharest is next to the National Theatre. 10. We study English and Russian at school. 11. The Conference for Peace and Security in Europe was held in Helsinki in 1976.

Naional. 10. Studiem engleza i rusa la coal. 11. n 1976 a avut loc la Helsinki conferina pentru pace i securitate n Europa.

R: schoolboys, masterpieces, brothers-in-law, fathers-in-law, headmasters, milkmen, women dentists, postmen, blackboards, sons-in-law, passers-by, bedrooms, car races, lookers-on, men singers, merry-go-rounds, horse races, forget-me-nots, footsteps, firemen.

II. Trecei urmtoarele substnative compuse la numrul plural: schoolboy; masterpiece; brother-in-law; father-in-law; headmaster; milkman; woman dentist; postman; blackboard; son-in-law; passer-by; bedroom; car race; looker-on; man singer; merry-go-round; horse-race; forget-me-nor; footspet; fireman.

III. Punei substantivele din paranteze la numrul plural: 1. There are hundreds of (book) on the (shelf). 2. All his (toy) are in his room. 3. Those (man) are (tourists). 4. (Child) like (story). 5. They left their (watch) on the table.
R: 1. books, shelves. 2. toys. 3. men, tourists. 4. children, stories. 5. watches.

mai jos:

IV. Alegei forma potrivit a substantivelor pentru a completa propoziiile de

hundred/hundreds 1.....of pupils attend this school. 2. Six ..... pupils attend the school round the

corner. million/millions 3. Romania has a population a twenty-two... people. 4. Two... people live in Bucharest.
R: 1. hundreds. 2. hundred. 3. million. 4. million.

R: a) stimuli, phenomena, desiderata, addenda; b) campuses, viruses, encyclopedias, villas; c) syllabuses, geniuses/genii, formulas/formulae, curriculums/curricula.

V. Trecei la plural urmtoarele substantive de origine strin: a) stimulus; phenomenon; desideratum; addendum; b) campus; virus; encyclopedia; villa; c) syllabus; genius; formula; curriculum.

VI. Completai propoziiile urmtoare cu cuantificatori potrivii ca sens: piece, bit, item, pair, head etc. 1. I need a white... of paper. 2. She bought two... of chocolate yesterday. 3. I want a .... of white bread and two... of brown bread. 4. Give me a .... of chalk, will you? 5. What a .... of work is man!
R: 1. sheet; 2. bars; 3. loaf, loaves; 4. piece/stick; 5. piece.

115

VII. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez: 1. tirile pe care le-am primit sunt interesante. 2. Mi-am fcut bagajele asear. 3. Vom publica toate informaiile care sunt necesare candidailor. 4. Cunotinele lui de istorie sunt remarcabile. 5. Am cumprat fructe i cteva prjituri. 6. i-ai fcut temele?

R: 1. The news I have received is interesting. 2. I packed my luggage last night. 3. We are going to publish all the information necessary to the candidates. 4. His know-ledge of history is remarkable. 5. I've bought some fruit and some cakes. 6. Have you done your homework?

le n limba romn: 1. The standard of living in the Middle Ages was very low. 2. She tried to make amends for her former behaviour. 3. All Dacians rose in arms when the Romans invaded Dacia. 4. The letter burnt to ashes. 5. He's got good brains, he'll manage. 6. Clothes do not make the man. 7. Have a look at the table contents. 8. They couldnt finish the project for lack of funds. 9. Goods are usually transported in goods trains. 10. Where are you going to spend your holidays? 11. He has good looks. 12. You are forgetting your manners, young man!

VIII. Citii urmtoarele propoziii coninnd pluralia tantum n -s i traducei-

R: 1. Where are the tongs? 2. Many thanks. 3. E very means has been tried/All means have been tried. 4. The Army Headquarters was/were near London 5. Physics is his favourite subject. 6. We caught three big trout. 7. A book on Romanian fresh-water fishes has just been publis hed. 8. He has brown hair. 9. She has a few grey hairs. 10. Give me two loaves (of bread) please. 11. She has made great progress in learning English. 12. These are the minutes of the meeting.

IX. Traducei n limba englez: 1. Unde este cletele? 2. Multe mulumiri. 3. S-au ncercat toate mijloacele. 4. Cartierul general al armatei era lng Londra. 5. Fizica este obiectul lui preferat. 6. Am prins trei pstrvi mari. 7. Tocmai s-a publicat o carte despre petii de ap dulce din Romnia. 8. Are pr aten. 9. Ea are cteva fire de pr alb. 10. D-mi dou pini, te rog. 11. A fcut progrese mari n nvarea limbii engleze. 12. Acesta este procesul verbal al edinei.

1. There is a glass of milk on the table. 2. Does he wear glasses? 3. You have to declare everything at the customs. 4. They want to get acquainted with this Romanian custom. 5. Are you writing a letter? 6. He is a great man of letters. 7. I don't like her airs. 8. There is something in the air.

X. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba romn:

XI. Traducei n limba englez: Dragul meu Mo Ghi, Mii de mulumiri pentru prietenoasa ta felicitare. De ndat ce voi primi exemplarele de autor de la Academie, i voi trimite un volum din lucrarea mea despre Marea Neagr. Noi avem o iarn neplcut i eu i soiam fiind bolnavi. Dragul nostru Tou este ns voinic i-mi face o mare plcere s aud glasul su la telefon.

116

Gr. Antipa

A thousand thanks for your friendly card. As soon as I get the author's copies from the Academy, I shall send you a copy of my work on the Black Sea. We are having an unpleasant winter, my wife and I both being ill. But our dear Tofu is strong and I am very pleased to hear his voice over the telephone. Gr. Antipa

R: My dear uncle Ghi,

R: 1. daughter; 2. lady; 8. niece; 4. aunt; 5. mother; 6. sister; 7. hen; 8. hind; 9. girl; 10. wife; 11. woman; 12. queen.

masculine: 1. son; 2. lor; 3. nephew; 4. uncle; 5. father; 6. brother. 7. cock; 8. stag; 9. boy; 10. husband; 11. man; 12. king.

XII. Care sunt corespondentele feminine ale urmtoarelor substantive

XIII. Care sunt formele de masculin i feminin ale urmtoarelor substantive: 1. friend; 2. goat; 3. stundent; 4. cat; 5. ass; 6. frog.

R: 1. boy-friend; girl friend; 2. he-goat; she-goat; 3. male student; female student; 4. Tom cat; Tibby cat; 5. Jack-ass; Jenny ass; 6. male frog; female frog.

R: 1. This is my neighbour' car. 2. This is Lily's doll. 8. This is Dick's bicycle. 4. This is my cousin's stamp book. 5. This is Mr White's umbrella. 6. This is Lawrence and Paul's electric train. 7. These are Peter's and Mary's bicycles.

XIV. Formulai propoziii cu substnative la genitiv, conform modelului: John has got a book. This is Johns book. 1. My neighbour has got a car. 2. Lily has got a doll. 3. Dick has got a new bicycle. 4. My cousin has got a new stamp-book. 5. Mr White has got an umbrella. 6. Lawrence and Paul have got an electric train. 7. Peter has got a bicycle and Mary has got a bicycle too.

XV. Traducei n limba romn: at a miles distance; yesterdays newspaper; in two years time; a pounds weight; at a stone's throw; to my heart's content; art for art's sake. XVI. Trecei urmtoarele substantive n cazul genitiv la numrul plural.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. My cousin's house is large. The girl's room is very pretty The pupil's uniform is blue The woman's work is very much appreciated. The worker's life is much better today. The teacher praosed the student's work Where are the child clothes? The baby's food is in the fridge.

R: 1. My cousins' house is large. 2. The ladies' hats are very pretty. 8. The pupils' uniforms are blue. 4. The women's work is very much appreciated. 5. The workers' life is much better today. 6. The teacher praised the students' work. 7. Where are the children's clothes? 8. The babies' food is in the fridge.

XVII. Punei substantivele din paranteze la genitivul sintetic sau analitic.

117

R: 1. Mary is David's sister. 2. The pages of the book have numbers. 3. What is your brother's hobby? 4. This is a woman's hat. 5. What's the favourite sport of this boy? 6. The roof of the shed was blown off by the wind. 7. That is Alice's pencil-box. 8. Ladies' hats are very pretty this year. 9. This is the room of my brother and sister. 10. Where are the girls' blouses? 11. Dickens' novels are very interesting. 12. The house is at a mile's distance. 13. Have you read yesterday's paper?

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Mary is (David) sister. The (book) pages have numbers. What is your (brother) hobby? This is a (woman) hat. What's ( this boy) favourite sport? The (shed) roof was blown off by the wind. That is (Alice) pencil-box. (Ladies) hats are very pretty this year. This is (mybrother and sister) room. Where are the (girls) blouses? (Dickens) novels are very interesting. The house is at a (mile) distance. Have you read (yesterday) paper.

XVIII. Construii propoziii conform modelului:

show-Mike-the building I showed Mie the building. I showed the building to Mike. 1. give- money - her son. 2. tell - secret- Mary. 3. hand-paper-the teacher. 4. lend- umbrella-my friend 5. throw-ball-his friend. 6. write-letter-grandma 7. offer-flowers-teacherr

caz.

XIX. Reformulai urmtoarele propoziii, folosind prepoziia to sau for dup

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I bought Mike a dog. He gave Tom some presents. I chose my sister a nice present. Mary showed the teacher her compozition. They sent their parents a parcel. Did you make Helen this new cardigan? Did he give his mother a bunch of flowers? I ordered my sister a lemonade.

R: 1. I bought a dog for Mike. 2. He gave some presents to Tom. 3. I chose a nice present for my sister. 4. Mary showed her composition to the teacher. 5. They sent a parcel to their parents. 6. Did you make this cardigan for Helen? 7. Did he give a bunch of flowers to his mother? 8. I ordered a lemonade for my sister.

XX. Traducei n limba englez:

118

a) 1. Congresul al XII-lea al partidului a luat hotrri de mare nsemntate pentru poporul nostru i pentru progresul patriei. 2. Ai citit ziarul de ieri? 3. Dup un moment de gndire, elevul a rspuns perfect la toate ntrebrile mele. 4. Juriul a nmnat premii ctigtorilor ntrecerii. 5. Ne-am distrat foarte bine la petrecerea suroriii prietenului meu. 6. Cred c am luat plria altcuiva. 7. Stiloul este al lui Bo. 8. Ce tii despre clima acestei ri? 9. Profesorul a vorbit mai bine de o or despre progresul tiinei. 10. Elevii i-au oferit nvtoarei lor un buchet de flori. 11. Ar fi bine s ne ntlnim acas la Maria. 12. Publicarea acestei cri a nsemnat un succes deosebit. b) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Cea mai modern poet a noastr a vorbit despre ultimul ei volum de poezii. Vei fi nsoii de fiul i fiica mea. Nu tiu cine joac rolul prinesei. Nu iam vzut pe unchiul i mtua mea de cteva luni. Nepoata ei cea mai mic este motenitoarea casei. Vecinul meu a lsat ua deschis i a uitat de ea.

R: a) 1. The 12th Party Congress has taken decisions of great importance for our people and our country's progress. 2. Have you read yesterday's newspaper? 3. After a moment's thought, the pupil answered all my questions perfectly. 4. The jury handed rewards to all the winners of the competition. 6. We had a very good time at the party of my friend's sister. 6. I think I have taken somebody else's hat. 7. The pen is Bob's. 8. What do you know about the climate of this country? 9. The teacher spoke for more than an hour about the climate of this country. 10. The pupils offered a bunch of flowers to their teacher. 11. We'd better meet at Mary's. 12. The printing of this book meant an important success. b) 1. Our most modern poetess spoke about her latest volume of poems. 2. You will be accompanied by my son and daughter. 3. I don't know who acts the princess. 4. I haven't seen my aunt and uncle for a few months. 5. Her youngest niece is the heiress of the house. 6. My neighbour left the door open and forgot about it.

119

3. Articolul i ali determinani (The Article and other Determiners)

3.1. Categoria determinrii
3.1.1. Categoria determinrii a aprut n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, din necesitatea de a indica un element unic (the Danube) sau specific (this man) dintr-o categorie, sau de a denumi o ntreag categorie de elemente de acelai fel (The lion is a strong animal). n limba englez exist mai multe pri de vorbire care pot determina un substantiv: the first two students. Ele formeaz n gramatica structuralist clasa determinanilor, care este subdivizat n predeterminani, determinani propriu-zii i postdeterminani. Aceast terminologie a fost stabilit pe baza categoriei gramaticale pe care o reprezint aceste cuvinte pe lng substantiv (determinarea) i pe baza poziiei pe care o ocup unul fa de altul: Half (predeterminant) the (determinant propriu-zis) second (postdeterminant) chapter. 3.1.2. Determinanii propriu-zii. n clasa determinanilor propriu-zii intr articolul i alte pri de vorbire care pot nlocui articolul naintea unui substantiv: adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those), adjectivul posesiv (my, your, his etc.), adjectivul nehotrt (each, every, either etc.) i unele adjective interogative (what, which) i negative (no, neither): a book the book no book each book every book either book this book my book what book Determinanii propriu-zii ai substantivului Determinantul Articolul hotrt Articolul nehotrt Articolul zero Adjectivul demonstrativ Adjectivul posesiv Exemple the man a tree; an apple men; trees, apples this newspaper, that magazine these articles, those papers my house; your car; his watch; her dress; its tail; our school; their classroom.

120

Adjectivul interogativ

What book do you want? Which books do you want? Whose book do you want? Each pupil, every day, either side; some books; any students; no children; neither student.

Adjectivul nehotrt

Articolul ocup un loc central n cadrul determinanilor, neavnd alt funcie dect cea de determinare a substantivului. Ali determinani pot funciona independent de substantivele pe care le preced, ca pronume: I want this/some. What is this? Pe lng determinanii propriu-zii, substantivele mai pot fi precedate i de alte clase de cuvinte: predeterminani, numerale cardinale i ordinale/cuantificatori (post determinani). Aceste dou clase au fost stabilite pe baza poziiei lor fa de determinani n relaie unul cu altul. 3.1.3. Predeterminanii. Predeterminanii se numesc astfel deaorece ei apar naintea determinanilor: a) all the books both my books half these books b) double the/these amount twice the/these amount three times the/these amount c) ine-third the time three quarters the/these amount Cnd sunt urmai de substantive, predeterminanii pot aprea n trei construcii: all of the children all the children all children both of the teachers both the teachers both teachers Cnd determinanii sunt urmai de pronume, construcia cu of este obigatorie: all of them, both of them, half of it. Predeterminanii all, both i half pot fi folosii i ca pronume: All understood the teachers explanation. Both understood the teachers explanation. Half understood the teachers explanation.

121

n cazul lui all, se folosete determinantul zero n cazul substantivelor numrabile la plural folosite generic: All the pupils went into the classroom. Dar: All soldiers must wear uniforms (generic). All poate fi de asemenea folosit cu articolul zero n expresii ca: all (the) day/morning/night, n special ntr-un context negativ: I havent seen her all day: Ca determinant, all precede: a) substantive (ne)numrabile concrete (rar) sau abstracte la singular, avnd sensul de ntreg, tot: She interrupted him all the time. l ntrerupea tot timpul. He didnt spend all his money. Nu i-a cheltuit toi banii. He hasnt read all the story. He hasnt read the whole story. b) substantive numrabile la plural, avnd sensul de toi, toate: Where are all your books? Unde sunt toate crile tale? All poate fi folosit att ca predeterminant ct i ca pronume nehotrt: Have you drunk all the milk? Ai but tot laptele? Have you seen all? Ai vzut tot? All (the) people came in time. All (of them) were punctual. Both. Both nseamn amndoi, amndou, fiind folosit pentru referirea la dou persoane (accentuat): Both children are very quit. Amndoi copiii sunt foarte tcui. Both poate fi folosit att ca predeterminant: Both (of) these features are very important, ct i ca pronume: Both are important. Half. Half (jumtate) este folosit att cu substantive nenumrabile: He didnt say a word half the time he stayed there, ct i ca substantive nenumrabile: Half the students in the student hostel were asleep. Half este folosit ca: - predeterminant: half the book; - substantiv: Your half is bigger than mine; - pronume nehotrt: half (of them) left. Numeralele multiplicative (vezi 4.7) sunt incluse n clasa predeterminanilor, deoarece ele pot fi aezate naintea determinanilor: twice the amount, double that price. La fel i numeralele fracionare (vezi 4.5), care pot avea i construcii cu of, n mod similar cu all, both i half: The vegetables boiled in one third (of) the time the meat did. 3.1.4. Postdeterminanii. Ordinalele sunt postdeterminani. Ele urmeaz determinanii n grupul nominal, dar preced cuantificatorii i adjectivele: The first three important events. n clasa ordinalelor intr: a) numeralele ordinale: first, second, third, fourth etc. b) (an)other, next, last.

122

Cuantificatorii urmeaz determinanii i ordinalele i preced adjectivele: The first three important events. Din clasa cuantificatorilor fac parte: a) numeralele cardinale: one, two, three, four, five, etc. b) cuantificatorii, cuvintele care exprim numrul (many, few, several) sau cantitatea (much, little) n mod nedefinit. Cuatificatorii sunt folosii: a) numai cu substantive numrabile: many children a great number of children few children a large number of children several children a good number of children b) numai cu substantive nenumrabile: much time a great/good deal of money little time a great/good deal of money a little time great/good deal of money much time a large/small quantity/amount of money little time a large/small quantity/amount of money a little time a large/small quantity/amount of money c) cu substantive numrabile sau nenumrabile (n exprimarea familiar): a lot of children/money lots of children/money plenty of children/money Much = mult, mult se folosete mai ales n propoziii interogative i negative: There isnt much sugar left. Nu a rmas mult zahr. n propoziii afirmative se folosete: very much, a lot of, a great deal of, a large (small) amount of, plenty of: There is a lot of sugar in the sugar basin. Este (foarte) mult zahr n zaharni. There is very much sugar in the sugar basin. Este (foarte) mult zahr n zaharni. There is plety of sugar in the sugar basin. Este foarte mult zahr n zaharni. Little nseamn puin, puin, indic o cantitate insuficient, implic o apreciere negativ: She eats little bread. Ea mnnc puin pine (aproape deloc). A little indic o cantitate mic, dar suficient i implic o apreciere pozitiv: I eat a little bread. Mnnc ceva pine. Many = muli, multe se folosete mai ales n propoziii interogative i negative: Did he read many English books? A citit multe cri englezeti. I have not invited many people to my birthday party. N-am invitat mult lume la ziua mea de natere. n propoziii afirmative se folosete very many, a lot of, a great / large number, lots of: Hes read a lot of English books. 123

Hes read very many English books. Hes read a great number of English books. Hes read lots of English books.
Few = puini, puine indic un numr insuficient i implic o apreciere negativ: Few people live to be a hundred. Puini oameni triesc 100 de ani. A few = civa, cteva indic un numr mic, dar suficient i implic o apreciere pozitiv:There are few flowers in the vase. Sunt cteva flori n vaz. Several este folosit pentru mai mult de dou persoane: He read several books on Dacia. El a citit mai multe cri despre Dacia. He read several books on Dacia. El a citit cteva cri despre Dacia.

3.2. Articolul (The Article)

3.2.1. Definiie. Articolul este partea de vorbire care: a) constituie un mijloac de individualiza a obiectelor i fenomenelor ntr-un context lingvistic sau situaional; b) nu are forme flexionare, fiind neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; c) ndeplinete funcia de determinant. Articolul ocup un loc central n cadrul determinanilor, fiind considerat determinantul propriu-zis. Aceasta se datoreaz faptului c articolul nu poate fi o parte de vorbire independent, el contribuind doar la determinarea unic sau individual a substantivului pe care l nsoete. Articolul este redat prin articolul hotrt the, articolul nehotrt a sau an sau prin articolul zero. Aceste articole se folosesc pentru a realiza: 1) referina unic (unique reference) i 2) referina individual (individual reference). 3.2.2. 1) Articolul se folosete pentru referin unic atunci cnd se identific cu un membru anume al unei clase: The boy was running very fast. Biatul alerga foarte repede. 3.2.3. 2) Articolul se folosete pentru referin individual cnd referirea se face la orice membru al unei clase, fr ca acesta s fie identificat n mod unic. Pentru referina unic, se folosete articolul hotrt pentru substantive numrabile i nenumrabile: Where is the book I gave you? Where are the books I gave you? Where is the chalk I gave you? Pentru referin individual, se folosesc: - articolul nehotrt a(n), cu substantive numrabile la singular: There is a book on the table. There is an orange on the table. - articolul zero sau some/any, cu substantive numrabile la plural i substantive nenumrabile:

124

Atenie! Articolul se folosete generic cnd unei clase de elemente i se atribuie o proprietate; folosirea generic are n vedere clasa i nu anumii membri ai clasei: Boys like to play football. Bieilor le place s joace fotbal. A boy runs faster than a girl. Un biat alearg mai repede dect o fat. The tiger lives in the jungle. Tigrul triete n jungl. Substantivele folosite generic nu au distincia de numr deoarece ele denumesc ceea ce este tipic, general pentru membrii unei clase. De aceea, folosirea generic apare cu cele trei articole: a) articolul hotrt the, articolul nehotrt a(n) sau articolul zero pentru substantivele numrabile: The cow gives us milk. A cow gives us milk. Cows give us milk. b) articolul zero pentru substantivele nenumrabile: Milk is good for our health. 3.2.4. Numele proprii i referina unic. Numele proprii sunt substantivele cu referin unic prin excelen, deoarece ele sunt considerate membri unici ai clasei din care fac parte: Helen, Mount Everest, the Danube, France, Monday. Prin aceasta, numele proprii se deosebesc de substantivele comune: a) se scriu cu liter mare: Mr. Thomson, the English Channel, the Haque. b) nu au contrastul articulat-nearticulat: unele nume proprii sunt folosite cu articolul zero, altele sunt folosite cu articolul the, fr s existe o opoziie ntre ele: Australia, Italy, Bucharest, Windsor Castle. c) numele proprii nearticulate primesc articol cnd se intenioneaz restrngerea referinei la un anumit timp sau loc care identific, numele printr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv, o construcie prepoziional cu of sau una provenit dintr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv: in Romania in the Romania of today Bucharest the Bucharest I like Eminescu the young Eminescu in Victorian England in the England of Queen Victoria

There are (some) books on the table. There is (some) salt on the table.

3.3. Articolul hotrt (The Definite Article)

3.3.1. Forma articolului hotrt. Articolul hotrt are forma unic the.

125

The se pronun [_tz__] a) inaintea sunetelor consonantice: the pupil; the house; b) naintea sunetelor semiconsonantice, reprezentate de obicei prin literele u, y, w: the university, the window, the year, the one. The se pronun [_tz_i(:)] a) naintea sunetelor vocalice: the artists; b) naintea lui h mut: the hour; the honest man; the honour; the heir; c) pronunarea [_tz_i:] este de asemenea folosit pentru subliniere: These are the facts. 3.3.2. Funciile articolului hotrt. Articolul hotrt este folosit pentru a exprima referina unic. El ndeplinete mai multe funcii. Acestea sunt: 1) funcia deictic, cu substantive a cror referin este imediat neleas de vorbitorii limbii, ea fiind specific n contextul situaional al comunicrii. Anumite substantive au determinare deictic n contexte situaionale. De exemplu: a) ntr-o ncpere: the door, the window, the table, the radiator. Close the window, will you? nchide fereastra, te rog. b) ntr-o pdure: the wind, the sky, the ground etc. The ground is covered with dry leaves. Pmntul este acoperit cu frunze uscate. c) ntr-un ora: the townhall, the police station, the railway station, the hospital: Can you tell me how to get to the townhall? Putei s-mi spunei cum s ajung la primrie? d) ntr-o ar: the radio, the press, the telephone: Whats on the radio at eight oclock? Ce program este la radio la ora 8? e) n univers: the sun, the moon, the earth: The earth moves round the sun. Pmntul se nvrtete n jurul soarelui. 2) funcia anaforic, cu substantive determinate definitiv prin menionarea anterioar: I bought a book yesterday. The book is intersting. Am cumprat o carte ieri. Cartea este interesant. 3) funcia cataforic, cnd determinarea definit apare dup substantiv, fiind exprimat printr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv sau printr-o construcie prepoziional provenit dintr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv: The man who is driving the red car is our English teacher. Omul care conduce maina roie este profesorul nostru de englez. The man (who is) in the red car is our English teacher. Omul din maina roie este profesorul nostru de englez. 4) funcia generic, cnd substantivul este folosit n sensul su cel mai general, ca reprezentant al unei clase. n aceast funcie the nsoete substantive numrabile la numrul singular: The horse is a useful animal. Calul este un animal

126

folositor. The wild elephant can be found in some parts of Africa. Elefantul slbatic poate fi gsit n unele zone din Africa. 5) cu nume proprii: Numele proprii sunt precedate de obicei de articolul hotrt cnd structura lor intr i un adjectiv sau substantiv folosit adjectival: The United Kingdom, the United States, the Art Gallery; sau o construcie prepoziional postpus (cu of): The University of Bucharest, the Houses of Parliament; n aceste cazuri, articolul the este folosit chiar dac unul dintre cele dou elemente este omis: the (river) Thames, the Tate (Gallery), the Pacific (Ocean), the Mediterranean (Sea), the Intercontinental (Hotel). Articolul hotrt se folosete cu urmtoarele clase de nume proprii: a) substantive la plural: the Browns - familia Brown; the Nertherlands Olanda the Alps - Alpii. b) denumiri geografice: - nume de ruri: The Danube, the Olt; - nume de mri i oceane: the Black Sea, the Atlantic Ocean; - nume de canaluri: the Suez Canal, the Panama Canal; - nume de deerturi, golfuri, capuri: The Sahara, The persian Gulf, the Cape of Good Hope. c) nume de instituii: - hoteluri i restaurante: the Lido, the Berlin Restaurant; - teatre, cinematografe, cluburi: The National Theatre, the Capitol Cinema; - muzee, bliblioteci:The British Museum, the National History Museum; d) nume de ziare: The Times, The Daily Telegraph, The Guardian. Numele de reviste au de obicei articolul zero: Life, English Language Teaching Journal. e) nume de vase: The Transylvania.

ara sau continentul

China Japan Portugal Switzerland Vietnam Israel Pakistan Africa America Asia

Adjectiv
Chinese Japanase Portuguese Swiss Vietnamese Israeli Pakistani African American Asian

Substantiv
Folosire individual Folosire generic

Singular
a Chinese a Japanese a Portuguese a Swiss an Israeli a Pakistani an African an American an Asian

Plural
Chinese Japanese Portuguese Swiss Israelis Pakistanis Africans Americans Asians

Plural
the Chinese the Japanese the Portuguese the Swiss the Vietnamese the Israelis the Pakistanis the Africans the Americans the Asians

a Vietnamese Vietnamese

127

Australia Italy Belgium Brazil Europe Germany Greece Hungary Norway Denmark Finland Poland Spain Sweden Arabia England France Holland the Netherlands Ireland Wales Britain Scotland Scotland Scotland

Australian Italian Belgian Brazilian European German Greek Hungarian Norwegian Danish Finish Polish Spanish Swedish Arabic English French Dutch Dutch Irish Welsh British Scots Scottish Scotch

an Australian Australians an Italian a Belgian a Brazilian a European a German a Greek a Hungarian a Norwegian a Dane a Finn a Pole a Spaniard a Swede an Arab an Englishman a Frenchman a Dutchman a Dutchman an Irishman a Welshman a Briton a Scotsman a Scot a Scotchman Italians Belgians Brazilians Europeans Germans Greeks Hungarians Norwegians Danes Finns Poles Spaniards Swedes Arabs Englishmen Frenchmen Dutchmen Dutchmen Irishmen Welshmen Britons Scotsmen Scots Scotchmen

the Australians the Italians the Belgians the Brazilians the Europeans the Germans the Greeks the Hungarians the Norwegians the Danes (Danish) the Finns (Finish) the Poles (Polish) the Spaniards (Spanish) the Swedes (Swedish) the Arabs the English Englishmen the Frenchmen the Dutch the Dutch Dutchmen the Irish Irishmen the Welsh Welshmen the British Britons Scotsmen the Scots the Scotch French

3.4. Articolul nehotrt (The Indefinite Article)

an. 3.4.1. Forma articolului nehotrt. Articolul nehotrt are dou forme: a i

A se pronun [__] (forma slab, cnd este neaccentuat), sau [ei] (forma tare cnd este accentuat) i se folosete naintea cuvintelor care ncep cu un sunet consonantic sau semiconsonantic: a buider, a magazine; a water-melon, a year. An se pronun [__n] (forma slab) sau [_ae_n] (forma tare) i se folosete naintea cuvintelor care ncep cu un sunet vocalic sau h mut: an architect, an egg, an orange, an hour, an heir, an honest man.

128

3.4.2. Funciile articolului nehotrt. Articolul nehotrt are mai multe valori. Acestea sunt: 1) funcia epiforic, specific articolului nehotrt, folosit pentru introducerea n comunicare a unei noiuni care nu a fost menionat anterior: There is a young boy waiting for you. Te ateapt un biat. I read an interesting novel last month. Am citit un roman interesant luna trecut. Funcia epiforic a articolului nehotrt este folosit n situaiile n care obiectul sau persoana menionat n comunicare este necunoscut asculttorului: A man came and knocked at our door. A venit un om i a btut la u; sau n situaiile n care vorbitorul nu dorete s determine definit obiectul sau persoana respectiv ci se refer doar la un membru al unei clase: I saw a cat on the stairs. Am vzut o pisic pe scar. 2) funcia numeric, n situaiile n care forma a(n) are valoarea numeralului one. Pentru a reda aceast idee de numr gramatical (singularul), articolul nehotrt se folosete: - cu substantivele numrabile la singular, de obicei n serii numerice: She bought a dress, two blouses and an umbrella. A cumprat o rochie, dou bluze i o umbrel. - cu numeralele (n locul lui one): a/one hundred; a/one thousand. 3) funcia generic Articolul nehotrt poate fi folosit i cu valoare generic, cu substantive numrabile la singular, pentru a reprezenta o ntreag clas: A cow gives us milk. Vaca ne d lapte. 4) articolul nehotrt este folosit i naintea numelui predicativ exprimat printr-un substantiv: He is a teacher. He was a headmaster. He is a teacher. He became a headmaster. He is a teacher. He remained a headmaster. Atenie! Articolul nehotrt nu se folosete: 1) cu substantive nenumrabile Comparai: a) substantiv numrabil. I bought an iron yesterday. Am cumprat un fier de clcat ieri. - substantiv nenumrabil. This fence is made of iron. Acest gard este din fier. 2) cu substantive numrabile la plural Comparai: - substantiv numrabil la singular: I watched an interesting film on TV last night. Am vzut un film interesant la televizor asear. - substantiv numrabil la plural: You can watch (some) interesting films on TV. Poi s vezi (nite) filme interesante la televizor.

129

n cazul substantivelor numrabile la plural, determinarea nedefinit se realizeaz: a) cu articolul zero: There are films on TV. Sunt filme la televizor. b) cu ajutorul lui some sau any: There are some interesting films on TV. Sunt unele/nite filme interesante la televizor.

3.5. Articolul zero (The Zero Article)

3.5.1. n unele cazuri, substantivele nenumrabile, substantivele numrabile la plural i numele proprii par nensoite de articol: She drinks tea every day. Clothes do not make the man. Bobby Charlton was a good football player. n astfel de cazuri, absena articolului echivaleaz ca funcia cu prezena unui articol. Acesta este de obicei numit articolul zero. Este necesar s distingem ntre existena unui articol zero i omisiunea articolului hotrt sau nehotrt, pentru c articolul zero apare n situaii opuse celor n care se folosesc celelalte articole: I like chocolate. (Articolul zero pentru folosirea generic). mi place ciocolata. The chocolate you bought is nice. Ciocolata pe care ai cumprat-o este gustoas. 3.5.2. Funciile articolului zero 1) articolul zero ndeplinete funcia generic cu: a) substantive nenumrabile b) substantive numrabile la plural I like milk/coffee. I like music/literature/geography/traveling. I like long walks/good friends/games. a) articolul zero cu substantive nenumrabile indic o cantitate nedefinit, cantitatea n general: You can by sugar, flower, rice and oil at the grocers. Poi s cumperi zahr, orez i ulei la bcnie. Aceast ntrebuinare a articolului zero este des ntlnit n proverbe i n limbajul tiinific: Haste makes waste. Graba stric treaba. Light travels faster than sound. Lumina se deplaseaz mai repede dect sunetul. b) cu substantivele numrabile la plural articolul zero se refer la toi membri unei clase: Children like to play. Copiilor le place s se joace. 2) Articolul zero este ntrebuinat de regul pentru referina unic a numelor proprii i a unor substantive comune n anumite contexte: Peter and Mary will go to school in autumn. La toamn Petre i Maria vor merge la coal. A. Urmtoarele clase de nume proprii se folosesc cu articolul zero: a) Numele de persoane, nsoite sau nu de apoziie: Peter, John Brown, Dr Smith. b) diviziuni de timp: - zilele sptmnii: Monday, Friday

130

- lunile anului: april, may, june - srbtorile: Liberation Day c) denumiri geografice: - continente: Europe, Asia - ri: Romania, Bulgaria, Francia - orae: Bucharest, Edinburgh - lacuri: Lake Ontario, Loch Lomond - muni: Ben Nevis, Mount Everest d) numele proprii urmate de substantive comune, denumind cldiri, strzi, poduri, etc.: Bran Castle, Westminster Abbey, Oxford Street. B. Unele substantive comune se folosesc cu articolul zero, avnd referin unic n anumite contexte situaionale, ntr-un mod similar cu numele proprii. Majoritatea acestor cuvinte intr n componena unor expresii idiomatice, n care sunt folosite cu articolul zero. Unele dintre ele ns pot fi folosite i cu articolul hotrt n alte contexte: FOLOSIREA UNOR SUBSTANTIVE COMUNE CU ARTICOLUL ZERO

Ce denumesc substantivele
Anotimpuri (in during)

Articolul zero
in during spring/summer/ autumn/winter be in/go to- bed/hospital (mai ales engleza britanic); - class (mai ales engleza american)/prison;

Articolul hotrt
in the spring/summer/ autumn/summer

Anumite instituii (at, in, to, etc.)

lie down on the bed modernize the hospital walk round the prison walk past the school be at/go to/study at the be at/go to university (mai ales school/college/university; engleza american) be at/go home approach the town; be in/leave town travel/leave/come - by bicycle/boat/bus/car/tra in/plane at/before dawn/daybreak/sunrise/s unset/dusk/twilight at/around/before noon/midnight at/by - night (by) day and night sit omn the bicycle be on the bus sleep in the car take the/a train be on the plane sit in the boat during the day admire the sunrise/sunset see nothing in the dusk in the afternoon wake up in the night in the daytime

Mijloace de transport (by)

Momente ale zilei i nopii (at,by,after,before)

131

Mesele zilei

have/before/at/after breakfast/lunch/dinner/s upper Dinner will be served at 7.00. appendicitis anaemia diabetes influenza arm in arm hand in hand day by day face to face from dawn to dusk from morning till night from beginning to end from right to left from east to west

The breakfast was good. She cooked the dinner. The dinner they offered us was very good. the plague (the) flu (the) measles (the) mumps He took her by the arm. He has a book in his hand. From the beginning of the book to the end of it. Keep to the right. He lives in the west.

Nume de boli

Structuri paralele

3. Cu elementul predicativ suplimentar se folosete articolul zero, pentru referin unic: They appointed him chairman. L-a numit preedinte sau articolul hotrt pentru referin unic: They appointed him the chairman of the standing commission. FUNCIILE ARTICOLULUI

Articolul

Funcia
1. deictic 2. anaforic 3. cataforic 4. generic

Exemple
Turn on the radio, please. Walk past the hospital and youll get to the railway station. I saw a play last night. The play was very interesting. I have managed to find the book on Romanticism. The family plays an important educational role. The United Nations, the Parkers, the Rocky Mountains, The Missisippi, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Intercontinental Hotel, the Academy Library I saw a chimney sweep on the way to school.

Articolul hotrt

5. cu unele nume proprii

Articolul nehotrt

1. epiforic

132

2. numeric 3. generic 4. naintea unui nume predicativ a) cu substantive nenumrabile (generic) b) cu substantive numrabile la plural (generic)

Give me a pencil, a notebook and a rubber, please. A horse is a useful animal. He is a doctor. He likes milk/skiing. We go on long walks in the evening. Mary Brown, President Kennedy, Daddy; on Monday, in France, Oxford Street It often snows in winter. Go to bed! I go to school by bus. See you at noon They elected him President.

Articolul zero

c) cu nume proprii

d) n expresii idiomatice e) cu elememntul predicativ suplimentar

3.6. Omisiunea articolului (The Elypsis of the Article)

Exist unele situaii n care articolul hotrt sau nehotrt este omis. Aceste cazuri se deosebesc de cele n care se folosete articolul zero, deoarece omiterea articolului nu produce modificri de sens ci are doar o valoare stilistic. Comparai: a) I like honey. mi place mierea. (articolul zero = funcia generic) I like the honey they sell here. mi place mierea care se vinde aici. (articolul hotrt the = referin definit). b) Take the honey to the children at the corner table ! Du mierea copiilor de la masa din col! Takes honey to children at corner table. Duce mierea copiilor de la masa din col. (indicaii scenice). Articolul se omite n urmtoarele situaii: a) n vorbirea familiar: (Its a) Pity they wont be there. Pcat c nu vor fi i ei acolo. (Is the) Car still not working? Tot nu merge maina? (A) Friend of mine told me about it. Un prieten de-al meu mi-a spus despre asta. b) n limbajul jurnalistice: Employees have to obey safety regulations. Angajaii trebuie s respecte regulile de protecie a muncii.

133

c) n indicaii scenice: (The) Old woman goes to (the) settee (on the) right. Btrna se ndreapt spre canapeaua din dreapta (scenei).

Ali determinani (Other Determiners)

3.7. Adjectivul demonstrativ (The Demonstrative Adjective)
n afar de articol, mai pot funciona ca determinani ai substantivului: adjectivul demonstrativ, posesiv, interogativ i nehotrt. Demonstrativul this/that, these/those este folosit ca determinant cnd nsoete un substantiv: This book is more interesting than that one. El poate fi ns folosit i ca pronume: Whats this? Those are better than these. 3.7.1. Definiie. Determinantul demonstrativ, n terminologie tradiional adjectivul demonstrativ, determin un substantiv, indicnd n principal apropierea sau deprtarea de vorbitor. Adjectivul demonstrativ n limba englez are categoria gramatical de numr i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de atribut. 3.7.2. Form. n limba englez, adjectivul demonstrativ are forme deosebite dup numr, dar nu dup gen, ca n limba romn: this girl - these girls; aceast fat aceste fete. 3.7.3. ntrebuinare. Funciile demonstrativului this/that, these/those sunt: a) funcia deictic, de a indica orientarea n spaiu sau n timp ntr-un context situaional: These children, right here, are quieter than those. This/these sunt folosite pentru a arta c obiectele se gsesc n apropierea vorbitorului: This is my desk. These boys are my brothers. That.Those sunt ntrebuinate pentru a indica obiecte aflate la o mai mare deprtare de vorbitor: My fathers picture is on that wall. What are those children doing? That este utilizat pentru un obiect aflat la deprtare de vorbitor, mai ales cnd acesta este n contrast cu alt obiect, apropiat vorbitorului, care este identificat prin this: This is my seat ant that is yours. I like these pictures much better than those. Cnd se refer la timp, demonstrativele this, these sunt corelate cu prezentul, iar that, those cu trecutul sau viitorul: She has been very busy these days. That storm destroyed everything last year. b) funcia anaforic, de referire la un obiect menionat anterior: I saw our English teacher in his new car. This car is really something. c) funcia cataforic, de referire la un obiect asupra cruia se fac precizri ulterioare: These little children are very pretty.

134

d) funcia emoional, de scoatere n eviden a substantivului determinat: This Tom Brook is always playing the piano at night. Locked that door? FUNCIILE DEMONSTRATIVULUI

Funcia
1. Deictic (context situaional) a) apropiere; b) deprtare; 2. Anaforic (context lingvistic) 3. Cataforic 4. Emoional

Numr Singular Plural

This book over here. That book over there.

These books over here. Those books over there.

Look at Marys dress! This dress is really something. Those old women are are always gossiping. This neighbour of mine is always loosing his key. Seen that film?

3.8. Adjectivul posesiv (The Posesive Adjective)

3.8.1. Definiie. Determinantul posesiv, n terminologie tradiional adjectivul posesiv, nlocuiete posesorul i determin numele obiectului posedat: Peters stamp collection is very valuable. His stamp collection is very valuable. Adjectivul posesiv se acord n gen i numr cu numele obiectului posedat: Her book - cartea ei; His bike - bicicleta lui; Their toys - jucriile lor. n propoziie, adjectivul posesiv ndeplinete funcia de atribut: My books are here on the table. 3.8.2. Form. Adjectivul posesiv n limba englez are forme difereniate dup persoan, numr i gen:

Persoan
I II III my your his her its

Numr Singular
our your their

Plural

Gen

masculin feminin neutru

La persoana a II-a singular i plural, adjectivul posesiv are aceeai form: Look, there is a fly in your soup. Privete, e o musc n supa ta.

135

Genul este marcat doar la persoana a III-a singular: - his se refer la substantive nume de persoan de sex brbtesc: Johns car is new. The mans car is new. His car is new. iar her se refer la substantive nume de persoan de sex feminin: Marys umbrella is old. The womans umbrella is old. Her umbrella is old. Its se refer la substantive animate (nume de animale) i inanimate (nume de obiecte): The cats tail is long. Its tail is long. The door of the room is open. Its door is open. 3.8.3. ntrebuinare. Adjectivul posesiv este folosit ca determinant al substantivului, nlocuind numele posesorului i determinnd numele obiectului posedat: Johns eyes are blue. His eyes are blue. Spre deosebire de demonstrativele this/that, these/those, care pot fi folosite att ca determinani (this book) ct i ca pronume (I want this) formele my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their nu pot fi folosite dect ca determinani: is this your brother? Formele posesive pronominale n limba englez sunt diferite de cele adjectivale: COMPARAI:

Adjectiv posesiv
This is my book. That is your book. That is her/his/its food. This is our classroom. That is their classroom.

Pronume posesiv
This book is mine. That book is yours. That food is hers/his. This classroom is ours. That classroom is theirs.

Atenie! O situaie particular n limba englez, o prezint substantivele denumind pri ale corpului (hand, head, bodz, leg) i articolele de mbracaminte (coat, umbrella, hat, shoes) care sunt ntotdeauna precedate de adjectivul posesiv n limba englez, spre deosebire de limba romn, unde el este de obicei omis. He has a hat on his head. Are o plrie pe cap. Lend me your umbralla, will you? mprumut-mi te rog umbrela (ta).

136

3.9. Adjectivul interogativ (The Interrogative Adjective)

3.9.1. Definiie. Determinantul interogativ, n terminologia tradiional adjectivul interogativ, determin numele obiectului asupra cruia se cer informaii: What English books have you read lately? Adjectivul interogativ are categoria gramatical de caz: (G: whose) i poate ndeplini funcia sintactic de atribut: What joke did he tell you? sau de marc, introducnd propoziii subordonate: I asked him what English books he had read lately. 3.9.2. Form. Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme flexionare pentru caz, iar which i what sunt invariabile.

Caz
Nominativ Genitiv Dativ who whose

who

Pronume what
what what what which which which

which

to whom (form literar) who ... to (vorbire curent) whom (form literar) who (vorbire curent)

Acuzativ

what

which

3.9.3. ntrebuinare. Adjectivul interogativ este folosit ca determinant pe lng numele obiectului asupra cruia se cer informaii: What film did you see last

night?

Which este selectiv: Which dress does she want? Whose se folosete att cu nume de persoane ct i cu nume de animale i obiecte: Whose pen did you borrow? Whose walls did they paint? How much se refera la cantitate si se foloseste cu substantive nenumarabile concrete: How much money did you spend? How much rice did you buy? How many se folosete cu substantive nenumrabile: I dont know how many exercises he wrote.
Unele interogative se folosesc i ca adjective i ca pronume: Which book is more important? Which of these is more important? What (joke) did he tell you? Whose (book) is this? Alte interogative se folosesc numai ca pronume: Who came first? To whom

today?

What privete obiectul respectiv fr referire la alte obiecte: What day is

did you write the letter?

137

3.10. Adjectivul nehotrt (The Indefinite Adjective)

3.10.1. Definiie. Determinantul nehotrt, n terminologie tradiional adjectivul nehotrt, determin substantivul ntr-un mod global (all the books, every pupil) sau parial (each pupil, either side). 3.10.2. Form. Adjectivul nehotrt este invariabil ca form i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de atribut: Each pupil must do his homework. 3.10.3. ntrebuinare. Some. Adjectivul nehotrt some = ceva, nite, puin, unii, unele, civa, cteva, vreun, vreo, se ntrebuineaz n propoziii afirmative i indic existena unui numr restrns de lucruri, fiine, a unei cantiti restrnse. Este folosit cu substantive numrabile la plural i cu substantive nenumrabile la singular: There are some books on his desk. She bought some cheese. Some poate fi folosit n proproziii interogative n urmtoarele cazuri: a) n propoziii n care se ofer un lucru: Will you have some cake? b) cnd ntrebarea nu se refer la some: Did she ask father to give me some money? Any. Any = vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici o, nici una, se ntebuineaz: a) n propoziii afirmative cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any pupil in your form

could in the question. bytter in the fridge.

b) n propoziii interogative i negative: Did you meet any? There isnt any

Adjectivele nehotrte each, every, either prezint deosebiri de sens: Every. Every se refer la membrii unui grup fr a-i individualiza: Every word of it is true. Fiecare cuvnt este adevrat. The children engaged his every thought. Toate gndurile lui erau la copil. Every este folosit i cu substantive denumind uniti de timp sau distan pentru a indica caracterul repetat: every other day - din dou n dou zile every three days - din trei n trei zile every now and then - din cnd n cnd every other mile - din dou n dou mile Every este folosit doar ca determinant. mpreun cu -body, -one, -thing, where formeaz pronume i adverbe nehotrte: everybody, everyone, everything i

Each. Each se refer la membrii unui grup luai individual: Each pupil must bring some scrap iron to school. Fiecare copil (n parte) trebuie s aduc fier vechi la coal. Each poate fi folosit i ca pronume: He talked with each of us. How much are these peaches? Five pens each. i cu referire la dou persoane: Each of these (two) children is right. Either. Either = fiecare (din doi): There is no light at either end of the street. Nu este lumin la nici unul din capetele strzii. Either poate fi folosit att ca determinant, ct i ca pronume nehotrt.

everywhere.

138

aversiunea cititorului pentru amndou.

Either este folosit curent cu substantivul side: There are trees on either side of the road. Sunt copaci pe ambele pri ale drumului. n acest context, either este apropiat ca sens de both, diferena fiind urmtoarea: both = amndoi (mpreun); either = fiecare din doi (separat). Whatever was ridiculous in either character increased the aversion the reader had for both. Tot ceea ce era ridicol n fiecare dintre cele dou personaje mrea

3.10.4. Adjectivul negativ (The Negative Adjective). Adjectivele negative sunt adjective nehotrte folosite n propoziii cu sens negativ i verbul la forma afirmativ. Ele sunt o subdiviziune a adjectivelor nehotrte, care indic absena obiectelor sau a calitilor acestora: No = nici un(ul), nici una (din mai multe). No letter = nici o scrisoare. He has made no mistakes. Nu a fcut nici o greeal. Neither = nici unul din, nici un (din doi): I asked him two questions but he answered neither of them. Neither poate fi folosit ca determinant sau ca pronume: Neither solution is acceptable. Neither (of these solutions) is acceptable. No este folosit numai ca determinant, cu sensul de not any sau not a: There are no letters today. There arent any letters today. He was no fool. He was not a fool. Forma no este preferat lui not any/not a n vorbirea curent. Grupul nominal
Predeterminani
Both All Double one third

Determinani (propriu-zii)
my the the the

Postdeterminani Ordinale Cuantificatori

Adjectiv
new

Substantiv
Children Pupils Pages Amount

first

three a lot of Romanian

Students Time Chapters

the the next four

EXERCIII:
I. Formulai propoziii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa funcia anaforic a articolului hotrt. Exemplu: a) I have a letter and a postcard. (from my family). The letter is from my family.

139

1. He has a motorbike and a bicycle. (in the car-park). 2. She has a tent and a sleeping bag. (in the car). 3. I have a camera and some films. (in my bag). 4. Auntie has some bags and some parcels. (at the station).

The notebooks are on the table.

b) She has some notebooks and textbook. (on the table).

II. Formulai propoziii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa funcia cataforic a articolului hotrt cu substantive nenumrabile i substantive numrabile la plural: Exemplu: a) History can be interesting (of Romania). The history of Romania is interesting. b) Some coins are valuable. (he has) The coins he has are valuable. 1. Music may be beautiful. (composed by George Enescu). 2. Some roads are dangerous. (in the mountains). 3. Stamps may be valuable. (in my collection). 4. Some films are interesting. (about animals). 5. Poems can be beautiful (he has written). 6. Some children are intelligent (I know). 7. Honey is delicios (I bought yesterday) 8. Wine can be vrey good (made in Romania). 9. Vegetable are usually fresh (they sell here). 10. Architecure may be impresive (of Bran Castle).

III. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la plural, pentru a exersa funcia generic a articolului zero. Exemplu: The horse is a useful animal. Horses are useful animals. 1. The tiger is a wild animal. 2. The fly is an insect. 3. A chair is a piece of furniture. 4. A child likes sweets. 5. The elephant is a strong animal. 6. A fish can swim. 7. A city is a big town. 8. A tulip is a beautiful flower. IV. Completai spaiile libere cu articole, acolo unde este cazul: 1. Peter Hill, who is..... Professor of History at..... University of Chicago, signed...... article. 2. They generally have...... breakfast at 8 oclock. 3. It is not visible at ........ night. 4. ...... beauty is skin deep. 5. ... milk she bought was sour. 6. ... Romania lies in... east of ... Europe. 7. He translated the book from ... English into ... Romanian. 8. Is ... German language difficult to learn? 9. ....Washington DC is ... capital of ... United States of America. 10. Open ... book at ... page ten and read ... question. 11. ... foxes are not ... domestic animals. 12. She goes to school in ... morning. 13. Is your father ... worker. 14. ... dog is ... domestic animal. 15. .... Mississippi is ... largest river in ... North America. 16. Do you know where ... Lido hotel is? 17. It takes me ... hour to get to Ploieti. 18. How many times ... week do you have Physics? 19. Do you like ... music? 20. Yes and I can play both ... piano and ... violin. 21. Byron ... English poet, was ... important representative of ... Rommanticism.

R: 1. -, the, the. 2. -. 3. -. 4. -. 5. the. 6. , the, -. 7. -, - 8. the. 9. -, the, the. 10. the, -, -. 11. - , -. 12. the. 13. a. 14. a/the, a. 15. the, the, -. 16. the. 17. an. 18. a. 19. -. 20. the, the. 21. a, an, -.

140

sau zero dup cum este cazul: 1. What kind of state is Romania? 2. Where does Romania lie? 3. What states does Romania border on? 4. What states does ROmania border on? 5. What is Bucharest? 6. What is Romania's population? 7. How many people live in Bucharest? 8. How many counties is Romania divided into? 9. Which is the longest river in Romania? 10. Which is the highest mountain in Romania? 11. What sea is ROmania bordered by to the south-east? 12. What lake or river is near your town/village? 13. What is the name of the most important mountain range in Romania? 14. What are the Carpatians divided into? 15. Where does the Transilvanian Tableland lie? 16. Where is the Danube Plain? 17. What town/villagedo you live in? 18. What street do you live in? 19. What important buildings are there in your town/village?

V. Rspundei la urmtoarele ntrebri folosdind articolul hotrt, nehotrt

articolul hotrt, nehotrt sau yero, dup cum este necesar: 1. Who are the ancestors of the Romanians? 2. Who was the most important Dacian king? 3. When did Dacia become a Roman province? 4. Which were the most important princes in medieval Romania? 5. What do we celebrate on January 24th? 6. When did Romania win its independence from the Turks? 7.When did capitalism begin to develop in Romania? 8. When did Romania enter the First World War? 9. When was the Romanian Communist Party set up? 10. What can you say about Romania`s participation in the Second World War?

VI. Rspundei la urmtoarele ntrebri despre istoria Romniei, folosind

A. 1. Ce zi frumoas! 2. O duzin de ace cost un penny. 3. Trebuie s vorbeti cu voce mai tare. 4. Ai venit cu autobuzul? 5. De cte ori pe sptmn ai fizica? 6. Dunrea traverseaz mai multe ri europene. 7. Copiilor le plac foarte mult jocurile. B. 1. La papetrie se vnd stilouri, creioane, gume, paste de lipit i cerneal. 2. Unde este stiloul pe care l-am cumprat ieri? 3. mi place muzica simfonic. 4. mi place muzica compus pentru pian. 5. La coal studiem istoria poporului romn. 6. Studiem de asemenea istoria universal. 7. n Canada sunt dou limbi oficiale: engleza i franceza. C. 1. Unde sunt ai ti? Bunicul e n pat, bunica e n buctrie, mama e la coal i tata e la serviciu. 2. De obicei merg acas cu autobuzul, dar uneori merg cu tramvaiul. 3. Niciodat nu pot s dorm n main sau n tren. 4. Mama se trezete deseori noaptea s-i dea de mncare copilului.

VII. Traducei n limba englez:

R: A. 1. What a beautiful day! 2. A dozen needles costs a penny. 3. You must speak in a louder voice. 4. Did you come by bus? 5. How many times a week do you have Physics? 6. The Danube crosses several European countries. 7. Children like games very much. B. 1. Pens, pencils, rubbers, glue and ink are on sale at the stationer's. 2. Where is the pen I bought yesterday? 3. I like symphonic music. 4. I like the music composed/ written for the piano. 5. We study the history of the Romanian people at school. 6. We also study world history. 7. In Canada there are two official languages: English and French. C. 1. Where are your people? Grandpa is in bed, grandma is in the kitchen, mother is at school and father is at work. 2. I generally go home by bus, but sometimes I go by tram. 3. I can never sleep in the/a car or on the/a train. 4. Mother often wakes up in the night to feed the baby.

141

VIII. nlocuii substantivele la genitiv cu adjectivele posesive corespunztoare: Exemplu: The man`s hair is white. His hair is white. 1. The boy`s shoes are dirty. 2. The women`s hat is pretty. 3. The women`s hats are pretty. 4. Where is the bird`s nest? 5. The girl`s dress is new. 6. The man`s eyes are blue. 7. The pupils` books are on the desks. IX. Rspundei la ntrebri conform modelului:

1. A: Which answer is right (wrong)? B: This one is. That one`s wrong. 2. A: Which lessons are easy (difficult)? B: These are. Those are difficult. 1. Which schoolbag is heavy? (light) 2. Which papers are important? (unimportant) 3. Which eggs are fresh? (bad) 4. Which glass is clean? (dirty) 5. Which story is interesting? (boring) 6. Which dress is new? (old) 7. Which apples are good? (bad)

1. ..... of the three lectures has a definite subject. 2. It is impossible to predict the issue with these two candidates: ... candidate may win. 3. ... few weeks she saw something new to buy. 4. I`ll be back in a minute, my dear aunt and uncle; he said nodded coolly to ... . 5. They were all men of ability, ... in his own way. 6. ... quest had a separate room. 7. O go to work ... day. 8. This must be decided by the individual judgement of ... reader.
R: 1. each 2. either 3. every 4. either 5. each 6. each 7. every 8. each

X. Completai spaiile libere cu every, each sau either:

- De ce dorm oamenii noaptea? - Dar tu cnd dormi Darie? - Tot noaptea. ns, vara mai ales, n-a dormi deloc. - Dar ce-ai face? - M-a culca pe iarb. ns cu faa n sus m-a culca. A ine ochii deschii. Dac s-ar putea s nu clipesc, n-a clipi. A privi stelele. i privindu-le, mi-a nchipui c sunt liber.

XI. Traducei n limba englez:

R: - Why do people sleep at night? - But when do you sleep, Darie? - Also at night. But I wouldn't sleep at all, especially in the summertime/in (the) summer. - And what would you do? - I would lie down in the grass. But I would lie down on my back. I'd keep my eyes open. If I could stop blinking, I wouldn't blink at all, I'd look at the stars. And, looking at them, I'd imagine I was free.

142

4. Numeralul (The Numeral)

4.1. Definiie
Numeralul este partea de vorbire care: a) exprim un numr, determinarea numeric a obiectelor (numeralul cardinal) sau ordinea obiectelor prin numrare (numeralul ordinal); b) ndeplinete mai multe funcii sintactice, n funcie de folosirea lui substantival, adjectival sau adverbial; c) nu are categorii gramaticale dect n folosirea substantival (milion millions).

4.2. Clasificare
4.2.1. determinanilor. Conform gramaticii structuraliste, numeralul ntr n clasa

Double, twice, three times etc. la fel ca i fraciile one third, two fifths etc. sunt considerate predeterminani, fiind aezate naintea determinanilor the/this/my n cadrul grupului nominal: double the amount, one third (of) the time. Numeralul cardinal: one, two, three etc. i numeralul ordinal: the first, the second etc. sunt considerate postdeterminani, ele urmnd determinanii the/this/my n cadrul grupului nominal n ordinea numeral ordinal - numeral cardinal: the first three children, the last two persons.
4.2.2. n cadrul gramaticii tradiionale, exist controverse cu privire la numeral, numeralul nefiind o parte de vorbire omogen. Majoritatea gramaticilor tradiionale disting urmtoarele categorii de numerale: numeralul cardinal, numeralul ordinal, numeralul fracionar, numeralul colectiv, numeralul multiplicativ, numeralul distributiv i numeralul adverbial.

4.3. Numeralul cardinal (The Cardinal Numeral)

Numeralul cardinal exprim numrul (one, two, three) sau determinarea numeric a obiectelor (four books, one hundred years). 4.3.1. Forma numeralului cardinal. Numeralele cardinale de la 1 la 12 n limba englez sunt urmtoarele: 1 one 2 two 3 three 4 four 5 five 6 six

143

7 seven 8 eight 9 nine 10 ten 11 eleven 12 twelve Cifra 0 (zero) ocup un loc special n cadrul numeralelor cardinale. Ea se poate citi zero [zi__r _u], oh [__u], nil, nithing sau love. Zero este folosit pentru 0 n matematic i pentru indicarea temperaturii: I is tem degrees below zero. La numerele de telefon, 0 se pronun [__u]: Dial 6070 [siks __u sevn __u] and ask for extension 90 [nain __u]. Nil [nil] sau nothing sunt folosite n exprimarea scorului la footbal: Leeds United won 4.0. (four nil / for to nothing). Love [l_a_v] este folosit n tenis: Nstase leads 30.0 (Thirty - love). Numeralele cardinale ntre 13 i 19 se formeaz cu ajutorul sufixului -teen adugat la numetele 3 - 9: 13 thirteen 14 fourteen 15 fifteen 16 sixteen etc. Numeralele 13 i 15 prezint deosebiri ortografice i de pronunie fa de numeralele 3 i 5 de la care s-au format: 13 thirteen [_ts_ _:ti:n] 15 fifteen [fifti:n] Toate numeralele n -teen au dou accente: eighteen [eiti:n], dar cnd sunt folosite ca adjective pstreaz numai primul accent: seventeen years [sevnti:n j __:z]. Numele zecilor se formeaz de la unitile 2 - 9, la care se adaug sufixul -ty: 20 twenty 30 thirty 40 forty 50 fifty etc. Numeralele 20, 30, 40 i 50 prezint particulariti ortografice i de pronunare fa de numele unitilor de la care s-au format: 2 two - 20 twenty 3 three - 30 thirty 4 four - 40 forty 5 five - 50 fifty Not: Numele zecilor la plural: twenties, thirties, forties, fifties etc., precedate de articolul the sau alt determinant, sunt folosite pentru a exprima o perioad sau vrst: The literature of the thirties. Literatura anilor 30. She was a good-looking woman in her forties. Era o femeie frumoas ntre 40 i 50 de ani.

144

n limba englez, numele zecilor se leag de uniti direct, cu ajutorul unei liniue de unire: 68 sixty-eight 79 seventy-nine Not: n limba englez scris, numeralele scurte se redau de obicei cu litere, iar cele mai lungi cu cifre: I have ten lei in my pocket. There are 250 people in the conference hall. Bucharest has a population of two million inhabitants. Romania has a population of about 22 000 000 people. Numeralele care denumesc sute, mii sau milioane sunt legate prin and de cele care denumesc zeci i uniti: 115 = a/one hundred and fifteen; 3 005 = three thousand and five. ntre clasele unui numr ntreg se pune virgul ca n limba englez i nu punct ca n limba romn: 4,000; 3,140. (Punctul indic zecimale: 3.05). Not: n exprimarea curent, miile se transform n sute: How much money have you got? Sixteen hundret lei (= 1 600) Cnd sunt folosite la singular, numeralele hundred, thousand i million sunt ntotdeauna precedate de articolul nehotrt sau de un numeral: 100 one/a hundred books, 141 a hundred an forty-one; 1 200 a thousand and two hundred. Cnd sunt precedate de numrul unitilor i acesta este mai mare dect 1, numeralele hundred i thousand nu primesc s la plural: 300 three hundred; 5 000 five thousand. Atenie! Aceste numerale primesc terminaia s cnd sunt folosite: a) ca substantive: Thousands have read this book. b) cnd sunt urmate de prepoziia of: The number of young people studying in our school amounts to hundred of thounsands. 4.3.2. ntrebuinarea numeralului cardinal. n limba englez, numeralul cardinal este folosit: a) pentru exprimarea numelor numerelor abstracte: one, two, three, four etc. sau a determinrii numerice a obiectelor: thre apples, one hundred pupils. b) pentru exprimarea datei (anilor). Anii se citesc: 1980 - one thousand nine hundred and eight sau nineteen hundred and eighty - n stilul oficial; 1980 - nineteen eighty - n engleza vorbit. c) pentru indicarea numrului unui anumit obiect (pagin, lecie, capitol, cas, autobuz): Lesson 10, Chapter 3, Flat 11, bus no. 31 etc. d) n exprimarea timpului cronologic. n acest caz, propoziia ncepe de obicei cu pronumele it: It is two oclock. It is five oclock sharp. Este ora cinci fix. Oclock se folosete numai cu ora fix i se poate omite: Whats the time? Five. Pentru a indica fraciunile de ore pn la i jumtate se menioneaz numrul minutelor urmat de prepoziia past i de ora respectiv: It is ten (minutes) past nine. Este (ora) 9 i 10 (minute).

145

Fraciunile ntre jumtate i ora urmtoare se redau n limba englez spunnd numrul minutelor, prepoziia to i apoi ora: It is twenty (minutes) to six. Este ase fr 20 (de minute). It is a quarter to eight. Este opt fr un sfert. It is five to eleven. Este 11 fr cinci. 3. n engleza american se folosesc i prepoziiile after i before n loc de past i to: 8: 10 It is ten (minutes) after 8.8:40 It is twenty (minutes) before 9. iar pentru i jumtate se menioneaz ora i thirty: 8:30 Its eight thirty. e) pentru a indica un numr de telefon Numerele de telefon se citesc cifr cu cifr: 597216 = five nine seven two one six. Dac primele sau ultimele dou cifre sunt la fel, se folosete cuvntul double: 2238 - double two three eight. Nu se folosete cuvntul double dac cifrele din mijloc sunt aceleai: 3002 three oh oh one. f) n exprimarea operaiilor artimetice n acest caz verbul poate fi folosit la singular sau plural: 2 + 5 = 7 Two plus five is/are seven. 7 - 3 = 4 Seven minus three makes/make four. g) pentru exprimarea vrstei: How old are you? Ci ani ai? I am ten years old. Am zece ani.

4.4. Numeralul ordinal (The Ordinal Numeral)

Numeral ordinal indic ordinea n timp sau n spaiu a obiectelor sau a aciunilor: He was the first to come. The second house roud the corner is mine. 4.4.1. Forma numeralului ordinal. Numeralele ordinale sunt alctuite din urmtoarele elemente: numeralul cardinal, care poate fi considerat radicalul, articolul hotrt the, care precede radicalul, i sufixul -th, care se adaug la radical: 4 - four the fouth; 7 - seven - the seventh. Numeralele ordinale de la 1 la 3 au forme care se abat parial de la aceast regul; the first, the second, the third. Cteva numerale ordinale prezint dificulti ortografice. 5 - the fifth 8 - the eighth 9 - the ninth etc. La numeralele compuse, numai ultimul numr primete -th: 27 - the twentyseventh; 236 - the two hundred and thirty-sixth. Numeralele ordinale cuprinznd cuvintele hundred, thousand, million pot fi precedate numai de one, nu i de a, iar articolul hotrt poate fi omis: the one hundred and thirty-second. Abrevierea numeralelor ordinale se face prin adugarea ultimelor dou litere la cifr: 1st; 2nd; 3rd; 4th; 21st etc.

146

1 the first 2 the second 3 the third 4 the fourth 5 the fifth 6 the sixth 7 the seventh 8 the eighth 9 the ninth 10 the tenth 11 the eleventh 12 the twelfth 13 the thirteenth 14 the fourteenth

the 1st the 2nd the 3rd the 4th the 5th the 6th the 7th the 8th the 9th the 10th the 11th the 12th the 13th the 14th

15 the fifteenth 16 the sixteenth 17 the seventeenth 18 the eighteenth 19 the nineteenth 20 the twentieth 21 the twenty-first 30 the thirtieth 31 the thirty-first 32 the thirty-second 40 the fortieth 100 the hundreth 101 the hundred and first 1000 the one thousandth

the 15th the 16th the 17th the 18th the 19th the 20th the 21st the 30th the 31st the 32nd the 40th the 100th the 101st the 1000th

4.4.2. ntrebuinarea numeralului ordinal. n limba englez, numeralul ordinal este folosit: a) la exprimarea datei: April 25th, the 25th of April. n exprimarea datei, numeralul ordinal poate fi aezat nainte sau dup numele lunii. Dac numeralul ordinal precede denumirea lunii, acesta este urmat de of: I was born on the 28th of April 1965.Dac numeralul ordinal este aezat dup denumirea lunii, of este omis: Ann was born on April (the) 28th. n engleza american ordinea este luna - data - anul.: 05.02.1981 - May the 2nd1981. b) pentru a indica ordinea ntr-o serie: the Second World Was the third act the tenth floor c) pentru a exprima repetarea la intervale regulate: every second day = don dou n dou zile/la fiecare dou zile; every third month = din 3 n 3 luni, o dat la 3 luni. n aceste expresii articolul the este omis.

4.5. Numeralul fracionar (The Fractional Numeral)

Numeralul fracionar arat una sau mai multe pri ale ntregului: one, third, three tenths. 4.5.1. Forma numeralului fracionar. Numeralele fracionare sunt redate sub forma unor fracii. Numrul fraciei este exprimat printr-un numeral cardinal, iar numitorul printr-un numeral ordinal: 1/2 = a/one half = o jumtate, o doime; 1/3/ = a/one third = o treime. Numitorul se citete la plural cnd numrtorul exprim o unitate mai mare de 1: 2/3 two-thirds; 3/4 three quarters/three-fourts. Substantivul determinat de o fracie ordinar este la singular: 1/2 hour = half an hour; 3/4 ton = three quarters ton.

147

Substantivul determinat de numeralul 1 (one) mpreun cu o fracie ordinar este folosit la plural n scris, dar se citete la singular dup ntreg i la plural dup fracie: 1 3/4 miles - one mile and three quarters sau one and three quarter miles. Substantivul determinat de un numeral mai mare dect 1, mpreun cu o fracie ordinar, se afl ntotdeauna la plural: 4 1/2 tons = four and one half tons sau four and a half tons. n cazul fraciilor zecimale, ntregul se desparte de zecimale printr-un punct: 3.25 = three point two five. Numeralele nainte de punct se citesc ca un singur numr, iar cele care urmeaz punctului, cifr cu cifr: 18.75 = eighteen point seven five. n cazul fraciilor zecimale, zero se citete nought n Anglia i zero n SUA: 1.05 = one point nought five (n pronunarea britanic); 1.05 = one point zero five (n pronunarea american). Substantivul determinat de o fracie zecimal se afl la singular cnd partea ntreag este zero i la plural n toate celelalte cazuri: 0.75 metre = nought point seven five of a metre; 4.25 metres = four point two five metres.

4.6. Numeralul colectiv (The Collective Numeral)

Numeralul colectiv arat c obiectele sunt considerate n grup i nu izolat. 4.6.1. Forma numeralului colectiv. Numeralele colective sunt: couple, pair, team, dozen, score, yoke. Numeralele couple, pair, team, yoke numesc grupe de doi: a couple of seconds = dou secunde; a pair of shoes = o pereche de pantofi; two team of cattle = dou perechi de vite; four yoke of oxen = patru perechi de boi; two pair(s) of horses = dou perechi de cai. Numeralele dozen, score numesc grupe mai mari de doi: dozen = duzin two dozen eggs; score = 20; half a score = 10; a score of people = douzeci de oameni. 4.6.2. ntrebuinarea numeralului colectiv. Majoritatea numeralelor colective sunt folosite ca substantive: I bought a new pair of shoes yesterday. Numeralele colective se folosesc la singular cnd sunt precedate de un numeral cardinal sau nehotrt: two dozen of eggs, several pair(s) of shoes. Cnd numeralele colective nu sunt precedate de un numeral, indiferent dac stau singure sau sunt urmate de prepoziia of, ele se folosesc la plural: The pupils entered the classroom in couples. I have asked him about it dozens of times.

4.7. Numeralul multiplicativ (The Multiplicative Numeral)

Numeralul multiplicativ arat msura n care crete o cantitate (double the amount) sau o aciune (Agricultural output has increased five times). 4.7.1. Forma numeralului multiplicativ. Numeralul multiplicativ are forme diferite, n funcie de stilul familiar, tehnic, oficial etc. n care el este folosit.

148

n vorbirea curent, numeralele multiplicative de la 1 la 3 au urmtoarele forme: once - odat; twice - de dou ori; thrice - de trei ori. (Forma thrice este nvechit). De la numrul 4 n continuare, numeralele multiplicative conin n structura lor un numeral cardinal urmat de substantivul times (ori, di): four times, five times, six times etc. Forma cu times este folosit i n locul lui thrice: three times. n stilul literar, tehnic sau oficial, se folosete numeralul multiplicativ format din numeralul cardinal i sufixul -fold: twofold, threefold, a hundredfold: a threefold quantity = o cantitate tripl. Pentru unitatea 1, forma numeralului multiplicativ este single, iar pentru 2 se folosete le lng twofold i forma double. 4.7.2. ntrebuinarea numeralului multiplicativ. Numeralul multiplicativ se folosete ca predeterminant: double the amount. sau ca adverb: The rate of industrial development has risen three times. Ritmul dezvoltrii industriale a crescut de trei ori.

4.8. Numeralul distributiv (The Distributive Numeral)

Numeralul distributiv exprim gruparea numeric a obiectelor. Observai cteva modaliti de a exprima aceeai idee: two at a time; two by two; by twos; two and two; in tows (in pairs): The pupils left the classroom two by two/in twos. Elevii au prsit clasa cte doi. He ran down three steps at time. A cobort scrile cte trei odat.

4.9. Numeralul adverbial (The Adverbial Numeral)

Numeralul adverbial arat: a) de cte ori are loc o aciune: once, twice, three times (thrice); ten times, a hundred times; bis; once more; once again; twice as fast etc. They have English twice a week. Au engleza de dou ori pe sptmn. I told you a hundred times not to lie to me. i-am spus de o sut de ori s nu m mini.

EXERCIII:
a) cifre: 195;248;352;2934;6855. b) ani: 1821; 1848; 1453; 1066; 1918 c) ore: 11.5; 12.10; 1.30; 2.45; 3.25. d) numere de telefon: 91.95.61; 47.18.03; 66.16.44; 39.88.51. e) numerale ordinale i fracionare: 3 rd; 8th; 20th; 37th; 40th; 59th;

I. Citii n limba englez urmtoarele:

II. Scriei urmtoarele date:

20.X.1949; 10.II.1958; 1.V.1953; 23.VIII.1944

149

R: 1. The 24th of January and the 1rd of December are national days of our people. 2. Open the book at page 48 and read chapter 15 again. 3. I live at no. 49, Spiru Haret street. 4. How old are you? I am 12. (years old). 5. At half past two Ill get on bus no. 331 and go to visit the exhibition. 6. How much is a pair of shoes? 7. I've bought butter, a dozen of eggs and a kilo of flour. 8. We have the long break between ten minutes to ten and ten past ten. 9. I have been waiting for you for more than half an hour. 10. I dialled double five, seven, nine, two, four, and then I waited. 11. I think they left by the 6.30 train.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

III. Traducei n limba englez:

24 Ianuarie i 1 Decembrie sunt srbtori naionale ale poporului nostru. Deschidei cartea la pagina 48 i citii capitolul 15 nc o dat. Locuiesc pe strada Spiru Haret nr. 40. Ci ani ai? Am 12 ani. La ora dou i jumtate iau autobuzul 331 i m duc s vizitez expoziia. Ct cost o pereche de pantofi? Am cumprat unt, o duzin de ou i 1 kg de fin. ntre zece fr zece i zece i zece avem pauza mare. Te atept de mai mult de o jumtate de or. Am format 55.79.79.25 i apoi am ateptat. Cred c a plecat cu trenul de 6.30.

150

5. Pronumele (The Pronoun)

5.1. Definiie. Pronumele:
a) reprezint o clas eterogen, unele pronume pot nlocui substantive n comunicare The man is here; He is here; alte pronume desemneaz direct vorbitorul i asculttorul (I, you) sau desemneaz global sau parial obiecte sau fenomene (all, each); b) are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz; c) ndeplinete funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut apoziie, complement.

5.2. Rolul de substitut al pronumelui

n gramatica tradiional, pronumele este partea de vorbire care ine locul unui substantiv sau grup nominal: John is a student. He is a student. Peter and Mary are students. Those young people are students. They are students. Pronumele reprezint ns o clas eterogen. Unele pronume constituie un sustitut al substantivului (he, she, it, they), altele desemneaz direct vorbitorul i interlocutorul (I, you); iar pronume ca all, every, each desemneaz global sau parial obiecte i fenomene. n gramatica structuralist, se folosete termenul de substitut pentru cuvintele care pot aprea n locul n care apar substantivele sau termenul de pro-form pentru toate acele cuvinte care nlocuiesc alte pri de vorbire.

5.3. Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui

Unele pronume au categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz. Categoria de persoan este specific pronumelui i verbului: persoana I, a IIa, a III-a: I am/You are/He is. Categoriile de gen, numr i caz se ntlnesc i la substantiv, dar la pronume ele prezint anumite particulariti. Spre deosebire de substantiv, pronumele are: a) genul marcat doar la persoana a III-a singular: masculin/feminin/neutru:

he/she/it.

b) numrul marcat prin supletivism (cuvinte diferite): I/we, he/they. c) contrastul ntre cazul nominativ i acuzativ/dativ: I/me, he/him, who/whom.

Persoana i numrul. Pronumele personale, reflexive i posesive au forme distincte pentru persoan i numr:

151

singular: I plural: we Persoana a II-a singular: you plural: you Persoana a III-a singular: he Persoana I

she it plural: they

myself ourselves yourself yourselves himself herself itself themself

mine ours yours yours his hers theirs

Genul. Pronumele personale, reflexive i posesive sunt marcate formal pentru gen la persoana a III-a singular: Masculin: He/him himself his Feminin: she/her herself hers Neutru: it itself La pronumele relative exist o distincie ntre pronumele pentru nume de persoana (who, whom) i pentru nume de obiecte sau animale (which). Cazul. Substantivele i majoritatea pronumelor n limba englez au dou cazuri marcate formal: cazul comun (nominativ, acuzativ/dativ) i cazul genitiv: Cazul comun: The postman is at the door. Somebody is at the door. I can see the postman at the door. I can see somebody at the door. Cazul genitiv: The postmans bag Somebodys bag Pronumele personal i pronumele who au trei cazuri marcate formal: nominativul, dativ/acuzativ i genitivul: Nominativ: I we he she they who Dativ/acuzativ: me us him her them who(m) Genitiv: my our his her their whose Conform tradiiei gramaticale, pronumele personal la cazul genitiv este cunoscut sub numele de adjectiv posesiv.

5.4. Clasificarea pronumelui

Pronumele formeaz o clas eterogen, deoarece nu toate pronumele au forme flexionare pentru aceleai categorii gramaticale. Pronumele personale, reflexive i posesive sunt considerate centrale clasei de pronume, ele avnd forme distincte pentru persoan, gen, numr i caz. Clasificarea pronumelor: Pronumele centrale - personal - reflexiv - posesiv Pronumele relativ Pronumele interogativ Pronumele demonstrativ

152

Pronumele nehotrt pozitiv

universal

afirmativ

neafirmativ negativ

-many, much -few, little -several, enough -one -seria some -seria any -either -seria no -neither

-seria every

-all

-each

De regul pronumele nlocuiesc substantivele. Uneori ele ns determin substantivele. Cnd pronumele nlocuiete un substantiv, se vorbete de valoarea substantival (sau pronominal) a pronumelui, iar cnd acesta determin un substantiv, se vorbete despre valoarea determinant (sau adjectival) a pronumelui. Din punct de vedere al valorii substantivale sau de determinant, pronumele n limba englez pot avea: a) numai valoare substantival: I, you, he; mine, yours; somebody, something etc. b) numai valoare de determinant: every, my, no, etc. c) valoare substantival i de determinant: this/that, these/those, some/any etc. Valoarea substantival i cea determinativ consiioneaz funciile sintactice ale pronumelui. pronumele folosite ca determinani nu pot ndeplini dect funcia sintactic de atribut: My book is new. This book is new. Every book is new. pe cnd pronumele folosite cu valoare substantival (pronumele propriu-zise) pot ndeplini diverse funcii sintactice: subiect: I am a member of the committee. nume predicativ: He is always himself. complement indirect: Show me your stamp collection, please. complement direct: he taught us a lesson. complement prepoziional: He will talk about himself. etc. Pronumele relative i interogative ndeplinesc i funcia de marc a unor raporturi sintactice, introducnd propoziii secundare n fraz: The man who is speaking is our teacher. I wondered what he meant.

5.5. Funciile sintactice ale pronumelor

153

Pronumele personal desemneaz persoanele ce pot aprea ntr-un dialog (vorbitorul, interlocutorul) sau nlocuiete obiectul despre care se vorbete, are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i poate ndeplini funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie i complement. Pronumele personal are forme supletive pentru categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz. Aceste categorii gramaticale nu apar ns la toate formele pronumelui personal. 5.6.1. Categoria persoanei la pronumele personal. n limba englez pronumele i verbul sunt singurele pri de vorbire care au categoria gramatical a persoanei: I am a teacher. Eu sunt profesor. He is a chemist. El este chimist. Deoarece verbul este marcat de regul pentru persoan numai la persoana a III-a singular, pronumele rmne singurul indicator al celorlalte persoane. De aceea pronumele personal este de obicei menionat la comunicare n limba englez, spre deosebire de limba romn: I speak English. (Eu) vorbesc englezete. Not: n limba englez, pronumele I se scrie ntotdeauna cu liter mare: He speaks English better than I do. Conform definiiei tradiionale, persoana I desemneaz persoana care vorbete, persoana a II-a , persoana cu care se vorbete, iar persona a III-a indic pe cel despre care se vorbete. Not: Aceast definiie este incomplet. Pronumele I desemneaz pe cel care vorbete i care face actul de vorbire posibil. Pronumele de persoana a II-a you este persoana care recepteaz discursul. Pronumele de persoana a III-a he/they reprezint membrul nemarcat al corelaiei. Acest pronume nu face posibil nceperea actului de vorbire, ci desfurarea lui logic. He/they ndeplinete o funcie anaforic n discurs, cea de referire la elemente deja introduse n discurs: Peter was very tired as he had worked hard all day. n acest fel, pronumele he/they nu se refer la o persoan n acelai mod ca i pronumele I i you. Pronumele personale n limba englez sunt folosite i cu valoare generic (generic person) . Pronumele he/she este folosit cu valoare generic n propoziii care exprim un adevr universal: He who laughs last laughs best. Cine rde la urm rde mai bine. n asemenea contexte, valoarea lui he este cea a unui determinant demonstrativ: That one who... Pronumele you este folosit i cu sensul nedefinit de one: You can never tell. Nu se tie niciodat. iar they, cu sensul de oameni n general: They make bicycles in this factory. 5.6.2. Categoria genului la pronumele personale. Pronumele personal are categoria gramatical a genului numai la persoana a III-a singular: He este folosit pentru a nlocui nume de persoane de sex brbtesc: Tom Brown/He is the centre forward.

5.6. Pronumele personal (The Personal Pronoun)

154

She este ntrebuinat pentru nume de persoane de sex femeiesc: Barbara/She is my sister. It nlocuiete nume de obiecte sau de animale: The dog/It barked when the quests came. Not: He/she sunt folosite pentru a nlocui i unele substantive animate sau inanimate, care sunt de obicei neutre: The ship/She has already arrived. n limba englez, pronumele pentru persoana a III-a plural they nu are forme distincte pentru gen, ca n limba romn: The girls are here. Fetele sunt aici. They are here. Ele sunt aici. The boys havent come yet. Bieii nu au venit nc. They havent come yet. Ei nu au venit nc. These birds are very pretty. Aceste psri sunt foarte frumoase. They are very pretty. Ele sunt foarte frumoase. 5.6.3. Categoria numrului la pronumele personal. Pronumele pentru persoana I plural we nu reprezint mai muli de I ci I + he: Can we come at eight? Can he and I come at eight? Aceast ntrebuinare a lui we este cunoscut sub denumirea de exclusive we. O alt funcie a pronumelui we este de a include i pe asculttor (inclusive we = I + you): Well, how are we feeling today? Ei, cum ne mai simim astzi? Not: We poate fi folosit astfel de ctre un doctor, o profesoar sau o sor medical care se adreseaz unui copil, pentru a crea un sentiment de solidaritate ntre vorbitor i asculttor. Forma you este folosit att pentru persoana a II-a singular, ct i pentru persoana a II-a plural: I told you to sit down. V-am / i-am spus s stai jos. Pluralul persoanei a II-a este de asemenea un plural inclusiv ca i la persoana I: vorbitorul reprezentat prin I sau interlocutorul, reprezentat prin you i asociaz celelalte persoane ale dialogului: we = I + he (+ you) you = you + (+ you). Doar pluralul persoanei a III-a reprezint un plural propriu-zis: they = he + he Not: n limba englez nu exist pronume de politee ca n limba romn. You poate nsemna att tu, voi ct i dumneata, dumneavoastr, n funcie de context. La fel he, she pot nsemna el, ea sau dumnealui, dumneaei.

+ he.

155

5.6.4. Categoria cazului la pronumele personal. Pronumele personal are forme pentru cazul nominativ i pentru dativ/acuzativ (cu excepia lui you i it): Persoana I singular: I Persoana I plural: we Persoana a II-a singular/plural: you Persoana a III-a singular: he

Nominativ

Persoana a III-a plural:

she it they

Dativ/Acuzativ me us you him her it them

5.6.5. Funciile sintactice ale pronumelui personal. Pronumele personal este folosit ntotdeauna cu valoare substantival. pronumele personal ndeplinete mai multe funcii sintactice, dup cazul n care se afl: a) nominativ: - subiect - He is a student. - nume predicativ - It is he who did it. b) dativ: complement indirect - Can you tell me a story? c) acuzativ: - complement direct - I like her. - complement prepoziional - Look at them!

5.7. Pronume reflexiv (The Reflexive Pronoun)

Pronumele reflexiv nlocuiete obiectul asupra cruia se execit aciunea verbului i care este identic cu subiectul verbului; are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i ndeplinete funcia de complement, nume predicativ sau apoziie. 5.7.1. Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui reflexiv. Pronumele reflexiv prezint urmtoarele particulariti n ceea ce privete categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz: a) are persoana I, a II-a, a III-a, ca i pronumele personal i cel posesiv; b) are forme distincte de gen numai la persoana a III-a singular: masculin: himself feminin: herself neutru: itself c) are terminaia -self la singular i -selves la plural.

Persoana I Persoana a II-a Persoana a III-a: masculin feminin neutru

Persoana

Singular myself yourself himself herself itself

Plural ourself yourself

themselves

156

5.7.2. ntrebuinarea pronumelui reflexiv. Pronumele reflexiv este folosit mai ales n propoziii n care complementul direct sau prepoziional este identic cu subiectul. A) Astfel, pronumele reflexiv ndeplinete n principal funcia de complement direct al unor verbe tranzitive. Din punct de vedere al reflexivitii, verbele n limba englez se mpart n: a) verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de pronume reflexive ca: absent oneself He busied himself with his papers. I pride myself on my cooking. Behave

(from), avail oneself (of), behave oneself, busy oneself (with), pride oneself (on):
yourself!

b) verbe care pot fi urmate sau nu de un pronume reflexiv, ntre cele dou ntrebuinri existnd diferene de sens: apply (oneself), avail (oneself) conduct He applied himself to the task. A depus toate eforturile pentru ndeplinirea sarcinii. He applied for a job. A fcut o cerere de serviciu. c) verbe dup care pronumele reflexiv se poate omute fr a produce modificri fr sens: adjust, comb, dress, qualify, shave, wash: She went into the bathroom and washed herself. She went into the bathroom and washed. B) Pronumele reflexiv este folosit ca parte a unui complement prepoziional, cnd complementul prepoziinal este aceeai persoan cu substnativul: Look after yourself, will you. Take care of yourself. She looked at herself in the mirror. I dont know what to do with myself. Atenie! 1. n construciile prepoziionale care exprim relaii spaiale ntre elemnte concrete, se folosete pronumele personal n cazul acuzativ, chiar dac complementul prepoziional este aceeai persoan cu subiectul: I have no books on me. We have the whole week before us. She looked about her. 2. Pronumele reflexiv este folosit n asemenea cazuri doar cu valoare emoional: She was beside herself with rage. 3. Exist i situaii n care uzajul oscileaz ntre pronumele reflexiv i cel personal: He closed the door behind him(self). She gathered the children around her(self). Pronumele reflexiv are numai valoare substantival. El poate ndeplini urmtoarele funcii sintactice: - complement direct: She helped herself to another pieces of cake; - complement indirect: He allowed himself a break; - complement prepoziional: I looked at myself in the mirror; - nume predicativ: She is always herself. 5.7.3. Pronumele de ntrire (The Emphatic Pronoun). Pronumele reflexive se folosesc: a) ca pronume reflexive (non-emphatic use): Help yourself! Servete-te. b) ca pronume de ntrire (emphatic use): Help her yourself. Ajut-o tu nsui.

(oneself), depart (oneself):

157

Pronumele de ntrire subliniaz participarea la aciune a vorbitorului, a interlocutorului sau a obiectului despre care se vorbete, are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de apoziie. Pronumele de ntrire se subordoneaz direct unui pronume personal sau unui substantiv: He himself answered the pupils questions. The scientist himself answered the pupils questions. Poziia nemarcat a pronumelor de ntrire este imediat dup pro(numele) pe care-l subliniaz: The pupils themselves worked in the school garden. Cnd (pro)numele nsoit de pronume de ntrire este subiectul prepoziiei, pronumele de ntrire se poate aeza: - la nceputul propoziiei: The boy himself drew the map. - la sfritul propoziiei: The boy drew the map himself. Pronumele de ntrire este accentuat n vorbire. Faptul c pronumele de ntrire depinde ntotdeauna de un substantiv sau pronume i confer acestuia valoare adjectival. Pronumele de ntrire ndeplinete funcia sintactic de apoziie: The headmaster himself helped the pupils. Cnd este precedat de prepoziia by, of sau for, pronumele de ntrire are sensul de singur, singur, singuri, singure: I made the dress by myself. The glass cracked of itself. I want to see for myself.

5.8. Pronumele posesiv (The Possessive Pronoun)

Pronumele posesiv nlocuiete att numele obiectului posedat ct i al posesorului, are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i poate ndeplini funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie, complement. Formele pronumelui posesiv sunt: Persoana I singular mine plural ours Persoana a II-a singular/plural yours Persoana a III-a masculin singular his plural theirs feminin singular hers plural theirs Is this your pencil? No, its no mine. Ask Mary if is hers. Is it yours, Mary? Atenie! Pronumele posesive (vezi exemplele de mai sus) nu determin substantive ca adjectivele posesive, ci le nlocuiesc. Observai mai jos diferena dintre adjectivul i pronumele posesiv i pronumele personal n cazul dativ/acuzativ.

Adjective posesive
It's my car It's your car It's his car

Pronume posesive
It's mine It's yours It's his

Pronume personal
It belongs to me It belongs to you It belongs to him

158

It's her car It's its car It's our car It's your car It's their car

It's hers -It's ours It's yours It's theirs

It belongs to her It belongs to it It belongs to us It belongs to you It belongs to them

5.9. Pronumele interogativ (The Interrogative Pronoun)

Pronumele interogativ ine locul, n propoziii interogative, cuvintelor ateptate ca rspuns la ntrebare, poate avea categoria gramatical de caz i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de subiect, complement sau funcia de marc, introducnd propoziii subordonate n fraz. Pronumele interogative pot fi folosite: a) numai ca pronume: Who is he? b) numai ca determinani: What kind of man is he? c) ca pronume sau ca determinani: What do you want? What books do you want? Pronumele interogative sunt specializate: who este folosit pentru fiine, what pentru lucruri, which pentru fiine i lucruri, how much pentru cantiti, how many pentru numr, what kind of pentru caliti etc. Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme deosebite pentru fiecare caz. Celelalte pronume interogative sunt invariabile. WHO are urmtoarele forme: N.: Who? cine; D: (to) whom = cui? Who se refer numai la persoan: Who did you meet? Forma whose se poate referi i la lucruri i animale: A: Whose food is this? B: Its the dogs food. Whom este folosit mai ales dup prepoziii: By whom was the poem written? n vorbirea curent, who este folosit n locul lui whom, iar prepoziia se az la sfritul propoziiei: Who was the poem written by? Not: Atunci cnd who ndeplinete funcia de subiect, el este urmat de un verb la singular: Who is speaking? dar atunci cnd ndeplinete funcia de complement acordul cu verbul se face n numr: Who is waiting for? Who are they waiting for?

WHAT ca pronume interogativ se refer la substantive sau nlocuitori ai acestora de orice gen, precum i la propoziii ntregi: What is she ? What is the meaning of this word ? What did he tell you ?

159

Not: Atunci cnd what ndeplinete funcia sintactic de subiect, verbul este la singular: What is happening here? (Ce se ntmpl aici?) dar cnd ndeplinete funcia de complement, acordul cu verbul se face n numr: What are they doing? (Ce face ei?). What se traduce n limba romn prin: a) CE, atunci cnd se presupune un rspuns prin care se arat profesiunea sau funcia: What is your father? What are you? b) CARE: What are the days of the week? What is your favourite game? c) CT: What time is it? What implic o selecie dintr-un numr nedefinit de obiecte: What books do you like best? WHICH ca pronume interogativ este un nominativ: Which is shorter, Betty or Jane? sau un acuzativ: Which of these books do you prefer? Which implic selecia dintr-un numr limitat de obiecte: Which of the two dresses will you take? Which of the girls do you like? Cnd pronumele sau adjectivul interogativ este nsoit de o prepoziie aceasta l precede n limba scris: From what country does she come? n vorbirea curent, prepoziia se aeaz la sfritul propoziiei: What country does she come from?

5.10. Pronumele relativ (The Relative Pronoun)

5.10.1. Pronumele relativ se refer la un substantiv sau nlocuitor al acestuia care a fost deja menionat i el face legtura ntre propoziia n care se afl i cea pe care o nsoeate: I know people who dont like this writer. I know people that dont like this writer. Pronumele relative sunt: who, which i that. Who, D/Ac. who(m), G. whose se refer la un substantiv sau nlocuitor de gen masculin sau feminin: The girl who sang is my cousin. A carpenter is a man who makes chairs and tables. He is a writer whose works are very well-known. Which, whose se refer la substantive de genul neutru: Tom is wearing a coat which is too large for him. The trees, whose leaves are yellow and red... Copacii, ale cror frunze sunt galbene i roii... That se refer la substantive, indiferent de gen i caz: The dog that ran across the street is mine. The dog which ran across the street is mine. The man that showed you the way is very old. The man who showed you the way is very old. Not: Pronumele relative i pronumele interogative who, which i what se pot asocia cu adverbele ever i soever pentru a forma pronume relative, respectiv pronume interogative compuse: whoever pe oricine. Whoever comes must wait here. Oricine vine trebuie s atepte aici.

160

este a/al lui.

whichever- pe oricare. He will take whichever is his. O/l va lua pe oricare

Pronumele relative who, which, th se omit n propoziiile restrictive cnd se gsesc n cazul acuzativ: The girl (who(m)) you have just met is my niece. The magazine (that) you lent me is very interesting. 5.10.3. Locul pronumelui relativ. Pronumele relativ trebuie aezat, pe ct posibil, lng antecedentul su. Nerespectarea acestei reguli poate da natere la confuzii: He met the girl in the street that you know. A ntlnit fata pe strada pe care o cunoti. In the street, he met the girl that you know. A ntlnit fata pe care o cunoti pe strad. Cnd pronumele relativ n acuzativ este nsoit de o prepoziie, aceasta este aezat naintea pronumelui relativ n limba scris. n exprimarea familiar, pronumele relativ se omite de obiecei, iar prepoziia se aeaz dup verb sau complementul direct: This is the man to whom I gave the parcel (scris). This is the man (whom) I gave the parcel to (familiar).

yesterday has been mended.

5.10.2. ntrebuinarea pronumelui relativ. Who, whom, whose introduc ndeosebi propoziii relative descriptive (propoziii care aduc informaii suplimentare, neeseniale, despre antecedent): My wife, to whom you were speaking just now, wants you to come to dinner. Soia mea, creia i vorbeai acum, dorete s vii la noi la mas. Aceste pronume relative pot introduce i propoziii relative restrictive (propoziii care aduc informaii absolut necesare pentru clarificarea sensului): The boy who threw the stone will be punished. Which introduce att propoziii relative descriptive (a) ct i restrictive (b): a) Swimming, which is an enjoyable sport, makes people strong and healthy. b) The glass which you are drinking out of has just been washed. That se folosete numai n propoziii restrictive: The chair that was broken

5.11. Pronumele nehotrt (The Indefinite Pronoun)

5.11.1. Pronumele nehotrt desemneaz global (all) sau parial (each, either) obiecte sau fenomene. Pronumele nehotrte sunt folosite: a) numai ca pronume: There is somebody here. There is something here. None of them was in time. b) ca determinani sau pronume: Ive got some. Ive got some English books. The teacher talked with each parent. The teacher talked with each of them. (N)either boy can do it.

161

(N)either of you can do it. All children are here. All of them are here. 5.11.2. ntrebuinarea pronumelor nehotrte. Some = ceva, nite, puin, puin, unii, unele, civa, cteva, vreun, vreo, se ntrebuineaz n propoziii aformative i indic existena unui numr restrs de lucruri, fiine, a unei cantiti restrnse. Este folosit cu substantive numrabile la plural i cu substantive nenumrabile la singular: There are some on his desk. She bought some. Some poate fi folosit n propoziii interogative: a) cnd se pune accentul pe o parte din obiectul sau obiectele menionate: Did you read some of the books the teacher recommended? b) n proppoziiile n care se ofer ceva: Will you have some? c) cnd ntrebarea nu se refer la some: Did you ask father to give me some? Any = vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici o, nici una se ntrebuineaz: a) n propoziii afirmative cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any of you could answer

this question.

somebody/someone something

b) n propoziii interogative i negative: Have you got any ? I havent got any. Compuii lui some, any i no (no este folosit doar ca determinant sunt pronume nehotrte:

- anybody/anyone - anything

- nobody/no one none - nothing

Pentru ntrebuinarea compuilor lui some, any, no, n propoziii afirmative, interogative i negative. Each se refer la membrii unui grup luai individual: Each of them wanted to try. Fiecare (dintre ei) dorea s ncerce. Either (forma negativ neither) = fiecare (nici unul) din doi este folosit mai ale n propoziii interogative i negative: Have you seen either of them ? L-ai vzut pe vreunul dintre ei (doi)? n propoziii afirmative, either are sensul de oricine, oricare: Either of you can do it. Oricare dintre voi (doi) poate face acest lucru. Every este folosit doar ca determinant: Every pupil must do his homework. Compuii lui every ns sunt folosii doar ca pronume nehotrte: Everybody is present. Toi sunt prezeni. I have everything I need. Am tot ce-mi trebuie. All = tot, toat, toi, toate, exprim totalitatea lucrurilor sau fiinelor i nlocuiete substantivele numrabile la plural: Ive read them all. Le-am citit pe toate. sau substantive nenumrabile la singular: Ive read all about this subject. Am citit tot nb legtur cu acest subiect. All poate fi folosit i ca predeterminant: Give me all the books I need.

I saw somebody in your room. I saw something in your room. I saw nobody in your room. I saw nothing in your room.

Acestea sunt folosite numai ca pronume. Nu pot fi folosite i ca determinani:

162

n vorbirea curent, all este nlocuit de obicei de everybody sau everything, n funcie de sens: All are here = Everybody is here. Tell me all about it = Tell me everything about it. One = un, unul, una cineva, are o singur form, indiferent de gen, numr i caz: There were two women in the room: one was young and one was old. One cu valoare impersonal se ntrebuineaz n sens foarte general: One should always perform his duty. Trebuie ntotdeauna s-i faci datoria. One se acord cu he, she, it i cu formele corespunztoare: his, him, her etc.: One of the boys said he would stay at home.

5.12. Pronumele negativ (Negative Pronouns)

Pronumele nehotrte cu sens negativ sunt considerate de unii autori o clas aparte de pronume - pronumele negative. Pronumele negative desemneaz lipsa obiectelor sau a fenomenelor. Folosirea lor exclude existena altor negaii n propoziie. Pronumele negative sunt: nobody, no one (nimeni), none (nici unul), neither (nici unul din doi), nothing (nimic): Neither of the is right. Nici unul dintre ei (doi) nu are dreptate. What have you bought? Nothing. Ce-ai cumprat? Nimic.

EXERCIII:
I. Completai punctele cu adjectivul sau pronumele posesiv necesar: 1. Betty cant eat.....birthday cake alone. 2. This is not my book; its.....3. Peter,.....room is on the left,...... is on the right. 4. Jane, you must go and wash...face. 5. classroom is sunny; we like it. 6. Jack is very bright for age. 7. He may take the ball, its 8. These records belong to them. They are 9. That is my book, but this is not 10. I needed an umbrella and I asked Alice if I could borrow
R: I. 1. her. 2. yours. 3. your, mine. 4. your 5. our 6. his 7. his. 8. theirs. 9. mine. 10. hers.

II. Rspundei la urmtoarele ntrebri. Folosii pronumele I ca subiect, nlocuii substantivele cu pronumele: Exemplu: Who lent the book to that student? I lent it to him. 1. Who told the story to the children? 2. Who wrote the letter to Mrs White? 3. Who sent the present to Bob? 4. Who bought the books for Jane ? 5. Who gave the apples to the boy? 6. Who explained the lesson to the new student? 7. Who showed the town to the touristes?
R: 1. I told it to them. 2. I wrote it to her. 3. I sent it to him. 4. I bought them for her. 5. I gave them to him. 6. I explained it to him. 7. I showed it to them. 8. I asked him about it.

III. Folosii forma corect a pronumelui:

1. Look, theres george. Who invited.....? 2. The Wilsons and I decided to ask him.....thought he would enjoy it. 3. Im looking for my trousers. Have you seen....?

163

4. Does your boy friend speak English?.....should study it if he doesnt. 5. The weather is getting colder. wont improve for the next two or three days 6. Have you read this book? is very interesting. 7. She is a nice girl. Do you know ? 8. We offered Ann some flowers. She invited to her birthday party.
R: 1. him. 2. we. 3. them 4. he 5. it 6. it 7. her 8. us.

IV. Completai spaiile punctate cu pronume relative acolo unde este cazul:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The girl.... is sitting at the desk is our typist. The book..... she is reading has been published recently. That is the man...... helped the child cross the street. Is this the woman.... sold you the English dictionary? I dont remember the joke he told us. That is a studentalways gets excellent marks. He is the football playerscored three goals. Is this the house was built by your brother?

R: 1. who 2. - 3. who 4. who 5. - 6. who 7. who 8. which/that

V. Traducei n limba englez: Biric i Polina rmaser. i luar secerile pe umr i pornir amndoi spre locurile lui Tudor Blosu. Pe drum, Polina i spuse din nou c nu se poate ajunge la o nelegere cu tatl ei dac au s stea i s-l atepte pe el s se mpace. Ea l cunoate mai bine. Pmntul trebuie luat cu fora. Biric i rspunse c orice lucru se poate lua cu fora cum ar fi s zicem un cal, o cru, o vit; l iai cu fora i l duci cu tine. Dar pmntul n-ai cum s-l iai. Pentru pmnt trebuie forme la notariat i numai atunci poi s zici c e al tu. Spunndu-i acest lucru, Biric ii atrase luarea aminte ct e ea de proast cnd i nchipuie c nu s-a gndit la toate felurile la situaia lor. Polina rspunse c tie ea de forme, chiar mai mult dect crede el. i anume c dac te foloseti de un lucru mai muli ani i aduci martori c atia ani lucrul acela a fost al tu, poi s-l faci forme c e al tu, chiar dac la nu vrea. Biric i descrei fruntea i spuse cu mult mirare i admiraie c zu, a dracului naie de muiere mai este ea. Polina se fcu roie auzindu-l cum o laud i i rspunse c cu alde tat-su ea i-a luat gndul de la omenie. Nu trebuie s mai strice omenia pe ei. Ct a fost fat mare nu i-a cumprat nici o a, nici un petic, a umblat descul la hor; el, Biric, cunoate i el bine povestea asta.. Ar trebui s neleag c altceva nu mai e de fcu. Merser mult n tcere i el nu-i rspunse dect trziu. i atrase luarea aminte c tatl ei l poate da n judecat. l d n judecat i iese ru. Polina l ntrerupse spunnd c asta n-are s ndrzneasc el s-o fac. Ea s-a mritat i are dreptul la pmntul pe care l-a muncit. i dac tatl ei are s fac proces are s aib ea grij s-i scoat procesul pe nas.
R: Biric and Polina stayed behind. They put their sickles over their shoulders and made for Tudor Blosu's land. On the way Polina told him again they could not reach an agreement with ver father if they stayed and waited for him to make it up to them. She knew him better than that. The land must be taken by force. Biric answered that you could take anything by force, say a horse, a cart, a cow; you take it by force and carry it away with you. But you can't take land. You need papers at the notary's office for the land and only then you can say it is yours. Telling her this, Biric made her realize what a

164

fool she had been to imagine he hadn't thought of their situation from all possible angles. Polina answered she knew more about legal papers than he thought. What she knew was that if you made use of one thing for several years, and afterwards you brought witnesses that the thing had been yours for so many years, you could obtain papers saying that it was yours even if the other person did not want you to. Biric's face lightened and he said with great wonder and admiration that she was some woman. Polina blushed when she heard him praise her and answered that she no longer hoped to find any understanding from her father. They shouldn't waste their good intentions on him. When she was a young girl, he hadn't bought her anything, not a stitch of clothing; she used to come bare-footed to the village dance. Biric himself knew the story well enough. He ought to understand there was nothing else to do about the matter. They walked silently for a long time and he ,answered only later. He told her that her father could sue him and take him to court. A trial might turn out bad. Polina interrupted him by saying he wouldn't dare do such a thing. She had married and had a right to the land she had worked on. And if her father wanted a trial, she would take care to make him sorry he had wanted it.

(Marin Preda - Moromeii)

165

6. Adjectivul (The Adjective)

6.1. Definiie
Adjectivul este partea de vorbire care: a) exprim o calitate a unui obiect (an interesting lecture, on old man); b) are categoria gramatical a comparaiei: He is taller than his brother. c) ndeplinete funciile sintactice de atribut, apoziie, nume predicativ, element predicativ suplimentar.

6.2. Comparaia adjectivelor (The Comrarison of Adjectives)

Spre deosebire de limba romn, unde adjectivul are flexiune de gen, numr i caz i comparaie, adjectivul din limba englez nu se schimb dup gen, numr i caz. Singurul mod de marcare formal este comparaia: un elev inteligent - a clever schoolboy o elev inteligent - a clever schoolgirl elevi inteligeni - clever schoolchildren Lecia a doua este mai grea dect prima lecie. - Lesson 2 is more difficult Coninul categoriei gramaticale a comparaiei const n faptul c la obiectele din lumea nconjurtoare calitile pot aprea n msur egal: The Maths teacher is as old as the Psysics teacher. sau n msur inegal: The maths teacher is older than the Pasysics teacher. Categoria gramatical a comparaiei este concretizaqt n limba englez ca i n limba romn, n trei grade de comparaie: Gradul pozitiv nemarcat arat prezena normal a unei caliti a obiectelor, fr a se face vreo comparaie: He is tall. She is beautiful. Gradul comparativ compar dou obiecte, indicnd prezena calitii la obiectele comparate n msur egal (comparativul de egalitate: He is as tall as his sister) sau n msur inegal (I am younger than her) sau de inferioritate: This lesson is less interesting than the previous one). La gradul comparativ, termenul comparaiei poate fi exprimat: He is more punctual than the others. sau neexprimat: He is more punctual. Gradul superlativ arat c un membru al unui grup posed calitatea comparat n cel mai nalt grad, prin intermediul unei comparaii directe (comparativul relativ: She is the cleverest of all) sau fr comparaie direct (superlativul absolut : She is very clever). Atenie! Atunci cnd se compar numai dou noiuni se folosete gradul comparativ precedat de articolul the n locul superlativului: She is the younger and the more beautiful of the two sisters.

than Lesson 1.

166

6.3. Formarea comparativului i a superlativului

6.3.1. Comparaia sintetic. A) Adjectivele monosilabice formeaz comparativul i superlativul n mod sintetic. Ele primesc -(e)r la comparativ i the -(e)st la superlativ:

big - bigger - the biggest hot - hotter - the hottest fat - fatter - the fattest thin - thinner - the thinnest 2) Adjectivele terminate n -y precedat de o consoan transform pe y n i: dry - drier - the driest 3) Adjectivele terminate n -e sau -ee, pierd pe -e final naintea lui -er sau est: nice - nicer - the nicest; free - freer - the freest; B) n mod sintetic se compar i adjectivele bisilabice terminate n -y, -le, -er, -ow i -some: happy - happier - the happiest; clever - cleverer - the cleverest narrow - narrower - the narrowest
Excepii: eager, proper, fertile, hostile, fragile se compar numai cu more i Unele adjective pot avea mabele forme de comparativ i superlativ: - cu preferin pentru forme sintetice: a) adjective monosilabice: calm, fot, huge, just, keen

Ortografie: 1) Adjectivele terminate ntr-o consoan precedat de o vocal scurt dubleaz consoan:

small - smaller - the smallest short - shorter - the shortest

the most.

angry - angrier - the angriest

b) adjective bisilabice terminate n -y sau -ly: angry, clumsy, sleepy, musty;

calm - calmer - the calmest

fertile, hostile, constant, prudent, pleasant, stupid, sudden; active - more active - the most active; b) adjective bisilabice cu accentul pe ultima silab: concise, remote, precise, severe, profound, polite.
Excepie: adjective bisilabice terminate n dou consoane: correct, distinct, exact, intact etc. formeaz comparativul i superlativul numai cu more i the most: a more distinct pronunciation = o pronunie mai clar; c) adjectivele formate din trei silabe cu un prefix negativ: unhappy, unlucky, unpleasant, insecure; unpleasant - more unpleasant - the most unpleasant.

- cu preferin pentru formele analitice: a) adjective bisilabice cu accentul pe prima silab: active, civil, common,

Folosirea formei sintactice sau analitice sau toate aceste adjective depinde deseori de ritmul propoziiei, de nevoia de expresivitate.

167

n limba vorbit sunt preferate formele sintetice, n timp ce n scris se folosesc mai ales formele analitice. 6.3.2. Comparaia analitic. A) Adjectivele formate din dou sau mai multe silabe formeaz comparativul i superlativul analitic cu ajutorul lui more i the most:

B) Adjectvele compuse formeaz gradele de comparaie n felul urmtor: a) cnd primul element este un adjectiv care i pstreaz sensul, acesta se schimb la comparativ i superlativ:

careful - more careful - the most careful difficul - more difficult - the most difficult

b) cnd cele dou elemente formeaz un tot din punct de vedere al sensului comparaia se realizeaz cu ajutorul lui more i the most:

well-known - better=known - the best-known ill-paid - worse-paid - tyhe worst-paid intelligent-looking, - more intelligent-looking - the most intelligent-looking

heart-broken - more heart-broken - the heart-broken far-fetched - more far-fetched - the most far-fetched

6.3.3. Formarea comparativului de egalitate i inferioaritate. Comparativul de egalitate se exprim prin adjectivul la gradul pozitiv precedat i urmat de conjuncia as: My room is as large as hers. Camera mea este la fel de mare ca a ei. Comparativul de inferioritate se exprim prin adjectivul la gradul pozitiv precedat de not so/as i urmat de as sau prin less...than: My homework is not as easy as yours. Tema mea nu e la fel de uoar ca a ta. This lecture is less interesting than the previous one. Acest curs e mai puin interesant dect cursul anterior. 6.3.4. Formarea superlativului absolut. Superlativul absolut se construiete cu ajutorul adverbelor very, too, highly, extremely, utterly: The story he told us was very amusing. It is extremelly difficult to reach the top.

6.4. Comparaia neregulat a adjectivelor

Unele adjective formeaz comparativul i superlativul n mod neregulat:

good = bun - better - the best Eight is a good mark. Nine is better than eight. Ten is the best mark. bad = ru worse - the worst ill = bolnav worse - the worst

They are both bad boys, but Peter is worse than Tom. Of all the bad boys I know Peter is the worst. much = mult more - the most many = muli more - the most We havent much butter left. I need more help. This plate has the most

168

meat on it late = trziu - later = mai trziu =

recent mai recent cel mai recent

the lastest = cel mai trziu

- the latter = cel de-al doilea (dintre dou elemente) acesta din urm (opus lui the former) - the last = ultimul (dintre mai multe elemente) (opus lui the first)

romane).

The late edition of this paper appears at 3 p.m. There is a later one at 5 p.m. John and Tom are tall boys: the former is the catain of the basketball team and the later is a good footballer. Whats the lastest news? Care sunt ultimile tiri? His last novel is still unpublished. Ultimul su roman este nc nepublicat. (nu a mai scris alte old = btrn x

vechi - older = mai btrn mai vechi - elder = mai n vrst (despre membrii aceleai familii folosit atributiv) (opus lui younger) - the oldest = cel mai btrn; cel mai vechi - the eldest = cel mai n vrst (despre membrii acelelai familii, folosit atributiv) My brother is older than me. Fratele meu este mai mare dect mine. My elder brother is a doctor. Fratele meu mai mare este doctor. She is my eldest sister. Ea este sora mea cea mai mare. Not: 1. Formele elder i the eldest se folosesc uneori i pentru persoane din afara familiei: The elder girls in our school sing in the chorus. An elder officer 2. Elder poate fi folosit i ca substantiv nenumrabil la plural: She followed

the advice of her elders.

near = aproape - nearer = mai apropiat (n spaiu, rudenie) - the nearest = cel mai apropiat (n spaiu, rudenie) - the next = urmtorul (n timp, ordine)

mai apropiat?

Peter is a near relation of mine. Peter este o rud apropiat de-a mea. Can you show me the nearest tabacoconists? mi putei arta tutungeria cea Mrs Green was the next person to arrive. Doamna Green a fost urmtoarea

persoan care a sosit. little = puin less - the least

all.

I have little time. My friend has less time than I have. Tom has the least of

169

far = deprtat farther = mai deprtat (distan) - the farthest further = mai deprtat (distan) suplimentar, adiional, n plus - the furthest

6.5. ntrirea comparaiei adjectivelor

Adverbele much i far aezate naintea comparativului i by far aezat dup comparativ ntresc ideea exprimat de adjectivul respectiv: This book is much more interesting/far more interesting by far than the other books he has weritten. Cartea aceasta este mult mai interesant dect celelalte cri pe care le-a scris. Construcia cu ct ... + comparativ ... cu att... + comparativ se red prin dou comparative precedate de the: The longer the days, the shorter the nights. Cu ct sunt zilele mai lungi cu att sunt nopile mai scurte. Construca din ce n ce mai ... tot mai... se red n limba englez vorbit prin repetarea comparativului i intercalarea conjunciei and: It is colder and colder. Este din ce n ce mai frig, The old man felt worse and worse. Btrnul se simea din ce n ce mai ru. Dac adjectivul este plurisilabic, se repet adverbul more/less i se intercaleaz conjuncia and: His lectures are more and more interesting. Your stories are less and less credible. Acelai sens se red n stilul oficial i n scris prin folosirea adverbului ever n faa comparativului: The published in this country are ever more interesting.

6.6. Funciile sintactice ale adjectivului

Din punct de vedere sintactic, adjectivele pot fi: a) atributive, ndeplinind funcia de atribut sau apoziie n propoziie: Tom has a new bike. b) predicative, ndeplinind funcia de nume predicativ n propoziie: Toms bike is new. Atenie! Verbele copulative: be, stand, seem, appear, look, become, grow, get, turn, keep, remain, continue sunt urmate de adjective (i nu de adverbe) cu valoare de nume predicative: He is clever. She is getting old. They are keeping silent. Verbele exprimnd percepia senzorial: look, smell, sound, taste, feel sunt de asemenea urmate de adjective: You look beautiful. The soup tastes good. Din punct de vedere al folosirii atributive sau predicative, adjectivele n limba englez se mpart n trei mari grupe: a) adjective care pot fi ntrebuinate att atributiv ct i predicativ: The old man has come again. He is very old. b) adjective care nu poit fi folosite dect atributiv. n aceast grup intr: - adjective terminate n -en, provenite de la substantive concrete: She has a woollen dress.

170

- adjective indicnd punctele cardinale: Romania lies in Eastern Europe. - adjectivele derivate din substantive: a medical school; atomic energy; a criminal attack. - unele adjective din care pot fi derivate adverbe: my former friend; her late husband; un utter fool. c) adjective care sunt ntrebuinate numai predicativ: - adjectivele: ill, well, drunk: He is ill. - adjectivele derivate cu prefixul a-: ablaze = aprins, n flcri afraid = speriat alone = singur ashamed = ruinat aghast = nfricoat alert = atent, vigilent alike = la fel, identic alive = viu, n via asleep = adormit averse = potrivnic, opus awake = treaz aware = contient The little boy was still unsleep, but his mother is awake. Not: 1. Unele din aceste adjective pot fi folosite atributiv cnd sunt precedate de un adverb: a fully awake person; a very ashamed child; the half asleep

girl

The child was afraid to ask for help/The frightened child didn't ask for help. These two dresses are very much alike/These are similar dresses.

frightened; alike - similar; alive - living; alone lonely

2. Cteva adjective predicative au un sinonim cu valoare atributiv: afraid -

6.7. Locul adjectivelor n propoziie

a) Adjectivul folosit atributiv preced substantivul pe care l determin; a high mountain; a difficult problem.

b) n cteva cazuri adjectivul, atributiv este n mod obligatoriu aezat dup substantiv: - n grupuri de cuvinte: Ambassador Extraordinary, secretary general,

urmate de adjective: She bought something nice. He said nothing interesting. c) Cnd mai multe adjective determin un substnativ, adjectivul al crui neles este cel mai legat de substantiv se aeaz n imediata lui apropiare, iar celelalte l preced n ordinea gradului de apropiere al nelesului lor de cel al substantivului. Nu exist reguli stricte privind ordinea adjectivelor, ele se succed n ordinea urmtoare:

postmaster general, attorney general, court martial, heir apparent, knight errant, poet laureate, from time immemorial; - pronumele nehotrte care se termin n -body; -one; -thing sunt de obicei

171

nsuire, dimensiune, form, vrst culoare, naionalitate, origine, adjectiv verbal: She bought a few large red apples. I met three tall young French girl stundents. The small round ancient Chinese box was in the table. d) Cnd un substantiv este determinat de dou adjective la comparativ, unul mai scurt i cellalt mai lung, cel scurt l precede pe cel lung: She was taller and more beautiful. e) Adjectivul cu determinare urmeaz substantivul: It was a house ugly with decay. Era o cas urt din cauza degradrii. f) Adjectivul folosit predicativ urmeaz verbul copulativ: He is ill. She seems tired. You look pale.

EXERCIII:
I. Punei adjectivele din parantez la forma corect: 1. Summer is (good) season of the year. 2. In summer the days are (long) and the nights are (short) than in spring. 3. The 22nd of June is (long) day of the year. 4. In July the days become (warm) and (warm). 5. (Many) people play football in summer. 6. Football is (popular) game in Romania. 7. I think autumn is as (beautiful) as summer. 8. Thew weather isn't as (warm) as in summer, but the trees are (beautiful) than in summer. 9. Winter is (bad) season of the year. It is cold and wet. 10. Some people think it is (interesting) season of the year, because they can sky, skate or play with snow.

R: 1. the best. 2. longer, shorter. 3. the longest. 4. warmer, warmer. 5. many 6. the most popular 7. as beautiful as 8. warm, more beautiful 9. the worst 10. the most interesting.

II. Alegei forma corect a adjectivelor din parantez: 1. From these two dresses the cheaper is (the best, the better). 2. Since she has retired, (less and less, fewer and fewer) friends have visited her. 3. Mike and Bob are students. The former studies medicine, (the second, the latter) studies architecture. 4. Her (older, elder) sister did nt come to the party. 5. The doctor asked (the nearest, the next) person to come in.
R: 1. the better 2. fewer and fewer 3. the latter 4. elder 5. the next.

III. Traducei n limba englez: 1. Ai citit ultimul roman al lui Marin Preda? 2. i s-a prut mai interesant dect celelalte romane ale lui? 3. A fost pe departe cea mai plcut vacan pe care am petrecut-o vreodat pe mare. 4. Ei studiaz din ce n ce mai mult i obin rezultate din ce n ce mai bune. 5. Cu ct era mai atent cu att mai puine greeli fcea. 6. l cunoti pe fratele ei mai mare? 7. Rochia ta este mai modern dect a mea. 8. Care este planeta cea mai ndeprtat?

R: 1. Have you read Marin Preda's last novel? 2. Did it seem more interesting than his other novels? 3. 11 was by far the most pleasant holiday we spent at the seaside. 4. They study more and more and get better and better results. 5. The more attentive he was the fewer mistakes he made. 6. Have you met her elder brother? 7. Your dress is more modern than mine. 8. Which is the farthest/furthest planet?

172

7. Adverbul (The Adverb)

7.1. Definiie
Adverbul este partea de vorbire care: a) arat o caracteristic a unei aciuni, a unei stri sau a unei caliti; b) poate avea categoria gramatical a comparaiei; c) ndeplinete funcia sintactic de complement circumstanial.

Not: 1. Adverbul mai poate aprea pe lng un substantiv (de obicei precedat de articolul nehotrt): He is quite a man now. It was only a cat, sau un pronume: Is this book really mine? 2. Unele adverbe pot forma singure propoziii: Really? Down! Faster! Gladly.

Almost. Yes. No. Maybe. Now. Never.

7.2. Locuiuni i construcii adverbiale

7.2.1. Locuiunile (perifrazele) adverbiale sunt expresii fixe cu valoare de adverbe: at present = n prezent; as a rule = de obicei; by the way = apropo; as a matterof-fact = de fapt; at once = imediat; once in while, now and then = din cnd n cnd; toand fro = ncoace i ncolo etc. 7.2.2. Construciile adverbiale sunt construcii prepoziionale care pot fi folosite ca adverbe: He watches TV in the evening. She went out the room. Unele construcii adverbiale se folosesc: a) cnd nu se pot forma adverbe de la adjectiv: She spoke with difficulty. b) cnd construcia adverbial este mai fireasc dect adverbul: She addressed the doctor in a broken voice. c) cnd adugarea sufixului-ly ar schimba nelesul: She spoke in a high voice. (She spoke highly of him.

7.3. Forma adverbelor

Cnd mai multe adverbe de mod se formeaz prin adugarea sufixului -ly la forma adjectivului: He is a slow walker. He walks slowly. La fel se formeaz i unele adverbe de timp, sufixul -ly fiind adugat unui substantiv: This magazine is published every week. This magazine is published weekly. Atenie! Nu toate cuvintele terminate n -ly sunt adverbe. Unele sunt numai adjective: friendly, lovely, likely, timely, i sunt folosite ca pri ale unor construcii adverbiale: He came at a timely moment. She spoke to us in a friendly way. Adverbele de timp terminate n ly pot fi folosite att ca adjective, ct i ca adverbe: This is a daily papaer. It comes out daily.

173

Ortografie: n general, adugarea sufixului -ly nu modific forma iniial a cuvntului: He is a careless driver. He drives carelessly. Dac adjectivul se termin n -e, acesta se pstreaz naintea sufixului -ly:

Dac adjectivul se termin n -l, adverbul va avea -ll, prin adugarea terminaiei -ly: beatiful + ly = beautifully.

entire - entirely; extreme - extremely. Excepii: true - truly; due - duly; whole - wholly.

7.4. Modificri de ortografie

- Adjectivele terminate n -y l transform n -i naintea sufixului -ly happy happily; day - daily. - Adjectivele terminate n -ll pierd un -l: full - fully; - Adjectivele terminate n -le silabic pierd -e i adaug -y: simple - simply; probable - probably; - Adjectivele terminate n -ic adaug un -ally pentru a deveni adverbe: enthusiastic - enthusiastically; Dar public - publicly; - Adjectivul good devine adverbul well: She is a good pupil. She speaks English well. - Unele adverbe au forme speciale (only, often, ever etc.), pe cnd altele sunt omonime cu alte pri de vorbire, n special cu adjective: She arrived early/fast/late today. n alte cazuri adverbele pot avea dou forme cu diferenieri de sens:

Form fr -ly
She came close and looked at me. He dug deep in the ground.

Sens
aproape adnc, n adncime

Form cu -ly
I followed the instructions closely. He was deeply concerned. The car was coming directly towards me. She was directly affected. They came directly after lunch. I got up directly the bell rang. I solved the problem easily.

Sens
ndeaproape foarte tare, profund

They went direct home.

- direct, drept, de-a dreptul + go, come, send - fr intermediar personal

- direct, drept - n mod direct - ndat (imediat) - de ndat ce

Take it easy! Just go easy!

expresii n engleza vorbit:

cu uurin, uor

174

Easy come, easy go! play fair fight fair All members are admitted free. work/study/drin k/ rain hard Thye plane flew high in the air. She has just arrived. She arrived late. He always travels light. She works most.

uor, calm, ncet; He was treated fairly. His paper is fairly good. They criticized gratuit him freely. I could hardly understand her. foarte mult, din He recovered greu, tare hardly what he had lost before. He was highly sus appreciated. He was justly tocmai forgiven. I havent seen trziu them lately. He treats fr bagaje everything lightly. The village is cel mai mult mostly of wooden houses. He worked nearly ten hours. aproape, lng They were nearly home. She dresses destul de pretttily. n engleza He spoke quickly familiar: repede and confidently. He judged Chiar rightly. She is rightly considered the drept, direct brightest pupil in the class. He rightly bine, ntocmai guessed her age. He has travelled de tot, n widely. ntregime They are widely n anumite colocaii: corect, cinstit; - drept, corect, cum se cuvine - destul de liber, neconstrns de-abia, cu greu, cu greutate, din greu foarte, extrem de pe drept n ultima vreme superficial, cu uurin - n cea mai mare parte; n general

They live quite near. It is pretty late. Come as quick as you can. She is here right now. Go right to the end of the street. He guessed the answer right. The door was wide open. They are wide

aproape (de)

drgu n engleza ngrijit: repede bine, corect

pe drept

bine corect - mult, pe o suprafa mare - ntr-o mare

175

awake. answer/guess/ju dge/note wrong. go/treat wrong.

different. The words were wrongly spelled. greit, ru, prost He was wrongly informed.

msur, foarte n mod greit

La aceste adverbe, forma n -ly are de obicei un sens mai abstract sau figurat. Alte adverbe cu dou forme sunt: cheap - cheaply; dear - dearly. n alte cazuri se poate folosi fie forma adjectival, fie cea adverbial, fr nici o schimbare de sens: She talked loud and clear/loudly and clearly. Pentru o mai mare fluen n exprimare, forma adverbial identic cu cea a adjectivului este adesea ntrebuinat n comparaia adverbelor, chgiar dac la pozitiv apare forma n -ly: He runs quiker/slower than me. He shouted loudest.

7.5. Clasificarea adverbelor

Dup sensul lor lexical, adverbele se mpart n patru mari categorii: adverbe de mod, adverbe de loc, adverbe de timp i particule adverbiale. 7.5.1. Adverbele de mod (Adverbs of manner). Adverbele de mod indic modalitatea propriu-zis: well, badly, quickly, slowly etc. Ele mai pot fi adverbe: - de ntrire: acctually, certainly, obviously, really; - de amplificare: absolutely, completely, greatly, barely, hardly; - de afirmaie sau negaie: yes, no, of course, not at all; - de probabilitate: maybe, perhaps, probally. 7.5.2. Adverbele de loc (Adverbs of Place) Unele adverbe de loc indic locul propriu-zis: here, there, somewhere. Altele indic direcia: aside, foward(s), backward(s), righ, left. Majoritatea adverbelor de loc pot fi folosite pentru a exprima att locul ct i direcia: Loc: He doesnt live far (Nu locuiete departe). Direcie: He didnt go far (Nu s-a dus departe). 7.5.3. Adverbele de timp (Adverbs of Time). Adverbele de timp indic: - momentul aciunii: now, nowadays, today, then; - succesiunea n timp: afterwards, before, eventually, formerly, previosly, - durata: lately, recently, since, still, yet; - frecvena: definit: weekly, three times a day; nedefinit: often, usually, seldom, once in a while.

soon;

176

7.6. Comparaia adverbelor (Comparison of Adverbs)

Comparaia adverbelor apare numai la unele adverbe de mod, loc i timp. Ea are acelelai caracteristici ca i comparaia adjectivului. Comparativul este folosit pentru compararea a dou persoane sau obiecte, iar superlativul pentru compararea mai multor persoane sau obiecte.

7.6.1. Gradul comparativ. Comparativul de superioritate se formeaz cu ajutorul sufixului -er n cazul; adverbelor monosilabice i a adverbului early: fast faster; early - earlier i cu ajutorul cuvntului more n cazul adverbelor bi- i plurisilabice: quickly - more quickly; carefully - more carefully. n engleza familiar, forma de comparativ a adjectivelor este uneori folosit n loc de cea a adverbelor: She laugherd louder than anyone else. Ea rdea mai tare dect toi ceilali. Comparativul de egalitate se formeaz cu ajutorul lui as...as: She speaks English as fluently as her brother, iar comparativul de inferioritate, cu ajutorul lui not so / as...as:

Comparativul adverbelor se realizeaz n doi termeni, ca i la adjectiv: Paul works as rapidly as the others (do). Of the two boys, Dan works the more thoroughly. 7.6.2. Gradul superlativ. Superlativul absolut se formeaz cu ajutorul unor adverbe ca very, quite, most care preced adverbukl respectiv: She sings very beautifully. She sings most beautifully. Ahe sings quite beautifully. Spre deosebire de gradulk comparativ, superlativul absolut se realizeaz ntrun singur termen: Our teacher explains things most clearly. Superlativul relativ este de dou feluri: a) Superlativul relativ de superioritate, exprimat prin (the)...-est n cazul adverbelor monosilabice i a adverbului early: He runs (the) fasted (of all). i prin (the) most + adverb n cazul adverbelor bi- i plurisilabice: He answers (the) most intelligently (of all). b) Superlativul relativ de inferioritate, exprimat prin (the) least + adverb: She spells words (the) least correctly (of all). Articolul the din forma superlativului poate fi omis, mai ales n limba vorbit: He runs fasted of all. n cazul superlativului relativ, al doilea termen poate fi menionat sau omis: (of the three children, Mary plays the piano the best. Adverbele care au forme identice cu adjectivele se supun acelorai reguli fonetice i ortografice la gradele de comparaie: early - earlier - earliest; late - later -

She doesnt learn as fast as her classmates, sau less... than: He drives less carefully than his wife.

latest.

177

7.6.3. Comparaia neregulat a adverbelor. Unele adverbe formeaz gradele de comparaie n mod neregulat: Gradul pozitiv Gradul comparativ Gradul superlativ

well (bine) badly (ru) much (mult)

better (mai bine) worse (mai ru) more (mai mult)

(the) best (cel mai bine) (the) worst (cel mai ru) (the) most (cel mai mult)

7.7. Cteva adverbe speciale (Some Special Adverbs)

Enough (destul de) se aeaz dup adjective i adverbe: The pupils didnt work HARD enough. He is OLD enough to understand this. Not: Cnd enough este folosit adjectival, determinnd un substantiv, el poate fi aezat nainte sau dup acesta:

You have enough time to write your composition. You have time enough to write your composition.
Ai destul timp s scrii compoziia. Ai timp destul s scrii compoziia.

Far (departe) se folosete de obicei n propoziii negative sau interogative. n propoziii afirmative, el este fie nsoit de alte adverbe sau prepoziii, fie nlocuit de a...way: He didnt go far. He went only a short way. He lives far away / not far from here. First (nti): at first (la nceput) At first e folosit cu sensul de at the beginning/to begin with i este adesea urmat de but. n alte situaii se folosete first: First I went for a walk and then I went

to bed. At first I didnt like the town, but then I began to love it.

sensul:

Hardly, barely, scarcely Aceste trei adverbe au un sens aproape negativ. Hardly se folosete de obicei npreun cu any, ever sau cu verbul can, cu - cu greu, de-abia: He can hardly speak. sau: - foarte rar, aproape niciodat: He hardly ever comes to see me.

Barely nseamn abia, doar, numai i este des folosit cu adjective ca enough sau sufficient: He had barely enough time to catch the train. He is barely eighteen. Are numai 18 ani. Scarcely combin sensurile lui hardly i barely:
- cu greu, abia: I scarcely heard what he said. - aproape de loc: He scarcely ate anything.

178

In here (aici); out there (acolo). Adverbele here i there apar adesea nsoite de cuvinte ca: Its hot in here. Dont stay down there. Its cooler up here. Can you see the cat running out there? The teacher is tanding over there.

in, out, up, down, over:

- chiar acum, tocmai, n acest moment: Pupils are going on holiday just now. - adineauri: He came in just noe.

Just now. Adverbul just now are dou sensuri:

you stay there long? Yes. I stayed there a long time. Ai stat mult acolo? Da, am stat mult (timp) acolo.

Long. Adverbul long este nlocuit n propoziii afirmative de a long time: Did

Much apare singur n propoziii negative i interogative. n propoziii afirmative, el este precedat de very: Do you like swimming much? Yes. I like it very much. Much poate fi folosit i naintea comparativului: It is much better to come in time. Este mult mai bine s vii la timp.

Much (mult), very much (foarte mult).

- naintea cuvntului pe care l determin: Only HE came to see me. He came to see me only YESTERDAY. - naintea verbului (n limba vorbit): He only CAME to see me yesterday. n acest caz cuvntul la care se refer only va fi accentuat: He only came to see me yesterday.

Only (numai, doar) se poate aeza:

Folosit ca un verb la prezent, adverbul presently este sinonim cu at present, mai ales n engleza american: She is presently staying with us. Presently este sinonim cu soon cnd este folosit cu un verb la viitor: Ill presently be with you:

Presently (n prezent, n curnd).

Adverbul still (nc) exprim durata, continuarea. Still este folosit n proporii afirmative i interogative: Is Mary still at the seaside? Yes, she is still there. Still poate aprea i n propoziii negative pentru a sublinia continuarea unei aciuni negative: I still dont understand what this is about. Tot/nc nu neleg despre ce este vorba. Yet (nc, pn acum, pn atunci) se refer la un moment i se ntrebuineaz n propoziii negative i interogative: Has it stopped raining yet? He hasnt yet arrived. Cnd adverbul yet are sensul deja, el ocup poziia final: Have they seen that film yet? Au vzut deja filmul?

Still, yet

179

Aezate la nceputul propoziiei, ori dup conjunciile but, and, adverbele still i yet sunt sinonime cu all the same (totui, cu toate acestea) i au valoare de conjucii: Still I dont understand him. Yet I dont understand him. All the same I dont understand him. Cu toate acestea nu-l neleg.

- adjective: She is very TALL. - participii trecute ntrebuinate atributiv: She had a very SURPRISED look. - adverbe: He spoke very LOUDLY. Dac adjectivul este la gradul comparativ, sau dac participiul trecut este folosit predicativ, very trebuie nsoit sau nlocuit de much sau de alte adverbe de amplificare: greatly, highly, by far etc.: She was by far/much TALLER than him. She was very much SURPRISED at his behaviour.

Very (foarte) poate modifica:

EXERCIII:
I. Exprimai-v acordul cu afirmaiile de mai jos, folosind adverbe de mod. Exemplu: A. Mary is an efficient worker. B. Yes, she works efficiently. A. Alice is a good singer. B. Yes, she sings well. 1. Peter is a slow worker. 2. Ann is a good dancer. 3. Our teacher is a fluent English speaker. 4. He is a bad actor. 5. Doris is a hard worker. 6. Nick is a fast swimmer. 7. Mother is a careful typist. 8. Father is a careless driver. 9. He is an intelligent teacher. 10. He is an optimistic speaker. 11. He is a noisy eater. 12. Paul is an attentive listener. 13. He is a sensible speaker. 14. Diana is a quick runner.

R: 1. Peter works slowly. 2. Ann dances well. 3. Our teacher speaks English fluently. 4. He acts badly. 5. Doris works hard. 6. Nick swims fast. 7. Mother types carefully. 8. Father drives carelessly. 9. He teaches intelligently. 10. He speaks optimistically. 11. He eats noisily. 12. Paul listens attentively. 13. He speaks sensibly. 14. Diana runs quickly.

R: 1. She works very hard at school. 2. He dug deep in the ground. 3. He was rightly considered the best pupil in the class. 4. I can hardly see your face in the dark. 5. The train arrived late. 6. He was deeply moved by her kindness. 7. He guessed the answer right/He rightly guessed the answer. 8. Birds fly high. 9. I haven't seen him lately. 10. He is highly appreciated for his work. 11. He is closely

1. Ea muncete foarte mult la coal. 2. A spat adnc n pmnt. 3. Era pe drept considerat cel mai bun elev din clas. 4. Cu greu pot s-i vd faa n ntuneric. 5. Trenul a sosit cu ntrziere. 6. A fost adnc micat de buntatea ei. 7. A gsit rspunsul corect. 8. Psrile zboar la nlime. 9. Nu l-am vzut n ultima vreme. 10 Este foarte apreciat pentru munca sa. 11. Se nrudete de aproape cu mine. 12. Ia-o ncetior! 13. n general suntem plecai duminica. 14. E aproape miezul nopii. 15. Ce te deranjeaz cel mai tare? 16. El e chiar n vrf. 17. Deschide mare gura.

II. Traducei n limba englez:

180

related to me. 12. Take it easy! 13. We are mostly out on Sundays. 14. It is nearly midnight. 15. What is troubling you most? 16. He is right at the top. 17. Open your mouth wide.

181

8. Prepoziia (The Preposition)

8.1. Definiie
Prepoziia este partea de vorbire neflexibil care: a) exprim raporturi sintactice de dependen ntre prile unei propoziii. Ea leag pri de vorbire diferite: substantive, adjective, verbe sau adverbe de substantive sau substitute ale acestora: I was pleased at the thought of going yto the theatre. Am fost ncntat de ideea de a merge la teatru. b) este neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; c) prepoziia nu ndeplinete o funcie sintactic n propoziie ci marcheaz funcii sintactice: I gave the book to Mary (complement indirect). The roof of the house (atribut) is red.

8.2. Caracteristici ale prepoziiilor englezeti

8.2.1. Prepoziiile englezeti cer cazul acuzativ: Look AT him. I am BEFORE her. Prepoziiile of, to i for prezint o situaie special. Construcia cu prepoziia of este folosit ca echivalent al unei construcii genitivale: The boys coat is new. The coat of the boy is new. iar prepoziia to i for marcheaz cazul dativ: I gave it to him. I bought it for her. 8.2.2. Majoritatea prepoziiilor englezeti sunt urmate de substantive articulate, spre deosebire de limba romn: The children are playing in the garden. Copiii se joac n grdin. 8.2.3. Cteva prepoziii apar n construcii n care substantivul nu este articulat:

at home; at breakfast/lunch/dinner; at play; at war; at sea; at/in/to school, college, church. by car, bus, train, plane, boat; in/to bed, class, town;

Folosirea articolului cu unul dintre aceste substantive aduce schimbri de sens, de ex.: referirea la o anumit cas, coal etc.: He is AT home. (El) este acas. She is AT the home of her firiends. (Ea) este n casa prietenilor ei. sau He is AT sea (on a ship). (El) este pe mare (pe un vapor). 8.2.4. Verbe precedate de prepoziii iau forma n -ing (Gerund): I am good AT remembering peoples names. mi amintesc cu uurin numele oamenilor.

182

Excepii: But i except sunt urmate de infinitivul scurt: They did nothing BUT laugh. N-au fcut nimic (altceva) dect s rd. 8.2.5. Unele cuvinte sunt urmate n mod obligatoriu de anumite prepoziii: a) Substantive:

- interest, progress, satisfaction + in; - cause, chance, opportunity + of; - exception, invitation, kindness + to;
b) Adjective:

- anxious, enthusiastic + about; - alarmed, amazed, astonished, clever, good + at; - bound, eager, famous, fit, sorry + for; - disappointed, rich, successful + in; - afraid, ashamed, aware, characteristic, fond, full, jealous, proud, sure, tired, typical, worthy + of; - affectionate, appropiate, attentive, contrary, cruel, deaf, indifferent, kind, parallel, polite, rude, thankful + to; - angry, busy, charmed, consistent, delighted, dizzy, faint, identical, pale, satisfied, stiff, wet + with;
c) Verbe:

- aim, arrive, fire, gaze, glance, look + at; - account, ask, blame, care, leave long + for; - conceal, die, differ, escape, hide, prevent, protect + from; - abound, believe, end, fail, originate, succeed (+-ing), + in; - accuse, boast, cure, deprive, die, remind take care + of; - agree, comment, concentrate, congratulate, mediate + on; - adapt, adjust, apply, attribute, belong, cling, conform, consent, link, listen, prefer, reduce, refer, report, sell, sail, subscribe, turn + to; - complete, flush, glow, shake, shiver, side, subscribe, supply, threaten, tremble + with.
Atenie!

agree with smb. on a thing; to a proposal; complain to smb. about smth; complain of an illness; consist of = a consta din; in = a consta n; lie to smb. about smth.; part from smb.; with smth. suffer for a cause; from/with a disease, injury; think of smth.; about (=mediate); translate from a language into another language; wait for smb/smth.; on smb (serve); warn of (the danger); against (the enemy);

183

bite, kick, point, throw + to (scopul aciunii este atins); get on/off a bus, boat; get in(to)/out of a car, plane.
Not: smb = somebody; smth = something.

8.3. Poziie
Prepoziia apoare n general naintea cuvntului la care se refer: The pupils are IN the classroom. Elevii sunt n clas. Ea este folosit dup acesta: a) n ntrebri speciale (Wh-questions): What is he writing ABOUT? (About what is he writting? = formal): Despre ce scrie? b) n propoziii relative:

floor = formal). Apartamentul n care locuiesc este la etajul 10.

c) n exclamaii:

The flat I live IN is on the 10th floor (The flat in which I live is on the 10th

La ce fotografii se uit! d) n construcii pasive: copii.

What photos they are looking AT! (At what photos they are looking! = formal)

The children were looked AFTER by their grandmorher. Bunica avea grij de

e) n construcii infinitivale: lucrezi.

This is a good firm to work WITH. Aceasta este o firm bun cu care s

8.4. Relaii exprimate de prepoziii

n combinaie cu alte pri de vorbire, prepoziiile exprim relaii variate: LOC:

In (n) indic spaiul n general sau n interiorul cruia are loc aciunea: in a continent - country - town - village; in a square - street - room; in a forest - wood field; At (n la) indic un punct anumit din spaiu sau un loc mai mic: at a small village - address - certain point; at home; at work; at play; Within (n, ntre) (formal) indic poziia ntr-un spaiu limitat sau distana limit (la distan de, n): Many important documents are kept within the walls of this museum. Multe documente importante sunt pstrate ntre pereii acestui muzeu. There is nobody within these four walls/within hearing/within a mile.

at, in, within

184

Atenie! at a buiding (=instituia); in a building (cldirea): He is at school. E elev. He is in school. E n coal. He lives in New York (ora mare). They stopped at Brussels on their way to Ney York (punct pe hart, traseu).

By (lng, la) indic vecintatea imediat: Mary is standing by the window. Beside, next to (lng, la, alturi/aproape de) indic apropierea imediat: There is a night table beside my bed. The post office is beside/next to the hotel. Near, close to (lng, aproape de) indic apropierea n general: He lives near/close to his office. Against (lipit/rezemat de) exprim ideea de contact i sprijin. The bookcase is against the wall. Tom leant against the bookcase.

by, beside, next to, near, close to, against

Over (deasupra) i under (sub, dedesubt) indic o direcie vertical sau apropierea: Theres a picture over the fireplace. The dog is under the chair. Above (deasupra) i below (sub, dedesubt) arat doar c un obiect se afl mai sus sau mai jos dect altul: Their flat is above ours. Some part of Holland is below sea On top of (pe) i underneath (sub) arat c un obiect l atinge pe cellalt: The TV serial is on top of the house. The book you need is underneath those papers. Beneath (sub, pe sub) arat o distan mai mic dect below sau este un echivalent formal al lui under: The Dmbovia river passes beneath several bridges. level.

over, above, on, top of; under, beneath, below, underneath

In front of (n faa) este folosit n engleza vorbit, cu referire la obiecte: There is a tree in front of our house. (Dar: They were outside the cinema). Before (n faa, naintea) exprim ordinea aezrii persoanelor, n limba literar: He was before me. Behind (n spatele, napoia) indic poziia: The cat was behind the tree. After (dup, n spatele) indic ordinea, n spaiu sau n timp: He walked down the stairs after his wife.

in front of, before; behind, after

Between (ntre) = un obiect se afl ntre altele dou sau ntre mai multe dac numrul acestora este definit: Our school is between the hotel and the hospital. France

between, amoung

lies between the hotel and the hospital. France lies between Belgium, West Germany, Switzerland and Spain. Amoung (ntre, printre) = un obiect se afl ntre mai multe obiecte: Theres a dictionary amoung these books.

DIRECIE:

to, into, onto, towards

Aceste propoziii sunt folosite cu verbe de micare, pentru a indica direcia:

185

To (la) - micarea pn la un punct: He came to school early. Into (n) - ptrunderea: They went into the house. Onto (pe) - micarea pe o suprafa: The actor walked onto the stage. Towards (ctre, spre) - direcia ctree un punct, dar nu i atingerea destinaiei (ca to): They slowly towards the river.
Atenie! a) n vorbire in i on sunt adesea folosite n loc de into i onto, dup verbe ca put, place, lay etc.: She put her money in her bag/on the table. b) Verbul arrive este urmat de prepoziia at: They arrived at home early.

Through (prin indic traversarea i ptrunderea: Dont walk through the park, walk around it. Across/over (peste) indic numai traversarea: The train went over/across the bridge. They sailed across the ocean.

through, across, over

Up and down (n susul i n josul) exprim o micare pe vertical: The children ran up and down the stairs/hill. sau pe orizontal (de-a lungul): They walked up and down the street/platform.
(sinonim cu along)

up, down, along

Past (pe lng) indic micarea pe lng i dincolo de: Walk past the hitel, turn righ and youll get to the post-office. By (pe lng) indic o micare fr oprire sau cu o ntrerupere scurt: They drove by the lake without stopping.

past, by

Around (n jurul) indic o poziie sai micare circular: He has a muffler around his neck. About/around. (n jurul, n preajm, prin) indic o poziie/micare nedefinit: There arent many cinemas about/around here. They walked about/around town all day.

about, around

Off (de pe, de la, din) exprim separarea, desprinderea de o suprafa: The vase fell off the table.Out of (din) exprim ieirea, scoaterea dintr-un volum: She came out of the house. From (de, de la) indic desprirea, distana, locul de unde a pornit aciunea: She came straight home from school.
TIMP:

off, out of, from

at, on, in
186

At a time: at the/that time, at 8 oclock, at noon, at night, at dinner (time), at the weekend. On a day: on Sunday, on Monday morning, on New Years day, on the 1st of March, on the following day. In a period: in the (late) afternoon, in July, in summer, 1990, in the following months, in the 20th century.

By = nu mai trziu de: You will have my answer by the end of the week. Before = nainte de: I talked to him before noon. After = mai trziu de, dup: Ring me up after the meeting.

by, before, after

To poate exprima relaii de timp sau direcie, till/until numai de timp. From (din, de la) indic momentul nceperii aciunii, to/till (pn n, pn la) sfritul ei: She stayed with us from January to/till April last year. Till/until (i nu to) trebuie folosit dac lipsete from: He waited for you until 9 oclock. Until indic sfritul unei aciuni pozitive sau nceputul unei aciuni negative: We worked until noon (anmmd stopped then). We didnt work until noon (We began then).
DURATA:

from... to, till/until

During (n timpul), exprim perioad n timpul creia a avut loc o aciune (n mod intermitent): We were in Bucharest during summer. We visit the Art Galleries during our stay in Bucharest. For (de, timp de), indic durata unei aciuni nentrerupte: We stayed in Bucharest for three weeks. (All) through/throughout (to, tot timpul) = de la nceput pn la sfritul perioadei: We worked hard all through the year. It rained throughout the summer. Over (de, la) - indic o perioad limitat (srbtori, vacan) : We went to the mountains over the weekend.
Atenie! Prepoziiile de timp/durat se omit: a) n expresii cu last - next, this - that, some every I saw a film last night.(asear) He came this morning(n aceast diminea). I go to school every day (n fiecare zi). b) n expresii ncepnd cu all: He stayed there all day/week (nu for all day/week).

during, for, (all) through/throughout, over

MOD, INSTRUMENT, CANTITATE: With (cu), without (fr), in... manner/way (n modul) exprim modul n care are loc aciunea: She spoke with confidence/without hesitation/in the usual way. Like (ca) folosit ca prepoziie este urmat de un substantiv, pronume sau Gerund.

187

Like exprim modul: o asemnare/comparaie ntre doi termeni: She walks like a dancer. He is very much like his mother. By (cu, prin, de) i on (pe, la) indic mijlocul cu care e svrit aciunea: She entered by the back door. This dress is made by hand. He goes to work by bus/on foot. I listen to the news on the radio. He watches the news on television. With (cu) precede instrumentul: The little child has learned to write with a pen. She opened the door with a key. In (cu) exprim modul sau materialul folosit: She wrote the letter in ink. By (la, cu) exprim cantitatea: Cloth is sold by the yard. Eggs are sold by the dozen.
REFERIN:

As to, as for, regarding, in regard to, concerning (formal) = cu privire la, (ct) despre: As to our grandmother, everybody loves her. Some interesting documents concerning our ancient history have just been found. About, on (despre):

(din cauz de):

They talked about their school days. On este folosit pentru activiti organizate, dup verbe ca lecture, write speak: He lectured on Scottish literature. CAUZ: Because of, on account of (formal), from, out of, for, through

About este folosit cu verbe ca: chat, quarrel, talk:

We put off our trip because of the weather. She was late on account of the heavy trafffic. He coundnt speak for shame. He did it from pity / out of curiosity. She lost her gloves through her carelessness. SCOP: for (pentru) I went to the chemists for some aspirin. SURS/ORIGINE: from (din) He comes from France. AGENT: by (de, de ctre): She was examined by a specialist. CONCESIE: in spite, despite (formal), for all, with all (familiar) = n ciuda, cu toat/toate: They enjoyed the trip, in spite of the bad weather. Despite her ill;ness, she still goes skiing. He was a good man, for all his defects. EXCEPIE: except for, but (cu excepia): Everybody left but the headmaster.

8.5. Diferena ntre prepoziii n limba romn i n limba englez

ntre folosirea prepoziiilor n limba englez i limba romn exist numeroase diferene, care prezint dificulti pentru elevii romni. Unele dintre acestea sunt: in the street (Engl. americ. - on the stret) - pe strad in the playground - pe terenul de sport in the sky - pe cer in the sun - la soare in the open air - la aer curat on the way to - n drum spre

188

on the 1st floor - la etajul 1 round the corner - dup col at present - n prezent at the some time - n acelai timp at this moment - n acest moment at last - n sfrit in a year`s time - peste un an in my opinion - dup prerea mea beyond control - independent de voina... in all probability - dup toate probabilitile by my watch - dup ceasul meu by heart - pe dinafar by mistake - din greeal to go on a trip/ on holiday - a merge n cltorie n vacan to go (out) for a walk - a merge la plimare lo look out of the window - a privi pe fereastr to get in through the window - a intra pe fereastr he`s the tallest in the class - e cel mai nalt din clas outside the cinema - n faa cinematografului

8.6. Diferene ntre prepoziii n limba engleza britanic i prepoziii n engleza american
Exist unele diferene i n folosirea prepoziiilor n varianta britanic i american a limbii engleze:

Engleza britanic towards in the street at the back of... at the weekend its ten minutes past six its a qurter to one Ill see you on Sunday

Engleza american toward on the street in back of... on the weekend its ten minutes after six its a quarter before one Ill see you Sunday

8.7. Particule adverbiale (Adverbial Particles)

Particulele adverbiale sunt asemntoare ca form cu unele prepoziii sau adverbe. Ele se deosebesc ns de acestea prin funcia lor. Particulele adverbiale modific sensul verbelor pe care le nsoesc, transformndu-le n verbe cu particule adverbiale: They have put off the meeting again = They have postponed the meeting again. Au amnat din nou edina. Particulele adverbiale cel mai frecvent folosite sunt: about, across, along, around, away, back, by, down, in, of, on, out, over, past, roud, through, up. Not: Multe dintre aceste particule adverbiale pot fi folosite i ca adverbe propriu-zise: He is in. Este nuntru./Este n cas.

189

sau ca prepoziii: He is in the kitchen. Este n buctrie. 8.7.1. ntrebuinarea particulelor adverbiale a) n majoritatea cazurilor, particulele adverbiale modific total sensul verbelor la care sunt ataate: He came round after the accident. i-a recptat cunotina./i-a revenit dup accident. b) n alte cazuri, sensul verbului cu particul adverbial poate fi dedus din analiza elementelor componente: go in, come, bring back, take away. c) Folosirea unor particule adverbiale pe lng anumite verbe ntrete doar ideea exprimat de acestea: drink up (bea tot/pn la fund), stand up, lie down. 8.7.2. Locul particulelor adverbiale n propoziie. Particulele adverbiale se aeaz imediat dup un verb intranzitiv: He turned round and looked at me. S-a ntors i s-a uitat la mine. Dac verbul este tranzitiv i este urmat de un complement direct exprimat printr-un pronume sau alt determinant, particula adverbial este aezat dup complementul direct: We saw THEM off to the station. I-am condus la gar. Pick THESE up, please. Ridic astea, te rog. Not: Prin aceast caracteristic, verbele cu particole adverbiale se deosebesc de verbele urmate de prepoziii obligatorii, deoarece prepoziiile nu pot fi separate de verb. Comparai: Please look ME up when you come to Bucharest. (up = particula adverbial). She was looking at HIM (at = prepoziie) Dac complementul direct este exprimat printr-un substantiv, particula adverbial poate fi aezat nainte sau dup acesta (mai ales n vorbirea familiar): He gave back THE BOOK. He gave THE BOOK back. A napoiat cartea. Dac complementul direct este lung, sau este exprimat prinytr-o propoziie subordonat, particula adverbial este aezat imediat dup verb: He gave back the book he had borrowed. A napoiat cartea pe care o mprumutase.

EXERCIII:
1. I live..... 53, Franklin street. My flat is.... the 10th floor. 2. The tallest building.... the world is.... New York. 3. Father drove.... the corner slowly, while I went.... the shop. 4. Well leave..... Braov tomorrow. 5. They'll stop...Paris...their way...London. 6. They ran... school...the bus stop. 7. We went...Oradea... a business trip last week. 8. Peter isn't...home. He must be ... school. 9. They arrived ... cinema early. 10. My uncle drove ... me ... his car, but he didn't see me. 11. The coins fell... his pocket. 12. She carried the box...the stairs...her room. 13. Let's sit... the sun. 14. He leant... the wall. 15. Don't go ... the street on a red light.

I. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziii de loc sau direcie:

R: 1. at; on. 2. in, in. 3. round; into. 4. for. 5. in, on, to. 6. from, to. 7. to, on. 8. at, at. 9. at. 10. past, in. 11. out of. 12. up, into. 13. in. 14. against. 15. across.

190

1. Ill be in the country.... July..... September. 2. They travelled.......the day and slept......night. 3. Eminescu was born........ January 15, 1850. 4. He came....10 oclock....the same time with his friend. 5. It is very hot here ... summer. 6. I phoned all my friends... New Year's Day. 7. We go to school ... the morning. 8. I hope I'll have finished my homework...9 o'clock. 9. We stayed at home...the weekends. 10. I've been living in Bucharest... ten years. 11. They'll be here...ten minutes. 12. The manager won't be back...later this afternoon. 13. School begins... September and ends... July. 14. I didn't understand him...first.
13. in, in. 14. at.

II. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziii de timp sau durat:

R: 1. from, to. 2. in, at. 8. on. 4. at, at. 5. in. 6. on. 7. in. 8. by, 9. over. 10. for. 11. in. 12. until.

III. Traducei n limba englez: 1. La ce te uii? 2. El se uit pe fereastr. 3. Pe cine atepi? 4. Ct e ora dup ceasul tu? 5. Hai s mergem la plimbare. 6. E n spital de dou sptmni. 7. De ce i-e team? El e ntotdeauna amabil cu pacienii. 8. i sunt recunosctor pentru serviciul pe care mil-a fcut. 9. L-am felicitat pentru succesul su. 10. Tremura de frig. 11. Nu m mini! 12. Dimineaa s-au plimbat prin ora, dup-amiaza au stat acas. 13. Cursul a durat o lun ntreag. 14. Au pornit-o spre ru. 15. edina a nceput la ora 11 dimineaa i a durat pn la ora 2 dup-amiaz. 16. A fost plecat n timpul vacanei. 17. Au cltorit ca de obicei. 18. ine o conferin despre arta contemporan. 19. Tabloul a fost pictat n ulei, nu n acuarel. 20. E un program bun la televizor disear.

R: 1. What are you looking at? 2. He is looking out of the window. 3. Who are you waiting for? 4. What's the time by your watch? 5. Let's go for a walk. 6. He has been in hospital for two weeks. 7. What are you afraid of? He is always kind to his patients. 8. Fm grateful to him for the favour he has done to me. 9.I congratulated him on his success. 10. He was shivering with cold. 11. Don't lie to me. 12. In the morning they walked about/round town, in the afternoon they stayed at home. 13. The course lasted for a whole month. 14. They set off towards the river. 15. The meeting began at eleven o'clock in the morning and lasted until two o'clock in the afternoon/and ended at two o'clock in the afternoon. 16. He was away during his holiday. 17. They travelled as usual. 18. He is delivering a lecture on contemporary art. 19. The picture was painted in oil not in water-colours. 20. There is a good programme on television tonight.

191

9. Conjuncia (The Conjunction)

9.1. Definiie
a) exprim raporturi de coordonare sau de subordonare ntre dou propoziii, raporturi de coordonare ntre dou pri de propoziie sau ntre o parte de propoziie i o propoziie; b) este neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; c) nu ndeplinete nici o funcie sintactic n propoziie dar marcheaz raporturile de coordonare i subordonare n cadrul propoziiei i al frazei.

9.2. Conjunciile coordonatoare (Co-ordinating Conjunctions)

Galleries yesterday. It started to rain but the game continued.
Conjunciile coordonatoare leag pri de propoziie cu aceeai funcie sintacic sau propoziii de acelai fel: I visited the Village Museum and the Art

9.2.1. Clasificare. Dup relaiile pe care le stabilesc, conjunciile coordonatoare pot fi: a) copulative: and - i; as well as - precum; both... and - att... ct i; not only... but also - nu numai... dar i; b) disjunctive: or - sau; ori; either...or - sau... sau; neither...nor - nici...nici; c) adversative: but - dar, ci. 9.2.2. ntrebuinarea conjunciilor coordonatoare. Either... or indic dou alternative din care numai una este posibil, n propoziii pozitive sau interogative: We

can either have a snack now, or we can have lunch at noon. Can you drink either milk or tea? Pentru a exprima o negaie se folosete either... or + verb negativ sau neither...nor + verb pozitiv: I cant travel either by air or by sea. I can travel neither by air nor by sea.

9.2.3. Poziie. Conjunciile coordonatoare se aeaz ntre unitile sintactice pe care le unesc: He opened the door AS WELL AS the window. Conjunciile coordonatoare nuj pot fi aezate la nceputul frazei: Dan finished his homework and went out for a walk. Dan i-a terminat leciile i a ieit la plimbare.

9.3. Conjunciile subordonatoare (Subordinating Conjunctions)

Conjunciile suordonatoare leag propoziiile secundare din fraz de elementele lor regente: I went to the post office, WHERE I bought a dozen postcards. M-am dus la pot, unde am cumprat dousprezece vederi. 9.3.1. Clasificare. Dup felul propoziiilor pe care le introduc, conjunciile subordonatoare pot fi:

192

1) universale: that - c; if, whether - dac; care pot introduce mai multe feluri de propoziii dubordonate: WHETHER he will be punctual remains to be seen. (propoziie subiectiv). The best way is IF you go there yourself. (propoziie predicativ) Remember THAT we must get there in time. (completiv direct). 2) specializate: a) de loc: where - unde; wherever - oriunde; b) de timp: when - cnd; since - de cnd; till/until - pn cnd; while/as - n timp ce; before - nainte ca; after - dup ce; c) de mod: (exactly) as; (just) as - (aa) cum; (exact) cum; d) de cauz: as, since, because - deaorece, fiindc; e) de scop: so that, in order that/so (that) (mai formal) - (pentru) ca, cu scopul ca. Scopul negativ este exprimat de: for fear (that) - de team s; in case; lest (formal) - ca s nu; f) condiionale: if - dac; provided (that)/on condition (that) as long as/so longs as - cu condiia; unless - afar dac, numai dac nu; g) consecutive: so that - nct; so (familiar) - nct; so/such... (that) aa/astfel... nct; h) concesive: though, although (mai formal), while, whereas (formal), even if.though - dei, cu toate c, chiar dac; i) comparative: as...as - mai (mult)... dect; as if/as though - ca i cum, de parc. 9.3.2. ntrebuinarea conjunciilor subordonatoare

Cnd sunt obosit fac o plimbare. (accentul este pe momentul aciunii) sau succesiunea lor imediat n timp: When she rang the bell, he came to the door. Cnd ea a sunat la sonerie, el a venit la u. As este folosit pentru aciuni paralele: She wept as she spoke. Plngea n timp ce vorbea. (accentul este pe aciunea nsi); sau ca sinonim al lui while: As I was crossing the street, I heard somebody call my name. n timp ce/Pe cnd traversam strada, am auzit pe cineva strigndu-mi numele.

When, as (temporale) When indic simultaneitatea a dou aciuni: When I am tired I go for a walk.

As, since, because (cauzale) As exprim cauza, motivul pentru aciunea din propoziia regent: As liked the dress, she bought it. Fiindc i-a plcut rochia, a cumprat-o. Since presupune un argument admis de interlocutor: Since you need this book, Ill get for you. Deoarece ai nevoie de carte, am s i-o iau. If not, unless (condiionale) If not este opusul lui if (dac nu): If you get sick, youll need a doctor. If you dont get sick, you wont need a doctor. 193

Unless este opusul lui provided/providing that (doar dac, cu condiia ca), iar cnd este folosit unless verbul din propoziia condiional este la forma pozitiv: You may see the doctor provided you have an appointment. Poi s intri la doctor cu condiia s fii programat. You cant see the doctor unless you have an appointment. Nu poi s intri la doctor dect dac eti programat. Unless nu este folosit pentru a introduce propoziii condiionale ireale: He couldnt have seen the doctor if he hadnt had an appointment. N-ar fi putut s intre la doctor dac n-ar fi fost programat.
9.3.3. Poziie. Conjunciile subordonatoare se aeaz la nceputul propoziiei secundare, care poate precede sau urma propoziia regent: AS the wether was bad, we

Spre deosebire de conjunciile coordonatoare, conjunciile subordonatoare pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: He left early because he wasnt feeling very well AND because the party was boring. A plecat devreme pentru c nu se simea foarte bine i pentru c petrecerea era plicticoas.

stayed home all day. ALTHOUGH she spoke very slowly, I couldnt understand her. I cant help you with your homework BECAUSE Im busy right now. Lydia liked the book SO much THAT she read it three times.

EXERCIII:
paranteze: 1. Alice had too much to eat. Cathy didnt. (but). 2. I havent finished the book. I cant return it to the library yet. (so) 3. I shall buy that watch. It is not expensive. (if). 4. You wont understand. You listen carefully. (unless). 5. Mary bought a new dress. She didn't really need one (although). 6. Peter got good marks in his term papaers. He worked very hard. (because). 7. Father has bought a violin. Alan can learn how to play (so that). 8. You must do. You are told (exactly as). I'm studying. I like to listen to radio. (while). 10. Bob is having an exam tomorrow. He can't come to our party. (since). 11. He had studied English for seven years. He could't speak is fluently. (even though). 12. Paul is keenon tennis. He plays every day (so...that). 13. It was a very difficult exercise. Mary couldn't do it. (such...that)

I. Formai fraze din propoziiile urmtoare cu ajutorul conjunciilor din

1. Paul was not.....bright....his brothers were. (although, as....as, provided that). 2. But he had always worked harder..... they ever had. (than, whereas, before) 3. He would get a scholarship..... he passed the exam today (so, provided, until). 4. In a way he did not really care... he won the scholarship or not (whether, if, unless). 5. But he wanted to do his exam ... he wasn't feeling very well. (in case, lest, though). 7. He listened to the invigilator carefully...he might fail to catch all the instructions. (supposing, for fear, whether). 8. The invigilator pronounced all the name slowly... each of them might hear his name clearly. (so that, such...that, provided that).

II. Completai spaiile libere cu conjunciile potrivite ca sens din paranteze:

194

III. Traducei n limba englez: Au ajuns sara la hanul lui Domnu Vasiliu. Vitoria tia c acolo are s gseasc ceva. ntr-adevr, a gsit. n sat la Suha, se strnise oarecare zvoan. Spuneau unii i alii c ar fi nevoie s vie vreun judector de la trg, s cerceteze cum a fost cu vnzarea oilor. S vad dac se afl hrtia lor de cumprtur de la Dorna, i dac gospodarii din Suha au chitan de paralele pe care le-au dat lui Lipan. Nu spune nimenee c asemenea gospodari cu vaz ar fi n stare a svri o fapt rea - dar e bine s-i arate ndreptrile. Afar de asta a mai spus nu tiu cine c numai dect cinstiii gospodari trebuie s arate martorul ori artorii care s-au gsit fa la vnzare sau la numrtoarea banilor. E la nelegerea oriicui c numai asemenea strin sau strini, care s-au aflat de fa, au putut s urmreasc pe Lipan, i s-i rpeasc banii oilor. S-ar putea ca aceti martori s fie cu totul necunoscui. Nici Calistrat, nici Ilie Cuui nu i-au vzut pn atunci, nici de atunci. Chiar dac ar fi aa, s arate ce nfiare aveau, ce cai i ce straie. Din puin, se pot afla multe i fptaii ies la iveal.

R: In the evening they reached Mr Vasiliu's inn. Vitoria knew she would find some-thing there. And indeed she did. In the village of Suha people were talking. They said a judge from the city should come to investigate how things had been with the sale of the sheep, to see whether the bill for their sale at Dorna could be found, and whether the honourable men from Suha had a receipt for the money they had given to Lipan. Nobody said such important men could commit an evil deed - but it was good for them to claim their rights. Besides, somebody said the honourable men should produce the witness or witnesses who had been present at the sale and at the counting of the money. It was obvious that only such a stranger or strangers who had been there, could have followed Lipan and stolen the money for the sheep. These witnesses might be totally unknown. Neither Calistrat, nor Ilie Cuui had seen them before or since. Even so, they had to say what they looked like and how their horses and clothes were. You could learn a lot from a little Information and the evil doers would 'be found.

(Mihail Sadoveanu - Baltagul)

195

10. Interjecia (The Interjection)

10.1. Definiie
a) Prin interjecie se exteriorizeaz senzaii, sentimente, manifestri de voin sau se reproduc sunete i zgomote din natur; b) interjecia este o parte de vorbire neflexibil, nefiind marcat de categorii gramaticale; c) interjecia poate constitui fie un element de ntrire pe lng o propoziie, fie o propoziie independent sau o parte de propoziie.

10.2. Clasificare
Cu ajutorul interjeciilor se exteriorizeaz: 1) senzaii i sentimente: a) bucurie: Ah! Ooh! Jippee! Hurray! (a, ah, ura!). b) surpriz: Oh! Wow! (a, ah, oh!). Oh, what a nice dress! c) mirare: Oh, dear! Dear me! Indeed! (vai drag, vai de mine, ntr-adevr) Oh,

Peter! Youve passed all your exams brilliantly. i) dezaprobare: Nonsense! What a nuisance! (Prostii! Ce pacoste!): What a nuisance! Now Ill have to do it all over again! j) regret: Ah! Oh! What a pity! (a!, oh! ce pcat!): What a pity you couldnt come! It was a good play. k) durere: Ouch! Ow! (vai, ah, aoleu!): ouch, it hurst! 2) manifestri de voin: a) o rugminte, un ndemn: Oh! Help! (oh! Ajutor!); Ssh! Hush! Silance! (Sst, linite!): Hush! The babys sleeping! b) o ncurajare: Cheer up! Come on! (Curaj! Haide!): Come on, dont be afraid!

dear, I cant find my purse. Dear me! What are you doing over there? d) admiraie: Whew!(ah, doamne): Whew, how beautiful she is! e) nelegere: Aha! (a, aha!): Aha, these gloves are exactly what I was looking for. f) dispre: Fie! Pshaw! What a shame! (Ptiu, pah, ce ruine!): Fie upon you! You ought to be ashamed at what you have done. g) dezgust: Ugh! (h!): Ugh, how dirty your hands are! h) aprobare: Well done! Congratulations! (Foarte bine! Felicitri!) Well done,

Youll manage.

c) o avertizare: Look Out! Fire! (Atenie! Foc!): Fire! The house is on fire!

3) se reproduc sunete i zgomote din mediul nconjurtor: Bow - wow! Miaow! Baa! Buzz! (Ham - ham! Miau! Beh! Bzz!): Bang! Click! Crash!

196

10.3. ntrebuinarea interjeciilor

Una i aceeai interjecie poate avea semnificaii diferite, n funcie de context: Ah, here you are at last! (bucurie), dar i: Ah, its painful! (durere). Unele interjecii sunt folosite cu precdere de brbai: No fear! Good lord!

Jolly good!

me! My goodness!

pe cnd altele sunt specifice limbajului feminin: Wow! Oh, dear! Oh, my! Dear

EXERCIII:
1. Ouch, my leg! 2. Ooh, this icecreams delicious! 3. Jippee, weve won the match! 4. Wow, isnt she clever? 5. Well dome, Peter. 6. Ssh! Grandma is sleeping. 7. My goodness! What dreadful weather! 8. Grr! Isnt it cold! 9. Lookout! A car is coming. 10. Mm! This cream cake's very good. 11. Well, I must be going. Oh, I see. 12. Well, good luck!, Oh, thank you. 13. Ah, there you are! 14. Dear me! You do look ill!. 15. What a pity we didn't go on a picnic yesterday. Now it's raining. 16. Tut, tut! You are naughty boy! 17. Welcome hoe, my dear!

I. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba romn:

1. ...! Were having a holiday tomorrow! Were going on a trip! 2. ..... That was a wonderful show! I hadnt thought I would enjoy it so much! 3. .... Ive spilt my tea! 4. ..... What a mess! 5. ... it's paintful! 6. ... that's exactly what I needed. 7. ... how wonderfully she sings! 8. ... Father is working. 9. ...There's a bus coming! 10. ...you do look pale! 11. ... Peter has broken that window again! 12. ...! You can come with us even if you are tired. You'll have a good rest there.

II. Completai spaiile libere cu interjecii potrivite ca sens:

197

Partea II

SINTAXA PROPOZIIEI
(The Simple Sentence)
II.0. GENERALITI
II.0.1. Definiie. Propoziia este unitatea de baz a sintaxei. Ea reprezint cea mai mic unitate a sintaxei care poate aprea de sine stttoare i care comunic o judecat logic sau o idee cu caracter afectiv sau voliional. II.0.2. Clasificare 1) Din punct de vedere al scopului comunicrii, propoziiile se mpart n: a) propoziii enuniative, care transmit o informaie: Columbus discovered America in 1492. Columb a descoperit America n 1492. He didnt notice her. Nu a observat-o. b) propoziii interogative, prin care se solicit o informaie: Would you like to come to our party? Vrei s vii la petrecerea noastr? c) propoziii imperative, care exprim o porunc, o rugminte, ndemn: Open the book! Deschide cartea. Switch on the radio, please. Deschide radioul, te rog. d) propoziii exclamative, care exprim o stare afectiv (surprindere, nemulumire, satisfacie etc.): Oh, how attractive she is! Oh, ce frumoas este! 2) Din punct de vedere al structurii, propoziiile se mpart n: a) propoziii simple (Unextended Simple Sentences), alctuite numai din subiect i predicat: The children are sleeping. Copii dorm. Dogs bark. Cinii latr. b) propoziii dezvoltate (Extended Simple Sentences), care cuprind, pe lng subiect i predicat, i alte pri de propoziie: Yesterday he went to school by bicycle. Ieri s-a dus la coal cu bicicleta. c) propoziii eliptice (Elliptical Simple Sentences), din care lipsesc anumite pri de propoziie, ele putnd fi completate cu uurin: (Ive) never heard about him. Who is missing? John (is missing). II.0.3. Tipuri de propoziii. Structura propoziiilor simple i dezvoltate poate fi detaliat n funcie de prile de propoziie care urmeaz n mod obligatoriu anumite verbe. Verbele se mpart n trei clase mari: copulative, intranzitive i tranzitive, din punct de vedere al complinirii verbale, al prilor de propoziie care pot fi folosite dup ele. a) Verbul copulativ prin excelen este verbul be. Acesta nu poate fi urmat dect de un nume predicativ sau de un complement circumstanial de loc:

They are workers. They are in the factory.

198

b) Verbele intranzitive nu pot fi urmate de complemente directe. c) Verbele tranzitive sunt verbele urmate de complemente directe. II.0.4. Lund n considerare posibilitile de complinire verbal, se obin urmtoarele subtipuri de propoziii: Propoziia simpl: a) subiect + verb intranzitiv: He swims. El noat. b) subiect + verb copulativ + nume predicativ: He is a treacher. El este profesor. He is competent. El este competent. Propoziia dezvoltat: a) subiect + verb intranzitiv + complement circumstanial: He swims in the sea. El noat n mare. b) subiect + verb copulativ + complement circumstanial: The teacher is here/in classroom. Profesorul este aici/n clas. c) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct: She has found the book. (Ea) a gsit cartea. d) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct + complement direct: The man asked the boy several questions. Omul i-a pus biatului mai multe ntrebri. e) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct + complement indirect: Father gave the toy to the little boy. Tatl i-a dat jucria biatului. f) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct + element predicativ suplimentar: They appointed him chairman. L-au numit preedinte. g) subiect + verb tranzitiv + complement direct + complement prepoziional: I helped him with homework. L-am ajutat s-i fac temele. II.0.5. Prile de propoziie (The Parts of the Sentence). Prile de propoziie se clasific n: 1) pri principale de propoziie: subiectul i predicatul; 2) pri secundare de propoziie; complementul direct, indirect, prepoziional, elementul predicativ suplimentar, complemente circumstaniale (de timp, loc, mod, cauz etc.) i atributul. n limba englez, aceste pri de propoziie pot fi identificate cu ajutorul urmtoarelor caracteristici: a) prin ce pri de vorbire sunt exprimate; b) locul pe care-l ocup n propoziie; c) trsturi specifice: acord, trecerea la diateza pasiv etc.;

199

a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal (printr-un substantiv sau substitut al acestuia, nsoit sau nu de determinani) sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie de subiect; b) se aeaz naintea predicatului n propoziiile enuniative i dup verbul auxiliar/modal n propoziiile interogative; c) se acord n numr i persoan cu predicatul. a) este exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv sau intranzitiv la un mod personal sau printr-un verb copulativ cu o complinire nominal; b) se aeaz de regul dup subiect; c) are acord determinat de subiect. a) este exprimat, ca i subiectul, printr-un grup nominal sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; b) urmeaz de regul grupul subiect - predicat; c) devine subiectul propoziiei n transformarea pasiv.

Subiectul (The Subject):

Predicatul (The Predicate):

Complementul direct (The Direct Object):

Complementul indirect (The Indirect Object):

Numele predicativ (The Predicative Part of a Nominal Predicate).

a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal; b) urmeaz complementul direct i are prepoziia exprimat (to sau for); I gave the book to Mary. c) nu poate fi folosit fr un complement direct.

Elementul predicativ suplimentar (The Predicative Adjunct):

a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; b) urmeaz verbul copulativ be sau alte copulative: become, turn etc.: c) nu devine subiect al propoziiei n transformarea pasiv. a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; b) urmeaz grupul subiect - predicat: The boat swept close They appinted him chairman. I left the meeting a little perturbed. c) nu devine subiect al propoziiei n transformarea pasiv: He was appointed chairman.

a) este exprimat printr-un adverb, construcie adverbial sau propoziie subordonat circumstanial, printr-un grup nominal sau o construcie prepoziional; b) este de obiecei mobil, adic poate ocupa mai multe locuri n propoziie; c) este de obicei opional, adic poate fi adugat sau eliminat dintr-o propoziie fr ca ea s devin negramatical.

Complementul circumstanial (The Adverbial):

200

11. Subiectul (The Subject)

Subiectul este partea principal de propoziie despre care se spune ceva cu ajutorul predicatului.

11.1. Definiie

11.2. Exprimarea subiectului

n limba englez, subiectul este de obicei exprimat, chiar atunci cnd este impersonal sau generic, verbul englez avnd puine desinene care s marcheze formal persoana i numrul (spre deosebire de limba romn): I read the paper every morning. Citesc ziarul n fiecare diminea. Its raining. Plou. You must do your duty. Trebuie si faci datoria. Subiectul poate fi exprimat: a) printr-un grup nominal coninnd un substantiv, cu sau fr determinant, sau un substitut al acestuia: Sutdents work hard to pass their exams. Studenii se pregtesc serios ca s promoveze examenele. Everybody was present. Toi erau prezeni. Three are mising. Trei lipsesc. The woinded were taken to hopital. Rniii au fost dui la spital. b) printr-o construcie cu infinitivul, particupiul (prezent sau trecut) sau forma Gerund, construcie folosit de obiecei pentru reducerea unei propoziii subordonate subiective i numit subiect complex: De exemplu: - nominativul cu infinitiv: She is said to be a good doctor. Se spune c ea este o doctori bun. - infinitivul cu for-to: It is unusual for her to be a quiet. Este neobinuit ca ea s fie att de tcut. - o construcie gerundial: Johns/His coming late worried us. ntrzierea lui John ne-a ngrijorat. c) printr-o propoziie subordonat subiectiv: That nothing came out of it irritated him. Faptul c nu a ieit nimic din asta l enerva. d) printr-un element care nu are sens de sine stttor - aa numitul subiect introductiv ir sau there - care anticipeaz subiecftul real, logic al propoziiei: It ia easy to do this exercise. Acest exerciiu este uor de fcut. There are three pupils in the classroom. Sunt trei elevi n clas.

11.3. Situaii speciale

11.3.1. Subiectul generic poate fi exprimat prin pronumele one, you, he, they, sau prin substantivul people. Pronumele one, you, he, they i substantivul people se folosesc ca subiecte pentru a desemna o persoan n general sau un grup nedefinit de persoane: You cant do two different things at a time. Nu se pot face dou lucruri diferite n acelai timp. One can find this phone number in the telephone diectory.

201

Acest numr de telefon se poate gsi n cartea de telefon. People drink a lot of coffee in this country. n ara noastr se bea mult cafea. 11.3.2. Pronumele it este subiect impersonal: a) al verbelor impersonale: It often rains in autumn. Deseori plou toamna. It snows a lot in the mountains. Ninge mult la munte. b) al propoziiilor prin care se exprim timpul, vremea, distana: Its nearly six oclock. Este aproape ora ase. Its cold. Este frig. Its quite far from here. Este destul de departe de aici. 11.3.3. Subiectul introductiv. Unele propoziii conin un subiect gramatical (formal) i unul logic (real), adevratul subiect al propoziiei. De obiecei subiectul real este anticipat prin pronumele it sau elementul there (care nu este identic cu adverbul there). 1) It introductiv este folosit cnd subiectul propoziiei este: a) un infinitiv: It is necessary to start at once. Este necesar s porneti imediat. It takes me half an hour to get to my office. mi trebuie o jumtate de or s ajung la serviciu. b) un gerund: It was no use your crying. Ai plns degeaba. c) o propoziie subiectiv: It is strange that she hasnt accepted our invitation. Este ciudat c ea nu a acceptat invitaia noastr. It seems he is right. Se pare c are dreptate. 2) Subiectul introductiv there este folosit n propoziiile n care subiectul real nu este definit: There are some books on the table. Sunt cteva cri pe mas. n stilul literar, there este urmat i de alte verbe, mai ales happen i occur: There happened that an old man remembered something about her. S-a ntmplat ca un btrn s-i aminteasc ceva despre ea. O propoziie introdus prin there este urmat de obicei de alta prin care se fac precizri: There is a man at the door. He wants to speak to you. Este un om la u. Vrea s vorbeasc cu tine.

11.4. Locul subiectului n propoziie

Subiectul este aezat: a) naintea verbului n propoziiile enuniative (afirmative i negative):

Mary is a good swimmer. She doesnt swim every day.

Does she want to read this book?

b) dup verbul auxiliar sau modal, n propoziiile integorative: Can you swim? c) dup verb, cnd el este anticipat de un it sau there introductiv: There is a

teacher in the room. It seems she has left.

202

12. Predicatul (The Predicate)

Predicatul este partea principal de propoziie care atribuie subiectului o aciune, o stare sau o nsuire.

12.1. Definiie

12.2. Clasificare
Funcia de predicat poate fi ndeplinit de verbe tranzitive i intranzitive la un mod personal, precum i de verbe copulative, atunci cnd au compliniri nominale. 12.2.1. Verbele tranzitive i cele intranzitive formeaz predicatul verbal clasic: Birds fly. Psrile zboar. He wrote an interesting essay. A scris o compoziie interesant. 12.2.2. Predicatul nominal (the Nominal Predicate) este alctuit din: A) un verb copulativ + B) un nume predicativ. A) Verbele copulative sunt verbe care i-au pierdut total sau parial sensul lexical i ndeplinesc funcia gramatical de marc a raportului predicativ dintre dou nume, n cadrul predicatului nominal. Gramatica tradiional distinge mai multe clase de verbe copulative: 1) verbul be (Verb of Being), total golit de sesn loxical: He is clever. El este detept. Not: Cnd verbul be este folosit cu sensul a exista, a se afla, a se gsi, a avea loc, etc. el formeaz singur predicatul propoziiei: Where is my pen? The school

festival is on Saturday.

2) Verbe parial golite de sens lexical: a) verbe ale devenirii: become, get, grow, turn: Her hair has turned grey. A ncrunit. She is getting old. mbtrnete. b) Verbe ale continurii n aceeai stare : continue, keep, remain, hold, stay. He kept silent. Tcea. c) verbe ale aparenei: appear, look, seem: She seemed ill. Prea bolnav, He looks pale. Este palid. Dintre verbele copulative, verbul be prezint cele mai multe pozibiliti combinatorii (cu oricare parte de vorbire care poate ndeplini o funcie nominal), datorit golirii sale totale de sens lexical:

He is a teacher. He is very competent. He is admired by his friends.

203

Celelalte verbe copulative se mbin doar cu cteva pri de vorbire: - toate cu adjective:

- unele i cu participii trecute:

The child fell ill. The child felt ill. The child got ill. The child looked ill.

- iar altele i cu substantive:

He seemed impresseed. He appeared impressed. He looked impressed.

She may turn an excellent teacher. She may become an excellent teacher. B) Numele predicativ formeaz mpreun cu verbul copulativ predicatul

propoziiei. Numele predicativ este exprimat: a) printr-un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia:

My nephew has become a doctor.

eager to come.

b) printr-un adjectiv, singur sau cu o complinire: She was happy. She was c) printr-un participiu trecut: The village seemed deserted. Locul numelui predicativ n propoziie este dup verbul copulativ: Those boys

are students.

12.3. Locul predicatului n propoziie

sun was shining brightly. Soarele strlucea puternic.
De obicei predicatul este aezat dup subiect i naintea complementului: The

n unele cazuri aceast ordine este inversat: a) n propoziiile interogative: Is Mary in the library? b) n propoziii condiionale n care conjuncia if este omis, iar predicatul conine un verb auxiliar sau modal: Had I time, I should take a walk. Dac a avea timp m-a plimba. c) pentru a acccentua o anumit parte din propoziie: NEVER shall I forget what he did for me. N-am s uit niciodat ce a fcut pentru mine.

204

13. Acordul subiectului cu predicatul (Subject - Verb Concord)

n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, verbul predicat se acord cu subiectul n persoan i numr.

13.1. Acordul n persoan

a) Cnd subiectul propoziiei este un pronume personal, verbul predicat sau verbul auxiliar se acord cu pronumele personal la persoana respectiv:

I AM Romanian. She IS my best friend. He DOESNT remember a word.

b) n propoziiile relative, verbul se acord n persoan cu substantivul sau cu pronumele personal la care se face referirea: It is he who DESERVES all the praise. I

say it, who AM his sister.

c) Dac ns subiectul este exprimat printr-un alt pronume sau printr-un substantiv, verbul predicativ este la persoana a III-a singular i plural: Who IS that

man? These lessons ARE difficult.

You and I ARE going to the theatre tonight. You and I ARE going to the theatre tonight. You and I ARE going to the theatre tonight. e) Cnd subiectul coordonat prin either - or reprezint persoane diferite, verbul se acord cu pronumele personal cel mai apropiat: Either my mother or I AM at home in the evening.

d) Cnd subiectul propoziiei este exprimat printr-un substantiv sau pronume personal, coordonat cu un alt pronume personal prin intermediul conjunciei and, verbul se pune la persoana a III-a plural chiar dac ultimul pronume, conform regulilor de politee, este I:

Not: n vorbirea curent, construciile ca cea de sus sunt evitate, prin folosirea unui verb auxiliar sau modal care este invaraiabil pentru persoan: Either my mother or I WILL be at home in the evening. sau prin folosirea a dou prepoziii coordonate: My mother IS at home in the evening and so am I.

13.2. Acordul n numr

Acordul n numr se face: 1) dup form (acordul gramatical); 2) dup neles; 3) prin atracie.

205

13.2.1. Acordul gramatical (Gramatical Concord) A. Acordul substantivelor variabile Regula general a acordului n numr ntre subiect i predicat n limba englez este urmtoarea: un subiect la numrul singular se acord cu un verb la numrul singular, iar un subiect la numrul plural se acord cu un verb la numrul plural. Acesta este numit n gramatic acordul dup form sau acordul gramatical i se aplic la substantivele numrabile din limba englez, care sunt variabile ca form, avnd att numrul singular ct i numrul plural: The novel Im reading IS very interesting. Romanul pe care-l citesc este foarte interesant. These dictionaries ARE very useful. Aceste dicionare sunt foarte folositoare. B. Acordul substantivelor invariabile la singular n cazul substantivelor invariabile, predicatul este fie numai la singular, dup substantive invariabile la singular, fie numai la plural, dup substantive invariabile la plural, cu cteva situaii speciale n ambele cazuri. Substantivele invariabile la singular se acord cu verbul predicat la singular. Din aceast clas de substantive fac parte: 1) substantive nenumrabile concrete: Butter CONTAINS animal fat. Untul conine grsime animal. 2) substantive nenumrabile abstracte: His knowledge of English IS good. Cunotinele lui de englez sunt bune. My homework for today IS difficult. Temele pentru azi sunt grele. 3) substantivul news: The news IS good. Vetile sunt bune. 4) numele de boli: Mumps IS infectious. Oreionul este o boal infecioas. 5) nume de tiine i obiecte de studiu: Mathematics IS more difficult than Geography. Matematica este mai grea dect geografia. 6) nume de jocuri: Billiards IS a game for adults. Biliardul este un joc pentru aduli. 7) unele substantive proprii: Athens is the capital of Greece. Atena este capitala Greciei. 8) adjective i participii abstracte substantivizate: In most fairy - stories the good FIGHTS against the evil. n majoritatea basmelor, binele lupt mpotriva rului. Excepii: Unele dintre substantivele invariabile la singular se acord cu verbul la plural n anumite situaii: 1) substantive numrabile concrete se acord cu verbul la plural cnd denumesc varieti: Romanian wines ARE famous. Vinurile romneti sunt vestite. 2) Unele nume de boli ca mumps se acord cu verbul la singular sau la plural, fr deosebire de sens: Mumps IS/ARE infectious. 3) Numele de tiine se acord cu verbul la plural cnd se refer la anumite proprieti sau la o situaie anume: The acoustics of the Palace Hall ARE very good. Calitatea acustic a/Acustica slii Palatului este foarte bun.

206

C. Acordul substantivelor invariabile la plural Substantivele invariabile la plural se acord cu verbul predicat la plural. Din aceast clas de substantive fac parte: 1) substantive care denumesc obiecte formate din dou pri egale - unelte sau articole de mbrcminte - (summation plurals): Where ARE my glasses? Unde-mi sunt ochelarii? These tights ARE too long. Aceti ciorapi pantalon sunt prea lungi. 2) alte substantive folosite numai la plural, terminate de regul n -s:(pluralia tantum) All the valuables HAVE been locked in the safe. Toate obiectele de valoare au fost ncuiate n seif. 3) substantive nemarcate la plural: The cattle ARE grazing. Vitele pasc. People walk in this park on Sundays. Lumea se plimb n acest parc duminica. 4) adjectivele sau participiile personale substantivizate: The handicapped ATTEND special schools. Handicapaii frecventeaz coli speciale. 5) unele substantive proprii: The Alps ARE the highest mountains in Europe. Alpii sunt cei mai nali muni din Europa. Excepii: Substantivul propriu the United States se acord cu verbul la singular cnd este privit ca o unitate: The United States lies in North America. D. Acordul subiectelor precedate de cuantificatori Subiectul exprimat printr-un substantiv determinat de many a se acord cu verbul predicat la singular: Many a young girl DREAMS to become a teacher. Subiectul exprimat prin substantiv determinat de a great (a good) deal, se acord cu verbul la singular, deoarece nsoete un substantiv nenumrabil: A great (a good) deal of the flour WAS of the best quality. A great (good) many se refer la un substantiv numrabil la plural i se acord cu pluralul: A great many of the students Substantivele determinate de a lot, plenty se acord cu singularul cnd sunt urmate de substantive nenumrabile i cu pluralul cnd sunt urmate de substantive numrabile: There IS a lot of/plenty of bread on the table. There ARE a lot

WERE present.

of/plenty of children in the schoolyard.

E. Alte situaii All determin acordul la singular cnd folosete un substantiv nenumrabil: All the butter IS on the table. i acordul la plural cnd determin un substantiv numrabil:

All the pupils HAVE left.

very good at maths. They ARE listening to the radio. These ARE his children. Cu pronumele nehotrt one, compuii lui every, some, any i no, each one, (n)either, much i little, acordul se face la singular: Somebody HAS told me about his arrival. Little IS knoun about Shakespeares life. Every one HAS his hobby. One DOESNt like have ones word doubted. Neither of them IS right.
Not: 1. Pronumele none se poate acorda i cu un verb la plural n engleza contemporana cnd se refera la un substantiv cu sens de plural: None of the pupils

Acordul gramatical se face cu pronumele personale i demonstrative: He IS

HAVE done their homework for today.

207

2. Dei pronumele nehotrte coninnd body sau one sunt urmate de verbe la singular, pronumele personale, reflexive sau posesive care se refer la ele sunt adesea la numrul plural: Everybody was writing as fast as they could. No one had failed in their

duty.

13.2.2. Acordul dup neles (Notional concord). Acordul dup neles este acordul ntre subiect i predicat n conformitate cu ideea de numr exprimat de subiect, care uneori este diferit de numrul marcat format: All his family ARE at home. (Substantivul family are form de singular n aceast propoziie, dar sens de plural: Toi membrii familiei sunt acas). Acordul dup neles are loc la urmtoarele clase de substantive: - substantive numrabile care primesc desinena zero la plural: deer, Chinese,

works;

substantivele colective: audience, committee, crew, crowd, family etc.; substantivele care exprim cantitatea sau felul: variety, number, sort. kind; subiectele compuse; unele pronume.

A. Acordul substantivelor numrabile cu pluralul zero Unele gramatici consider c substantivele numrabile cu desinena zero la plural: sheep, Chinese, species etc., se acord cu verbul predicat dup neles i nu dup form, deoarece nu pot fi identificate ca fiind la numrul singular sau plural dect cu ajutorul contextului: This sheep is very old. Oaia aceasta e foarte btrn. These sheep give very good wool. Aceste oi sau ln foarte bun. Not: Alte gramatici menioneaz aceste substantive n cadrul acordului gramatical, ele fiind urmate de verbe la singular sau plural la fel ca i celelalte substantive numrabile: There IS a German in the manager's office. There IS a Japanese in the manager's office. There ARE some Germans in the manager's office. There ARE some Japanese in the manager's office. La substantive numrabile care au forma de plural identic cu singularul (plural zero): sheep, Japanese, species etc., numrul substantivului se recunoate dup forma verbului predicat. Acesta este la singular cnd substantivul este folosit cu sens de singular: There IS a deer at the zoo. E un cerb la grdina zoologic. i la plural cnd substantivul este folosit cu sens plural: There ARE some deer at the zoo. Sunt civa cerbi la grdina zoologic. (Pentru substantivele care fac parte din aceast clas, vezi: &2.3.2.). B. Acordul substantivelor colective Substantivele colective - cu form de singular - se acord cu verbul la plural cnd referirea este la membrii colectivitii: All the crew ARE on deck. Tot echipajul este/Toi membrii echipajului sunt pe punte. The committee HAVE finally agreed on the

208

agenda of the next meeting. Membrii comitetului au czut n sfrit de acord asupra ordinii de zi a urmtoarei edine. Substantivele colective iau ns form de singular sau de plural i se acord cu verbul predicat la singular i la plural respectiv, cnd sint folosite ca substantive numrabile, denumind colectivitatea ca un ntreg: The committee IS made up of twenty people. Comitetul este format din douzeci de persoane.
C. Acordul substantivelor exprimnd cantitatea sau varietatea Substantive ca: variety, number, kind, sort se acord cu verbul la singular sau la plural n funcie de sens: The number of foreign tourists visiting Romania INCREASES every year. A great number of foreign touristis HAVE visited this country this year. The variety of goods in display at the National Exhibition IS impressive. A great variety of goods ARE on sale at the Exhibition. Not: Substantivele kind i sort se acord cu verbul la plural n engleya familiar: These kind of tools ARE very useful. D. Acordul subiectelor compuse Subiectele alctuite din dou sau mai multe elemente care formeaz o unitate se numesc de obicei subiecte compuse i se acord cu verbul predicat la numrul singular. Ele pot fi exprimate prin: 1) dou substantive legate prin and: The poet and musician WAS invited to talk about his work. Poetul muzician a fost invitat s vorbeasc despre creaia sa. 2) un substantiv precedat de dou adjective coodonate: A blue and white cloth WAS for sale. Vindeau un material alb cu albastru. 3) dou sau mai multe infinitive coordonate prin and: To take care of the children, to do the shopping and cook the meals IS very exhausting. S ai grij de copii, s faci cumprturile i s gteti mncarea este foarte obositor. 4) expresii numerice: Three and three MAKES six. Two kilos of apples IS all I need. Forty pupils MEANS a lage class. Five kilometres IS a short distance. Not: n unele calcule aritmetice se poate folosi i pluralul: Theree and three IS six. Four times five MAKE twenty. Theree and three ARE six. Four times five MAKES twenty. 5) propoziii subiective: That they are leaving so early ANNOYS me. E. Acordul pronumelor interogative Pronumele which i what sunt urmate de verbul predicativ la singular sau plural n funcie de numrul substantivului pe care l nlocuiesc: What MAKES him behave like that? Ce-l face s se comporte astfel? Which ARE yours? Care sunt ale tale? Pronumele interogativ who este construit de obicei cu singularul: Who IS coming to dinner? Cine vine la cin? n limba vorbit, se ntlnete uneori i un verb la plural dup who: Who ARE at the table? Cine este la mas?

209

13.2.3. Acordul prin atracie (Concord by Attraction). Conform acordului prin atracie, verbul predicat se acord cu substantivul sau pronumele cel mai apropiat. n limba englez exist mai multe situaii de acord prin atracie: A. Acordul subiectelor coordonate Conform regulii de acord gramatical, dou sau mai multe subiecte n raport de coordonare (subiect coodonat) se acord cu un verb predicat la plural: Father and Mother ARE going to the theatre tonight. Romanian and Czech beer ARE lighter than British beer. Reading and writing ARE taught in the first form. Both her kindness and her competence HAVE been appreciated. La subiectele coordonate prin either - or, not only - but also, acordul cu predicatul se face ns prin atracie: Either your friends or your neighbour IS at the door. Either your neghbour or your friends ARE at the door. Not only Paul but also his parents ARE sending you their best regards. La fel se ntmpl cu subiectele coordonate prin neither - nor: Neither he nor his sister HAS phoned. dei n vorbirea curent exist tendina de acord cu verbul la plural, n mod similar cu subiectele coordonate prin both - and: Neither he nor his sister HAVE phoned. Atenie! Cnd subiectele sunt legate cu ajutorul unor cuvinte ca with, together with, as well as, no less than, like, but, except, acordul se face cu primul element. My sister, as well as my brother, HAS learned to drive. My friends, togeter with their teacher, ARE going fishing. B. Alte situaii Acordul ntre subiect i predicat se face prin atracie i n urmtoarele cazuri: 1) n propoziiile cu subiect introductiv there: THERE IS a pen, a rubler and some pencils in the pencil-case. 2) n propoziii introduse de here: HERE ARE your books and bag. Not: Cnd substantivele din enumeraie formeaz ns un ansamblu, verbul este de obicei la plural, chiar dac primul substantiv este la singular: Here ARE your coat and gloves. There ARE a table, four chairs and a sofa in this room. 3) n propoziii interogative: Where IS my coat and hat? 4) acordul prin atracie are loc i dup: more than one, one or two: More than one pupil HAS expressed his satisfaction with the new teacher. One or two children ARE still playing in the park.

EXERCIII:
1. She started looking for her glasses. 2. Tom, Huck and Joe decided to run away at daybreak. 3. The beginning of the story is not interesting. 4. Everybody says he

I. Gsii subiectele propoziiilor de mai jos i spunei prin ce sunt exprimate:

210

is innocent. 5. Who asked you that question? 6. To lose all ypour books looks like carelessness. 7. The future of Africa is in the hands of its own peoples. 8. There are no sandwiches left. 9. Whether she knew about it or not was what troubled him. 10. She is known to be a great opera singer. 11. It is essential for us to get better results in our work.

II. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii. Remarcai modul de exprimare al subiectului impersonal sau generic: 1. Se spune c vom avea o toamn lung. 2. Trebuie s fii foarte atent cnd conduci pe o strad aa de aglomerat. 3. n aceast ar se bea mult bere. 4. Nu se tie niciodat. 5. Este mai uor s mergi cu bicicleta cnd vntul bate din spate. 6. Nu lua n seam ce zice lumea. 7. Se crede c recolta de anul acesta va fi foarte bun.
R: 1. They say we'll have a long autumn. 2. You must be very careful when you drive in such a busy street. 3. They drink a lot of beer in this country. 4. You can never tell. 5. It is easier to ride your bike when the wind blows from behind. 6. Don't take into account what people say. 7. It is believed that this year's crop will be very good.

III. Alegei forma corect a verbelor din parantez, innd seama de acordul dintre subiect i predicat: 1. The local police (has/have) helped the firemen to put out the fire. 2. (Was/Were) the news good? 3. (Is/Are) mathematics your favourite subject? 4. Fortunately all the crew (was/were) saved. 4. Fortunately all the crew (was/were)saved. 5. I want to know if this speciess (has/have) survived. 6. The poultry (is/are) fed three times a day. 7. Several Chinese (have/has) contributed new data to an important piece of research. 8. The romanian army (have/has) always fought for the country's independence. 9. The money (is/are) on the table. 10. A great number of pupils (have/has) spent their holidays in pioneers' camp. 11. The variety of fruit on display (attract/attracts) the customers.
R: 1. have; 2. was; 3. is; 4. were; 5. has; 6. are; 7. have; 8. has; 9. is; 10. have; 11. attracts.

IV. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez. fiind ateni la acordul subiectelor exprimate prin substantive colective sau substantive invariabile la singular sau plural: 1. Familia mea const din tata, mama, fratele meu i mine. 2. Elevii din clas au fost nedumerii de ntrebrile profesorului. 3. Informaiile primite sunt favorabile. 4. Economiile ei au fost puse la banc. 5. Prul ei este de culoare castanie. 6. Statele Unite se nvecineaz cu Mexic i Canada. 7. Oamenii sunt ntotdeauna curioi. 8. Se d de mncare la psri acum. 9. Sunt multe familii tinere n acest bloc. 10. S-au cheltuit o mulime de bani pentru utilarea acestui laborator. 11. Gimnastica este ndrgit n Romnia. 12. Olanda se afl n Europa de Vest.
R: 1. My family consists of father, mother, my brother and I. 2. The class were puzzled by the teacher's questions. 3. The information received is favourable. 4. Her savings have been put into the bank. 5. Her hair is chestnut-brown. 6. The United States borders on Mexico and Canada. 7. People are always inquisitive. 8. The poultry are being fed now. 9. There are a lot of young families in this block of flats. 10. A lot of money has been spent on equipping this laboratory. 11. Gymmastics is very popular in Romnia. 12. The Netherlands lie in western Europe.

211

V. Completai spaiile libere cu forma potrivit a verbului be: 1. Latin grammar...very diffivult. 2. Shakespeare's plays ...performed all over the world. 3. Who...those girls? 4. ...everybodypresent? 5. Neither of them...eager to begin. 6. Either you or I ... wrong. 7. There... a lot of food still left. 8. There... a lot of people on the platform.
R: 1. is; 2. are; 3. are; 4. is; 5. is; 6. am; 7. is; 8. are.

R: 1. Someone has taken my umbrella by mistake. 2. All the pupils are in the class-room. 8. Neither of them is very young. 4. All the food is in the fridge. 5. Everyone/Everybody has arrived and everyone/everybody is enjoying themselves. 6. Either they or he has done it. 7. None of them is right. 8. Who has done this? 9. Which books are yours? 10. It is he who is to blame, not she.

VI. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul subiectelor exprimate prin pronume sau precedate de all cu verbul predicativ din propoziie: 1. Cineva mi-a luat umbrela din greeal. 2. Toi elevii sunt n clas. 3. Nici unul dintre cei doi nu mai este tnr. 4. Toat mncarea este n frigider. 5. Toat lumea a sosit i toat lumea se simte bine. 6. Sau ei sau el a fcut asta. 7. Nici unul din ei nu are drepate. 8. Cine a fcut acest lucru? 9. Care cri sunt ale tale? 10. El este de vin, nu ea.

1. The cat, together with kittens, (be) playing in the sun. 2. My father, as a well as my mother, (be) eager to know you. 3. John, along with his friend, never ( miss) a basketball match. 4. The priciples on which he worked, as well as the way he acts, (be appreciated) by his fellow students. 5. Either my parents or my elder brother (accompany) my younger sister to school. 6. Either Jane or her sisters (wash) the dishes after lunch. 7. Crime and Punishment (rank) among the best novels of world literature. 8. To treat them this way (be) unfair. 9. Where (be) the scissors?. 10. These sort of mushrooms (be) not goos to eat.
R: 1. is; 2. is; 8. misses; 4. are; 5. accompanies; 6. wash; 7. ranks; 8. is; 9. are; 10. are.

VII. Completai spaiile libere cu forma corect a verbelor din paranteze:

R: 1. Fifty minutes is a short time for a term-paper. 2. Most of his articles are oft literary criticism. 3. The number of Romanian tourists who spend their holidays at the seaside increases every year, 4. Kindness and understanding is what is needed row. 5. Who is it? It's your father and mother. 6. There is the letter and your glasses, Grandpa. 7. Mr Brown and his wife usually go to the country on Sundays. 8. Mr Brown, together with his family, usually spends his holidays at the seaside. 9. There are coal, iron and oil in the Sub-carpathians. 10. It is they who arrange everything. 11. Four times ten make/makes forty, 12. Romanian red and white wines are famous.

VIII. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul dintre subiect i predicat: 1. 50 de minute e un timp scurt pentru o tez. 2. Majoritatea articolelor sale sunt de critic literar. 3. Numrul turitilor romni care i petrec concediul la mare crete n fiecare an. 4. De blndee i nelegere este nevoie acum. 5. Cine este? E tata i mama. 6. Poftim scrisoarea i ochelarii, bunicule. 7. Duminica, Dl Brown i soia merg de obicei la ar. 8. Dl. Brown, mpreun cu familia i petrec vacana la mare. 9. n Subcarpai se afl crbune, fier i petrol. 10. Ei sunt cei care aranjeaz totul. 11. Patru ori zece fac patruzeci. 12. Vinul alb i cel rou din Romnia este vestit.

212

14. COMPLEMENTUL DIRECT (The Direct Object)

14.1. Definiie
Complementul direct este partea secundar de propoziie care determin un verb tranzitiv cu funcia de predicat n propoziie.

14.2. Indicii formali ai complementului direct

Indicii formali ai complementului direct sunt: a) cazul acuzativ cnd complementul direct este exprimat printr-un pronume personal (cu excepia lui it) sau prin pronumele interogativ-relativ who: I havent seen him for a long time. Nu l-am vzut de mult. Tell me whom you met there. Spune-mi pe cine ai ntlnit acolo. b) locul n propoziie, dup predicatul exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv: I drink milk every day. Beau lapte n fiecare zi. c) transformarea la diateza pasiv, n care complementul direct devine subiectul formal al propoziiei: The old woman recognized the driver. Btrna l-a recunoscut pe ofer. The driver was recognized by the old woman. oferul a fost recunoscut de btrn.

14.3. Exprimarea complementului direct

Complementul direct poate fi exprimat prin: a) un substantiv sau un echivalent al acestuia: He is writing a letter. El scrie o scrisoare. I saw them yesterday. I-am vzut ieri. Of all the books they showed us we bought three. Dintre toate crile pe care ni le-a artat am cumprat trei. b) o contrucie complex - acuzativul cu infinitivul sau cu participiul prezent, care este de obicei utilizat pentru reducerea unei propoziii subordonate completive directe: We know him to be our best tennis player - We know that he is our best tennis player. tim c el este cel mai bun juctor de tenis al nostru. I saw him crossing the street = I saw that he was crossing the street. L-am vzut traversnd strada. c) o propoziie subordonat completiv direct: I suggest that you should. phone him at once. Eu zic s-i telefonezi imediat. 14.3.1. Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume personal. Exprimarea complementului direct prin pronumele personal it, prin pronumele reflexiv i prin pronumele reciproic prezint unele particulariti. Cnd este exprimat prin pronumele personal it, complementul direct poate fi: 1) anticipativ; 2) nesemnificativ.

213

1) It este folosit anticipativ, pentru a introduce o propoziie completiv direct, o construcie cu infinitivul sau forma Gerund dup verbe ca think, consider,

find, believe; I consider IT important that you should tell them the truth. Consider important ca tu s le spui adevrul. I found IT difficult to break the news. Mi-a fost greu s le spun vetile. I think IT most dangerous your climbing the mountain alone.
Cred c este foarte periculos s urci muntele singur.

2) It nesemnificativ. Anumite verbe intranzitive au dezvoltat un it, care st pe locul unui complement direct, fiind un complement direct, fiind un complement direct formal: to lord it = a o face pe stpnul; to carry it = a nvinge; to catch it = a o pi; a o ncasa; to fool it = a merge pe jos; to rough it = a face fa, a se descurca. The exploresrs had to rough it when they got into the jungle. Exploratorii au trebuit s se descurce cnd au ajuns n jungl. 14.3.2. Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reflexiv. Din punct de vedere al felului n care verbele tranzitive n limba englez pot fi urmate sau nu de un complement direct exprimat prin pronume reflexiv, ele se mpart n: a) verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de pronume reflexive; behave oneself, calm oneself, enjoy oneself, excuse oneself, help oneself: We enjoyed ourselves at the cinema. Ne-am distrat la cinematograf. Help yourself! Servete-te.

b) verbe urmate de pronume reflexive sau personale n funcie de persoana asupra creia se rsfrnge aciunea verbului: She washed herself. (Ea) s-a splat (pe sine). She washed him. (Ea) l-a splat (pe el). He hurt her. (El) a lovit-o. He hurt himself. (El) s-a lovit. Alte verbe de acelai fel sunt: dress, comb, shave, hide. Not: n limba vorbit se tinde spre omiterea pronumelui reflexiv: She washed and dressed in a hurry. S-a splat i mbrcat n grab. c) verbe care pot fi urmate sau nu de pronume reflexive, cu difereniere de sens: He applied himself to the task. S-a apucat de treab. He applied for a job. A fcut cerere de serviciu. 14.3.3. Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reciproce. Complementul direct este exprimat: a) prin pronumele reciproce each other = unul pe altul/cellalt, cnd este vorba de dou persoane: The two boys helped each other to do the translation. Cei doi biei s-au ajutat (unul pe altul) s fac traducerea. b) prin: one another = unul pe altul/cellalt, cnd este vorba de mai multe persoane: The children helped one another in cleaning the classroom. Copii s-au ajutat unul pe altul s fac curenie acas.

214

Complementele directe sunt ntrebuinate dup urmtoarele clase de verbe: a) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct: seat, drink, love, meet, need, read, seek, write: I need your advice. Am nevoie de sfatul tu. b) Verbe tranzitive urmate de dou complemente directe: ask, envy, save, strike, teach: He taugh the children arithmetic. Le-a predat copiilor aritmetica. We asked him several questions. I-am pus mai multe ntrebri. c) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement indirect: bring, give, hand, lend, offer, read etc.: He gave sweets to the children. Le-a dat copiilor dulciuri. He handed her the letter. I-a nmnat scrisoarea. d) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement prepoziional: accuse of, compare with, congratulate on, prevent from: We congratulated him on his promotion. L-am felicitat pentru promovare. Complementul direct intern (The Cognate Object) Exist i unele verbe intranzitive care pot avea un complement direct. Acesta este exprimat printr-un substantiv care provine din aceeai rdcin cu verbul determinat sau este nrudit semnatic cu el: smile a smile, sing a song, laugh a laugh, fight n acest caz, verbul se comport ca un verb tranzitiv: He lived a long and happy life. A trit o via lung i fericit. Last night I dreamt a strange dream. Noaptea trecut am visat un vis ciudat. Not: Construciile cu complemente interne sunt caracteristice limbii literare i dup cum se vede i din exemplele de mai sus, complementele sunt de obicei nsoite de atribute.

14.4. ntrebuinarea complementelor directe

a fight/a battle, dance a dance.

14.5. Verbe tranzitive cu un complement direct

Aceste verbe reprezint majoritatea verbelor tranzitive din limba englez. Exemplele sunt numeroase: drink, eat, love, meet, need, read etc. Locul acestor complemente directe n propoziie este imediat dup verbul tranzitiv, naintea complementelor circumstaniale: She speaks English well. Vorbete bine englezete. I need the book tomorrow. Am nevoie de carte mine. Transformarea pasiv. Cnd o propoziie coninnd un predicat exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv i un complement direct este transformat la diateza pasiv, complementul direct devine subiectul diatezei pasive, iar subiectul se transform n complementul de agent: The pupils loved their teacher. The teacher was loved by his pupils. Profesorul era iubit de elevii lui.

Aceste verbe sunt puine la numr: ask, envy, save, strike, teach: Did she ask you any questions? i-a pus vreo ntrebare? Dintre cele dou complemente directe, primul desemneaz o persoan iar al doilea un obiect: He taught THE CHILDREN a new lesson. Le-a predat elevilor o nou lecie. They envied US our success. Ne invidiau pentru succesul nostru.

14.6. Verbele tranzitive cu dou complemente directe

215

Not: n limba romn, complementul persoanei este de regul indirect. (Vezi traducerile exemplelor de mai sus) Transformarea pasiv. Construciile cu dou complemente directe au dou transformri pasive: He taught us a lesson. devine: 1) We were talught a lesson. sau: 2) A lesson was taught to us. Varianta frecvent este (1) cu complementul personal folosit ca subiect n construcia pasiv, complementul obiectului fiind reinut. n varianta (2), complementul obiectului devine subiectul propoziiei, iar complementul persoanei este introdus de prepoziia to.

14.7. Verbele tranzitive cu un complement direct i un complement indirect

Aceste verbe sunt urmate de cele dou complemente n ordinea complement direct - complement indirect: I bought the blouse for mother. Am cumprat bluza pentru mama. I gave the notebook to Mary. I-am dat caietul de notie Mariei.

gave Mary the notebook.

Not: 1. Ordinea complement direct - complement indirect este folosit deseori pentru accentuare: You must pay the money to her (not to him). Trebuie s-i plteti ei banii (nu lui). 2. n alte cazuri aceast ordine este obligatorie: a) cnd complementul indirect este urmat de o propoziie subordonat: He gave a book to his friend who is visiting him. I-a dat o carte prietenului pe care l vizita. b) cnd cele dou complemente sunt exprimate prin pronume personale: I gave it to her. I-am dat-o ei. c) dup verbele ca: address, announce, comunicate etc.: I communicated the result of the experiment to everybody concerned. Am comunicat rezultatul experimentului tuturor celor interesai. Ordinea celor dou complemente poate fi i: verb tranzitiv + complement indirect+complement direct. n acest caz, prepoziia to sau for este omis: I bought mother a blouse. I

Transformarea pasiv. Cnd propoziia cu un complement direct i unul indirect este transformat la diateza pasiv, ambele complemente pot deveni subiecte: Activ: They showed us the house. a) Pasiv: WE were shown the US. Complementul direct devine subiect, iar cel indirect i pstreaz funcia, este complementul indirect reinut (retained indirect object). b) The house was shown to US. Complementul direct devine subiect, iar cel indirect i pstreaz funcia, este complement indirect reinut (retained indirect object).

216

Direcia dintre cele dou variante const n faptul c prima accentueaz persoana iar cea de a doua obiectul, mai frecvent n vorbirea curent fiind prima.

14.8. Verbele tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i unul prepoziional

Din aceast clas fac parte verbe ca: blame smb. for smth. = a da vina pe cineva pentru ceva, charge smb. with smth.= a acuza pe cineva de ceva; cure smb. of smth. = a vindeca pe cineva de ceva, deprive smb.of smth.= a lipsi de cineva de ceva, help smb.with smth. = a ajuta pe cineva cu ceva, etc.: Did the doctor manage to cure the child of the child that disease? A reuit doctorul s vindece copilul de boala aceea? They charged him with an important mission. I s-a dat o misiune important. Ordinea acestor complemente n propoziie este: verb tranzitiv + complement direct + complement prepoziional: I helped him with his homework. Cnd complementul direct are o complinire sau este exprimat printr-o propoziie subordonat, complementul prepoziional este aezat imediat dup verb: They accepted with great pleasure the invitation sent by our foreign trade company. Au acceptat cu mare plcere invitaia trimis de ntreprinderea noastr de comer exterior. n transformarea pasiv a unui verb tranzitiv urmat de un complement direct i unul prepoziional, complementul direct devine subiectul formal al propoziiei, iar cel prepoziional este reinut: We congratulated him on his success. He was congratulated

on his success.

217

15. COMPLEMENTUL INDIRECT (The Indirect Object)

15.1. Definiie
Complementul indirect este partea secundar de propoziie care indic persoana (rareori lucrul) asupra creia se resfrnge n mod indirect aciunea verbului.

15.2. Indicii formali ai complementului indirect

Indicii formali ai complementului indirect sunt: a) cazul dativ, cnd complementul indirect este exprimat printr-un pronume personal (cu excepia lui it) sau prin pronumele interogativ-relativ who, precedat de prepoziia to sau for: Please, send a postcard to me. Te rog trimite-mi o ilustrat. To whom did you lend the tape recorder? Cui i-ai mprumutat magnetofonul? b) locul n propoziie: - dup complementul direct + prepoziia to sau for: He sold his car to his neighbour. i-a vndut maina vecinului. She bought a new shirt for her brother. A cumprat o cma nou pentru fratele ei.- naintea complementului direct, fr prepoziie: Tom sold us his car. She bought her brother a new shirt. c) transformarea la diateza pasiv, n care complementul indirect al persoanei: - poate deveni subiectul formal al propoziiei: Peter promised the tickets to us. We were promised the tickets (by Peter). - poate fi complement indirect reinut: They showed the town to us. The town was shown to us.

15.3. Exprimarea complementului indirect

Complementul indirect este exprimat de regul printr-un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia, precedat de prepoziia to sau for: We offered flowers to our teacher. We offered flowers to her. She bought books for her children. She bought books for them. Prepoziia to sau for se omite: a) cnd complementul indirect se afl imediat dup verb: Mother gave the children some sandwiches. Mama le-a dat copiilor nite sandviuri. We sent her a message. I-am trimis un mesaj. b) dup verbe ca: afford, allow, forgive, refuse, spare: Can you spare me a few minutes? mi putei acorda cteva minute? Allow me to ask a question. Permitei-mi s pun o ntrebare.

218

Complementul indirect este ntrebuinat: a) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, a cror ordine poate fi schimbat, mpreun cu omiterea prepoziiei for: buy, choose, do,

15.4. ntrebuinarea complementului indirect

i-a comandat o rochie nou. b) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, a cror ordine poate fi schimbat, mpreun cu omiterea prepoziiei to: bring, give, hand, offer, owe, promise, red, show etc. He showed the stamp book. to the visitors. He showed the visitors the stamp book. Le-a artat vizitatorilor clasorul. c) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i de un complement indirect + prepoziia to n aceast ordine: address, announce, communicate, describe, explain, introduce, mention, relate, repeat, say, translate, etc.: The boy explained everything to his father. Biatul a explicat totul tatlui su.

leave, make, order, reserve, save: She ORDERED a new dress for herself. She ORDERED herself a new dress.

15.5. Locul complementului indirect

Complementul indirect n propoziie este aezat de regul: a) dup complementul direct (+ prepoziia to sau for): He said goodbye to them. Le-a spus la revedere. She made coffee for all of us. A fcut cafea pentru toi. b) naintea complementului direct. cnd complementul direct este mai lung sau urmat de o propoziie subordonat, prepoziia to sau for fiind omis: I bought Hellen all the English books I saw in the bookshop. I-am cumprat Elenei toate crile englezeti pe care le-am vzut n librrie. Not: Complementele indirecte dup verbele urmate obligatoriu dup prepoziia to nu pot fi aezate de regul naintea complementelor directe, iar prepoziia to nu poate fi omis: She introduced her husband to the people present. i-a prezentat soul celor de fa. Dar i: She explained to him the new regulations/how she had the information. I-a explicat noul regulament/cum a obinut informaia. c) la nceputul propoziiei, pentru subliniere: To her, I gave the dictionary, not to him. Ei i-am dat dicionarul i nu lui. For her children she does her best. Pentru copiii ei ea face totul.

15.6. Transformarea pasiv

Verbele tranzitive urmate de complemente directe i indirecte se mpart n dou mari grupe, dup felul n care se transform la diateza pasiv: a) Unele verbe au o singur transformare, n care complementul direct devine subiectul propoziiei pasive, iar cel indirect este reinut. Asemenea verbe sunt cele de la punctul (c) cap.15.4. urmate obligatoriu de prepoziia to: He conveyed the message to them. The message was conveyed to them.

219

i de la punctul a) urmate de prepoziia for: Have you left anyfood for the others? Has anyfood been left for the others? b) alte verbe ca: give, tell, show, promise au dou transformri pasive. Transformarea mai frecvent este cea n care complementul indirect al persoanei devine subiect, iar complementul direct este reinut: Activ: The teacher gave the prize to Mary. Pasiv: Mary was given the prize. Este posibil i transformarea: The prize was given to Mary, n care complementul direct devine subiect, iar complementul indirect este reinut. Aceast transformare este folosit mai rar.

220

16. Complementul prepoziional (The Prepositional Object)

16.1. Definiie
Complementul prepoziional este partea secundar de propoziie care determin predicatul propoziiei exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv sau intranzitiv.

16.2. Indicii formali ai complementului prepoziional

Indicii formali ai complementului prepoziional sunt: a) cazul acuzativ, cnd complementul prepoziional este exprimat prin prepoziie plus pronume personal (cu excepia lui it), pronume reflexiv sau pronume interogativ relativ who: She looked at him. S-a uitat la el. She looked at herself in the mirror. S-a privit n oglind. b) locul n propoziie: - dup predicat cnd acesta este exprimat printr-un verb intranzitiv: He was talking with his friends. Vorbea cu prietenii lui. - dup complementul direct cnd predicatul este exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv: Has anyone compared the translation with the original? A comparat cineva traducerea cu originalul? c) transformarea la diatez pasiv n care unele verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie se comport ca verbe tranzitive, prepoziia rmnnd ataat de verb, iar elementul nominal din complementul prepoziional devenind subiectul formal al propoziiei: Grandmother looked AFTER the children. The children were looked AFTER by their grandmother.

16.3. Exprimarea complementului prepoziional

Complementul prepoziional este exprimat prin: a) un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia precedat de o prepoziie: He is

looking for his tie. i caut cravata. I ran after them. Am fugit dup ei.

b) o condtrucie infinitival sau gerundial, precedat de o prepoziie: Would they agree to start at once? Ar fi de acord s ncepem imediat? He boasts of being the best football player in the school. Se laud c este cel mai bun juctor de fotbal din coal. c) o propoziie subordonat: He boasts that he is the best football player in the school.

221

16.4. ntrebuinarea complementului prepoziional

Complementul prepoziional este ntrebuinat dup:

a) verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie: care for, complain of, depend on, hint at, insist on, long for, look at, pass for, warn of, wonder at, worry about: The success of the picnic will DEPEND on the weather. Succesul picnicului va depinde de vreme. Would you CARE for one of these paintings? i-ar place unul sintre aceste tablouri? She COMPLAINED of the heat. Se plngea de cldur. b) verbe intranzitive cu dou prepoziii: agree with smb about smth, argue

with smb about smth.

smb. about smth, assure smb of smth, blame smb for smth, bother smb. with smth, convince smb, of smth, entrust smb with smth, mistake smb. for smth, warn smb about smth: I warned him about the danger. L-am avertizat de pericol.
d) adjective sau participii care ndeplinesc funcia de nume predicatic ntr-un predicat nominal, urmate de o prepoziie obligatorie: about: He was REASONABLE about her decision. at: She is GOOD at chemistry. in: He is INTERESTED in astronomy. of: Romanias foreign trade is BASED on co-operation and equal rights. with: He is ANGRY with your behaviour. Alte adjective i participii urmate de aceste prepoziii sunt: - angry, glad, happy, mad, annoyed, pleased worried + ABOUT; - angry, bad, clever, hopeless, terrible, alarmed, amused, annoyed, delighted, pleased + AT; - efficient, fortunate, lucky, persistent, (un)successful + IN; - afraid, certain, conscious, fond, glad, convinced, scared + OF; - dependent, insistent, keen, lent, set + ON; - busy, (un)comfortable, (in)compatible, content, furious, (un)happy, impatient,

c) verbe tranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie: acquaint smb with smth, advise

sick, uneasy, annoyed, bored, concerned, delighted, disaplointed, excited, exhausted, horrified, obsessed, occupied, overcome, pleased, satisfied, upset + WITH.

16.5. Locul complementului prepoziional n propoziie

Locul complementului prepoziional n propoziie este de obiecei: a) dup numele predicativ exprimat printr-un adjectiv sau participiu: She was

convinced of his loyalty. Era convins de loialitatea lui.

aceast ntrebarea.

b) dup complementul direct, n cazul unui verb tranzitiv: Nobody prevents your friend from asking that question. Nimeni nu-l mpiedic pe prietenul tu s pun

222

16.6. Transformarea pasiv

at, argue about, arrange for, ask for, believe in, call for, call on, conceive of, laugh at, look at, look for, look afeter, look into, run over, sleep in, speek of / about, talk of, think of, write about etc., se comport ca verbe tranzitive n transformarea pasiv.
Elementul nominal din complementul prepoziional devine subiectul propoziiei pasive, iar prepoziia rmne dup verb: A bus ran OVER the neighbours a dog. Tyhe neighbours dog was run OVER by a bus. n transformarea pasiv a verbelor tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i de unul prepoziional, complementul direct devine subiectul propoziiei pasive, iar cel prepoziional este reinut: They bothered HIM with silly questions. HE was bethered with silly questions.

Unele verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie: agree about / on/to, aim,

223

17. Elementul predicativ suplimentar (The Predicative Adjunct)

17.1. Definiie
Elementul predicativ suplimentar este partea secundar de propoziie care determin att predicatul, exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv, ct i un substantiv sau nlocuitor al acestuia care are funcia de complement direct al predicatului: She BOILED the egg hard = She BOILED the egg. The egg was hard.

17.2. Exprimarea elementului predicativ suplimentar

Elementul predicativ suplimentar este exprimat de regul prin: a) substantiv, dup verbe ca appoint, choose, elect, proclaim, call, name: The elect Mr Brown (as) chairman. L-au ales pe dl.Brown preedinte. They nominated him President . L-au desemnat preedinte. They have named the baby Dan. Lau numit pe copil Dan. b) un adjectiv (care exprim starea sau condiia ca rezultat al aciunii verbului), dup verbe ca: boil (hard), bake (hard), open (wide), drive (crazy, mad), break (open), wash (clean), push (open, shut), paint (white, green), etc.: Can you push the gate open? Poi s deschizi poarta? Theyve painted the fence white. Au vopsit gardul alb.

17.3. Locul elementului predicativ suplimentar

Locul elementului predicativ suplimentar este dup complementul direct exprimat printr-un substantiv sau pronume n acuzativ) care urmeaz predicatul (exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv): They elected him president. Push the door open.

224

18. Construciile complexe (Complex Constructions)

18.1. Definiie
Termenul de construcii complexe se refer la constuciile infinitivale, participiale i gerundiale, care sunt folosite de obicei pentru reducerea unor propoziii subordonate la pri secundare de propoziie. Aceste construcii sunt: Acuzativ cu - infinitiv - participiu prezent - participiu trecut Nominativ cu - infinitiv - participiu prezent Infinitiv cu for - to Nominativul absolut cu -infinitiv - participiu prezent - participiu trecut Construciile gerundiale

18.2. Caracteristicile construciilor complexe

18.2.1. Construciile complexe au caracter predicativ, deoarece ntre cei doi membri ai construciei: elementul nominal (reprezentat de regul printr-un acuzativ sau nominativ) i elementul verbal (reprezentat printr-un infinitiv, form n -ing sau participiu trecut), exist un raport predicativ implicit. Forma nepersonal a verbului funcioneaz ca predicat al elementului nominal, dar aceast funcie este considerat implicit i nu exprimat, deoarece formele nepersonale nu sunt marcate formal pentru redarea categoriei de persoan. Caracterul predicativ al raportului dintre cele dou elemente reiese din funcia acestor construcii, de nlocuire sau reducere a unor propoziii subordonate, deci a unor elemente sintactice coninnd predicat: We know her to be a gifted actress = We know that she is a gifted actress. tim c ea este o actri foarte bun. 18.2.2. Infinitivul, participiul prezent i participiul trecut formeaz mpreun cu elementul nominal construcii similare:

cu acuzativul
Acuzativ cu infinitiv: They warned me not to be late.

Construcii complexe cu nominativul

Nominativ cu infinitiv: I was warned not to be late.

nominativul absolut
Nominativ absolut cu infinitiv:

He sent the books first, the stationery to come later.

225

Acuzativ cu participiu prezent: She could feel her heart beating. Acuzativ cu participiu trecut: I want this work finished quickly.

Nominativ cu participiu prezent: He was noticed standing near the door. -

Nominativ absolut cu participiu prezent: The value of x being known, the value of y

can be found.

Nominativ absolut cu participiu trecut: His task performed, he left the office.

18.2.3. Deosebirile dintre cele trei feluri de construcii reies din modul n care este privit aciunea: a) n construciile infinitivale ne intereseaz aciunea n sine, faptul petrecut, care este vzut ca ncheiat: We saw him come (=that he came). Am vzut c-a venit. b) n construciile cu participiul n -ing, aciunea este vzut n desfurare: We saw him coming (=that he was coming). L-am vzut venind. c) n construciile cu participiul trecut, aciunea este privit ca un rezultat: We found the log cabin deserted. Am gsit cabana prsit. 18.2.4. Funciile sintactice ale acestor construcii sunt urmtoarele: 1) complementul direct complex (construciile cu acuzativul): I saw the ambulance coming. Am vzut sosind maina salvrii. We had our house repaired and painted. Ne-au reparat i vopsit casa. 2) subiect complex (construciile cu nominativul): This part of the land is believed to have been under the sea. Se crede c acest col de pmnt a fost sub ap. He happened to give the best solution. S-a ntmplat ca el s dea cea mai bun soluie. He was seen passing the shop. A fost vzut trecnd prin faa magazinului. 3) complement circunstanial (nominativul absolut): Everybody being present, the lesson can begin. Toat lumea fiind prezent, lecia poate ncepe. The shopping done, they returned home. Dup ce i-au fcut cumprturile, s-au ntors acas.

18.3. Construciile cu acuzativul

Construciile cu acuzativul sunt formate dintr-un substantiv sau pronume n cazul acuzativ i un verb la infinitiv sau participiu: care se afl fa de primul element ntr-un raport predicativ: I noticed them shake hands. Am observat c i-au dat mna. 18.3.1. Acuzativul cu infinitiv. Verbele trnazitive urmate de obicei de un acuzativ cu un infinitiv sunt cele care exprim: a) percepia senzorial: see, hear, watch, feel, notice: Did anyone see Mary leave the house? A vzut-o cineva pe Mary plecnd de acas? b) activiti mintale: think, know, consider, expect, suppose, believe, imagine: They knew the man to have been very ill. tiau c omul a fost foarte bolnav. A lot of people supposed her to be right. Mult lume credea c ea are dreptate. c) dorina sau intenia: want, wish, desire, mean:

226

d) sentimente: like, dislike, love, hate, prefer: I should like them to keep their promise. A vrea ca ei s-i respecte promisiunea. I hate you to be troubled. Nu-mi place s fii deranjat. e) un ordin sau o permisiune: command, order, request, allow: Our form teacher allowed us to go to the conference. Diriginta ne-a permis s mergem la conferin. The officer ordered his soldiers to advance. Ofierul le-a ordonat soldailor s nainteze. f) verbe cauzative: cause, make, have, get, induce, let: What makes you think so? Ce te face s gndeti astfel? Get them come as early as possible. Determin-i s vine ct mai devreme posibil. g) verbe declarative: declare, pronounce, report, de obicei cnd subiectul este animat: Everyone reported him to be good for this job. Toi au spus c el este bun pentru aceast treab. They declared the chief engineer to be a member of their committee. L-au delcarat pe inginerul ef membru al comitetului. h) unele verbe prepoziionale: count on, depend on, wait for, hape for etc.: We cannot wait for the weather to change. Nu putem atepta s se schimbe vremea. Not: 1. Verbele de percepie (cu excepia lui perceive), verbele let i make i verbul cauzativ have sunt urmate de infinitivul fr to: He made me lough. M-a fcut s rd. 2. Verbul help este urmat de obicei de infinitivul cu to n varianta britanic, i de infinitivul fr to n varianta american a limbii engleze: I helped her (to) lay the table. Am ajutat-o s pun masa. 3. Unele verbe (cu excepia lui want de la pct. c) pot fi urmate i de propoziii subordonate introduse de that, ntre folosirea acestora i a construciei infinitivale existnd anumite deosebiri: a) He requested us to come in time (us - un substantiv animat) He requested that the meeting should begin on time. (meeting - substantiv inanimat) b) I wish you to be careful (n general) I wish you would be careful (dar nu cred c ai s fii) c) We think him to be very loyal (n engleza literar) We think that he is very loyal. (n vorbirea curent) d) I hear him come (acum) I hear that they are away. (durat) 4. Acuzativul cu infinitiv este folosit dup verbele care exprim o activitate mintal mai ales n limba literar, iar infinitivul este cel al verbului be. I believe him to be honest. Cred c este cinstit. I suppose it to have been a mistake. Presupun c a fost o greeal. n vorbirea curent, aceste verbe sunt de obicei urmate de o propoziie completiv direct introdus de that: I believe (that) he is honest. I suppose (that) it was a mistake.

She wanted me to explain the rule. A vrut ca eu s explic regula. Did she mean me to go there in her place? A intenionat ca eu s merg n locul ei?

227

18.3.2. Infinitivul cu for - to (The For - To Infinitive). Construcia Acuzativul cu infinitiv este folosit dup anumite clase de verbe. Un acuzativ cu infinitv poate aprea i dup un adjectiv sau substantiv, situaie n care el este precedat de prepoziia for: It was UNUSUAL for him to write such a long letter. De obicei el nu scria o scrisoare aa de lung. It was MADNESS for them to leave in such weather. Era o nebunie ca ei s plece pe o asemenea vreme. Not: Exist i cteva verbe urmate de prepoziia for, care pot fi folosite cu infinitivul cu for - to. Printre ele se numr: arrange, ask, hope, long, plan, pray, provide, ring, send, telephone, wait, etc. They arranged for her to come. They planned for her to come. They sent for her to come. Infinitivul cu for - to format din prepoziia for, urmat de un substantiv sau pronume n acuzativ i de un infinitiv cu to, care se afl ntr-un raport predicativ fa de (pro)nume: It was difficult for him to believe such a thing. i venea greu s cread un asemenea lucru: Aceast construcie este ntlnit: a) dup adjective: (it is/was) necessary, advisable, imperative, impossible, easy, difficult etc. b) dup substantive: problem, subject, idea etc. c) dup unele verbe intranzitive. Infinitivul cu for - to este utilizat pentru reducerea unor propoziii subordonate la pri principale sau secundare de propoziie: 1) subiect real introdus de it anticipativ: It is advisable for him to learn foreign languages. Este recomandabil ca el s nvee limbi strine. It is difficult for them to come. Este dificil ca ei s vin. 2) nume predicativ: The best thing is for him tio agree with me. Cel mai bun lucru este ca el s fie de acord cu mine. 3) complement direct: He wished for the parcel to be sent at once. A dorit ca pachetul s fie trimis imediat. 4) complement prepoziional: I would be delighted for you to meet her. A fi ncntat s o cunoti. 5) complement circumstanial de scop: Ive brought some magazines for you to read on the train. Am adus cteva reviste s le citeti n tren. 6) complement circumstanial consecutiv: This book is too difficult for me to read. Aceast carte este prea grea ca s-o citesc. 18.3.3. Acuzativul cu participiul prezent (The Accusative with the Present Participle). Aceasta este o construcie asemntoare cu acuzativul cu infinitiv, diferena fiind de aspect al aciunii verbale: folosirea infinitivului red aciunea ca ncheiat, sau menioneaz doar aciunea, pe cnd participiul prezent prezint aciunea n desfurare: I heard them come. (= That means they have arrived). I-am auzit venind (Au venit). I heard them coming. (= I heard them making noise while they were coming). I-am auzit venind (n timp ce veneau).

228

Acuzativul cu participiul prezent se folosete dup: a) verbe care exprim percepia senzorial: see, hear, feel, watch, notice. I heard the children talking about their holidays. I-am auzit pe copii vorbind despre vacan. We watched the sun rising from behind the hills. Am privit soarele rsrind de dup dealuri. b) find, leave, set, catch, send: I found him mending the radio. L-am gsit reparnd radioul. 18.3.4. Acuzativul cu participiul trecut (The Acusative with the Past Participle). Aceast construcie este ntrebuinat dup: a) verbe care exprim percepia senzorial: He heard his name mentioned. i-a auzit numele menionat. b) verbe care exprim un ordin: He ordered if finished. A ordonat s fie terminat. c) verbe cauzative have i get: I must have these shoes repaired. Trebuie s-mi dau pantofii la reparat.

18.4. Construciile cu nominativul

Construciile cu nominativul sunt alctuite dintr-un substantiv sau pronume n cazul nominativ i un verb la infinitiv sau participiu prezent ntre care se afl un verb la o form personal: He happened to be a hard-working pupil. She was seen crossing the

street.

18.4.1. Nominativul cu infinitiv se folosete dup urmtoarele verbe: 1) dup verbe intranzitive: seem, appear, happen, change; prove, turn, out care sunt perechi sinonimice: He appeared to be pleased with the arrangement.

He seemed to be pleased with the arrangement. El prea s fie mulumit de aranjament. Her brother chanced to be there. Her brother happened to be there. S-a ntmplat ca fratele ei s fie acolo. 2) dup verbe declarative la diateza pasiv: say, declare, report, annmounce: The old man was reported to have disappeared. S-a anunat c btrnul a disprut. 3) dup verbul copulativ be i unul dintre adjectivele: likely, unlikely, sure, certain: He is sure to think of every possible advantage. Cu siguran c se va gndi la toate avantajele posibile. The train is likely to be late. Este posibil ca trenul s
ntrzie.

Not: 1. Prin trecerea predicatului de la diateza activ la cea pasiv (pasivizare = passivization), unele construcii cu acuzativul se transform n construcii cu nominativul. Astfel, nominativul cu infinitiv apare dup verbe tranzitive care pot fi urmate de acuzativ cu infinitiv la diateza activ cu excepia verbelor exprimnd dorina sau intenia i care exprim: a) percepia senzorial: see, hear, feel etc.: She was seen to leave the office. A fost vzut plecnd din birou. (Nominativ + infinitiv lung)

229

b) activiti mintale: think, know, consider, expect, understand, believe, suppose etc. Space flights are considered to provide important scientific data. Se consider c zborurile cosmice aduc importante date tiinifice. c) un ordin sau o permisiune: command, order, allow, let, etc.: The boy was allowed to go out. Biatului i s-a permis s ias afar. d) determinarea : cause, make, have, force, compel, etc.: He was compelled to start all over again. El a fost obligat s ia totul de la nceput. 2. Construcia Nominativul cu infinitiv dup verbe de activitate mintal nu este limitat la engleza literar (cum este Acuzativul cu infinitiv), ea putnd fi ntlnit n vorbirea curent (i cu alte verbe dect be): Are we supposed to do this? Trebuie s facem asta.

18.4.2. Nominativul cu participiul prezent (The Nominative with the Present Participle). Aceast construcie este similar cu Nominativul cu infinitiv, cu aceeai diferen de aspect (sublinierea ideei de durat, de desfurare a aciunii); The old man was seen leaving the house. Btrnul a fost vzut plecnd de acas. Aceast construcie se folosete dup verbele urmate la diateza activ cu acuzativul cu participiul prezent (see, hear, leave, catch, find): The baby was heard crying. Copilul a fost auzit plngnd.

18.5. Nominativul absolut (The Absolute Nominative Construction)

Nominativul absolut este ntrebuinat cnd subiectul construciei predicative cu infinitiv sau participiu (prezent sau trecut) este diferit de cel al propoziiei care conine un verb predicativ. Construcia cu nominativul absolut conine n structura sa un substantiv la nominativ i un infinitiv, participiu prezent sau trecut care se afl n raport predicativ fa de substantiv: They forwarded the heavy equipment by sea, the perishables to be sent by air. Au expediat echipamentul greu cu vaporul, urmnd ca mrfurile perisabile s fie trimise cu avionul. The original text being too difficult, he asked for a translation. Textul original fiind prea greu, a cerut o traducere. His hopes attained, he was perfectly happy. Speranele lui fiind mplinite, era foarte fericit. Not: Subiectul construciei Nominativul absolut cu participiul prezentpoate fi anticipat de it sau there: There being nothing to say, they sat looking at each other. Neavnd nimic de spus, stteau i se uitau unul la altul. Construciile cu nominativul absolut sunt folosite pe plan sintactic pentru reducerea unor propoziii subordonate circumstaniale la complemente circumstaniale: a) de timp: Dinner being ready, the family sat down round the big, oval dinner

table. (= When dinner was ready...); b) de cauz: He felt exhausted, his self-control having been strained to breaking point. (=as his self-control had been strained...); c) de condiie: Weather permitting, we shall go to the beach tomorrow. (= If the weather permits...).

230

Not: Construciile cu nominativul absolut se ntlnesc rar n vorbirea curent. Ele sunt caracteristice englezei scrise, literare.

18.6. Alte contrucii complexe

Construcii gerundiale. (Gerund Constructions). La fel i infinitivul i participiul, forma Gerund intr n competena unor construcii complexe n care Gerundul se afl ntr-un raport predicativ fa de substantiv sau pronume: Your refusing to see him surprised everybody. Refuzul tu de a-l vedea a surprins pe toat lumea. Substantivul poate fi: a) la cazul genitiv sintetic (construcia cu genitiv e folosit pentru substnative nume de persoane): He seemed surprised at Marys expresing ni interest in the subject. A prut surprins de faptul c Mary nu a artat nici un interes pentru aceast problem. b) la cazul acuzativ: Did you mind him/Tom Speaking so loud? Te-a deranjat faptul c el/Toma a vorbit aa de tare? Acuzativul este folosit: a) cnd substantivul este animat sau inanimat: I coild sense the smell spreading. Simeam cum se rspndea mirosul. b) cnd substantivul este urmat de o complinire atributiv: I remember a friend of mine going on such a trip. mi amintesc de un prieten al meu care a mers ntro astfel de excursie. c) n vorbire, pentru substantive nume de persoane, substantive animate sau inanimate. Dac partea animat a construciei este exprimat printr-un pronume acesta poate fi un pronume posesiv, sau, n vorbire, un pronume n acuzativ:

proceda aa.

I couldnt understand his acting like that. I couldnt understand him acting like that. Nu puteam s neleg de ce I remember their/them saying that. mi amintesc c au spus asta.

Construcia gerundial este folosit dup aceleai cuvinte ca i forma Gerund simpl. Construcia gerundial are rolul de a nlocui: a) propozii subordonate subiective: Your trying to convince him was quite

absent, nothing could be done.

obvious = That you tried to convince him was quite obvious. b) circumstaniale: She being absent, nothing could be done = As she was

231

19. Complementele circumstaniale (Adverbials)

19.1. Definiie
Complementul circumstanial este partea de propoziie care determin sau modific un verb, un adverb, un adjectiv sau o ntreag propoziie. Ca determinant al verbului, complementul circumstanial indic mprejurarea n care se petrece o aciune (locul, timpul, scopul, cauza etc.): A taxi appeared at the corner of the street. (loc) They arrived half an hour later. (timp) Atunci cnd determin un adverb, adjectiv sau echivaleni ai acestora, complementul circumstanial arat cum se prezint o nsuire: It was nearly dark. Era aproape ntuneric. They are nearly there. Aproape au ajuns.

19.2. Clasificare
Complementele circumstaniale n limba englez se mpart, ca n limba romn n: complemente circumstaniale de loc, de timp, de mod, de cauz, de condiie, de scop, concesive, consecutive etc.

19.3. Complementul circumstanial de loc (The Adverbial of Place)

19.3.1. Definiie. Complementul circumstanial de loc indic locul, punctul de plecare, direcia sau limita unei aciuni sau stri. Not: Unele complemente circumstaniale de loc exprimate prin adverbe de loc, indic locul propriu-zis: here, there, somewhere. Altele indic direcia: aside, forward, right, left. Majoritatea adverbelor de loc ns pot fi folosite pentru a exprima att locul, ct i direcia: Loc: He doesn't live far. Nu locuiete departe. Direcie. He didn't go far. Nu s-a dus departe. 19.3.2. Complementul circumstanial de loc este exprimat prin: a) un adverb sau o perifraz advebial de loc: She is here. He was walking to

b) un substantiv cu sau fr prepoziie: Helen is in town for the moment. They went home. c) un substantiv n cazul genitiv precedat de o prepoziie: We buy bread at

and fro.

the bakers.

else does.

d) o propoziie circumstanial de loc: We do our shopping where everybody

19.3.3. Locul Complementului circumstanial de loc este de obicei dup predicat (+ complement direct) (+compl. circ. de loc):

She has been working (hard) IN THE LIBRARY all day.

232

Excepii: Complementul circumstanial de loc poate fi aezat ntre verb i complementul su direct dac complementul direct este prea lung sau este exprimat printr-o propoziie subordonat: They took into the reading room all the dictionaries they needed. They found in the reading room all the dictionaries they needed. Complementul circumstanial indicnd locul propriu-zis poate aprea i la nceputul propoziiei, mai ales cnd este exprimat printr-o construcie prepoziional:

She was been reading (a book) IN THE LIBRARY all day.

Somewhere near the river the children were playing football.

school by bus.

Complementul circumstanial care indic direcia se aeaz uneori direct dup verb (naintea adverbului de mod), dac verbul exprim micarea spre un loc: He went to

Cteva complemente circumstaniale exprimnd direcia pot aprea n poziia a) n limbajul literar, pentru a da for dramatic exprimrii, cu verbe la prezent sau Past Tense simplu: In they come! Away they went! b) n exprimarea familiar, cu verbe ca go, come, get la prezent sau imperativ (+you): Here she comes. There they go. In (bed) you get. Not: Here i there apar n cteva expresii cu verbul be: Here/there you are. Poftim...(Asta-i pentru tine). There she is. Uite-o! A ajuns. Here we are. Am ajuns n sfrit (unde trebuia). There you are. Vezi c am dreptate (Asta ntrete ce-am spus). Atenie! Dac subiectul n aceste expresii este exprimat printr-un substantiv i nu printr-un pronume, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicat. There he is! There iniial:

is your father! Here they are! Here are your glasses!

19.4. Complementul circumstanial de timp (The Adverbial of Time)

19.4.1. Definiie. Complementul circumstanial de timp indic: a) momentul aciunii: now, nowadays, today, then; b) succesiunea de timp: afterwards, before, eventually, formerly, previously, c) durata: lately, recently, since, still, yet; d) frecvena: - definit: weekly, three times a day; - nedefinit: often, usually, seldom, once in a while. 19.4.2. Complementul circumstanial de timp este exprimat prin: a) un adverb de timp: She arrived yesterday. b) o perifraz adverbial de timp: They visit their grandparents from time to c) o construcie adverbial (substantiv/numeral cu prepoziie etc.): Tom was

soon.

time.

born in 1965.

233

1) o contrucie complex, utilizat pentru reducerea unei propoziii circumstaniale de timp la un complement circumstanial de timp; a) nominativul absolut cu participiul trecut: His homework written the boy

went out to play.

He doesnt feel quite well when travelling by plane. c) un Gerund precedat de o prepoziie: On leaving the house, she asked me to look after the child. While in Australia he learned English. I played this game when a boy. 2) o propoziie circumstanial de timp: He is always air sick when he travels by plane.
19.4.3. Locul Complementului circumstanial de timp n propoziie A) Majoritatea complementelor circumstaniale indicnd momentul aciunii sunt aezate la sfritul propoziiei: He went to the cinema yesterday/last night. Nowadays i presently ocup de obicei poziia iniial: Nowadays all children Dac ntr-o propoziie apar mai multe complemente circumstaniale indicnd momentul aciunii, acestea sunt aezate succesiv, de la perioada de timp mai scurt la cea mai lung: He was born on Monday, the 19th of February 1970. Ill see you at ten d) un substantiv cu sau fr prepoziie introdus ntr-o conjuncie temporal:

b) un participiu prezent sau trecut, precedat de o conjuncie temporal:

of school-age attend school in Romania.

oclock in Sunday. sau: On Sunday Ill see you at ten oclock.

C) Locul complementelor circumstaniale de timp exprimate prin adverbe de frecven (definit i nedefinit): Adverbe care exprim frecvena unei aciuni n mod definit: daily (zilnic), once (odat), again (din nou), twice (de dou ori) etc., sunt de obicei aezate la sfritul propoziiei: The school board meets weekly/three times a week. Ordinea mai multor adverbe de frecven definit este de la unitatea mai mic la cea mai mare: She phoned him hourly each day. sau: Each day she phoned him hourly. Adverbele de frecven nedefinit: ussualy (de obicei) always (ntotdeauna), sometimes (uneori, cteodat), occasionally (uneori, cteodat), often (adesea), never (niciodat), seldom (rar), sunt de obicei aezate ntre subiect i predicat: I often go to Dac predicatul conine un verb auxiliar sau un verd modal, adverbul de frecven este aezat dup acesta: I have never seen her. You must always do your Adverbele de frecven nedefinit se aeaz dup verbul be, naintea numeralului predicativ: He is often late. Dac verbul este folosit la diateza pasiv, adverbul de frecven nedefinit este aezat dup primul auxiliar: He has never been seen like this.

on the door. He then rang again. And finnaly he started banging on the door.

B) Complementele circumstaniale indicnd succesiunea aciunilor ocup de obicei poziie iniial sau medial n propoziie: First he rang the bell. Next he knocked

the theatre.

duty.

234

Not: Sometimes poate fi aezat i la nceputul propoziiei: I sometimes go for a walk in the woods. sau : Sometimes I go for a walk in the woods. Unele adverbe nedefinite de frecven pot aprea la nceputul propoziiei: - dac aceasta este negativ: Generally/Normally/Usually he doesnt drink - pentru ntrire: Usually I meet her at conferences, but yesterday I ran into

coffee.

her in a department store.

Locul adverbelor de frecven n propoziie

Situaia

Verb Subiect aux./ modal

Adv.de frecven
never/alwa ys/usually/ rarely/seld om/someti mes idem ca mai sus never/alwa ys/usually/ sometimes/ rarely/seld om idem ca mai sus idem ca mai sus idem ca mai sus idem ca mai sus

Verb noional sau nume Alte pri de predicativ propoziie (dup be)

Forma verbal simpl

Believe

them.

He

Has

time enough for his friends.

Verb auxiliar + verb noional Verb modal + Verb noional Verbul be + nume predicativ

They

have

Seen

her.

would

Eat

this. such incidents.

She

can

Forget

He She

is has

ill. been ill.

during my childhood.

D) Ordinea mai multor complemente circumstaniale de timp n propoziie este urmtoarea: durat - frecven - moment: I went to the country for a month every year

235

him hourly.

E) Ordinea mai multor complemente circumstaniale diferite n propoziie este: MOD - loc - timp. They played very well in the match yesterday. Aceast ordine poate fi schimbat: a) pentru a scoate n eviden un anume circumstanial: Each day she phoned

b) construciile adverbiale (mai lungi) sunt aezate de obicei dup adverbe (mai scurte): I was walking earlier in the Botanical Gardens. c) o propoziie subordonat circumstanial se aeaz dup un complement circumstanial: We walked for hours where the Exhibition bad been.

19.5. Complementul circumstanial de mod (The Adverbial of Manner)

19.5.1. Definiie. Complementul circumstanial de mod indic modul n care se ndeplinete o aciune sau apare o nsuire. 19.5.2. Clasificare. Complementele circumstaniale de mod se mpart n: 1) Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis; 2) Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ. 19.5.3. Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis indic felul, modalitatea n care decurge aciunea sau starea: well, badly, quikly, slowly. Ele mai pot reda i alte sensuri: - cantitatea: enough, much, a little; - ntrire: actually, certainly, really; - amplificare: absolutely, completely, greatly, highly, barely, scarcely; - de afirmaie sau negaie: yes, no, of course, not at all; - probabilitate: maybe, perhaps, possibly. Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zise: a) modific o parte de propoziie; b) in locul unei propoziii ntregi. a) Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zise modific: - un verb: He DRIVES carefully. - un adjectiv: He is a little TIRED. - un adverb: You speak too FAST. I cant follow you. b) Cuvintele care exprim probabilitatea, afirmaia sau negaia in de obicei locul unei propoziii ntregi: A: Can you ski ? B: Yes, I can. sau se refer la o propoziie ntreag: Surely you arent ill. Sigur nu eti bolnav. Not: Neavnd o legtur strns cu o anumit parte de prepoziie, unele gramatici (printre care i cea de fa) nu analizeaz aceste complemente n cadrul capitolului despre complemente circumstaniale, ci n cel despre Elemente independente n propoziie.

236

19.5.4. Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis poate fi exprimat prin: a) un adverb sau perifraz adverbial de mod: He drove slowly along the

mannow road.

mistake. This problem can be solved in three ways.

b) un substantiv sau numeral ntrodus printro propoziie: He did this by c) o construcie gerundial introdus prin propoziiile by sau without: He

should have finished by thanking his parents for their help. d) o propoziie circumstanial de mod: He drove the car as they had toild him to.
19.5.5. Locul Complementului circumstanial de mod n propoziie A) Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis se aeaz de obicei dup verb: She drove slowly to the station yesterday. Dac verbul este tranzitiv i urmat de complementul su direct, adverbul de mod este aezat: - dup complementul direct: She drove her car slowly to the station sau: - naintea verbului (rar): She slowly drove car to the station. Complementul circumstanial de mod este aezat dup verbul be cnd acesta este folosit la diateza pasiv: The car was slowly driven into the garage. B) Circumstanialele de mod intrind ideea exprimat de verb sau de alt parte de vorbire (acctually, certainly, obviously, really, surely, honestly, simply, just) preced de regul partea de vorbire la care se refer:

I simply dont understand her behaviour. You must believe me simply on my word. He speaks quite rapidly. She is quite ill. Indeed poate aprea i n poziie final: Thank you very much indeed. It was very kind indeed of you to come.
C) Circumstanialele de mod exprimnd cantitatea, preced sau urmeaz prile de vorbire la care se refer, n felul urmtor: - (Very) much precede de obicei un participiu folosit predicativ: He was very much impressed. Dar urmeaz un verb principal (+complementul lui direct): I like English

very much. - Enough se aeaz dup un adjectiv sau verb: This lesson is EASY enough. Dac ns enough este folosit ca atribut pe lng un substantiv, el apare fie nainte fie dup acesta: He has TIME enough. He has enough TIME.
D) Circumstanialele de mod care amplific ideea exprimat de verb (completely, fully, quite, perfectly, badly) pot aprea naintea verbului principal sau n poziie final: I badly need your advice. I can perfectly understand her behaviour. We

like her very much. Do you agree with us enterely? Adverbele barely, little, scarcely, apar naintea verbului, a numelui predicativ sau ntre dou auxiliare: He barely HAD time to catch the bus. She is barely EIGHTEEN. She COULD hardly BE described as beautiful.

237

like a glove.

19.5.6. Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ este exprimat: a) printr-un substantiv sau pronume precedat de prepoziia like: If fits you

danger. He behaved as if deprived of all his rights.

b) printr-un substantiv cu prepoziie, un adjectiv, un verb la infinitiv sau participiu prezent/trecut introduse prin as if, as though: She cried as if in a terrible

c) un substantiv, un adjectiv, pronume sau numeral, o construcie infinitival sau gerundial introduse prin conjunciile as, not so/as, than:

She is as old as my sister. John isnt as good at maths as my older brother. It is warmer here than downstairs. d) o propoziie circumstanial de mod comparativ: She cried as if she were in a terrible danger. It is warmer here than it is downstairs.
19.5.7. Loc. Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ se aeaz de

obicei:

English an Englishman.

a) dup verbul intranzitiv: He swims like a fish. b) dup complementul direct care urmeaz unui verb tranzitiv: He speaks

19.6. Alte complemente circumstaniale

Felul complementului circumstanial
- de mprejurri nsoitoare - de cauz - de scop - condiional - consecutiv - concesiv - de excepie - de relaie

Exemplu He took farewell tired with waiting. She was punished because of you. The man started crying for help. He came here to talk to you. I couldnt have done it without his support. She is too young to speak. Though not a mechanic, he can repair all kinds of things. They listened to all the witnesses but one. My friend has read everything about the history of the Olympic games.

238

20. Atributul (The Atribute)

Atributul modific sau determin un substantiv sau pronume care ndeplinete n propoziie funcia de: 1) subiect: The tall boy is my brother. 2) o parte secundar de prepoziie: a) complement direct sau indirect: They made an astonishing discovery. b) complement circumstanial (de loc, timp etc.): They often go out quiet

20.1. Definiie

evenings.

20.2. Exprimarea atributului

Atributul poate fi exprimat printr-un adjectiv sau printr-o alt parte de vorbire folosit ca adjectiv: a) un adjectiv propriu-zis: Thats an extraordinary solution. Este o soluie extraordinar. b) un substantiv cu valoare adjectival: He attended evening classes. El frecventa cursul seral. c) un substantiv n cazul genitiv: You should follow your friends advice. Ar trebui s asculi sfatul prietenului tu. d) un numeral: Twenty persons were waiting for him. l ateptau douzeci de persoane. e) un infinitiv: There is only one thing to do. Este un singur lucru de fcut. f) un participiu prezent sau trecut: They watched the rising tide. Urmreau cum crete fluxul. They sell frozen foods here. Aici se vnd alimente congelate. g) un adverb: Birds are chirping in the trees outside. Psrile cnt n pomii de far. h) o perifraz prepoziional sau adverbial: The house on the right was built only a few years ago. Casa din dreapta a fost construit numai cu civa ani n urm. i) un grup de cuvinte: He was a small and not-over-particulary-taken-care-of boy. Era un biat mic i nu prea ngrijit. j) o propoziie subordonat atributiv: The student who will guese the right answer will be rewarded. Elevul care va gsi rspunsul corect va fi evideniat.

20.3. Locul atributului n propoziie

Atributul precede de regul cuvntul pe care l nsoeate (atributul prepus). n unele cazuri ns, atributul poate aprea dup regentul lui (atributul postpus). 20.3.1. Atributul prepus. Atributul precede subiectul atunci cnd este exprimat prin pri de vorbire folosite adjectival: a) un adjectiv propriu-zis: My youngest brother became a pioneer a week ago. Fratele meu cel mai mic a fost fcut pioner sptmna trecut.

239

b) un demonstrativ: This exercise is less difficult than the last one. Exerciiul acesta este mai puin dificil dect ultimul. c) un substantiv: The silver coins are kept here. Monedele de argint sunt pstrate aici. d) un substantiv n cazul genitiv: An elephants trunk is so strong it can hold a log of wood. Trompa unui elefant este aa de puternic nct poate s ridice o buturug. e) un numeral: Two men spoke at the conference. Dou persoane au vorbit la conferin. Cnd subiectul este precedat de dou adjective de acelai fel, cel scurt este aezat naintea celui lung: a long tiresome voyage - o cltorie lung, obositoare; the shortest and most accurate answer - cel mai scurt i exact rspuns. Atributele exprimate prin pri de vorbire diferite se aeaz n ordinea: predeterminant: one, half, both + determinant: the, this, my + postdeterminant: the first three + adjectiv: Ive read all the three historical novels he has published. Am citit toate cele trei romane istorice pe care le-a publicat. 20.3.2. Atributul postpus. Atributul este aezat dup subiect sau alt element nominal din propoziie, cnd este exprimat: a) prin adjectivele: present, proper, extant: The story proper is much longer. Povestea propriu-zis este mult mai lung. b) prin adjective folosite predicativ: The firemen got into the house ablase. Pompierii au ptruns n casa n flcri. c) n construcii fixe tradiionale: sum total, time immemorial, ambassador d) dup pronume nehotrte terminate n - body, - one, -thing: Did you find anything new? Ai gsit ceva nou? e) prin construcii prepoziionale: I like this story about flying saucers. mi place povestea aceasta despre farfuriile zburtoare. f) prin construcii infinitivale: He had the intention to help you. Inteniona s te ajute. 20.3.3. Unele atribute se pot aeza fie naintea substantivelor, fie dup ele: a) apoziia dezvoltat: G. Chaucer, the author of Canterbury Tales, lived in the 14-th century. G. Chaucer, autorul Povestirilor din Canterbury a trit n secolul XIV. b) atributele exprimate prin adjective derivate din verbe, adjectivele exprimate prin participii trecute sau cele terminate n -able, -ible: visible stars, stars

extraordinary.

visible, navigable rivers, rivers navigable.

20.4. Apoziia (The Aposition)

20.4.1. Definiie. Apoziia este un atribut exprimat printr-un substantiv care explic sau definete substantivul de lng care st. Ea este de dou feluri: apoziia simpl i apoziia dezvoltat.

240

20.4.2. Apoziia simpl este exprimat printr-un substantiv care specific titluri, profesiuni, numiri geografice, etc.: Professor Smith, The Straits of Dover. Fiind n strns legtur cu substantivul pe lng care st, apoziia simpl nu se desparte prin virgul de acesta: Mount Everest. 20.4.3. Locul apoziiei simple. Apoziia simpl poate s precead sau s urmeze substantivul: Doctor Jojnson, The Danube Delta, the town of Dublin, he river

Thames.

20.4.4. Apoziia dezvoltat este mai puin legat de substantivul la care se refer. n exprimarea oral, ea se citete cu o intonaie proprie, iar n limba scris se separ prin virgul de substantiv: Mr. Smith, a friend of hers, visited us last week. Dl. Smith, un prieten de al ei, ne-a vizitat sptmna trecut. Apoziia dezvoltat poate fi uneori nsoit de un adverb care subliniaz relaia dintre apoziie i substantiv: Dan and Mary enjoyed watching the animals at the zoo, particularly the monkeys. Lui Dan i Mariei le-a plcut s se uite la animalele de la grdina zoologic, mai ales la maimue. 20.4.5. Apoziia dezvoltat este aezat dup substantivul sau echivalentul acestuia pe lng care st: There have been great English writers, for example Shakespeare. Au existat mari scriitori englezi, de exemplu Shakespeare. Apoziia dezvoltat poate aprea i naintea substantivului: A man of fifty, Mr. Brown was still very energetic. Un om de cincizeci de ani, dl. Brown era totui foarte energic.

241

21. Elementele independente (Independent Elements)

21.1. Definiie
Elementele independente sunt cuvinte, grupuri de cuvinte sau propoziii subordonate care nu au legtur gramatical cu celelalte pri ale propoziiei.

21.2. Clasificare
Elementele independente sunt: a) interjeciile; b) substantivele sau pronumele n cazul vocativ, identic ca form cu nominativul; c) cuvintele i locuiunile parentetice.

21.3. Interjeciile
Interjeciile nu au relaii gramaticale cu celelalte cuvinte din propoziie, funcia lor fiind de a da o anumit coloratur comunicrii. Ele pot exprima: a) surpriza: Oh! b) satisfacia, recunoaterea: Ah! c) surpriza deosebit: Wow! d) durerea: Ouch! Ow! etc. Oh, what a nice present! Oh, ce cadou grgu! Ah, thats just what I was looking for! O! este exact ceea ce cutam.

21.4. Adresarea direct (Vocative)

Numele unor persoane sau titlurile, denumirile, profesiunile, etc., rostite la nceputul sau sfritul comunicrii, fr legtur gramatical cu celelalte cuvinte din propoziie, au rolul de a atrage atenia persoanei respective: Bob, hurry up! We are late. Bob, grbete-te, am ntrziat! Have you got a minute, Mr. Brown? mi acordai un moment, Dl. Brown? Not: Vocativul poate fi folosit i pentru a exprima relaia dintre vorbitor i asculttor: - Sir i Madam denot respectul fa de persoana creia i se face adresarea. Titluri i nume de profesiuni: My Lord, Your Honour, Your Excellency, Prime Minister, Doctor sunt folosite ca forme de adresare n stilul oficial. - Dintre vocativele folosite n vorbirea familiar menionm: dad(dy), mum

(my), my dear, darling.

21.5. Cuvintele i locuiunile parentetice

Acestea pot fi:

242

a) de afirmaie sau negaie: certainly, surely, really, to be sure, indeed, by no means: We are very happy indeed. They really have enjoyed themselves. To be sure, we have heard such promises before. b) probabilitate: perhaps, maybe, as a matter-of-fact, in fact: Perhaps he has left the town. c) de legtur cu comunicarea anterioar: however, morever, therefore, nevertheless, to begin with, to conclude; In the end, however, they came to an understanding. Pn la urm totui, au ajuns la o nelegere. d) cuvinte sau grupuri de cuvinte cu caracter explicativ: in my opinion,

personally, after all, to tell the truth: Personally, I dont believe that. Eu personal, nu cred aceasta. In my opinion, youve made a mistake. Dup prerea mea, ai greit.

21.6. Locul elementelor independente n propoziie

Elemente independente pot ocupa n propoziie: a) poziia iniial: As a matter of fact, I was happy I had met him. De fapt, am fost fericit c l-am cunoscut. b) poziia final: Come on, boys! (hai(de) biei! c) poziia medial: I really liked the show.

243

22. Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie (Word Order)

22.0. Generaliti
Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie a fost tratat n capitolele anterioare (cap. 11 - 21) n analiza fcut la fiecare parte de propoziie. n capitolul urmtor se analizeaz din nou ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie, n funcie de scopul comunicrii: propoziii enuniative, interogative, imperative i exclamative. n capitolul de fa, ne intereseaz principiile generale care guverneaz aezarea cuvintelor n propoziie i unele situaii speciale. 22.0.1. Studierea ordinii cuvintelor n propoziie n limba englez prezint o importan deosebit. Limba englez este o limb sintetic, avnd foarte puine forme flexionare. De aceea locul pe care-l ocup cuvintele n propoziie are un rol important n identificarea funciilor lor sintactice. n propoziiile urmtoare, de exemplu, substantivul man are aceeai structur morfologic, funcia sa de subiect i respectiv de complement direct n propoziie fiind identificat doar cu ajutorul poziiei i al transformrii posive. a) Activ: THE MAN killed the tiger. Pasiv: The tiger was killed BY THE MAN. Substantivul man este subiectul propoziiei active, n care ocup poziie iniial, i subiectul logic al propoziiei pasive, n care are funcia formal de complement circunstanial de agent. b) Activ: THE TIGER killed the man. Pasiv: The man was killed BY THE TIGRER. Substantivul man este comoplementul direct al propoziiei active, fiind aezat imediat dup verbul tranzitiv i devenind subiectul formal al transformrii pasive. 22.0.2. Studierea ordinii cuvintelor n propoziia n limba englez este important i datorit diferenelor dintre cele dou limbi. n limba romn poziia prilor de propoziie difer de cea a cuvintelor englezeti n dou privine: a) limba romn are mai multe forme flexionare dect limba englez i deci locul cuvintelor n propoziie nu este att de important, iar subiectul nu este de obicei exprimat, verbul romnesc fiind marcat formal penru persoan i numr: Niciodat nu-l vd acolo. (Eu) nu-l vd niciodat acolo. (Eu) Nu-l vd acolo niciodat. b) unele pri de propoziie n limba romn ocup de obicei alte locuri dect prile de propoziie corespunztoare din limba englez:

I NEVER see him there.

244

(subiect + predicat + complemente) Au mers toi s vad filmul. (predicat + subiect + complemente)

EVERYBODY went to see the film.

He speaks ENGLISH well.

(subiect + predicat + compl.direct + circ. de timp) El vorbete bine ENGLEZETE. (subiect + predicat + circ.de mod + compl. direct) (subiect + predicat + circ.de loc + circ.de timp) L-am vzut asear LA CINEMA. (subiect + predicat + circ.de timp + circ. de loc) 22.0.3. Ordinea cuvintelor din limba englez prezint urmtoarele caracteristici generale: a) Ordinea prilor principale de propoziie este: - subiect - predicat, n propoziiile enuniative i exclamative: PETER likes - predicat - subiect, n propoziiile interogative: Is HE an architect?

I saw him AT THE CINEMA last night.

algebra. THEY are not ready yet. How beatiful SHE is!

I read the news quickly in the dining-room after dinner. I walk quickly across the park every morning.

b) Ordinea obinuit a complementelor n propoziie este: verb tranzitiv + complement direct + complemente circumstaniale (de mod) verb tranzitiv (de loc) (de timp)

Old Dacian implements were found under the ruins.

c) Atributul precede de obicei partea de vorbire nominal pe care o nsoete:

d) Schimbarea ordinii normale a cuvintelor n propoziie are dou cauze mari: - parte de propoziie mai scurt tinde s fie aezat naintea celei mai lungi (din motive de ritm, echilibru al propoziiei): The hostess offered CAKES to all the

quests in the room.

- partea de propoziie asupra creia vorbitorul dorete s ne atrag atenia este aezat la nceputul propoziiei, producnd de obicei inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: NOWHERE was be better received than in his native town.

e) Inversiunea ntre subiect i predicat este: - total, cnd predicatul este exprimat doar prin verbul noional (o form verbal simpl): Rarely had HE time to wach TV. - parial, cnd predicatul este alctuit din mai multe cuvinte: verb auxiliar/modal + verb noional (o form verbal compus).

245

n al doilea caz, subiectul se aeaz de regul dup primul cuvnt din forma verbului auxiliar/modal: Hardly had THEY finished their dinner when somebody rang at

the door. Nowhere could YOU find a better job.

- dac elementul subliniat se refer la ceva menionat anterior: Telephone numbers I can never remember. On Sunday the exhibition had been open for a week. 22.0.4. Poziia diferitelor elemente sintactice n cadrul propoziiei n limba englez poate fi prezentat schematic astfel:

HE says is right.

f) Aezarea n poziia iniial (poziia 0) a prilor de propoziie care nu ocup de obicei acest loc, cu scopul de a le sublinia, nu produce ntotdeauna inversiune ntre subiect i predicat. Ordinea subiect - predicat este meninut: - dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume: Here HE comes. Everything

Poziie
Partea de propoziie

0
(Complement circumstanial de timp/Alt parte de vorbire pentru subliniere)

4
Complement indirect/Complement prepoziional/Element predicativ suplimentar

5
Complement circumstanial de mod

6
Complement circumstanial de loc
in the hall

7
(Complement circumstanial de timp)
(after dinner)

Subiect (+ atribute)

Exemplu

(After dinner)

She

said

goodnight

Complement direct

Predicat

to them

quickly

22.1. Reguli privitoare la ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie

1) Subiectul (+ atributele sale) ocup locul 1 n propoziiile enuniative, precednd predicatul: The man has left. Omul a plecat. 2) Subiectul sau alt element nominal din propoziie (alt nume) poate fi precedat sau urmat de unul sau de mai multe atribute. 3) Subiectul este precedat de atribute exprimate prin pri de vorbire folosite adjectival: a) un adjectiv propriu-zis, un substabtiv, un demonstrativ, un numeral, un participiu etc.: The tall man left. These books are interesting. This evening dress is very

beautiful. Three hundred people were present at the ceremony. b) printr-un substantiv n cazul genitiv: The profesors lectures are very interesting.

246

n cadrul unui atribut care precede subiectul sau alt parte nominal de propoziie, se pot crea urmtoarele situaii, dac atributul este exprimat prin dou sau mai multe adjective: a) Dou adjective de acelai fel se aeaz n ordinea adjectiv mai scurt adjectiv mai lung: a QUIET intelligent boy; a LONG boring chapter; the TALLEST and

most talkative girl.

c) Dou adjective diferite ca sens lexical se aeaz naintea substantivului n ordinea general/subiectiv - specific/obiectiv: a NICE new vase, a FINE old carpet, a d) Se aeaz imediat naintea substantivului adjectivele indicnd: culoarea: a delicate pink vase stilul: a beatiful gothic building naionalitatea: a cup of delicious China tea materialul: a useful platic bag. e) Ordinea atributelor exprimate prin pri de vorbire diferite este: predeterminant: all, half, both + determinant; the, this, my + postdeterminant: ordinal: the first, the second + cardinal/cuantificator: two, several + adjectiv + substantiv: All

gloomy house, a new and useful experiment.

b) Dou adjective sunt adesea legate prin and pentru subliniere: a dark and

PRETTY red flower.

the three tall men were teachers.

Poziia determinanilor n cadrul grupului nominal:

Grup Nominal
Predeter minant Half Determi Postdete Cardinal nant rminant Cuantifi Ordinal cator my first two The last Calific Substantiv

Grup Verbal

working Summer

day months

was gone. were very hot.

They drove from the suburbs to the city proper. The people present listened to him attentively. b) n construciile fixe trandiionale: sum total, time immemorial c) prin adjective folosite predicativ: the house ablaze d) dup pronume nehotrte terminate n -body, -one, -think: Theres nithing unusual in what he says. e) prin construcii prepoziionale (substantiv + prepoziie): Ill show you a picture of my son. f) prin construcii infinitivale: This is the question to be settled.

4) Subiectul (sau alt element nominal din propoziie) este urmat de atribute exprimate: a) prin adjectivele: present, proper, extant:

247

lover of nature. A scientist of world renown. Henri Coand was a great lover of nature.

5) Unele atribute pot aprea fie nainte, fie dup substantiv: a) apoziia dezvoltat: Henri Coand, a scientist of world renown, was a great

b) Atributele exprimate prin adjective derivate din verbe sau legate de acestea, ca de exemplu adjectivele exprimate prin participii sau adjectivele terminate n -able, -ible precede numele cnd se accentueaz caracterul lor adjectival (exprimarea unei caliti) i urmeaz numele cnd se accentueaz caracterul lor verbal: Caracterul adjectival:

She is an adopted child.

Caracter verbal:

The classification adopted is very simple. (wich has been adopted)

Caracterul adjectival: Caracter verbal:

All the available copies were put at our disposal. All the copies avilable were put at our disposal.

c) Dac un substantiv este nsoit de mai multe adjective , unele dintre ele l preced, iar altele l urmeaz, pentru realizarea ritmului propoziiei: Before him

stretched the vast forest, dark, dense and mysterious.

timp: last year, in summer, on Monday, yesterday. Poziia iniial a circumstanialului de timp este mai rar folosit dect poziia final, de obicei n propoziii lungi, cu multe complemente: Yesterday she unexpectedly

6) Pe locul 0 n propoziie, naintea subiectului (+ atributele sale) se pot afla: a) complementul circumstanial de timp care exprim o perioad definit de

left for Suceava by the morning plane. waiting for you half an hour.

sau cnd se face referire la ceva menionat anterior: At eight she had been b) i alte pri de propoziie pot ocupa poziia 0, pentru subliniere: Slowly and

carefully he wrote his name.

7) n anumite situaii subiectul ocup locul 2 n propoziie, prin inversiune total cu predicatul (exprimat prin verbul be sau have la Present sau Past Tense: Is HE

at home? Have YOU a dog?

IT is unusual for him to be so silent. There are beautiful pictures in this book.

sau prin inversiune parial cu verbul auxiliar sau modal care intr n alctuirea predicatului: Have YOU met him? What can I do? Subiectul ocup locul 2 n propoziie: a) n propoziii interogative: Could you get me some fruit? b) cnd subiectul logic este precedat de un subiect introductiv (it sau there): c) cnd o parte de propoziie, n special complementul circumstanial exprimat prin adverbe negative sau restrictive singure: scarcely, hardly, seldom, rarely, little,

even less, nor, neither, at no time, never, etc., sau precedate de ONLY: only by chance, only yesterday, only then, only with difficulty, only by luck este aezat pe locul 0 pentru subliniere: Little does he realize how foolish he looks. Only by chance did I hear that they had returned from their trip. 248

later.

8) Predicatul ocup de obicei locul 2 n propoziie, dup subiect: He came

Predicatul sau o parte a predicatului poate ocupa locul 1 n propoziie, prin inversiune total sau parial cu subiectul, n situaiile enumerate la punctul 7. 9) Predicatul poate fi precedat de anumite complemente circumstaniale (never, often, hardly) i este urmat dac este tranzitiv, de compldementul direct, iar dac este intranzitiv, de complemente circumstaniale. n ordinea: mod, loc, timp: We

often swim in the sea. We had great fun at the party last night.

- adverbe restrictive: hardly, scarcely, only. Aceste adverbe preced predicatul exprimat printr-o form verbal simpl: They rarely have visitors. sau verbul noional care intr n alctuirea predicatului mpreun cu un verb auxiliar sau modal: He has OFTEN lent me his pen. You can HARDLY Verbul be este urmat de aceste adverbe la formele simple (Present, Past): He is OFTEN ill. i precedat de ele la formele compuse: He has OFTEN been ill. Pentru subliniere, aceste adverbe pot fi aezate la nceputul sau sfritul propoziiei, cu sau fr inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: Often di they go for long

seldom, sometimes.

10) Predicatul este de obicei precedat de complemente circumstaniale exprimate prin: - adverbe de frecven nedefinit: often, always, usually, never, rarely,

excuse yourself for this reason.

walks when they were young. They to go for long walks; often they walks as far as five miles every day. They visit their friends very often.

11) Verbul tranzitiv este urmat de grupul complementelor (direct, indirect, prepoziional), n modul urmtor: a) Un singur complement direct se aeaz imediat dup verb: Ive left my

Atenie! Dac verbul tranzitiv este exprimat printr-un verb cu particul adverbial, complementul direct se aeaz: 1) dup particula adverbial, dac el este exprimat printr-un substantiv singur sau cu o complinire adverbial, dac el este exprimat printr-un substantiv singur sau cu o complinire, sau printr-un pronume mai lung: Put on your gloves. Put on the gloves I 2) ntre verb i particula adverbial: poziie obligatorie dac complementul direct este exprimat printr-un pronume: Put it on, sau variant la 1) dac complementul direct este exprimat printr-un substantiv: Put your gloves on. b) Dou complemente directe se aeaz dup verb n ordinea: complement direct al persoanei, complement direct al obiectului: He teaches THE CHILDREN

notebook at home.

bought you yesterday. Pack up everything.

mathematics.

249

them.

c) Un complement direct i unul indirect se aeaz n ordinea: 1) complement direct + indirect, aceast ordine fiind uneori folosit pentru sublinierea complementului indirect: I gave THE NOTE to your deskmate. Atenie! Aceast ordine este recomandat: - cnd ambele complemente sunt exprimate prin pronume: I gave it to him. - dup verbe urmate obligatoriu de prepoziia to: I explained the lesson to - cnd complementul indirect este mai lung dect cel direct: I gave the note

2) O alt posibilitate este: verb tranzitiv + complement indirect fr to sau for + complement direct, care este ordinea normal, neutr: I gave him YOUR NOTE. d) Un complement direct i unul prepoziional se aeaz n ordine: They

to your deskmate.

compared THE FILM with the novel.

e) Complementul direct este de asemenea urmat de elementul predicativ suplimentar: They found THE PLACE a prosperous village. 12) Un verb intranzitiv este urmat de complemente circumstaniale n ordinea: mod, loc, timp: He waited quietly in the for an hour. 13) Complemente circumstaniale de mod sunt aezat imediat dup verbul intranzitiv sau dup verbul tranzitiv i complementele sale: He smiled proudly. he

covered the tube carefully.

b) Circumstantialul de loc se poate aeza naintea complementului direct, dup un verb tranzitiv, cnd complementul direct este urmat de o constrcuie prepoziional sau o propoziie subordonat: I met there a boy who pretended to be a friend of yours. c) Complementul circumstanial de loc se poate aeza la nceputul propoziiei fie pentru subliniere, fie pentru echilibrul propoziiei. Aceast aezare produce inversiune ntre subiect i predicat, dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un substantiv: Ordinea subiect predicat rmne neschimbat dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume: Off he goes ! Lower and lowe he bend. Dou sau mai multe complemente circumstaniale de loc se aeaz de la cel mai specific la cel mai general: He lives et 55, Franklin Street Bucharest. I met my friends Dac n propoziie apar dou adverbe: unul de loc i altul de direcie adverbul de loc se aeaz dup cel de direcie: the hourse jumped over the fence (direcie) in the garden (loc) sau la nceputul propoziiei: In the garden the hourse jumped over the

hurry yesterday. Ill go to the cinema by bus.

Excepii: a) Circumstanialul de loc se poate uneori aeaza naintea celui de mod, dup un verb intranzitiv exprndu-i calea, pentru a-i completa sensul: She walked to school in a

Off goes your train! Lower and lower bend the old man over the sick child.

in a little vilage on the Black Sea Coast.

fence.

250

15) Complementele circumstaniale de timp care ocup poziia final n propoziie sunt cele care indic: - momentul aciunii: yesterday, at 5 oclock, two days ago; - durata acestuia: three weeks, four ages; - frecvena definit: once in a while, from time to time. Excepii: a) un complement circumstanial de timp scurt se aeaz uneori naintea predicatului sau a verbului noional din structura sa: you (can) now see that you were b) un complement circumstanial de timp se poate aeza naintea unui circumstanial de loc, dac este mai scurt dect acesta: I saw them yarlier in front of

wrong. Ill soon find out the truth.

Sau dac exprim durata: I stayed for two weeks at the seaside. Mai multe complemente circumstaniale de timp exprimnd momentul aciunii se aeaz de la momentul mai precis de determinat la cel mai general: He was borne at 3.12 in the afternoon on August 29th, 1968. Mai multe complemente circumstaniale de timp diferite se aeaz n ordinea: durat - frecven - moment: I went to the seaside for two weeks every summer during

the school.

my childhood.

EXERCIII:
I. Schimbai ordinea complementelor. Folosii prepoziia to sau for naintea complementului indirect. Exemplu: Show us the album. Show the album to us. 1. Please, pass me the sal. 2. She bought her son some toys. 3. Tell the children this funny story. 4. He didnt forget to buy his sister a ticket. 5. Mother gave us some grapes. 6. Please, send your parents my regards. 7. Fetch me a glass of water. 8. He offered everyone flowers. II. nlocuii complementele indirecte din coloana nr. 1 cu complemente 1 2

indirecte potrivite ca sens din coloana nr.2. Facei schimbrile necesare. 1. I promised them a dictionary. 2. William handed her some pictures. 3. They told us the news. 4. She showed Miss Denter the album 5. I have written John a letter. 6. Andrew owes Betty some monay.

The elderly lady. all who had come. the woman sitting next to him. everybody in the ball. her, not to him him, not to her.

1. Descrie-ne peisajul. 2. Te rog dictez-mi traducerea cuvintelor noi. 3. Comunic-le vestea grozav. 4. I-am cumprat soului meu o cravat foarte drgu. 5.

III. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez:

251

R: 1. Describe this landscape to us. 2. Please dictate to me the translation of the new words. 3. Tell them/Let them know the great piece of news. 4. I bought a very nice tie for my husband. 5. The gold medal was awarded to the Romanian athlete for her extraordinary performance. 6. You needn't return this book to me. I offer it to you as a present.

Medalia de aur a fost acordat sportivei romne pentru performana ei extraordinar. 6. Nu este nevoie s-mi napoiezi cartea. i-o fac cadou.

IV. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziiile care lipsesc pentru a forma complemente prepoziionale: 1. She never speaks... this subject. 2. She waited.... you for half an hour. 3. He still depends.... his parents. 4. Do you agree.... me? 5. The boy insisted ... doing it himself. 6. Please, look...the book I've bought. V. Transformai propoziiile urmtoare pentru a folosi verbele din parantez, verbe urmate de elemete predicative suplimentare:
The best speaker was their representative. (make) They made the best speaker their representative. 1. The wisest man was their president. (choose) 2. The boy was given the name of William. (call) 3. Mr White was their director. (appoint) 4. She was the winner. (proclaim). 5. He was the commander of the army. (declare) 6. Richard was their secretary. (elect)

Exemplu:

construciile Acuzativ cu infinitiv sau Nominativ cu infinitiv: 1. He is said (be) the best football player of the national team. 2. Did you see her (play) this part? 3. They expected us (come) on Sunday. 4. I noticed him (leave) the house. 5. I considered her (be) my best friend. 6. We have often heard him (speak) like this. 7. The teacher wanted the pupils (listen) to his explanation. 8. I felt him (move) in the room. 9. We saw him (leave) the building. 10. He is considered (be) a great scienticist.

VI. Folosii prepoziia to naintea infintivului acolo unde este cazul, n

infinitiv.

VII. Transferai construciile Acuzativ cu infinitiv n construcii Nominativ cu Exemplu: They knew him to be a good doctor.

He was known to be a good doctor. 1. We expected her to speak first. 2. They thought him to be gifted in painting. 3. I heard him whistle. 4. We advised him to take it easy. 5. They told us to wait. 6. The teacher asked him to explain the rule. 7. We saw him leave the room. 8. We consider his methods to be very interesting. VIII. Punei complementele circumstaniale din paranteze la locul potrivit n propoziie: 1. I am working on my graduation project (now). 2. He has had his dinner (already). 3. These flowers grow (rapidly, in dark places.). 4. The last lesson was difficult (unusually); this one is easy (enough). 5. I have believed them (never). 6. His

252

behaviour cannot be explained (entirely). 7. Our teacher speaks English (very well). He speaks English (in the classroom, always). 8. That author doesnt write true stories (actually). 9. You can excuse yourself for that reason (hardly). 10. He comes (sometimes, on Saturday, to my place). 11. He goes to the the seaside (usually, in July). 12. Look at those sentences (tonight).

1. We had a long talk with somebody (intelligent). 2 That child is my son (fairhaired). 3. I can't believe that story (long, of your friend). 4. There are plenty of sights in town (historical of Braov). 5. He is a man (handssome, with strong features.). 6. Have you seen the inscription (oldest, extant)? 7. We bought some wine (dry, red, inexpensive). 8. She was looking at Valley (wide, beautiful, green)

IX. Punei atributele din parantez la locul potrivit n propoziie:

X. Subliniai apoziiile: 1. You look tired, Aunt Mary. 2. Have you read Chavy Chase, the oldest historical English ballad?. 3. Professor Jones will lecture on modern art. 4. Yesterday I met the Smithe, the friends of my youth. 5. Do you know the old saying First come, first served? 6. We admired the exhibits, especiallythe national costumes7. London is crossed by the river Thames. 8. There was only one carriage in the village and that was old Tom's the baker. XI. Traducei n limba englez:

Rou Gheorghe este soldatul cel mai mic, nu numai din grupa sau din plutonul lui, ci din ntreaga companie. Era att de mic, nct abia reuise la recrutare s nu fie reformat. De fapt la nceput l i reformaser, dup ce mai nti fusese amnat de dou ori n doi ani i dac n satul lui acest lucru n-ar fi fost socotit drept o daovad definitiv de infirmitate, Rou Gheorghe ar fi putut s ia imediat trenul de la centrul de recrutare i s plece n aceeiai zi acas. n aceeai zi ns, tot satul ar fi tiut c nu e bun de armat, i n primul rnd fetele. Era originar de prin Banat. Aa se face c, dndu-se jos de pe cntarul medical, Rou Gheorghe nu ieise din sal, ci se retrsese mai ncolo, tcut i trist, ntrziind ct putuse de mult n timpul mbrcatului. Cu ochiul lui pnditor de bnean linitit observase ns c nimeni nu era tent la el. i atunci se amestecase cu ceilali care veneau la rnd, se deybrcase i se prezentae iar n faa comisiei.

R: Rou Gheorghe was the shortest soldier, not only in his group or platoon, but in the entire company. He was so short that at recruitment he had hardly managed to escape being sent back home. In fact they had rejected him at first, after his application had been withheld twice in two years, and if people in his village had not thought this was a certain proof of infirmity, Rou Gheorghe could have taken a train from the recruitment centre immediately and left for home the same day. But the same day, the whole village would have known he was not good for the army, the girls first of all. He came from Banat. And so, stepping off the medical weighing scales, Rou Gheorghe had not left the room, but had gone back, silent and sad, puttind off for as long as he could the time to get dressed again. With the watchful eyes of a quiet Banat man, he had noticed that nobody paid him any attention. And then he had mixed with the others whose turn was next, had undressed and had appeared before the commission again.

(Marin Preda - Soldatul ce mititel)

253

23. Felurile propoziiilor (Kinds of Sentence)

23.0. Clasificare
Din punct de vedere al scopului comunicrii, propoziiile pot fi mprite n patru clase mari: enuniative, interogative, imperative i exclamative. Fiecare clas prezint anumite caracteristici n ceea ce privete intonaia, punctuaia, topica etc., necesare pentru exprimarea coninutului ei specific.

23.1. Propoziia enuniativ (Declarative Sentence, Statement)

Propoziia enuniativ este utilizat pentru transmiterea unei informaii. Aceasta poate fi: a) afirmativ: He speaks English well. (El) Vorbete bine englezete. b) negativ: He doesnt speak English well. El nu vorbete bine englezete. Intonaia propoziiilor enuniative este descendent: I went to two yesterday. M-am dus n ora ieri. Ordinea propoziiilor n propoziia enuniativ n propoziiile enuniative, subiecte este de obicei exprimat i precede predicatul. Ordinea cuvintelor este astfel: (atribut +) subiect + predicat (+ complement direct) (+ complemente circumstaniale de mod, loc, timp): Little Tommy learned a poem

at school yesterday.

23.2. Propoziia negativ (The Negative Sentence)

23.2.1. Exprimarea negaiei n limba englez prezint unele deosebiri fa de limba romn, necesitnd un studiu atent. Exprimarea negaiei n limba englez se face de regul cu ajutorul unui singur cuvnt de negare, spre deosebire de limba romn: I didnt say anything to anybody. Nu am spus nimic la nimeni. 23.2.2. O propoziie poate conine dou negaii doar dac acestea se refer la dou pri diferite ale propoziei: I didnt tell him not to phone. Nu i-am spus s nu telefoneze. Not: Propoziii ca: He ain't got nothing. El nu are nimic, care se pot ntlni n unele opere literare, cntece sau filme sunt forme incorecte din punct de vedere gramatical, caracteristice vorbirii necultivate sau cntecelor populare. 23.2.3. Exprimarea sensului negativ al unei propoziii se poate face prin: A) negarea verbului; B) negarea altei pri de propoziie.

254

a) Verbele be i have ca verbe noionale, verbele modale defective i verbele noionale la timpuri compuse formeaz negativul prin adugarea negaiei not dup primul auxiliar/modal: He is NOT an engineer. I have NOT a new bucycle. He can NOT swim. I Not: Dac un verb este urmat de un substantiv, se poate folosi no, echivalentul lui not any: I have no time. Nu am timp. There are no children in playground. Nu e nici un copil pe terenul de joc. n vorbire, negaia not este contras n nt care se scrie ntr-un cuvnt cu verbul: He isnt an engineer. I havent bicycle. Exprimarea constras a negaiei se mai poate face i prin contragerea verbului auxiliar, acolo unde este posibil: He isnt here = Hes not here. They arent working =

A) Negarea verbului:

have NOT spoken English today. He should NOT have done this.

Theyre not working. They havent read the book = Theyve not read the book. He wont come = Hell not come. She wouldnt speak = Shed not speak.

b) Pentru formarea negativului la timpurile Present Simple i Past Simple (care nu conin auxiliare n forma lor), se folosete verbul auxiliar do pentru prezent i forma de Past Tense, did, pentru Past Tense. Auxiliarul do/did + negaia not se aeaz ntre subiect i verb, care este la infinitivul scurt: I do not know him. I did not see them. La persoana a III-a singular prezent, auxiliarul primete -es, lund forma does: He does not like grapefruit. Atenie! 1. Verbul auxiliar do este necesar pentru formarea negativului la prezent i Past Tense i n cazul verbului noional do = a face: He didnt do anything yesterday. N-a fcut nimic ieri. 2. Verbul have poate forma negativul i cu ajutorul lui do: I dont have enough

money. He didnt have any friends in this town.

them. He doesnt like grapefruit.

n vorbire, negaia not este de obicei contras: I dont know him. I didnt see

Forma negativ a verbelor

Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie Verb

Subiect 2 I He Verb aux./ modal Nume Predicativ 3 am was has had not 4 NOT Verb noional/ (+alte pri de prop.) 5 a teacher. a bicycle.

1 be, have la Present, Past Tense

255

Verb noional la aspectul continuu Verb noional la diateza pasiv

We He You They He

are were will be is was are were have had has had will would do does

reading. NOT reading. understood. NOT being followed. been show the museum. come. finished by then. have arrived yet. have done this.

Verb noional la timpuri perfecte Verb noional la Present, Past Tense Simpledid Verb noional + verb modal

They They Mary I He They

NOT

NOT

like milk.

must You should NOT

swim. have done this.

B) Caracterul negativ al unei propoziii poate fi exprimat i prin negarea altor pri de propoziie:
- subiectul: Nobody came here yesterday. - numele predicativ: He is nothing to me. - complementul (direct, indirect, prepoziional): I saw nothing there. I spoke

- complementul circumstanial: He is nowhere to be found. Pentru negarea acestor pri de propoziii se pot utiliza pronume, adjective sau adverbe negative ca: ni (one), none, neitherm nothing, nowhere, never etc.: None of them knew the answer. Nici unul dintre ei (mai muli de doi) nu tia rspunsul. Neither of them knew the answer. Niciunul (din cei doi) nu tia rspunsul. Unele dintre aceste mijloace de exprimare a negaiei au cte un corespondent: any (one) either, anything, anywhere, ever etc. care este folosit cnd verbul este la forma negativ: I didnt know anything = I knew nothing. Ele pot fi folosite ca orice parte de propoziie, n afar de subiect sau parte din subiect: I couldnt see anything in the dark. dar: Nothing could be seen in the dark. n majoritatea cazurilor cuvintele negative au echivalente n propoziiile afirmative:

to nobody about this.

256

Afirmativ

I met SOME frinds of mine.

Negativ

Am ntlnit nite prieteni de-ai mei.

I didnt meet ANY friends of mine.

Ive read about this SOMEWHERE.

Am citit undeva despre asta.

N-am ntlnit nici un prieten de-al meu.

I havent read about this any where

Alteori ns se folosesc cuvinte diferite:

Afirmativ Theyve eaten already.

Au mncat deja. Doarme nc.

Negativ They havent eaten yet.

N-au mncat nc. Nu mai doarme.

He is still sleeping. He sometimes phones me.

mi telefoneaz uneori.

He isnt sleeping any longer. He never/seldom phones me.

Nu-mi telefoneaz mi telefoneaz.

niciodac/Rar

They read too many books.

Ei citesc prea multe cri.

They dont read very many books.

Ei nu citesc prea multe cri.

Mary is coming , too.

Vine i Maria.

Mary isnt coming euther.

Nu vine nici Maria.

Adjectivele little i few i adverbele only, seldom, rarely, hardly, scarcely, barely ocup un loc special. Ele sunt cuvinte cu sens negativ, dei forma lor nu arat aceasta. n consecin, propoziiile care nu conin asemenea cuvinte nu pot avea un predicat negativ i se construiesc cu any i compuii si: He seldom speaks to anyone. Arareori vorbete cu cineva. Few people know anything about him. Puini oameni tiu ceva despre el. 23.2.4. Sublinierea caracterului negativ al unei pri de propoziie se face prin aezarea ei n poziie iniial. Cu verbele be, have, aceasta atrage dup sine inversiunea total subiectpredicat: NEVER has he in time. Niciodat nu era punctual. Cu verbele noionale are loc inversiunea parial subiect - verb auxiliar/modal: HARDLY could he talk about that subject. Cu greu vorbea despre acel subiect. Dac verbul este la Present sau Past Simple, se adaug auxiliarul do/does respectiv forma Past Tense did: NEVER does he listen to anyone. Niciodat nu ascult de nimeni. NOT A GOAL did their goalkeeper miss. Nu i-a scpat nici o minge portarului lor. 23.2.5. Negarea unei propoziii ntregi se realizeaz cu ajutorul adverbului

seen Tom? No, I havent.

no sa not: Do you like him? No. Adverbul negativ no este de obicei nsoit de un subiect exprimat prin pronume , de auxiliarul verbului din prima propoziie i negaia contras -nt: Have you

257

Adverbul not este folosit dup cteva verbe principale (think, hope, expect) la timpul Present sau Past Simple, pentru a nega o propoziie ntreag: Do you think it will rain? I hope not./I think not. Crezi c o s plou? Cred c nu/Sper c nu. Not: 1. Acordul unei persoane cu o propoziie negativ se exprim n limba englez cu ajutorul adverbnului negativ no i a unui rspuns scurt (spre deosebire de limba romn unde se folosete da.) This is not a suitable dress for you. No it isn't. Nu este o rochie potrivit pentru tine. Da nu este. 2. Folosirea lui yes n limba englez nseamn dimpotriv exprimarea unui dezacord: This is not a suitable dress for you. Yes, it is. Nu este o rochie potrivit pentru tine. Ba da, este. 3. Tot pentru exprimarea acordului cu o propoziie negativ se pot folosi i conjunciile neither/nor n poziie iniial, urmate de un verb afirmativ+subiect sau either/or n poziie final, precedate de un verb negativ: I'm not good at gardening. Neither(Nor) am I/ I'm not neither -- Nu m pricep la grdinrit. Nici eu. 4. Acordul vorbitorului cu un enun afirmativ se face cu ajutorul adverbului too aezat la sfritul propoziiei, sau so, n poziie iniial (+inversiune) I like English. I do, too. (So do I). mi place engleza. i mie.

23.3. Propoziia interogativ (The Interrogative Sentence)

Propoziia interogativ este folosit pentru a cere o informaie de la interlocutor. Coninutul interogativ al propoziiei este exprimat de regul prin forma interogativ a verbului. 23.3.1. Interogativul verbelor se formeaz: a) prin inversiune subiect-predicat n cazul verbelor be i have folosite ca verbe noionale, la Present sau Past Tense: Was he at home? Era acas? Has she a new uniform? Are o uniform nou? b) prin inversiune subiect-verb auxiliar/modal n cazul verbelor modale defective i al timpurilor verbale compuse: WILL THEY have arived by now? Vor fi sosit deja? CAN HE come at five? Poate veni la ora cinci? c) prin inversiune subiect - verb auxiliar do/did la timpul Present Simple, respectiv Past Simple al verbelor principale: DO YOU understand me now? M nelegi acum? DID THEY understand me yesterday? M-au neles ei ieri? La persona a III-a singular prezent, auxiliarul do adaug -es: DOES the postman come every day? Vine potaul n fiecare zi? Forma interogativ a verbelor

Verb 1
be, have, la Present Past Tense

Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie Verb Verb Subiect auxiliar/modal noional 2 3 4

Are Were you

Alte pri de propoziie 5

in the classroom?

258

Have Had Verb noional la aspectul continuu: Present Continuous Past Continuous Present Perfect Continuous Future Perfect Continuous Verb noional la diateza pasiv: Present

you

a dictionary?

Are

they

reading?

now?

Were Have

they they

reading? been living have been playing

at this time yesterday? in Deva for a long time? all day?

Will

they

Is Are Was Were Have Had Will

everything The clothes America the classrooms the visitors the school the baby

prepared? being washed discovered being cleaned been shown been built have been washed have been done by Columbus? when you came? the new exhibits? by 1970? by then? if they had had the money for it?

Past Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Perfect Conditional Verb noional la timpuri perfecte Present Perfect Past Perfect

Would

this

Have Had

they they

finished written

already? to you?

259

Future Perfect Perfect Conditional Verb noional la: Present Simple Past Simple Verb noional + Verb modal

Will Would Do Does Did Can Should

They They You This everybody she She

have arrived have done like belong come speak have come

yet? this? this? to you? in time? English? too?

23.3.2. Se pot formula ntrebri i despre situaii negative, ceea ce rezult n propoziii interogativ - negative. n acest loc inversiunea are loc ntre subiect - verb auxiliar/modal, iar negaia not se aeaz dup subiect: WILL TOM not do it? Cnd se folosete forma contras -nt, ea face corp comun cu auxiliarul: Wont Tom do it? N-a s fac Tom asta? 23.3.3. n propoziiile interogative se folosesc n general aceleai pronume adjective sau adverbe ca i n propoziiile negative. Atenie! 1. Any i compuii lui pot fi folosii i n propoziii afirmative cu sensul de oricine, orice, oriunde: You can take any book you like. Poi s iei orice carte vrei. Anyone can do this. Oricine poate s fac acest lucru. Take anything you like. Ia tot/orice doreti. You can get it anywhere. Se gsete peste tot/oriunde. 2. Some i compuii lui se transform n any i compuii lui n propoziii condiionale pentru a reda sentimentul negativ al vorbitorului: If you see any children in the playground, come and tell me. Dac vezi vreun copil pe terenul de sport, vino i spune-mi. 3. Some este folosit n contexte n care se folosete de obicei any, pentru a reda sentimentul pozitiv al vorbitorului. If you see some children in the playground, come and tell me. Dac vezi nite copii pe terenul de sport, vino i spune-mi. Folosirea formelor afirmative n ntrebri: Was there someone there? Would you like some tea? indic orietarea pozitiv a ntrebrii, vorbitorul ateptnd un rspuns afirmativ, o confirmare a ntrebrii sale: E adevrat c a fost cineva acolo? Dorii nite ceai? Prin propoziiile interogative se pot formula mai multe feluri de ntrebri: generale, speciale, alternative i disjunctive. 23.3.4. ntrebrile generale se refer la predicat i ateapt un rspuns scurt afirmativ sau negativ, exprimat de regul prin Yes/No + pronume + verb auxiliar/modal: Can you ski? Yes I can. tii s schiezi? Da, tiu. Have you written to him? No, I havent. I-ai scris? Nu, nu i-am scris.

260

Intonaia acestor ntreb1ri este ascendent: Did you talk to him last night? Yes, I did. iar ordinea cuvintelor este: auxiliarul/modal + subiect + verb noional (+ complemente): Will you be seeing them tommorrow? i ntlneti mine.

Aceast form este caracteristic exprimrii familiare, fiind folosit sau cnd vorbitorul ateapt un rspuns afirmativ: You live here? (Tu locuieti aici?) sau pentru exprimarea surprinderii: You paid a fine? Ai pltit (ntr-adevr) amend? Folosirea lui some, any, no i a compuilor lor n propoziiile afirmative, negative i interogative

You saw him? Yes, I did.

ntrebrile generale pstreaz uneori forma propoziiilor enuniative, coninutul lor interogativ fiind indicat doar de semnul ntrebrii i intonaia ascendent

Propoziia afirmativ
Verb afirmativ + some (compuii) Ive got some books. Am nite cri. Ive got something. Am ceva. I see someone/somebody Vd pe cineva. It must be somewhere. Trebuie s fie undeva.

Propoziia negativ
Verb afirm. + no + (compuii) Ive got no books. Nu am nici o carte. Ive got nothing. Nu am nimic. I see no one/nobody. Nu vd pe nimeni. He is nowhere to be found. Nu e nicieri de gsit. Verb negativ + any + (compuii) I havent got any books. Nu am nici o carte. I havent got anything. Nu am nimic. I dont see anyone/anybody. Nu vd pe nimeni. He isnt anywhere to be found. Nu e nicieri de gsit.

Propoziia interogativ
Verb interogativ + any + (compuii) Have you got any books? Ai vreo carte? Has he got anything? Are (el) ceva? Can you see anyone/anybody? Vezi pe cineva? Can this be found anywhere? Se gsete asta undeva?

23.3.5. ntrebrile speciale formuleaz ntrebri despre o anumit parte de propoziie i ateapt un rspuns definit referitor la aceasta: When did they arrive? Last night. Cnd au sosit? Asear. ntrebrile speciale sunt introduse, de pronume, adjective sau adverbe interogative: - Who pentru fiine: Who is coming? Cine vine? Whose is the book? A cui este cartea? - What pentru obiecte: What subject do you like best? Ce obiect de studiu i place cel mai mult?

261

- Which pentru a indica alegerea sau preferina dintre dou sau mai multe persoane sau obiecte: Which of these books do you want? Pe care dintre aceste cri o vrei? - How pentru indicarea modului: How did you get this? Cum ai obinut asta? - How many pentru indicarea numrului: How many quests did you have last night? Ci musafiri ai avut asear? - How much pentru indicarea cantitii: How much rice did you buy? Ct orez au cumprat? How much did it cost? Ct a costat? - How old pentru indicarea vrstei: How old are you? Ci ani ai? - How far pentru indicarea distanei: How far did he run? Ct de departe a alergat? - Where pentru indicarea locului: Where did you find this? Unde ai gsit asta? - When/what time pentru indicarea momentului: When did they arive? Cnd au sosit? What time did you get up? La ce or te-ai sculat? - How long pentru indicarea duratei: How long did you stay there? Ct (timp) ai stat acolo? - Why pentru indicarea cauzei: Why are you late? De ce ai ntrziat? Intonaia ntrebrilor speciale este descendent: What are you doing now?

Im reading.

Ordinea cuvintelor n ntrebrile speciale Cuvintele interogative ocup poziie iniial n ntrebrile speciale, iar predicatul sau o parte a lui precede de obicei subiectul, ordinea cuvintelor fiind: a) cuvnt interogativ (+ compliniri) + be/have (Present/Past simple) + subiect (+ complemente): WHAT has he in his hand? Ce are n mn? WHERE were they last night? Unde au fost asear? b) cuvnt interogativ (+ compliniri) + auxiliar/modal + subiect _ verb noional (+complemente): HOW MANY postcards have you written today? Cte vederi ai scris azi? c) cuvnt interogativ (+ compliniri) + predicat (+ complemente) cnd cuvntul interogativ este subiectul propoziiei interogative. n aceast situaie nu mai are loc inversiunea subiect - predicat sau subiect - auxiliar, iar la timpurile Present Simple i Past Simple nu se mai folosete auxiliarul do: HOW MANY PUPILS have written to you? Ci elevi i-au scris? WHAT happened? Ce s-a ntmplat? WHO rings you up every day? Cine i telefoneaz n fiecare zi? n toate cele trei cazuri cuvntul interogativ ocup poziie iniial. O excepie o constituie situaiile n care cuvntul interogativ este precedat de o prepoziie: At whom are you looking? La cine te uii? construcie caracteristic englezei literare. n vorbire, prepoziia se aeaz la sfritul ntrebrii: Who are you looking at? 23.3.6. ntrebrile alternative se refer la una dintre dou sau mai multe alternative, legate prin conjuncia or: Did you see a film or a play last night? Ai vzut un film sau o pies de teatru asear?

262

Prima sau primele alternative au o intonaie ascendent, iar ultima descendent: Did you talk to Peter, John or Mary about it? ntrebrile alternative au structura fie a unor ntrebri generale: Did you go

there by bus or by tram?

fie a unor ntrebri speciale: How did you get there: by bus or by tram? n consecin ordinea cuvintelor n ntrebrile alternative este aceeai ca n ntrebrile generale sau speciale.

23.3.7. ntrebrile disjunctive cer rspuns sau confirmare la un enun pozitiv sau negativ, prin reluarea, n final a verbului auxiliar/modal i a subiectului exprimat prin pronume, la forma interogativ sau interogativ - negativ, dup cum urmeaz: a) Enun pozitiv + form interogativ - negativ contras: Tom can answer now, cant he? Toma poate s rpund acum, nu-i aa? Father has lost his keys, hasnt he? Tata i-a pierdut cheile, nu-i aa?

ntrebri speciale
Situaie Cuvnt interogativ + complinire Verb auxiliar /modal Subiect
Who Cuvntul interogativ = subiectul propoziiei Who What What/Where When Cuvntul interogativ = alt parte de propoziie dect subiectul How Why Which book What colour How old How long How much How far What What Who Who did is do will are do has is are have does can is were does did What How many Which books you your name? children/you they you they he the material? you? they this you he they he you

Verb acional + complinire

came yasterday? is going on there? are present? have been chosen? see? like/live? be brought? going to do it? like him? chosen?

Prepoziie

Cuvntul Interogativ = pronume interogativ +

studied English? cost? run? speaking looking take send

about? at? after? for?

263

prepoziie

What What What What

has will is does

the man the scientist the weather he

shown interest work look

in? on? like? like?

b) Enun negativ + forma interogativ: You dont watch TV every night, do you? Nu te uii la televizor n fiecare sear, nu-i aa? They havent come yet, have they? N-au sosit nc, nu-i aa? c) Enun pozitiv + forma interogativ: He comes here every day, does he? Cine vine pe-aici n fiecare zi? Intonaia ntrebrilor disjunctive este: - descendent, dac vorbitorul nu ateapt un rspuns real, ci doar o confirmare formal a enunului su: The weather is lovely today, isnt it? Yes, it is. Ce vreme frumoas e azi, nu-i aa? Aa e. - ascendent dac el solicit un rspuns, o confirmare sau negare real a celor spunse: It is cold outside, isnt it? E frig afar nu-i aa? printr-un rspuns afirmativ sau negativ: Yes it is/No, it isnt. Da, este./Nu, nu este. Particulariti ale ntrebrilor disjunctive ntrebarea disjunctiv care conine forma I am se termin cu arent: I am efficient, arent? Sunt eficient, nu-i aa? Dac subiectul din prima parte a ntrebrii disjunctive este un pronume sau adjectiv nehotrt, pronumele din partea a doua este he, she, we sau they dup sens: Each participant has to fill in a form, doesnt he? Fiecare participant trebuie s completeze un formular, nu-i aa? Everybody will be delighted, wont they? Toi vor fi ncntai, nu-i aa? Observai ntrebrile disjunctive coninnd verbe modale: You have to be there at nine, dont you? Trebuie s fii acolo la ora 9, nu-i aa? He used to go finishing in summer, didnt he? Obinuia s mearg la pescuit vara, nu-i aa? Youd beter stay, hadnt you? Mai bine ai rmne, nu-i aa? Youd rather go, wouldnt you? Ai prefera s pleci nu-i aa?

23.4. Propoziia imperativ

etc.

Propoziia imperativ exprim un ordin, o rugminte, un ndemn, o interdicie

23.4.1. Forma verbal caracteristic propoziiilor imperative este modul imperativ, aspectul simplu, diateza activ. Imperativul are o singur form, care coincide cu infinitivul scurt al verbelor, utilizat pentru persoana a II-a singular i plural: Read the lesson! Citete/ Citii lecia! La persoana I i a III-a singular i plural, ideea de imperativ este exprimat prin construcia let + substantiv/pronume personal n acuzativ + infinitiv scurt al verbului noional: Let me try. S ncerc i eu. Let Mary do it. S fac Maria asta. Let them come in. S intre.

264

La persoana I plural, pronumele personal n acuzativ este de obicei contras n vorbire: Let us stop now = Lets stop now. S ne oprim acum. Forma negativ a imperativului se construiete cu verbul auxiliar do + negaia not: Do not read the Lesson! Nu citi(i) lecia! Dont read the Lesson! Nu citi(i) lecia! Do not let Mary do it! S nu fac Maria asta! Dont let Mary do it! S nu fac Maria asta! La persoana I plural sunt posibile dou forme: a) cu auxiliarul do, caracteristic exprimrii familiare: Dont lets stop! b) cu auxiliarul do: Lets not stop! S nu ne oprim! Formele imperativului

Persoana a II-a singular i plural Persoana I plural Celelalte persoane: I singular, a III-a singular i plural

Write! Dont write! Let us/Lets write! Lets not write! Let me/him/her/them write! Dont let me/him/her/them write!

23.4.2. Intonaia propoziiilor imperative depinde de sensul lor. Intonaia ascendent este ntrebuinat pentru exprimarea unei invitaii sau a unei rugmini: Sit down. Stai jos. Give me that book. D-mi cartea aceea. Intonaia descendent este folosit pentru exprimarea unui ordin: Close your book. nchide cartea! Dont look at your deskmate! Nu te uita la vecinul de banc! 23.4.3. Din punct de vedere al structurii, propoziiile imperative pot fi mprite n: a) propoziii fr subiect; b) propoziii imperative cu subiect; c) propoziii imperative cu let; d) alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ. a) propoziii imperative fr subiect se construiesc cu modul imperativ, forma afirmativ sau negativ, i se refer la persoana a II-a singular sau plural. Aceast form este utilizat n special pentru exprimarea unor ordine sau interdicii: Dont park here! Nu parcai aici. Park over there! Parcai acolo. b) propoziii imperative cu subiect se construiesc de asemenea cu imperativul, subiectul fiind ns menionbat. La persoana a II-a singular, subiectul este you accentuat, prezena sa indicnd: - iritarea vorbitorului: You mind your own business. Vezi-i de treaba ta, - o difereniere: You bring the plates, Mary and you bring the glasses, Peter. Maria, tu adu farfuriile, i tu Petre adu paharele. La persoana a III-a, subiectul poate fi: - un substantiv, utilizat pentru nominalizare: Bob and Cathy come here. Bob i Cati s vin aici.

265

- un pronume nehotrt, cnd imperativul este adresat oricrei persoane dintr-un grup: Somebody clean the blackboard. Cineva s tearg tabla. Everybody write their names. Toi s-i scrie numele. Forma negativ a propoziiilor imperative de tipul a) i b) se construiete cu ajutorul lui do not (dont): Dont open the window. Nu deschide fereastra. Dont you lift that case. Tu s nu ridici geamantanul (acela)! c) Propoziiile imperative la persoana I i a III-a singular i plural se construiesc cu ajutorul verbului let, urmat de un substantiv sau pronume n acuzativ i de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: Let me do it. Fac eu asta. Let them come now. S vin acum. La persoana I plural, aceast construcie exprim de obicei un ndemn: Let us go for a walk. (Hai ) s mergem la plimbare. Lets go for a walk. (Hai ) s mergem la plimbare. Not: O alt posibilitate de exprimare a unu i ndemn este prin ntreabrea how/what about + gerund What about going for a walk? d) Alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ sunt: 1) construcii impersonale: No parking! Parcarea interzis. No (unauthorized) entry! Intrarea interzis (persoanelor neautorizate). Wet paint! Proaspt vopsit. 2) propoziii eliptice: The sal, please. Sarea, v rog. Out with it! D-i drumul! 3) propoziii coninnd verbe modale, folosite pentru a exprima: - un ordin: You are to be back at seven. Trebuie s ve ntoarcei la ora apte. - un sfat/o necesitate imediat: You must see that film! Trebuie s vezi/vedei filmul acesta! You must go and see her. Trebuie s te duci s-o vezi. 23.4.4. Exist mai multe mijloace de ntrire i de formulare politicoas a propoziiilor imperative. Pentru intrire, insisten, se aeaz verbul do naintea imperativului: Do speak more quietly. Te rog vorbete mai ncet. Pentru formulare politicoas, de la un grad mai redus la un grad mai nalt de politee, se ntrebuineaz: - cuvntul please, aezat la nceputul sau mai frecvent la sfritul propoziiei imperative: Switch on the lights, please. Aprinde lumina, te rog. - construciile shall me? i will you? n poziie final, care da propoziiilor imperative aspectul unor ntrebri disjunctive: Lets watch the TV programme shall we? Haide s urmrim programul la televizor. Turn the volume up, will you? Vrei s dai volumul mai tare? - will you/would you n poziie final + please la final, care dau propoziiilor imperative aspectul unor ntrebri generale: Will you answer the door, please? Vrei s rspunzi la u, te rog. Would you answer the door, please? Vrei s rspunzi la u, te rog. - verbe ca mind, wonder i adjective sau adverbe: kind, kindly etc. n construcii interogative sau afirmative: Do you mind changing seats? Te superi dac schimbm locurile? Would you mind changing seats? Te superi dac schimbm locurile?

266

Will you be so kind as to have a look at these papers? Vrei s fii aa de drgu s te uii la aceste lucrri? I wonder if you would kindly read this application, etc.

Propoziia exclamativ exprim o gam larg de stri afective: surprinderea, satisfacia, nemulumirea, dispreul etc., n: a) construcii specific exclamative; b) n alte forme nespecifice. 23.5.1. Intonaia propoziiilor exclamative este descendent: How interesting

23.5. Propoziia exclamativ

this book is! Ce interesant este aceast carte!

23.5.2. Propoziiile exclamative propriu-zise sunt cele introduse de what (+ adjectiv) + substantiv sau de how + adjectiv/adverb: What (interesting) stories he knows! Ce povestiri (interesante) tie! How well he remembers everything! Ce bine i amintete totul! Aceste propoziii au form afirmativ. Ordinea cuvintelor este: subiect + predicat + etc., precedate de parte de propoziie despre care se exprim exclamaia. (Aceasta ocup totdeauna poziie iniial). What wonderful people they met in their trip! Ce oameni minunai au ntlnit n excursie! What.../how... + subiect + predicat (+ complemente). Uneori propoziiile exclamative sunt eliptice, predicatul i subiectul fiind neexprimate: What a wonderful voice (she has)! Ce voce minunat! How true (this is)! Ct de adevrat! 23.5.3. Propoziii exclamative cu form nespecific sunt exclamaii exprimate prin: a) propoziii enuniative: Her acting was perfect! Interpretarea ei a fost perfect! You are a liar! Eti un mincinos! Not: O categorie aparte o formez propoziiile introduse de here, there, away, off, n care are loc inversiunea subiect-predicat dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un substantiv: Here you are/Here it is (Poftim) dar: There goes the last bus. S-a dus i ultimul autobuz! b) propoziii interogativ - negative n care vorbitorul ateapt acordul interlocutorului cu cele spuse de el: Hanst she improved! Nu-i aa c a fcut progrese! Isnt he clever! Nu-i aa c-i detept! c) interjecii: Hush! ! Dear me! Vai de mine!

EXERCIII:
1. This is a Dacia car. 2. They were playing tennis. 3. She needs help. 4. I do my homework in the evening. 5. They came early. 6. He has a sister. 7. The meeting began at five oclock sharp.8. 9. He can swim. 10. She has lost her pencil. 11. I listene to

I. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la forma negativ:

267

the radio in the morning. 12. They will arrive tomorrow. 13. He told me something. 14. He teaches English in this school. 15. There are many pictures in this book. 16. This report was typed yesterday. 17. He got up late yesterday. 18. He goes to work by bus. 19. I write to her every week. 20. They are going to visit the Zoo.

rspunsuri.

II. Formulai ntrebri la care prile de propoziie scrise cursiv s fie Exemplu:

They played football [in the park.] A: Where did they play football? B: In the park. 1. They are waiting [in the other room.] 2. He did his work [carefully.] 3. The secretary will type the report [tomorrow.] 4. He is [ten years old.] 5. [The students in this class] work very hard. 6. The last lesson was [very difficult.] 7. [Two] pupils are absent today. 8. The jurnalist spoke [about peace and disarmament]. 9. He is working [ on his thesis now]. 10 . The teacher will talk [to our parents] tomorrow. 11. [Father's car] broke down yesterday. 12. The pupils met [their teacher] in front of the school. 13. They postponed their trip [because of the weather]. 14. They have been here a [week]. 15. He wants the [red] pencil. 16. His car is [blue].

1. That man is our teacher, .... ? 2. You havent finished yet,....? 3. Peter reads in the library,.... ? 4. Mary sent the letter yesterday,.....? 5. You will explain that tomorrow,....? 6. They didn't have a good time at the party...? 7. You can do this translation....?8. John doesn't know the truth....? 9. He shouldn't behave like this, ...? 10. You have a new dress, ...? 11. Everybody in this class plays football well,....? 12. He never used to wear a hat, ...? 13. We'd better wait for her...? 14. You'd rather not say anything....?

III. Completai urmtoarele ntrebri disjunctive:

dialog:

IV. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la interogativ i negativ sub form de Exemplu:. They are still eating.

A: Are they still eating? B: No, they aren't. They aren't. eating any longer. 1. Tom whispered something to his brother. 2. They shoul have left earlier. 3. She has a new pen. 4. He did too many exercises yesterday. 5. He lives a long way from his friends. 6. They sometimes see each other. 7. They've already seen that film. 8. There are some people in the street. 9. They'll find him. 10. Anyone can do this translation.

variante:

V. Exprimai urmtoarele comenzi ntr-un mod mai politicos. Folosii mai multe

1. Open the door. 2. Dont sing in this room. 3. Keep quiet. 4. Be careful. 5. Drive more slowly. 6. Dont waste your time. 7. Dont make so much noise. 8. Take the dog for a walk.

268

What an important event the Olympic Games are! How important the Olympic Games are! 1. Many top athlets compete in the Games. 2. They works very hard. 3. Thee is an atmosphere of good-will and co-operation during the Games. 4. The Games are very well-organized.. 5. The Olympic Stadium is huge. 6. There are a lot of participants in the Olympic Games. 7. They come from long distances. 8. Millions of people watch the Games on televisoan. 9. The Romanian representatives are well-trained. 10. They obtain good results at the Games.

VI. Comentai asupra jocurilor olimpice folosind propoziii exclamative: Exemplu: The Olympic Games are an important event.

1. Nici unuia dintre ei nu i-a plcut spectacolul. 2. Nici unul din cei doi n-a neles despre ce vorbeai. 3. De la cine ai primit pachetul? 4. Se duc la meci, nu-i aa? 5. N-ai fost niciodat la galeriile de art, nu-i aa? 6. S las radioul aprins sau s-l sting? 7. Hai s ne ntoarcem. 8. Vrei s fii aa de drgu s cni un cntec? 9. Trebuie s-i telefonezi. 10. E mult vreme de cnd nu l-am vzut. 11. N-a fost plecat mult vreme. 12. Nu-mi place acest actor i nici prietenului meu nu-i place. 13. Ei nu mai sunt aici. 14. Cu greu putea s vad ceva n camera ntunecoas.

VII. Traducei n limba englez:

R: 1. None of them liked the show. 2. Neither of them understood what you were talking about. 3. Who have you received/did you receive that parcel from? 4. They're going to the match, aren't they? 6. You have never been to the Art Galleries, have you? 6. Shall I leave the radio on or turn it off? 7. Let's turn back, shall we? 8. Will you be so kind as to sing a song for us? 9. You must ring him up. 10. It's a long time since I last saw him. 11. He wasn't away long. 12. I don't like this actor and neither does my friend. 13. They aren't here any longer/They are here no longer. 14. He could hardly see anything in the dark room.

R: The coach knew there was nothing better, when you wanted to teach a man something, than to make him ambitious, make him compete with others if necessary. This is the reason why he had begun to promise small prizes to those who performed best the drills necessary to their training. After a while Luca felt, like the teacher who has gained his pupils' trust, that the indiscipline was over. Even 'Know-all, once so stubborn, showed interest in these games. The prizes did not amount to much, but nobody could stand someone else being ahead of him, as usually happens with all people.

VIII. Antrenorul tia c nu exist nimic mai bun cnd vrei s-l nvei pe om ceva dect s-l ambiionezi, s-l pui s se ntreac cu alii dac e nevoie. Iat de ce, de la o vreme, ncepuse s promit mici premii celor mai buni executani ai exerciiilor necesare antrenamentului. Luca simi dup un timp, aa cum simte nvtorul care i-a ctigat ncrederea elevilor si, c se terminase cu indisciplina. Chiar Le tie alt data att de refractar, se arta interesat de aceste jocuri. Premiile nu erau mare lucru, dar nimeni nu putea suferi ca altul s i-o ia nainte, aa cum se ntmpl de obicei cu toi oamenii.

(Eugen Barbu - Unsprezece)

269

Partea III

SINTAXA FRAZEI
(The compound and complex sentence)
III.0. Generaliti
III.0.1. Unitatea de baz a sintaxei este propoziia. Propoziia poate fi de sine stttoare: She is a teacher, sau poate fi n anumite relaii cu anumite propoziii, intrnd n alctuirea unei fraze: She became a

Fraza este unitatea sintactic superioar propoziiei, fiind constituit din dou sau mai multe propoziii; ea este ntotdeauna de sine stttoare. Atenie! n limba englez nu exist un cuvnt special pentru fraz. Sentence poate nsemna att fraz ct i propoziie independent (care nu face parte dintr-o fraz). Pentru propoziiile din cadrul unei fraze se folosete termenul clause. III.0.2. Sintaxa propoziiei studiaz propoziia privit independent de legtura cu alte propoziii. Sintaxa frazei studiaz felul cum se unesc propoziiile pentru a alctui fraze, raporturile care se stabilesc ntre aceste propoziii n cadrul frazei. III.0.3. Raporturile sintactice dintre propoziiile unei fraze sunt aceleai ca i dintre prile unei propoziii: - raporturi de coordonare ntre propoziiile de acelai fel; - raporturi de subordonare ntre propoziii dependente unele de altele. Frazele prin coodonare, alctuite din dou sau mai multe propoziii principale, se numesc compound sentences n limba englez, iar frazele prin subordonare, formate din una sau mai multe propoziii principale i una sau mai multe propoziii secundare, se numesc complex sentences. Identitatea raporturilor existente n cadrul propoziiei i al frazei face ca n studierea celor dou uniti sintactice s se ntlneasc categorii similare: subiectului din propoziie i corespunde n fraz propoziia subiectiv, complementului direct, propoziia completiv direct etc. III.0.4. Propoziiile dintr-o fraz sunt legate ntre ele: - asindetic: fr ajutorul unui cuvnt de legtur; - cu ajutorul unor conjuncii (coordonatoare sau subordonatoare), pronume sau adjective relative sau interogative, adverbe relative sau adverbe cu valoare de conjuncie.

teacher when she was twenty three.

270

24. Fraza prin coordonare (The Compound Sentence)

24.1. Coordonarea
Coordonarea este raportul dintre dou sau mai multe uniti sintactice care stau pe acelai plan. n cadrul frazei, propoziiile aflate n raport de coordonare sunt pe acelai plan, n sensul c sunt fie toate principale fie toate subordonate aceluiai element regent.

24.2. Felul coordonrii

Dup natura raportului dintre elementele pe care le leag, coordonarea n fraz, ca i n propoziie, poate fi: copulativ, disjunctiv i adversativ. Coordonarea se poate realiza att asindetic, prin simpla alturare a propoziiilor coordonate, ct i prin conjuncii coordonatoare specifice.

24.3. Coordonarea copulativ (Copulative Coordination)

Propoziiile coordonate prezentate de vorbitor ca asociate se numesc copulative. Conjunciile copulative sunt: a) and, b) both... and, c) not only... but also, iar pentru propoziii negative: d) (and) neither/nor e) neither... nor. Conjunciile copulative se aeaz ntotdeauna la nceputul propoziiilor pe care le introduc i nu pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: I liked tea and my sister likes milk. (Comparai cu o conjuncie subordonatoare, care poate fi precedat de alt conjuncie: He went home because he was tired AND because it was late). a) And poate lega dou sau mai multe propoziii. n al doilea caz, conjuncia apare de regul o singur dat, naintea ultimei propoziii: Phone him at once, invite him De dou sau mai multe propoziii coordonate prin and au acelai subiect, subiectul din a doua (a treia etc.) propoziie este de obicei omis: He went into the shop, Dac predicatele din propoziiile coordonatoare conin acelai verb auxiliar, el se omite mpreun cu subiectul: Ive been wainting and (Ive been) wondering where you

to the conference and ask him to be punctual.

(he) bought a tie and (he) paid for it at the cash desk.

are.

and writes two foreign languages. Both Peter and Ann have won prizes. c) not only... but also. Pentru ntrire, not only poate fi aezat n poziie iniial, producnd inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: Not only did he read the whole poem, but he also translated part of it.

b) Both... and sunt folosite pentru coordonarea a dou propoziii avnd acelai subiect, sau pentru coordonarea a dou subiecte avnd acelai predicat: He both speaks

271

did not come to the symposium, (and) neither/nor did he send in his paper. e) Neither... nor sunt folosite i mpreun pentru a nega dou propoziii legate prin and. Folosirea lui neither... nor subliniaz caracterul negativ al ambelor propoziii. Comparai: She didnt eat and she didnt drink. dar: She neither ate nor drank anything.

d) Nor/neither este folosit cnd prima propoziie este negativ. Nor/neither cere inversiune ntre subiect i predicat/verb auxiliar i poate fi precedat de and: He

24.4. Coordonarea disjunctiv (Disjunctive Coordonation)

Raportul de coordonare disjunctiv se stabilete ntre propoziii coordonate care sunt prezentate de vorbitor ca excluzndu-se una pe alta ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic. Conjunciile disjunctive sunt: or i either...or, iar n propoziiile n care se exclud ambele alternative, cu un verb la forma afirmativ, neither...nor. Coordonarea disjunctiv se stabilete de obicei ntre dou alternative, dintre care una este preferat ntr-un anumit moment. Alternativa preferat este de obicei menionat nti: Shall we go for a walk Adugarea lui either naintea primei alternative indic de regul excluderea ambelor alternative. Exist ns i situaii n care coordonarea disjunctiv leag trei sau mai multe propoziii, raportul de excludere reciproc fiind mai puin evident: You may either read

or shall we watch TV?

Raportul disjunctiv se apropie de cel copulativ i n cazul a dou propoziii, dac nu este necesar a se opta pentru o singur alternativ.

a book, watch TV or listen to the radio.

24.5. Coordonarea adversativ (Adversative Coordination)

Propoziiile coordonate care se opun una alteia fr a se exclude se numesc adversative. Acestea sunt legate de obicei prin conjuncia adversativ but: They would like

La coodonarea adversativ, interdependena dintre cele dou propoziii este mai mare dect la coordonarea copulativ i cea disjunctiv, propoziiile adversative neputndu-i schimba locul ntre ele fr a se modifica sensul: He is elderly but (he) (is) energetic. Este n vrst dar plin de energie, dar (este) n vrst.

to come but they are too busy.

24.6. Folosirea timpurilor n frazele prin coordonare

n frazele prin coordonare se pot utiliza orice timpuri verbale, n funcie de intenia vorbitorului: I went to the seaside last yesr AND Ill go there again next year. Excepie: enumerrile de aciuni n stilul narativ se pun la acelai timp gramatical: prezent, Past Tense sau viitor, n funcie de momentul naraiunii, spre deosebire de limba romn, unde timpurile pot alterna:

Everybody was home. Welcome. Noises of welcome. Mother kissed him. Father asked him what marks he had got. Noises... The noise of curtain rings being pulled aside. 272

His bed was hot and his face and body were hot. The nurse asked him: Are you all right? He didnt know, and the nurse said: Get back into bed. (J. Joyce - The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man)
Toi erau acas. Bine-ai venit. Zgomote de bun venit. Mama l srut. Tata l ntreab ce note a obinut. Zgomote... Zgomotul inelelor de perdea trase de-a parte. Patul lui dogorete i faa i trupul i dogoresc. Sora l ntreab: - Nu i-e bine? Nu tia; i sora zise: - Bag-te napoi n pat. (J. Joyce - Portretul artistului n tineree)

273

25. Fraza prin subordonare (The complex Sentence)

Subordonarea este raportul sintactic existent ntre doi termeni dintre care unul l determin pe cellalt, depinde de el din punct de vedere gramatical. Raporturile ntr-o fraz de subordonare (Complex Sentence) se stabilesc ntre propoziiile secundare sau subordonare (Subordinate Clauses) i propoziiile lor regente (main Clauses), care la rndul lor, pot fi propoziii principale n fraz sau subordonate propoziiei principale n fraz. Fraza: He asked me where I bought the dress I was wearing. este alctuit din: 1. He asked me (propoziia principal) 2. where I had bought the dress (propoziie secundar fa de 1 dar regenta lui 3) 3. I was wearing (propoziie subordonat fa de 2).

25.1. Propoziiile subordonate sunt legate de propoziiile lor regente prin:

a) conjuncii subordonatoare circumstaniale; b) un element wh-; c) that d) inversiune. a) Conjunciile subordonatoare circumstaniale sunt cel mai important mijloc de indicare a subordonrii n fraz. Ele se clasific n funcie de propoziiile pe care le introduc. Unele conjuncii subordonatoare sunt alctuite din dou elemente: o conjuncie care apare de regul n propoziia subordonat i un adverb care apare n propoziia regent (correlative subordinators): He was so ill that they took him to

hospital. No sooner had they reached home than is stoped raining.

stayed home all day. Although she spoke very spoke very slowly, I couldnt understand her.

Conjunciile subordonatoare se aeaz de regul la nceputul propoziiei secundare. Aceasta poate precede sau urma propoziia regent. Propoziiile subordonate temporale, cauzale (introduse de as/since), condiionale i concesive apar de obicei n poziie iniial: As the weather was bad, we

Lydia liked the book so much that she read it three times.

Propoziiile introduse de because i propoziiile consecutive ocup de regul o poziie final n fraz: I cant help you with your homework because Im busy right now.

well AND because the party was boring.

Conjunciile subordonatoare pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii, spre deosebire de conjunciile coordonatoare: He left early because he wasnt feeling very

274

he has often written about it.

Dac o propoziie subordonat are acelai subiect (i verb auxiliar) ca i propoziia sa regent, acesta trebuie menionat: Though he has never been to this twn,

however.

b) Elementele wh - reprezint: - pronume interogative sau relative: who, whom/whose, which, what; - adverbe relative: where, when, how, why; - compuii acestora: whoever, whichever, whatever, wherever, whenever, Elementele wh- sunt folosite ca marc a subordonrii n: - propoziii interogative indirecte: I dont know who was there. - n propoziii relative: This is the place where I first saw her.

she was right. That nu poate fi omis cnd propoziia este subiectiv: THAT he was so ill alarmed her.

c) Conjuncia that este folosit pentru introducerea mai multor tipuri de propoziii subordonate. n vorbire, conjuncia that este adesea omis: I knew she was right. Im sure

O clasificare funcional a propoziiilor subordonate este n: A) propoziii subordonate introduse de that, care ndeplinesc funciile unui grup nominal, putnd avea funcia de: - subiect: That he answered so well surprised everybody. - complement direct: I knew that she was right. - nume predicativ: The belief is that things will improve. - apoziie: Your opinion, that things will improve, is well founded. - complement prepoziional: Im sure that they were right. B) Propoziiile relative, care se comport funcional ca nite adjective atributive: The man who waved to us was my uncle. C) propoziiile circumstaniale, care ndeplinesc funcia unor complemente circumstaniale de timp, loc, condiie, cauz fa de elemetele lor regente:

25.2. Clasificarea propoziiilor subordonate

Youll hear all about it when he comes. Youll hear all about it where you go. Youll hear all about it if you want to.

25.3. Reducerea propoziiilor subordonate

Propoziiile subordonate pot fi reduse de obicei la construcii cu verbe la forme nepersonale: a) construcii infinitivale; b) construcii participiale. a) Construciile infinitivale (to - Infinitive Nominal Clauses) pot ndeplini funcia de: - subiect: For him to come so late is unbelievable. - complement direct: I like everyone to be punctual.

275

- nume predicativ: To be a doctor is to be very hard working. - apoziie: His desire to become a veterynary doctor was finally fulfilled. - complement prepoziional: Im glad to be of help. b) Construciile participiale (ing-Nominal Clauses) pot ndeplini funcia de: - subiect: Helping people in need is the main duty of the Red Cross. - complement direct: I dont like lying to people. - compement prepoziional: Im proud of being her pupil. - nume predicativ: His hobby is collecting Romanian stamps. - apoziie: His present job, being secretary of the sports club, requires a

great deal of work.

A. Propoziiile subordonate introduse de that (That Clauses) Propoziiile subordonate introduse de taht pot ndeplini mai multe funcii pe lng elementele lor regente. n consecin, ele se mpart n propoziii subordonate completive directe, subiective, predicative, apoziionale etc.

25.4. Propoziia completiv direct (The Direct Object Clause)

25.4.1. Propoziia completiv direct ndeplinete rolul de complement direct al predicatului din propoziia regent: Remember that we have to leave by 11:00 a.m. S nu uii c trebuie s plecm n jurul orei 11. 25.4.2. Propoziiile enuniative i interogative trecute la vorbirea indirect sunt de asemenea completive direecte: We asked him whether he had understood the instructions. L-am ntrebat dac a neles intruciunile. He told us he had understood everything. Ne-a spus c a neles tot. 25.4.3. Conjuncia that este deseori omis n engleza familiar dup verbe

ca: think, believe, imagine, suppose; see, hear, know, remember, understand say: I think he will come in time. Cred c o s vin la timp. I suppose he will come in time. Cred c o s vin la timp. Conjuncia that trebuie pstrat cnd propoziiile sunt lungi i au multe complemente circumstaniale: I dont suppose that he indends to return until tomorrow. Nu cred c intenioneaz s se ntoarc pn mine. Atenie! Nu folosete conjuncia that dup: I wish, Id rather, Id sooner: I wish you could find out the truth. A dori s poi afla adevrul. 25.4.4. Corespondena timpurilor. Folosirea timpurilor verbale n propoziia completiv direct este mai strict n limba englez dect n limba romn. Raportul logic stabilit ntre timpul predicatului din propoziia principal/regent i timpul predicatului din propoziia subordonat este exprimat pe plan sintactic printr-o anumit concordan sau coresponden a timpurilor verbale folosite n cele dou propoziii, numit n limba englez Sequence of Tenses (Corespondena Timpurilor).

276

Exist cteva reguli generale de coresponden a timpurilor care se aplic n principal la propoziia completiv direct: Regula I. Dac verbul propoziiei principale este la un timp prezent (present, Present Perfect), n propoziia completiv se poate folosi orice timp cerut de logica enunului:

I know she has sent the letter. I know they came yesterday. I know he will conduct the concert tonight.
tiu c ea a expediat scrisoarea. tiu c ei au venit ieri. tiu c el va dirija concertul de disear.

Regula II. Dac verbul propoziiei principale este la viitor, n propoziia completiv se poate folosi orice timp afar de viitor: I shall inform him that i need his report tomorrow. l voi informa c am nevoie de raportul lui mine. Regula III. Cnd verbul din propoziia principal este la prezent, sau Present Perfect, n propoziia completiv se poate folosi viitorul (spre deosebire de celelalte propoziii subordonate): I know that he will come tomorrow. tiu c va veni mine. Regula IV. Dac verbul propoziiei principale este la un timp trecut, verbul propoziiei subordonate trebuie de asemenea s fie la un timp trecut:

We knew (that) she had sent the letter. We knew (that) they were away. We knew (that) she would help us. He had menioned (that) she had sent the letter. He had menioned (that) they were away. He had menioned (that) she would help us.

Noi tiam/El menionase c ea a trimis/trimisese scrisoarea. Noi tiam/El menionase c ei sunt/erau plecai din ora. Noi tiam/El menionase c ea ne va ajuta. Atenie! la traducerea n limba romn! Past Perfect (pentru exprimarea anterioritii) se poate traduce prin maimult-ca-perfectul, perfectul compus este mia frecvent: tiam c ea a trimis scrisoarea, iar Past Pense (aciuni simultane) se traduce de obicei prin prezent: tiam c ei sunt plecai din ora.

277

Corespondena ntre timpurile din propoziia principal i din completiva direct (Sequence of Tenses):

Raportul aciunii din propoziia Timpul predicatului din Timpul predicatului din subordonat fa de principal subordonat aciunea din principal
1. anterioritate Present/Present Perfect/ Future Past Tense/Past Perfect Present/Present Perfect/Future Past Tense/Past Perfect Present/Present Perfect Future Past Tense/Past Perfect Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Tense Past Tense Future Present Future-in-the-Past

2. simultaneitate

3. posterioritate

Se poate observa paralelismul ntre timpurile prezente ale indicativului (Present, Present Perfect) utilizate pentru exprimarea unor aciuni prezente i timpurile trecute (Past Tense, Past Perfect) ntrebuinate pentru redarea unor aciuni trecute. Un paralelism similar exist ntre viitor i viitor - n - trecut:

1. I think I have met her before.

Cred c am ntlnit-o.

I thought I had met her before.

Am crezut c o mai ntlnisem.

2. I think he is right.

Cred c are dreptate.

I thought he was right.

Am crezut c are dreptate. Cred c vor veni mai trziu.

3. I think they will come later. I thought they would come later.

Am crezut c vor veni mai trziu. Excepii la regula IV: Fac excepie de la corespondena timpurilor trecute completivele directe care a) fapte cu valabilitate general, adevruri (considerate) absolute: We were told that Shakespeare is the greatest English writer. Ni s-a spus c Shakespeare este cel mai mare scriitor englez. exprim:

278

momentul vorbirii: Sud.

b) completivele directe dup verbe ca know, realize, believe, think, hope, regret care presupun adevrul complementului direct, acesta fiind adevrat i n

I realized he is a South American. Mi-am dat seama c este din America de

Regula V. Folosirea subjonctivului n propoziia completiv direct: a) Dup verbe ca ask, demand, require, order, urge, suggest, propose. arrange, verbul din subordonata completiv se pune la subjonctivul prezent analitic should + infintiv: Cpitanul ordon / a ordonat ca echipajul s prseasc vasul. b) Subjonctivul prezent sintetic este folosit n varianta american a limbii engleze i uneori n limba englez scris: The captain ordered that the crew abandon Regula VI. Folosirea timpurilor dup verbul wish: Verbul wish este urmat de: a) Past Tense, pentru a exprima regretul fa de o aciune nerealizat n prezent: I wish(ed) she were/was here with us. A dori/A fi dorit/ca ea s fie aici cu noi. sau fa de o situaie de mai lung durat: He wishes/wished he lived in the country. Ar dori/Ar fi dorit s locuiasc la ar. b) Past Perfect, pentru a exprima regretul fa de o aciune nerealizat n trecut: We wish(ed) she had joined us. Am fi dorit ca ea s fi venit cu noi. c) Would + infinitiv pentru a exprima o dorin pentru o aciune viitoare (care nu are anse de a se realiza): I wish he would come in time (but I dont think he will). A dori ca el s vin la timp dar nu cred c o va face. sau o rugminte politicoas: I wish you would speak louder. A dori/v-a ruga s vorbii mai tare. Atenie! Verbul wish este urmat de verbe la indicativ (prezent, viitor) cnd are sensul de a spera: I wish he will come in time = I hope he will come in time. Sper c va veni la timp. Regula VI se aplic i la Id rather, Id sooner:

The captain orders that the crew should abandon ship.

ship.

Id rather he worked harder. Id rather he had made more efforts to improve. Id rather he would come tomorrow. Id sooner he worked harder. Id sooner he had made more efforts to improve. Id sooner he would come tomorrow.

A prefera ca el s munceasc mai mult. A prefera ca el s fi fcut mai multe eforturi pentru a se perfeciona. A prefera ca el s vin mine.

279

Atenie! Wish urmat de o completiv direct se traduce n limba romn prin condiional + subjonctiv: I wish she were here = A dori ca ea s fie aici. I wished she had been with us = A fi dorit ca ea s fi fost cu noi. La fel: Id rather he worked harder = A prefera ca el s munceasc mai mult. 25.4.5. Reducerea propoziiei completive directe. Propoziia completiv direct poate fi nlocuit de o construcie infinitival cnd subiectul ei identic cu subiectul din propoziia regent: I want to talk to him. Vreau s vorbesc cu el. sau cu complementul direct, n care caz se folosete construcia Acuzativ + infinitiv: I want her to talk to the child. Vreau ca ea s vorbeasc cu copilul. Dup unele verbe se poate folosi o construcie gerundial n locul celei infinitivale, pentru a sublinia legtura dintre cele dou aciuni (i nu dintre subiecte): I dont like his ringing us up so often. (accentul cade pe aciunea de telefoane). Nu-mi place c ne telefoneaz aa de des. Dar: I dont like him to ring us to often. (accentul este pe subiectul completive). Nu-mi place ca el s ne telefoneze aa de des.

25.5. Propoziia completiv prepoziional

25.5.1. Aceast propoziie este introdus de elemente wh- nsoite sau nu de prepoziii: Look at what she has bought. Privete la ce-a cumprat. Look at who has come. Privete la cine a venit. Look where he is going. Privete unde se duce. 25.5.2. n propoziia completiv prepoziional, prepoziia se omite: a) cnd prepoziia completiv este introdus prin that:

ea mi-a amintit c nu putea s mearg.

At the last moment, she reminded me that she couldnt go. n ultimul moment, At the last moment, she persuaded me that she couldnt go. n ultimul

moment, ea m-a convins c nu putea s mearg.

moment, ea a fost ncntat c nu putea s mearg. b) dup anumite verbe i adjective: cumpere.

At the last moment, she was delighted that she couldnt go. n ultimul

I wonder which of these ties he wants to buy. M ntreb care cravat vrea s-o She hasnt decided which of these ties he wants to buy. Nu s-a hotrt care Im not sure which of these ties he wants to buy. Nu sunt sigur care cravat

cravat vrea s-o cumpere. vrea s-o cumpere.

25.5.3. Dup anumite verbe, prepoziia completiv prepoziional poate fi anticipat de pronumele it, care ndeplinete rolul de complement prepoziional formal n propoziia regent:

280

ine promisiunea.

You may rely upon it that he will keep his promise. Poi s fii sigur c i va

25.5.4. n propoziiile completive prepoziionale se aplic corespondena timpurilor: We agreed upon it that it had been a misunderstanding. Am czut de acord c a fost o nenelegere. We agreed upon it that he was right. Am czut de acord c el are dreptate. We agreed upon it that she would apologize. Am czut de acord c ea i va cere scuze. Dup construciile la un timp prezent exprimnd sentimente: be sorry, be surprised/astonished/amazed, be disappointed, verbele din propoziia completiv pot fi puse: a) la prezentul indicativ sau subjonctivul should + infintiv pentru exprimarea unor aciuni simultane:

Im amazed that they bring the children here for the summer. Im amazed that they should bring the children here for the summer.
Sunt uimit c-i aduc aici copiii vara.

b) la Present Perfect/Past Tense sau should + infinitiv perfect pentru exprimarea unei aciuni anterioare celei din principal:

Im surprised that he has accepted their offer. Im surprised that he should have accepted their offer.
M surprinde faptul c a acceptat oferta lor.

Dac verbul din principal este la un timp trecut, se aplic corespondena timpurilor trecute: a) simultaneitatea: Past Tense sau should + infinitiv:

I was disappointed they were so late. I was disappoited they should be so late.

Am fost dezamgit c au venit aa de trziu. b) anterioritate: Past Perfect sau should + infinitiv perfect:

Mi-a prut ru c i-a vndut maina. n toate cazurile folosirea subjonctivului accentueaz ideea: Mi-a prut ru c i-au putut vinde maina. Pe cnd infinitivul scoate n relief aciunea care a avut loc : Mia prut ru c i-a vndut maina.

I was sorry they had sold their car. I was sorry they should have sold their car.

25.6. Propoziia subiectiv (The Subject Clause)

25.6.1. Propoziia subiectiv apare dup sau naintea: a) verbelor seem, change, appear, turn out:

281

I seemed that he was wrong. b) unor adjective ca: likely, certain, possible, clear, true, important, alarming, etc.: Its possible that the tourists have arrived. c) a unor verbe tranzitive exprimnd stri sufleteti: alarm, amaze, attract, confuze, discourage, embrarrass, relieve, scare, trouble etc.: That she hasnt written yet amazes me.
25.6.2. Locul propoziiei subiective n fraz. Poziia normal a propoziiei subiective este dup propoziia regent, propoziia subiectiv fiind anticipat de pronumele introductiv - anticipativ it cu funcie de subiect formal al regentei: It is important that you should do your homework carefully. Este important s-i faci temele cu grij. n engleza literar, propoziia subiectiv ocup uneori poziie iniial: That he has refused our offer amazes me. M surprinde c a refuzat oferta noastr. 25.6.3. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia subiectiv. n propoziia subiectiv se poate folosi: a) modul indicativ; b) modul subjonctiv. Folosirea indicativului arat c aciunea din propoziia subiectiv este vzut ca un fapt real, svrit: It is strange that they arrived before us. E ciudat c au ajuns naintea noastr. Folosirea subjonctivului arat c aciunea este vzut ca o idee, presupunere: It is strange that should arrive before us. Este ciudat ca ei s ajung naintea noastr. Folosorea timpurilor n propoziia subiectiv depinde i de timpul verbului din propoziia regent. A) Modul indicativ: a) Un timp prezent n regent poate fi urmat de orice timp n propoziie subiectiv: It is unlikely that they have talked/will talk about this. Este puin probabil c ei au vorbit/vor vorbi despre asta. b) Un timp trecut este urmat tot de un timp trecut, conform corespondenei timpurilor trecute:

Modul indicativ sau subjonctiv: a) Dup construcii exprimnd sentimente sau mirarea: it is strange, alarming, surprising, annoying, gratifying, splendid, verbul din propoziia subiectiv se pune, pentru a exprima: 1) simultaneitatea = la prezent sau subjonctiv should + infinitiv:

It was a surprise that he had phoned. It was a surprise that he behaved like that. It was a surprise that he would come.

It is splendid that the children go to bed early. It is splendid that the children should go to bed early.

2) anterioritatea - la Present Perfect/Past Tense sau should + infinitiv perfect:

It is gratifying that he waited until the train arrived. It is gratifying that he should have waited until the train arrived.

282

b) Dac construciile de mai sus sunt la Past Tense, n propoziia subiectiv se ntrebuineaz: 1) pentru simultaneitate - Past Tense sau should + infinitiv:

It was alarming that Mary studied until midnight. It was alarming that Mary should study until midnight.

2) pentru anterioritate: Past Perfect sau should + infinitiv perfect:

Folosirea subjonctivului n toate aceste propoziii exprim aciunea ca o idee, presupunere, pe cnd indicativul exprim aciunea ca un fapt real, svrit. Indicativ: Era ciudat c ei au ajuns naintea noastr. Subjonctiv: Era cioudat ca ei s fi ajuns naintea noastr. B) Modul subjonctiv: a) n propoziiile subiective introduse de is is/was advisable, desirable, essential, imperative, important, inevitable, necessary, right, vital se folosete subjonctivul prezent analitic cu should: It is/was necessary that he should find a solution immediately. Este/Era necesar ca el s gseasc imediat o soluie. Not: n engleza american, este preferat subjonctivul prezent sintetic la forma afirmativ: It is/was necessary that he find a solution immediately. b) Dup it is possible, it is probable, se ntrebuineaz subjonctivul prezent analitic cu may/might: It is possible that she may phone me tonight. Este posibil ca ea s-mi telefoneze disear. La forma interogativ ns, se folosete should + infinitiv: Is it possible that I should see you this evening? Este posibil s te vd disear? 25.6.4. Reducerea propoziiei subiective. 1) Propoziia subiectiv poate fi redus la o construcie infinitival dac: a) propoziia principal conine un substantiv sau pronume care poate fi subiect al infinitivului: It was kind of you to help us. A fost drgu din partea ta s ne ajui. It is my intention to do it. Este intenia mea s fac acest lucru. b) subiectul generic sau nedefinit al propoziiei subiective este subneles: It is good to be careful. Este bine s fii atent. Construcia infinitival poate fi i infinitivul cu for - to. For + pronume se omite dac nelesul reiese din context: It is easy for us to say no. (Ne) este uor s spunem nu. 2) Adeseori construcia infinitival este nlocuit de o construcie gerundial:

It was strange that they had arrived before us. It was strange that they should have arrived before us.

To live near school is an advantage for him. Living near school is an advantage for him.

Faptul c locuiete lng coal este un avantaj pentru el. Ambele construcii pot fi anticipate de pronumele it:

Its not easy to try to persuade her. Its not easy trying to persuade her.

Nu este uor s ncerci s o convingi.

283

3) Propoziia subiectiv mai poate fi nlocuit i de nominativul absolut + participiul prezent: Everything going wrong alarmed them. Faptul c totul mergea prost i-a alarmat.

25.7. Propoziia predicativ (The Predicative Clause)

25.7.1. Propoziia predicativ este folosit dup verbul capulativ be. 25.7.2. Folosirea timpurilor: a) Orice timp poate urma unui prezent n regul:

The important fact is that he was born in this town. The important fact is that he has written about it. The important fact is that the book will be soon published.
Faptul important este c s-a nscut n acest ora. Faptul important este c a scris despre el. Faptul important este c volumul va fi publicat n curnd.

b) Dup un verb trecut, se aplic corespondena timpurilor n trecut:

The problem was that they had phoned. The problem was that they were in town. The problem was that tthey would come the next day.
Problema era c telefonaser. Problema era c erau n ora. Problema era c vor veni a doua zi.

That is learning by doing. Arta nseamn a nva fcnd.

25.7.3. Propoziia predicativ poate fi redus la o construcie gerundial:

25.8. Propoziiile relative (Relative Clauses)

25.8.1. Propoziiile relative se mpart n: A) propoziii relative restrictive, limitnd nelesul unui nume de regent; B) propoziii relative descriptive, care aduc explicaii suplimentare despre un element nominal de regent; C) propoziii apoziionale, cu funcia de apoziie a unui nume din regent. 25.8.2. Propoziiile relative sunt introduse de pronumele relative who, what, which i that (numai relativa restrictiv), adjectivele relative which, what, whose i adverbele relative where, when, why. 25.8.3. Propoziia relativ restrictiv este esenial pentru nelesul propoziiei regente i nu se se desparte prin virgul de aceasta. The bus that goes to the station stops at this corner. Autobuzul care merge la gar oprete la col.

284

Propoziia relativ restrictiv este introdus prin pronume relative: who, which, that i prin adverbe relative: where, when etc. Pronumele relativ that, care introduce numai propoziii relative restrictive,

poate fi folosit ca subiect att pentru persoane, ct i pentru obiecte (who este ns preferat dup substantivul people i pronumele those):

The students that are waiting outside are tourists. The people who are waiting outside are tourists.
Studenii care ateapt afar sunt turiti. Oamenii care ateapt afar sunt turiti.

frecvent:

Which este uneori folosit ca subiect pentru obiecte, dar that este mult mai The icecream which has chocolate in it costs more. The icecream that has chocolate in it costs more.
ngheata care are ciocolat n ea cost mai mult.

Adverbele relative where i when sunt deseori ntrebuinate pentru introducerea propoziiilor relative n loc de prepoziie + pronume relativ:

Magazinul n care cumpr coloniale este vizavi. Magazinul unde cumpr coloniale este vizavi.

The store in which I buy groceries is across the street. The store where I buy groceries is across the street.

Pronumele relativ este de obicei omis cnd substantivul pe care-l determin propoziia relativ poate fi complement direct al predicatului din relativ: I liked THE FILM we saw yesterday. Mi-a plcut filmul pe care l-am vzut ieri. Dac complementul este prepoziional, that se omite, iar propoziia se aeaz la sfritul propoziiei relative: The sport I am fond OF is football. Sportul care mi place este fotbalul. 25.8.4. Propoziia relativ descriptiv. Propoziia relativ descriptiv nu este esenial pentru nelesul propoziiei regente. Adugnd informaii suplimentare i putnd fi omis fr ca sensul s fie afectat, relativa descriptiv se desparte prin virgul de propoziia regent: Your deskmate, whose name I can never remember, has just phoned. Tocmai a telefonat colegul tu de banc, al crui nume nu mi-l amintesc niciodat. 25.8.5. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziiile relative n propoziiile relative se poate folosi orice timp, n funcie de intenia vorbitorului, independent de verbul din principal: I showed him the dress Ill wear at the school festival tomorrow. I-am artat rochia pe care o voi purta mine la serbarea colar. Our new TV set, which we bought two month ago, is very good. Televizorul nostru cel nou, pe care l-am cumprat acum dou luni, este foarte bun. 25.8.6. Propoziia relativ poate fi redus la:

285

a) o apoziie, care poate fi un substantiv, adjectiv sau participiu singur sau cu o complinire. (Subiectul propoziiei reduse este de obicei un pronume sau substantiv din propoziia regent):

Echipele care joac la olimpiad poart uniforme speciale. Echipele selectate pentru olimpiad poart uniforme speciale. b) la o construcie infinitival activ cu un sens pasiv: This is not a thing to play with. Acesta nu este un lucru cu care s te joci. c) dac subiectul contruciei infinitivale nu este exprimat n propoziia regent, sau este subneles, fiind general sau nehotrt, el este prezent sub forma acuzativ n construcia infinitivul cu for-to. The best thing for you to do is to follow his advice. Cel mai bun lucru pe care-l ai de fcut este s-i urmezi sfatul. 25.8.7. Propoziia apoziional este de obicei introdus de: when, where,

The teams playing in the Olympics wear special uniforms. The teams selected the Olympics wear special uniforms.

propoziiile apoziionale ndeplinesc funcia de apoziii pe lng substantive din regent ca opinion, reason, idea, problem, impression, doubt, excuse, question, fact i se construiesc cu indicativul: I dont know the REASON why he left in such a hurry. Nu tiu motivul pentru care a plecat aa de grbit. 25.8.8. n propoziiile atributive apozitive pe lng substantive ca wish, suggestion, recommendation, request se folosete subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin should + infinitiv: The chairmans REQUEST that he afternoon session should be postponed was accepted. Cererea preedintelui ca edina de dup-amiaz s fie amnat a fost acceptat. 25.8.9. Propoziia apoziional poate fi redus: a) la o construcie infinitival sau gerundial , cnd subiectul ei este generic sau nedefinit sau cnd el este prezent n propoziia regent: The question of how to send the goods has to be settled. Trebuie rezolvat problema privitoare la modul cum va fi expediat marfa. Ideea lui, de a face totul singur, m nspimnt. b) dac propoziia principal nu conine un asemenea cuvnt, el va fi exprimat printr-un acuzativ n propoziia apoziional n construcia Infinitivul cu for-to: Our hope for him to return soon is faint. E slab sperana ca el s se ntoarc n curnd. sau printr-un posesiv (acuzativ + gerund):

why, how, that, whether.

His idea, to do everything by himself, frightens me.

My impression, of Peters enjoying himself, was wrong. our way, mother giving intructions and we following them

c) Propoziia apoziional poate fi redus i la un nominativ absolut : This is propoziiile circumstaniale (Adverbial Clauses) Propoziiile subordonate circumstaniale sunt de mai multe feluri:

286

25.9. Propoziia circumstanial de timp (The Adverbial Clause of Time)

when, as, while, until/till, before, after, as soon as, whenever, since etc. Not: Adverbele hardly, scarcely, no sooner (de-abia) pot i ele introduce
25.9.1. Propoziia circumstanial de timp este introdus de conjunciile:

Hardly i scarcely sunt urmate de conjunciile when, iar no sooner de than: He has hardly finished eating a cake when he begins another. Nici n-apuc s termine de mncat o prjitur c i ncepe alta. They had no sooner got on the train than it left.

propoziii temporale.

Nici n-au apucat s se urce n tren c a i plecat. Dac adverbele de mai sus ocup primul loc n propoziie, pentru ntrire, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i verbul auxiliar. Hardly has he finished eating a cake when

he begins another. No sooner had they got on the train than it left.

25.9.2. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia circumstanial de timp. Un timp prezent n regent este urmat de un timp prezent n circumstasniala de timp: When I have some days off, I go to the mountains. Cnd am cteva zile libere, merg la munte. Unui viitor n regent i corespunde un prezent n temporal, pentru a exprima simultaneitatea aciunilor: While you are getting ready, Ill make a telephone call. n timp ce te pregteti, am s dau un telefon. Ill be waiting right here when you come out the examination room. Te voi atepta chiar aici cnd vei iei din sala de examen. i un prezent sau Present Perfect pentru anterioritate: After the film is over, well go for a walk. Dup ce se va termina filmul, vom face o plimbare. Ill help you as soon as I have finished my homework. Te voi ajuta de ndat ce mi voi fi terminat leciile. Atenie! la diferena dintre romn i englez. Te voi ajuta ndat ce mi voi (fi) termina(t) leciile./Am s te ajut cnd am s-mi termin leciile. Un predicat la un timp trecut n propoziia principal cere Past Tense n propoziia temporal, pentru exprimarea simultaneitii: When I left for school this morning, it was raining heavily. Cnd am plecat la coal azi de diminea, ploua cu gleata. i Past Perfect pentru exprimarea unei aciuni anterioare celei din principal: They left the clasroom as soon as they had finished their papers. Au ieit din clas de ndat ce/imediat dup ce i-au terminat lucrrile. Aceleai reguli sunt valabile i cnd predicatul propoziiei regente este la viitor n trecut:

Atenie! la traducerea acestor propoziii! n limba romn se folosete viitorul n temporal, pe cnd n limba englez numai Past Tense sau Past Perfect: i-am spus c voi trece pe la tine de ndat ce voi fi terminat cartea. i-am spus c voi trece pe la tine cnd voi avea puin timp liber.

I told you I would call on you as soon as had finished the book. I told you I would call on you when I had some spare time.

287

Cnd verbul din propziia regent este la modul condiional, verbul din circumstaniala de timp este la Past Tense: I would try to call on you before you went away. A ncerca s trec pe la tine nainte s pleci n ora. Not: Datorit sensului, after poate fi urmat de Past Tense sau de Past Perfect, pentru a exprima anterioritatea aciunii din circumstaniala de timp fa de aciunea din propoziia principal:

n mod similar, untill/till pot fi urmate de Past Tense sau de Past Perfect n subordonata de timp:

He rang up all his friends after he returned from the trip. He rang up all his friends after he had returned from the trip.

Nu a plecat pn nu a primit un rspuns precis. Before permite folosrea lui Past Tense sau a lui Past Perfect n propoziia principal nsoit de o subordonat temporal la Past Tense:

He didnt leave until he received a definite answer. He didnt leave until he had received a definite answer.

She gave him your message before you arrived. She had given him your message before you arrived.

Ea i-a transmis/i transmisese masajul tu nainte s soseti tu. n toate cele trei cazuri, folosirea lui Past Perfect subliniaz anterioritatea aciunii. Spre deosebire de conjunciile de mai sus, when este urmat de Past Tense pentru a indica: a) simultaneitatea aciunilor din cele dou propoziii: We paid for the materials when the company delivered them. (when = at that moment) Am pltit pentru materiale cnd le-a livrat ntreprinderea. b) succesiunea imediat a celor dou aciuni: When Peter returned from school, his mother cooked dinner. (when = as soon as) Cnd Petre s-a ntors de la coal, mama sa a pregtit masa. When este urmat de Past Perfect pentru a arta c aciunea din subordonata de timp o precede pe cea din principal: We paid for the materials when the company had delivered them. (them = after) Am pltit pentru materiale dup ce le-a livrat ntreprinderea. Conjuncia since cere folosirea lui Present Perfect n propoziia principal pentru a indica perioada de timp pn la (sau eventual i n) momentul prezent. Cu verbe care indic durata (ex.: live, stay, be, own) since poate fi urmat de acest timp i n propoziia temporal:

De cnd am venit n acest ora, am vizitat Galeriile de Art de mai multe ori. De cnd locuim aici, am vizitat Galeriile de Art de mai multe ori. 25.9.3. Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de timp. Propoziia circumstanial de timp poate fi redus la o contrucie format dintr-o conjuncie de timp i un substantiv, adjectiv sau participiu, al crui subiect este subiectul din propoziia regent: He always sings while shaving. Totdeauna cnt cnd se brbierete.

Since we came to this town we have visited the Art Galleries several times. Since weve been living here we have visited the Art Galleries several times.

288

Conjuncia poate fi omis naintea construciei participiale, care poate fi prezent sau perfect: Walking to school, I met my English teacher. Mergnd spre coal l-am ntlnit pe profesorul de englez. Having done my homework, I went to the cinema. Terminndu-mi leciile/Dup ce mi-am fcut leciile, m-am dus la cinema. Dup conjunciile care pot fi folosite i ca prepoziii, se folosesc construcii gerundiale: I swiched off all the lights before going to bed. Am stins toate luminile nainte s merg la culcare. Construcia gerundial introdus de on, after sau berfore poate avea i un subiect diferit de cel din propoziia regent, exprimat printr-un pronume sau substantiv n cazul genitiv sau acuzativ:

Dup ce Tom/el i-a luat toate examenele, prietenii au venit s-l srbtoreasc. Propoziia temporal poate fi nlocuit i de o construcie prepoziional: After Dacias defeat by the Romans, it become a Roman province. Dup nfrngerea Daciei de ctre romani, ara a devenit o provincie roman.

After his passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate. After him passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate. Afeter Tom passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate. After Toms passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate.

25.10. Propoziia circumstanial de loc (The Adverbila Clause of Place)

25.10.1. Propoziia circumstanial de loc este introdus de adverbele where, wherever i se construiete cu orice timp: Would you please put those books back where they belong. Ai vrea v rog s punei crile napoi/unde le este locul. Wherever we went, we met hopitable people. Oriunde mergeam, ntlneam oameni ospitalieri. 25.10.2. Circumstaniala de loc este de obicei nlocuit de un adverb de loc sau de o contrucie prepoziional: Would you please put those books in their right

place? We met hospitable people everywhere.

25.11. Propoziia circumstanial de mod propriu-zis (The Adverbial Clause of Manner)

Aceasta este introdus de (exactly) as, (just) as i se construiete cu orice timp cerut de logica enunului din principal: He will do just as you told him. Va face exact cum i-ai spus. Propoziia circumstanial de mod propriu-zis poate fi redus la: a) un participiu prezent sau trecut cnd subiectul participiului este subiectul sau complementul predicatului din propoziia regent: He came to us smiling. Se ndreapt spre noi zmbind. He bought the house unrepaired and unpainted. A cumprat casa nereparat i nevruit. b) o construcie gerundial, dup o prepoziie: He resembles you in spending jhis spare time reading. Seamn cu tine prin faptul c-i petrece timpuil liber citind.

289

c) prepoziie + substantiv: He differs from you in disposition. Se deosebete de tine la dispoziie.

25.12. Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ (The Adverbial Clause of Comparison)

25.12.1. Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ este introdus de conjunciile as, than, as if, as though. Conjuncia as este precedat n regent de un adjectiv la gradul pozitiv sau de un substantiv. Cuvintele as, so, such sau the same pot anticipa conjuncia as: The film is not as good as you thought. Filmul nu este att de bun ct ai crezut. They heard such a noise as they had never heard before. Au auzit un asemenea zgomot, cum nu mai auziser niciodat. He left for school the same time as I did. A plecat la coal la aceeai or la care am plecat i eu. Conjuncia than este precedat de un adjectiv la gradul comparativ care se afl n propoziia regent: He was older than we had expected. El era mai n vnrst dect crezusem. n propoziiile circumstaniale de mod comparative, verbul poate fi omis. n acest caz, pronumele personale sunt n cazul acuzativ: I sang better than he did. Am cntat mai bine dect a cntat el. I sang better than him. Am cntat mai bine dect el. Propoziia comparativ eliptic este mai frecvent dect cea n care verbul este exprimat. Verbul nu poate fi omis dect dac este be sau dac att regenta ct i subordonata conin acelai verb: She Speaks English better than him (Than he speaks it). Ea vorbete englezete mai bine dect el. dar: She speaks English better than she writes it. Ea vorbete limba englez mai bine dect scrie. 25.12.2. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziiile comparative. Propoziiile comparative introduse de as, than se construiesc cu orice timp condiionat logic de predicatul propoziiei principale:

n propoziia comparativ de tipul cu ct...cu att, care se contruiete n limba englez cu ajutorul a dou adjective sau adverbe la comparativ (unul n propoziia regent, altul n propoziia comparativ), precedate de articolul hotrt the, se folosesc de regul viitorul n principal i prezentul n comparativ: The harder you work, the better results you will get. Cu ct vei munci mai mult, cu att vei obine rezultate mai bune. sau: Part Tense + Past Tense: The more frecvently they met, the more they liked each other. Cu ct se ntlneau mai des, cu att se plceau mai mult.

He was as busy as we had thought. He was as busy as a man could be. He was as busy as him son is now. He was as busy as you are going to be.

290

Propoziiile comparative introduse de as if, as though, (dup un verb prezent sau trecut) se contruiesc cu indicativul preznet sau viitor pentru exprimarea unei comparaii reale:

i cu Past Tense (simultaneitate) sau Past Perfect (anterioritate) pentru a exprima o comparaie imaginar, ireal:

It looks as if he has been here. (and he has). It looks as if it is going to rain. (Its cloudy).

He talks/talked as if he were a teacher (but he isnt/wasnt). He behaves/behaved as if he had been here (but je hasnt/hadnt).

25.12.3. Comparaiile reale se traduc n romn prin indicativ, cele ireale prin condiional: Se pare c a fost aici. dar: Se poart de parc ar fi fost aici. Propoziia comparativ poate fi nlocuit de un adjectiv, un participiu sau de o construcie prepoziional:

Se purta de parc ar fi fost suprat. Se purta de parc ar fi avut nevoie de o ncurajare. Se purta de parc ar fi fost ameit. Se purta de parc ar fi cutat ceva. Dac propoziia comparativ este introdus de than, ea poate fi nlocuit de un infinitiv (cu sau fr to): He did nothing more than (to) sign his name. N-a fcut nimic altceva dect s-i semneze numele.

She behaved as though angry. She behaved as if seeking encouragement. She behaved as though dazed. She behaved as if in search of something.

25.13. Propoziia circumstanial cauzal (The Adverbila Clause of Reason)

25.13.1. Propoziia circumstanial cauzal este introdus de conjunciile because, as, since i se construiete cu orice timp condiionat logic de verbul din principal: Since Dan often forgets things, his wife gave him a list. Deoarece Dan este cam uituc, soia lui i-a dat o list.

I got up at ten this morning because I hadnt been able to sleep all night. I got up at ten this morning because today is Sunday.

Azi diminea m-am sculat la ora zece pentru c n-am putut dormi toat noaptea. Azi diminea m-am sculat la ora zece pentru c azi e duminic.

25.13.2. Circumstaniala cauzal poate fi redus la un participiu, adjectiv, substantiv sau o construcie prepoziional: Feeling unwell, he went to bed early. Deoarece nu se simea bine, s-a dus la culcare devreme. He was admired as a man of character. Era admirat fiind un om de caracter.

291

Dup o propoziie, se poate folosi o construcie gerundial: The little boy was scolded for going out in the rain. Bieelul a fost certat pentru c a ieit afar n ploaie. Dac propoziia cauzal are acelai subiect cu propoziia regent, ea poate fi redus la un infinitiv: I was glad to see them. M-am bucurat s-i vd. care se transform ntr-un infinitiv cu for-to cnd cele dou subiecte sunt diferite: I was ashamed for them to speak like that. Mi-a fost ruine c au vorbit aa.

cltoria.

Participiul poate face parte dintr-un nominativ absolut: The wather being unsettled, we postponed our trip. Vremea fiind instabil, ne-am amnat cltoria. care poate fi nlocuit de o construcie prepoziional: In such unsettled weather we had to postpone our trip. Pe aa o vreme instabil, a trebuit s ne amnm

25.14. Propoziia circumstanial condiional (The Adverbial Clause of Condition)

Frazele condiionale sunt formate din dou feluri de propoziii: propoziia subordonat condiional (if Clause) referitoare la condiia care face posibil ndeplinirea aciunii din principal, i propoziia principal sau regent (main Clause) care exprim rezultatul sau efectul condiiei. 25.14.1. Exist trei tipuri de mari propoziii condiionale: - tipul 1, o condiie real viitoare sau general, care exprim o situaie anticipat sau posibil: - ntr-un moment viitor: Well leave tomorrow if the weather is good. Vom pleca mine dac va fi vreme bun. - n general: If I make a mistake, the teacher always finds it. Dac fac vreo greeal, profesorul o gsete ntodeauna. - tipul 2, o condiie ireal prezent sau viitoare, care se refer la: - o situaie imaginar, contrar unei realiti prezente: If the weather were better (right now), we could go for a walk. Dac vremea ar fi mai bun, am putea face o plimbare. - o situaie improbabil, ntr-un moment viitor: If I had the day off tomorrow, I would go to the beach. Dac a avea zi liber mine, m-a duce la plaj. - tipul 3, o condiie ireal trecut, cu referire la o situaie imaginar sau contrar realitii ntr-un moment trecut: If the weather had been better, I would have left last Monday. Dac vremea ar fi fost mai bun, a fi plecat lunea trecut. 25.14.2. Propoziia circumstanial condiional este introdus de conjunciile: if; provided (that)/so long as/on condition that; in case, suppose/supposing

Condiia negativ este introdus de unless. Conjunciile in case i provided sunt ntrebuinate mai ales cu propoziii condiionale de tipul 1: In case I see him, Ill give him your message. n caz c-l vd, am s-i transmit mesajul tu. Ill forgive you provided you tell the truth. Am s te iert cu condiia s-mi spui adevrul.

(that).

292

avut dreptate, ce ai fi fcut (atunci)? Unless (condiie negativ) este mai frecvent n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 1, i este urmat de un verb la forma afirmativ. Folosirea lui unless ntrete negaia (if not este neutru). Comparai: I wont say anything if he doesnt bring up the matter himself. Nam s spun nimic dac n-aduce el vorba. I wont say anything unless he brings up the matter himself. N-am s spun nimic dect dac aduce el vorba. Propoziia condiional poate fi introdus i de alte cuvinte de legtur, situaii n care i pierde forma de propoziie condiional: Find the corect answer and theyll give you a prize. (= If you find the correct answers, theyll give you a prize).

Suppose se folosete mai ales cu propoziii condiionale de tipul 2 i 3: Suppose you were a teacher, what would you do? Presupunnd c ai fi profesor, ce-ai face? Suppose she had been right, what would you have done? S presupunem c ea ar fi

n engleza literar, apar uneori propoziii condiionale n care ordinea subiectverb auxiliar este inversat, iar conjuncia if este omis. Aceasta se ntmpl de regul cnd propoziia condiional conine be, have, could sau should: Were I in your position, I should apologize. Dac a fi n locul tu, mi-a cere scuze. Had he known about this matter, he might, have found a solution. Dac a fi tiut despre aceast problem, poate ar fi gsit o soluie. n cazul verbelor noionale se folosete should/would + infinitivul: Should he come earlier, we could go to the theatre. Dac ar veni (cumva) mai devreme, am putea merge la teatru. 25.14.3. Ordinea propoziiilor. De obicei propoziia condiional urmeaz propoziia regent. Dac o preced, cele dou propoziii sunt desprite prin virgul: If you go out, post these letters for me, will you. Dac pleci n ora, pune te rog aceste scrisori la pot pentru mine. 25.14.4. Timpurile folosite n frazele condiionale sunt urmtoarele:

Look at the map or else you will lose your way. Look at the map otherwise you will lose your way.

Tipul de propoziie condiional

Timpul n propoziia principal Viitor/Prezent/Imperativ

Timpul n propoziia condiional Prezent

2 3

Ill go swimming if the water is warm. A teacher is always happy if his pupils work hard. if you want to see the Go and buy tickets play. Condiional prezent Past Tense She would go on a trip if she were on holiday.

Condiional trecut
I would have spoken to Ann

Past Perfect
if I had seen her yesterday.

293

25.14.5. Traducerea propoziiilor condiionale din limba romn n limba englez prezint de obicei dificulti, deoarece folosirea timpurilor difer n cele dou limbi: n romn se folosete viitorul n propoziia condiional de tip 1 i modul condiional att n propoziia principal ct i n condiional, pe cnd n englez, indicativul viitor i condiionalul prezent i trecut apar doar n propoziiile principale: 1. M voi duce s not dac apa va fi cald. 2. Ea s-ar duce n excursie dac ar fi n vacan. 3. A fi vorbit cu Ana dac a fi vzut-o ieri. Not: n limba englez se poate folosi viitorul dup if doar cnd propoziia subordonat este completiv direct (nu condiional): I don't know if he will come. Nu tiu daca va veni. 25.14.6. Atenie! A) n frazele condiionale de tipul 1, care se refer la o condiie real, posibil, se mai pot folosi: - Past Tense + Past Tense, care exprim o condiie i un rezultat real n trecut: If he felt tired, he went for a walk. Dac se simea obosit, fcea o plimbare. - Viitor/prezent/imperativ n propoziia principal + Present Perfect/Past Tense, n propoziia condiional, pentru exprimarea unei condiii trecute i a unui rezultat prezent: If you havent understood the instructions, read them again. Dac n-ai neles instruciunile, citete-le din nou.

Dac n-a foat aici ieri, spune-i s vin astzi. Dac n-a foat aici ieri, va veni astzi.

If he wasnt here yesterday, tell him to come today. If he wasnt here yesterday, hell come today.

25.14.7. B) Dac verbul din regent e la viitorul n trecut, n condiional se - Past Tense pentru exprimarea simultaneitii: He promised he would write to us if he had the time. A promis c ne va scrie dac va avea timp. - Past perfect pentru a exprima o aciune anterioar celei din regent: He promised he would write to us if he had finished his work. A promis c ne va scrie dacfolosete:

i va fi terminat lucrul.

25.14.8. n limba englez poat aprea i combinaii ntre cele trei tipuri de fraze condiionale: - tip 1 (condiia real) cu tip 2 (aciune ireal): If you have a few hours to spare, I would invite you to the cinema. Dac au cteva ore libere, te-a invita la cinema. - tip 2 (condiie contrar realitii prezente) cu tip 3 (aciune nerealizat n trecut): If she were a better singer, she would have participated in the festival. Dac ar fi o cntrea mai bun, ar fi participat la festival. - tip 3 (condiie ireal n trecut) cu tip 2 (rezultatul condiiei n prezent): If he hadnt had an accident, he wouldnt be in hospital now. Dac n-ar fi avut un accident, n-ar fi n spital acum. 25.14.9. Should + infinitivul poate fi folosit n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 1 i 2 iar were to + infinitivul n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 2, pentru a

294

exprima un grad mare de incertitudine, o situaie puin probabil: If you should get any news from her, let me know at once. Dac se ntmpl s primeti veti de la ea, anunm imediat. If he were to come, I would be very happy. Dac ar veni cumva, a fi foarte fericit. n engleza literar, apare uneori inversiune ntre subiect i verbul auxiliar, iar if se omite: Should you get any news, let me know at once. Were he to come, I would be

very happy.

25.14.10. Will poate fi utilizat n condiionalele de tipul1, iar would n cele de tipul 2, cu valoarea de verb modal a voi: If you will wait a moment, Ill bring you the book you need. Dac vrei s ateptai un moment, v voi aduce cartea de care avei nevoie. We would be delighted if you would accept our invitation. Am fi ncntai dac ai voi s acceptai invitaia noastr. Aceast construcie este folosit pentru a exprima o rugminte politicoas: If you will/would go this for me, I shall be most grateful. Dac avei/ai avea amabilitatea s facei aceasta pentru mine, v voi fi recunosctor. 25.14.11. Could/might + infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) se folosete n frazele condiionale de tipul 2 sau 3 n locul auxiliarului should/would + infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) cnd este implicat o nuan modal: If the weather were fine, we could go to the country over the weekend. Dac ar fi vreme frumoas, am putea merge la ar la sfritul sptmnii. She might have passed the exam if she had solved all the problems. Poate c ar fi luat examenul dac ar fi rezolvat toate problemele. 25.14.12. Circumstaniala condiional poate fi redus la: a) un participiu sau adjectiv, cnd cele dou propoziii au acelai subiect: Born in an earlier century, he would have been a great explorer. Dac s-ar fi nscut n alt secol, ar fi fost un mare explorator. b) un participiu absolut, cnd subiectul este general sau nedefinit: Judging by appearances, she must be telling the truth. Dac judecm dup aparene cred c spune adevrul. c) o construcie infinitival (subiect indentic sau nedefinit): It would hurt her to talk like that. Ar mhni-o dac ai vorbi aa. d) o construcie prepoziional: But for them I would have lost my way. Fr ei m-a fi rtcit. Without them I would have lost my way. Fr ei m-a fi rtcit.

25.15. Propoziia circumstanial de scop (The Adverbial Cloause of Purpose)

25.15.1. Propoziia circumstanial de scop este introdus de so that, un order that i that (formal). In case, for fear that i lest (nvechit, formal) introduc propoziii de scop cu sens negativ (dar cu verbul la forma afirmativ).

295

25.15.2. A) Propoziia circumstanial de scop introdus de so that, caracteristic englezei familiare, se construiete cu: - will/can + infinitiv dup un verb la prezent, viitor sau imperativ:

(voi) trimite scrisoarea par avion ca s-o primeasc imediat. - cu would/could + infinitiv dup un verb la un timp trecut: I gave her the key so that she could get in. I-am dat cheia ca s poat intra. B) n engleza literar, se ntrebuineaz conjuncia so that i mai ales in order that. Un prezent, viitor sau imperativ n regent este urmat de may sau mai rar de shall + infinitiv n circumstaniala de scop: Open the window so that she may get some fresh air. Deschide fereastra ca s poat respira/s respire puin aer curat. iar un timp trecut, de mightshould + infintiv: I lent Dan the dictionary so that he might do the translation. I-am mprumutat dicionarul lui Dan ca s-i fac traducerea. Propoziiile de scop negative sunt introduse de so that, in order that, urmate de will not + infinitiv (dup un verb la prezent, viitor sau imperativ): I must give him a list so that he wont forget what to buy. Trebuie s-i dau o list ca s nu uite ce s cumpere. sau would/should not + infinitiv, dup un verb la un timp trecut: They left early so that they wouldnt be tired the next day. Au plecat devreme ca s nu fie obosii a doua zi. Ideea de scop negativ poate fi exprimat i n propoziii cu verbul la afirmativ. Acestea sunt introduse de conjunciile: - in case, urmat de Present/Past Tense sau should + infinitiv:

Ill send the letter airmail so that he will get it right away. Send the letter airmail so that he can get it right away.

Ill give him a list in case he forgets what to buy. Ill give him a list in case he should forget what to buy.
- for fear (that) + should/would + infinitiv:

un taxi ca s nu piard trenul. Not: In case este folosit n engleza familiar, ca nlocuitor al lui lest,care a ieit din uz. 25.15.3. Propoziia circumstanial de scop poate fi redus la: a) o construcie infinitival, cnd subiectul ei este identic cu cel din propoziia regent: He went to the park to listen to the band concert. S-a dus n parc s asculte fanfara. b) infinitivul cu for-to, cnd subiectele sunt diferite: He took his children to the park for them to listen to the band concert. i-a dus copiii n parc s asculte fanfara.

They want(ed) to leave early for fear they should be tired the next day. They want(ed) to leave early for fear they would be tired the next day. -lest + should + infinitiv: He took a taxi lest he shopuld miss the train. A luat

296

Adeseori, infinitivul este precedat de so as, in order, sau on purpose pentru a sublinia ideea de scop:

He went to the park so as to listen to the band concert. He went to the park in order to listen to the band concert.

The Romanians fought in the 1877 - 1878 war to get their independence. The Romanians fought in the 1877 - 1878 war for independence.

S-a dus n parc pentru a asculta fanfara. c) Construcia infinitival poate fi redus la o construcie prepoziional:

Romnii au luptat n rzboiul 1877-1878 pentru (a dobndi) independen.

25.16. Propoziia circumstanial consecutiv (The Adverbial Clause of Result)

25.16.1. Aceste propoziii sunt introduse de conjuncia that porecedat n regent de so, such: sau de conjuncia so (that). So este urmat, n regent , de un adjectiv sau de adverb, pe cnd such este urmat de un (adjectiv +) substnativ.

Era aa de cald nct am deschis toate ferestrele. Era o zi aa de fierbinte nct am deschis toate ferestrele. Era cald, aa c am deschis toate ferestrele. Pentru subliniere, conjuncia so se aeaz uneori la nceputul circumstanialei consecutive. n acest caz, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: So difficult was the exercise, that nobody could do it. Aa de greu a fost exerciiul, c nimeni n-a putut s-l fac. 25.16.2. Predicatul propoziiei consecutive este la orive timp cerut de logica enunului:

It was so hot that we opened all the windows. It was such a hot day that we opened all the windows. It was hot so we opened all the windows.

He did his job so well that they promoted him. He did his job so well that Ill never forget him.

i fcea aa de bine serviciul nct l-au promovat. i fcea aa de bine serviciul nct nu-l voi uita niciodat.

25.16.3. Cnd subiectul propoziiei regente este acelai cu cel al propoziiei consecutive, aceasta poate fi redus la: a) as to + infinitiv cnd propoziia consecutiv este anticipat de such sau so: Behave in such a way as to be admired. Poart-te n aa fel nct s fii admirat. b) so as to + infinitiv: Put on your coats so as to be ready. Punei-v hainele ca s fii gata. c) o construcie infinitival: He talked slowly enought to be understood. A vorbit destul de rar ca s poat fi neles.

297

Dac cele dou propoziii au subiecte diferite, circumstaniala consecutiv poate fi nlocuit de infinitivul cu for-to: The coffee was too hot for me to frink. Cafeaua era prea fierbinte ca s-o pot bea.

25.17. Propoziia circumstanial concesiv (The Adverbial Clause of Concession)

25.17.1. Propoziia circumstanial concesiv este introdus de: though, although (mai formal), even if/though, however (+ adjectiv/adverb), whoever, whaterver, no matter, whereas (formal). 25.17.2. Propoziia circumstanial concesiv poate avea i forma unei propoziii, aparent principale, de fapt subordonat, exprimat prin: a) un imperativ: Laugh as much as you like, Ill do it this way. Rzi ct ai vrea, eu am s fac aa. b) imperativ cu let: Let him be the laziest fellow in the world, I would still try to help him. S fie i cel mai lene om din lume i tot a ncerca s-l ajut. c) subjonctiv sintetic: Ill receive him, be he who may. Am s-l primesc oricine ar fi. 25.17.3. Timpurile verbale folosite n circumstaniale concesive sunt timpurile prezente i trecute ale indicativului:

Though he has never studied music, he plays the piano very well. Although he is not a professional, he plays the piano very well. Even though he did not study music in school, he plays the piano very well.

Dei/Cu toate c n-a studiat niciodat muzica, el cnt foarte bine la pian. Dei/Cu toate c nu este profesionist, el cnt foarte bine la pian. Dei/Cu toate c nu a studiat muzica la coal, el cnt foarte bine la pian. jucase fotbal toat dimineaa, nu era obosit.

(Al)though he had been playing fotball all morning, he wasnt very tired. Dei

(Al)though he was not feeling very well, he continued his work. Dei nu se simea foarte bine, i-a continuat lucrul. May/might + infinitivul este folosit n propoziiile concesive pentru a exprima o presupunere: Whoever may/might come, show him in. n limba romn, indicativul din propoziia concesiv se traduce tot prin indicativ, pe cnd may/might + infintiv se traduc prin condiional: Oricine ar veni, poftete-l nuntru. Propoziie concesiv poate fi redus la: a) un participiu, adjectiv sau substantiv: Though tired, she continued her work. Dei obosit, i-a continuat munc. b) un participiu absolt, cnd subiectul este nedefinit: Even admittin his explanation, his behaviour cannot be excused. Chiar dac admited explicaia lui, comportarea lui nu poate fi scuzat. c) o construcia prepoziie, coninnd de obicei cuvnd all:

298

lui.

He is a kind man for all his faults. Este un om bun cu toate/n ciuda defectelor He is a kind man with all his faults. Este un om bun cu toate/n ciuda He is a kind man in spite of his faults. Este un om bun cu toate/n ciuda

defectelor lui.

defectelor lui.

EXERCIII cap. 24 25:

Ce se afl ntre paranteze drepte sunt prile scrise cursiv. 1. He lost his way [because of thick fog]. 2. We went on the picnic [in spite of the heavy rain]. 3. [Following the dance], the hostess served refreshements. 4. The books [on my desk ] have to be returned to the library. 5. He went to the post offiice[ in order to buy some stamps]. 6. The green dress costs [ as much as the red dress]. 7. [Her being late] amazes me. 8. We were astinished [at his behaviour]. 9. You can rely [on his help]. 10. We saw interesting things everywhere.11. He speaks [like a native]. 12. [But for her, I would have forgotten about the meeting. 13. This is the reason [for his early arrival]. 14. [The weather being so cold], we made a fire.

I. Transfomai prile de propoziie scrise cursiv n propoziii subordonate:

1. I first met her twenty years ago when I (live) in Paris. 2. I (have) a tiny apartment in the Latin Quarter and I (earn) barely enough money to keep body and soul together. 3. She had read a book of mine and (write) to me about it. 4. I (answer), thanking her, and presently I (receive) fromher another letter saying that she (pass) through Paris and (like) to have a chat with me. 5. I (answer) that I (meet) her at Foyots on Thursday at half-past twelve. 6. She (be) not so young as I (expect) and in appearance imposing rather than attractive. 7. She (be) in fact a woman of forty - a charming age, but not one that (excite) a sudden and devastating passion at first sight. 8. She also (give) me the impression af having more teeth than (be) necessary for any practical purpose. 9. I (be) startled when the bill of fare ( be) brought for the prices (be) a great deal higher than I (anticipate). 10. I (know) exactly how much money I (have) and if the bill (come) to more I (make up) my mind that I (put) my hand in my pocket and with a dramatic cry start up and say it (be) picked. 11. Of course it (be) awkward if she (have) not money enough either to pay the bill. 12. Then the only thing to do (be) to leave my watch and say I (come) back and pay later.

II. Punei verbele din parantez la forma potrivit:

III. Traducei n limba englez: 1. Muzica pe care am ascultat-o asear era de George Enescu. 2. Va veni de ndat ce-i va termina treaba. 3. A fost aa de frig n ultima vreme nct au ngheat rurile. Mary a plecat n grab, de team s nu ntrzie. 5. Tom a vizitat expoziia ca s le poat povesti prietenilor despre ea. 6. Dac el ar fi aici, ne-ar putea ajuta. 7. Ea va veni mine acas daca i-a terminat examenele. 8. A fi trecut pe la ea dac mi-ar fi spus unde locuiete. 9. I-am promis Paulei c o voi ajuta cnd am s m ntorc din vacan. 10. Dan a spus c-i place s studieze gramatiica. 11. E ciudat c ncearc s telefoneze la

299

aceast or trzie. 12. Tata propune s fim gata pe la oa 12. 13. Duminica trecut am stat acas pentru c a fost vreme rea. 14. Ne-a asigurat asear c te va aatepta pn te vei ntoarce. 15. Tata a cumprat o main veche, dei prietenii lui l-au sftuit s nu o fac. 16. Azi diminea secretara a ajuns la birou mai devreme dect de obicei. 17. Oriunde ne duceam, ne opream i ceream informaii.

IV. A. Secretarul urcase scrile de fier i era apoape s nu-i observe. i cutase toat dimineaa, fr s aib aerul c o face. Mucal i spuse unde i-ar putea gsi, dar el mini c nu-l interesau. Ar fi trecut pe alturi dac nu ar fi auzit glasul gros al lui Sandu. (Eugen Barbu - Unsprezece)

R: The secretary had climbed up the iron stairs and almost did not notice them. He had been looking for them all morning, without looking like doing it. Mucal had told him where he might find them, but he had lied, saying he was not interested. He would have walked by, if he had not heard Sandu's thick voice.

B. Iubite Ghi. Sunt opt zile de cnd i-am trimis o scrisoare prin care te rugam s-mi raspunzi dac persoana ce voia s cumpere tablouri de la mine, despre care mi-ai scris mai de mult, mai persist n dorina sa i dac, prin urmare s-i trimit ie tablouri n acest scop. Tabloul tu cu Ceahlul, despre care i scrisesem c e n lucru, acum e gata complet. Atept un rspuns al tu ca s tiu ce fac. Al tu cu toat dragostea, Octav Bncil.

R: Dearest Ghi. It is eight days now since I sent you a letter in which I asked you to let me know whether the person who wanted to buy paintings from me, about whom you wrote to me some time ago, is still willing to do so and whether, consequently, I should send you any pictures to/for this purpose. Your painting of Mount Ceahlu, which I had informed you was still being worked on, is now completely ready. I am looking forward to your answer, so that I can know what to do. With all my love, Octav Bncil.

C. Iubite Ghi. E cam mult de cnd nu ma tiu nimica despre tine. tiu c eti foarte ocupat ca ntotdeauna, totui cnd este chip, scrie-ne i nou cteva rndui i ne spune cum te afli i ce mai faci. Eu sunt mai bine de cnd am fost la Teohari. Ceilali sunt cu toii sntoi. Am terminat portretul d-rei Cireaa i sunt foarte mulumit. La nceput i chiar tot timpul ct mi-a stat disperasem c nu voi putea-o face bine din cauza unei vioiciune ce o caracterizeaz. Apoi nu se prea inea dec uvnt. mi fgduia de exemplu, c vine mine i eu ateptam zadarnic, cci m trgea pe sfoar. Dar, n fine, a trecut tot necazul, rezultatul fiind pe deplin mulumitor, cel puin pentru mine ca executor, nu tiu ce vor zice criticii de toat mna. Octav Bncil.

R: Dearest Ghi. It is a long time since I last heard from you. I know you are very busy as you always are, but write us a few lines when you can, to tell us how you are and what you are doing. I have been feeling better since I went to- Teohari. The others are all well. I have finished Mrs. Cireaa's portrait and I am very pleased with it. At first, and even all the time she sat for me, I felt desperate that I would not be able to paint her well enough because of a certain liveliness which is characteristic of her. Then she did not keep her word. For instance, she would tell me she was coming the next day and I would wait in vain because she was deceiving me. Now at last my troubles are over and the result is .completely satisfactory, at least for me, the one who did it. I do not know what all the critics will have to say. Octav Bncil

D. Toat lumea tie c domnul Pantelimon i reparase vechea-i main Topolino, care sttuse cinci ani pe butuci i c nu era duminic, dac echipa juca n alt

300

ora s lipseasc. Se mprumuta de bani, daca n-avea, umplea rezervorul cu benzin i fcea un tur la volan prin centru, ca s fie vzut. Mainua arunca gaze de-ai fi spus c deasupra oraului plutea un val de cea artificial. Trectorii ieii la plimbare la ora unsprezece scoteau batistele i le puneau la nas. Lng el, Vizante fcea semne cunoscuilor cu mna. (E. Barbu - Unsprezece).

R: Everybody knew Mr. Pantelimon had repaired his old car, a Topolino, which had been left under repair for five years, and that he missed none of the Sundays when the football team played in another town. He borrowed money if he did not have any, he filled his tank with petrol and made a tour of the city, driving so that people could see him. The little car burnt up so much petrol that you would have thought a wave of artificial fog flowed over the city. People out for a walk at eleven in the morning took out their handkerchiefs and shielded their noses with them. Beside him, Vizante waved to the people he knew.

R: There are certain dreams that we seem to have lived somewhere and some time just as there are things we have lived which make us wonder if they were not a dream. This is what I was thinking of yesterday evening when, searching through my papers to see what was to be burned - papers mix things up - I came upon a letter which reminded me of a strange story, so strange that, if it not were only seven years since it happened, I would feel very much in doubt, I would believe that I had only dreamed about it, or that I had read it or heard it long ago. It was in 1907. I had been seriously ill in Bucharest and I had returned to Berlin. My recovery proceeded slowly, requiring intensive care. When I left, the doctor had advised me to avoid even the slightest exertion. Poor doctor! I had shrugged my shoulders, smiling, and told him not to worry.

E. Sunt vise ce parc le-am fi trit cndva i undeva, precum sunt lucruri vieuite despre care ne ntrebm dac n-au fost vis. La asta m gndeam deunzi seara cnd rvind printre hrtiile mele ca s vd ce se mai poate gsi de ars - hrtiile ncurc - am dat peste o scrisoare care mi-a deteptat amintirea unei ntmplri ciudate, aa de ciudat c, de n-ar fi dect apte ani de cnd s-a petrecut, m-a simi cuprins de ndoial, a cred c ntr-adevr am visat numai sau c am citit-o ori auzit-o demult. Era n 1907. Fusesem greu bolnav n Bucureti i m ntorceam la Berlin. nsntoirea mea se fcea cu anevoin, cernd ngrijiri mari. La plecare doctorul m-a sftuit s ma feresc pn i de cele mai uoare eforturi.. Bietul doctor! Am dat din umeri, zmbind i i-am spus s fie pe pace.

(Mateiu Caragiale - Remember)

301

26. Vorbirea direct i indirect (Direct and Indirect Speech)

Exist dou posibiliti de redarea a spuselor cuiva: prin vorbire direct i indirect.

26.1. Vorbirea direct (Direct Speech)

26.1.1. n vorbirea direct se reproduc ntocmai cuvintele persoanei care lea rostit. Acestea se introduc de obicei prin virgul i sunt ncadrate ntre ghilimele, spre deosebire de limba romn: He asked me, Where is Dan? M-a ntrebat: - Unde este Dan? 26.1.2. Enunul reprodus ndeplinete funcia de propoziie completiv direct a predicatului din propoziia principal. Propoziia principal poate aprea nainte, intercalat sau dup completiva direct. Cu excepia poziiei iniiale, poate avea loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicat cnd subiectul este exprimat printr-un substantiv, iar verbul este la Present saau Past Tense Simple: Tom said, I can come with

you,

I can come with you said Tom. I can come with you Tom said. I can come with you he said.
26.1.3. Folosirea timpurilor n vorbirea direct nu este afectat de timpul predicatului din propoziia principal:

dar:

He is saying -Ill see him tomorrow. - I met her last night. - Ive just arrived. He has said -Ill see him tomorrow. - I met her last night. - Ive just arrived. He said -Ill see him tomorrow. - I met her last night. - Ive just arrived.

26.2. Vorbirea indirect (Indirect/Reported Speech)

tomorrow? John suggested that he should meet Peter at the station the next day. John suggested meeting Peter at the station the next day.
n vorbirea indirect, o a treia persoan red spusele cuiva, fr a reproduce totdeauna ntocmai cuvintele sale: John said to Peter, Shall I meet you at the station

302

Propoziia reprodus ndeplinete de asemenea funcia de completiv direct a predicatului din propoziia principal.

26.3. Transformarea vorbirii directe n vorbire indirect (Change form Direct to Indirect Speech)
Cndva spusele cuiva sunt trecute de la vorbirea direct la cea indirect, procedeul frecvent utilizat n coversaie, au loc anumite schimbri att n propoziia principal ct i n completiva direct. Modificrile sunt de dou feluri: A) generale, care afecteaz orice fel de enun reprodus; B) specifice, caracteristice fiecrui tip de propoziie: enuniativ, interogativ, exclamativ, imperativ. 26.3.1. A. Modificrile generale se refer la: persoan, determinani i timpuri verbale. Pronumele personal, reflexiv i posesiv se schimba dup neles: persoana I i II-a devin de obicei persoana a III-a: Tom said to Mary, You should have asked me

first. Tom told Mary that she should have asked him first. Pot aprea ns i cazuri ca: You are right, Diana, said Paul. Diana: Paul said that I was right.
cuvinte: I think we should leave immediately, I said. I said I thought we should leave Pronumele rmne neschimbat cnd vorbitorul i reproduce propriile lui

immediately.

26.3.2. Pronumele/adjectivele demonstrative i adverbele de loc i timp ce indic apropierea sunt nlocuite cu altele care exprim deprtarea. Astfel: this devine that this devine those here devine there today devine that day yesterday devine the day before tomorrow devine the next/following day next week devine the previous week/the week before Schimbarea adverbelor de loc i timp nu are loc n mod automat. Contextul i momentul vorbirii indirecte indic schimbrile necesare: The teacher said, Tom, bring

your paintings here the day after tomorrow. The teacher told Tom to bring his paintings to school in two days time.

26.3.3. n ceea ce privete adverbele de timp, ele sunt nlocuite numai dac relaia dintre momentul vorbirii indirecte i momentul vorbirii directe nu mai este aceeai: 7 : 00 a.m. Radio-news report: British steel workers are planning a rade-union meeting tomorrow. Tom : They said on the radio yesterday that British steel workers are planning a trade-union meeting today. Dac actul de vorbire are loc i este reprodus n acceai zi, schimbarea pronumelor i adverbelor determinative nu mai este necesare, deoarece nelesul lor

303

este acelai fa de momentul prezent: Dan: They said on the radio this morning that British steel workers are planning a trade-union meeting tomorrow.

Folosirea timpurilor n vorbirea indirect

26.3.4. Dac predicatul din propoziia principal este la prezent, Present Perfect sau viitor, timpul din propoziia redat n vorbirea indirect (completiva direct) rmn neschimbat.

Alice is saying to Tom, Ill help you if I can. Alice has said to Tom, Ill help you if I can.
Vorbire indirect:

Alice is telling Tom she will help him if she can. Alice has told Tom she will help him if she can.
Adjectivele/pronumele demonstrative sau adverbele din completiva direct rmn de asemenea neschimbate: Alice has said, Ill come here tomorrow. Alice has

promised she will come here tomorrow.

26.3.5. Dac predicatul propoziiei principale este la un timp trecut: Past Tense, Past Perfect, Future in the - Past, timpurile verbale din enunul reprodus devin i ele trecute. Aceast schimbare a timpurilor este denumit back-shift n limba englez, deoarece ea are loc dinspre prezent spre trecut sau dinspre trecut spre un timp i mai trecut: Present devine Past Tense; Past Tense, Present Perfect, Past Perfect devin Past Perfect; Future devine Future in the -Past. Schimbarea timpurilor n completiva direct se aplic la propoziiile enuniative, exclamative i interogative.

husband, Be careful! Dont drive so fast! Mrs Brown told her husband to be careful and not to drive so fast.

Propoziiile imperative, care devin infinitive n vorbirea indirect, nu se supun acestei reguli, deoarece nu conin un verb la o form personal: Mrs Brown said to her

Mr Brown said to his wife Ive been very busy today. Mr Brown said to his wife How hungry I am. Mr Brown said to his wife will you give me something to eat? Mr Brown told his wife that he had been very busy that day. He exclaimed that he was very hungry. He asked his wife is she would give him something to eat.

26.3.6. Conform regulilor de coresponden a timpurilor, dup un verb la un timp trecut, Present simple devine de obicei Past Simple n vorbirea indirect:

Excepii: a) cnd prezentul nedefinit exprim o aciune repetat, un obicei sau o caracteristic a subiectului, timpul poate rmn neschimbat dac aciunea are acelai

Doris said, I have many friends. Doris said she had many friends.

304

caracter i n momentul prezent (momentul vorbirii indirecte): George said I go to the

b) cnd vorbirea direct exprim un fapt universal valabil, un adevr absolut, timpul nu se schimb: The teacher said, Water boils at 100 Celsius. The teacher said

seaside every summer. George said that he went to the seaside every summer. George said that he goes to the seaside every summer.

that water boils at 100 Celsius.

cant buy a pair of skis now, I havent saved enough money. george said, he cant buy a pair of skis as he hasnt saved enough money. Prezentul continuu se transform de obicei n Past Tense continuu: Im reading. He said he was reading.
26.3.7. O aciune viitoare este exprimat n vorbirea indirect n modul urmtor:

c) cnd coninutul enunului este valabil i n momentul vorbirii: George said I

after graduation.

Excepie: Corespondena timpurilor nu se aplic n cazul n care aciunea e viitoare i momentul vorbirii indirecte, nu numai n momentul vorbirii directe: George said, Ill take up engineering after graduation. George said hell take up engineering

will (+infinitiv) devin: would (+infinitiv) would (+infinitiv) devin: would (+infinitiv) I, we shall (+ infinitiv) devine: he, they, would (+ infintiv) am/is/are going to (+ infinitiv) devin: was/were going to (+infinitiv) Frank said, Im going to buy a new car next year. Frank said I shall buy a Dacia car. Frank said he was going to buy a new car the following year and added he would buy a Dacia car.

26.3.8. Past Simple devine Past Perfect Simple n vorbirea indirect: Mother said, Tom hurt himself. Mother said that Tom had hurt himself.

c) enunuri redate n vorbirea indirect imediat dup rostirea lor (n aceeai zi): Paul said, I played football this morning. Paul said he played football this morning. d) cnd ntre predicatele din principal i completiva direct nu exist un raport de anterioritate: He said, Sadoveanu was the greatest writer of his time. he said

parties when I was young. Harry said he invited all his friends to his birthday parties when he was young. b) exprimarea unui fapt: The children asked, Were there any animals on the farm? The children asked if there were any animals on the farm.

Excepii: Past Simple poate rmne neschimbat pentru: a) aciuni repetate n trecut: Harry said, I invited all my friend to my birthday

that Sadoveanu was the greatest writer of his time.

aciuni: My friend said to me, i saw good film last night. My friend told me he saw a good

e) n vorbire, dac nu se produce confuzie cu privire la momentele celor dou

film last night.

305

Our neighbour told us he met our father when he was living in Braov. Our neighbour told us he had met our father when he was living in Braov. g) n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 2: Harry said, I would go to the museum if it was open. Harry said he would go to the museum if it was open. h) dup wish, would rather, it is time: Its time you finished your papers, the teacher said. The teacher told the pupils it was time they finished their papers.
26.3.9. Past Tense Continuous devine n principiu Past Perfect Continuous, dar n practic rmne adesea neschimbat. Schimbarea are loc doar cnd acest timp se refer la o aciune terminat: He

f) n propoziiile circumstaniale de timp. Propoziia regent circumstanialei de timp poate fi de asemenea meninut la Past Tense sau deveni Past Perfect:

said, We were thinking of moving house but have changed our minds. He said that they had been thinking of moving house but had changed their minds.

26.3.10. Verbele modale se schimb n felul urmtor: may devine might, will devine would, can devine could:

Dac verbele modale exprimate n vorbire direct nu au forme pentru trecut, ca de exemplu must, need, should, ought to, had better, sau sunt deja la trecut sau condiional, ca would, could, might i used to (numai Past Tense), ele rmn neschimbate n vorbirea indirect: We must buy Mother a present for her birthday, the children

The typist said, The mecanic can fix my typewriter but he wont. The typist complained that the mechanic could fix her typewriter but he wouldnt.

said. The children said they must buy mother a present for her birthday. You ought to help your parents, Tom, the teacher said. The teacher told Tom he ought to help his parents.

said, I must go to school now. Harry said he had to go to school immediately. Father said, I must go to a conference tomorrow. Father said he would have to go a conference the next day. n mod similar, could este meninut n vorbirea indirect: George asked, Could I use your pen? George asked me if he could use my pen, sau meninut/schimbat n
funcie de sens:

Atenie! n general must se menine n vorbirea indirect. Cnd ns must exprim o obligaie, el poate deveni would have to sau had to, n funcie de sens: Harry

child.

He said Could you lend me your dictionary, please? He said I could swim when it was fine. He said I couldnt go into the water alone when I was a child. He asked me to lend him my dictionary. He asked me if I could lend him my dictionary. He said he could swim when it was fine. He said he had been able to swim when it was fine. He added he couldnt go into the water alone when he was a child. He added he had not been allowed to go into the water alone when he was a

306

B. Modificrile specifice se refer la verbele care trebuie folosite n fiecare fel de propoziie reprodus (enuniativ, exclamativ, interogativ, imperativ), la punctuaie, ordinea cuvintelor etc. 26.3.12. Propoziiile enuniative (Declarative Sentence). Verbul say este caracteristic vorbirii directe, cu sau fr complement indirect. Dac este urmat de un complement indirect, verbul say urmeaz de obicei cuvintele reproduse: I dont understand the question, Cathy said to her teacher. n vorbirea indirect, se pstreaz de regul say cnd complementul indirect nu este menionat, iar verbul ocup poziia iniial: Cathy said she didnt understand the n celelalte cazuri se ntrebuineaz tell + complement indirect: Cathy told

Youll hurt yourself if you are not careful. he told me I would hurt myself if was not careful.

26.3.11. Frazele condiionale de tipul 2 i 3 nu se schimb n vorbirea indirect. Cele de tipul 1 devin identice ca form cu condiionalele de tipul 2: He said,

lesson.

the teacher she didnt understand the question.

arrived.

Semnele citrii sunt omise n vorbirea indirect, iar enunul reprodus se introduce prin conjuncia that: Ive just arrived, Fred said. Fred said (that) he had just

n unele situaii, spusele cuiva nu pot fi reproduse n vorbirea indirect, ci trebuie parafrazate, n funcie de sens:

Paula said, Im sorry Im late. Youd better stay in bed for a few days, Peter, the doctor said. Yes i no sunt exprimate n vorbirea indirect cu ajutorul unui subiect i verb auxiliar: Is this device safe? Yes. The man asked if the device was safe and the mechanic replied that it was.
sau prin nlocuirea cu verbe de afirmare sau negare:

He said, No. He refused. He said, No. He denied it. He said, No. He answered in the negative. He said, Yes. He agreed. He said, Yes. He accepted. He said, Yes. He answered in the affirmative.

26.3.13. Propoziiile interogative. Dac Verbul din principal este say, acesta trebuie nlocuit cu verbe ca: ask, wonder, want to know, inquire etc. Why is Tom

Cnd propoziiile interogative sunt redate n vorbirea indirect, ele devin propoziii enuniative. n consecin forma interogativ a verbului devine afirmativ sau negativ: subiectul precede predicatul, verbul auxiliar do este omis, iar semnul ntrebrii se transform n punct:

angry? Helen said to me. Helen asked (me) why Tom was angry. Helen wondered why Tom was angry.

Peter is saying Isnt Bob coming?

307

Excepie: Cnd un cuvnd interogativ: who, what, how much este subiectul propoziiei interogative, se menine ordinea cuvintelor din vorbirea direct: Laura says,

Peter is saying Where does he live? Peter wants to know if Bob is not coming. Peter wants to know where he lives.

Dac n vorbirea direct propoziia interogativ este o ntrebare special , adic dac ea ncepe cu un pronume, adjectiv interogativ, acesta este pstrat n vorbirea indirect: How do you spell this word? the teacher has asked. The teacher has asked

How many arrived last night? Laura wants to know how many (people) arrived last night. De asemenea: I said, Whats the matter? I asked (him) what was the matter.

how we spell this word.

vorbirea indirect n mod difereniat, n funcie de sensul ntrebrii. a) o ntrebare despre o aciune viitoare: Will you sing in the choir tomorrow?

been to Suceava? He is asking if we have been to Suceava. He is asking whether we have been to Suceava. Whether este folosit n mod obligatoriu pentru redarea n vorbirea indirect a ntrebrilor alternative: Are you going to the theatre or to the cinema? Tommy said to his sister. Tommy asked his sister wheter she was going to the theatre or to the cinema. Tommy asked his sister wheter she was going to the theatre or not. ntrebrile generale ncepnd cu will/would/could you se transform n

n cazul unor ntrebri generale, legtura ntre propoziia principal i completiva direct se face cu ajutorul conjunciei if sau whether: He is saying Have you

teacher.

He said . He asked me if I would sing in the choir the next day. b) o rugminte, cerere: Could you serve the coffee? Bob said. Bob asked me to serve the coffee. Bob asked if I could serve the coffee. c) o invitaie: Would you attend our meeting? The children said to their

The children asked their teacher to their meeting. The children invited their teacher to their meeting. d) un ordin, o comand: Copy the lesson, Mary. The teacher told Mary to copy the lesson. n mod similar, ntrebrile ncepnd cu shall I/we se transform difereniat
n vorbire indirect, devenind: a) o ntrebare despre o aciune viitoare: would + infinitiv: Shall I see you

tomorrow? Bob said. Bob wanted to know if he would see me the next day. b) cererea unui sfat: should + infinitiv: Shall I buy the long dress, mother? Alice said. Alice asked her mother if she should buy the long dress. c) o ofert: offer + infinitiv lung: Shall I bring you your glasses? Patricia said. Patricia offered to bring me my glasses. d) o sugestie: suggest + Gerund/should + infinitiv: Shall we have a snack? Denise said. Denise suggested having a snack. 308

Schimbrile de timp n propoziiile interogative au loc la fel ca i n cele enuniative:

Denise suggested that they should have a snack.

He said, Where have you been? He said, What is Tom doing? He said, When will they leave? He wanted to know where we had been. He wanted to know what Tom was doing. He wanted to know when they would leave.

26.3.14. Propoziiile exclamative. Propoziiile exclamative devin propoziii enuniative n vorbirea indirect. n consecin, semnul exclamrii din vorbirea direct nu mai este necesar: What a funny joke! he said. He exclaimed that it was a funny joke. Sunt posibile mai multe transformri, n funcie de natura exclamaiei: a) Exclamaii ncepnd cu what(a)..., how... se transform n completive directe Exclimed that it was very kind of him to help! mother said. Mother exclaimed

n funcie de sens se ntrebuineaz diverse verbe (+ adverbe de mod) ca: exclaim, complain, shout, remark, observe, say admiringly, say scornfully, etc., pentru redarea propoziiilor exclamative n vorbirea indirect: What a delicious cake! the quest

that it was very kind of him to help them. b) Exclamaii ca Oh! Ah! Ugh! devin: He exclaimed with surprise/disgust, etc. He gave an exclamation of surprise/disgust, etc.

said. The qest said asmiringly that the cake was delicious. How tired I am! the old woman said. The old woman complained that she was very tired.
Observai de asemenea:

She said, Thank you. He said, Damn it! They said, Good morning! She said, A happy new year! He said, Well done! She said, Liar! She thanked me. He swore. They greeted me/wished me a good morning. She wished me a happy new year. He congratulated me. She called me a liar.
Predicatul propoziiei exclamative se supune corespondenei timpurilor fa de un predicat trecut n propoziia principal.

He said, How beautifully she sang! He said, How pretty she is! He said, What a delightful trip well have!

309

He exclaimed that she had sung beautifully. He said admiringly that she had sung beautifully. He remarked that she had sung beautifully. He exclaimed that she was pretty. He said admiringly that she was pretty. He remarked that she was pretty. He exclaimed that they would have a delightful trip. He said admiringly that they would have a delightful trip. He remarked that they would have a delightful trip.
Dac exclamaia n vorbirea direct nu conine un verb la un timp personal, n vorbirea indirect se folosete verbul be: Helen said, What a lovely present! Helen

exclaimed that the present was lovely.

The officer ordered his soldiers to clean the barracks. Mother to Ann: Pass me the salt, will you? Mother asked Ann to pass her the salt. Teacher to Tom: (You shouls) go to the doctor. The teacher advised Tom to go to the doctor.

26.3.15. Propoziiile imperative. n vorbirea indirect, propoziiile imperative defin infinitive: a) afirmative: He said, Sit down, Peter. b) negative: He said , Dont interrupt the speaker please. Verbul din propoziia principal (say, tell) se nlocuiete cu un verb care exprim un ordin (tell, order, command), o rugminte (ask, request, urge), un sfat (warn, advise, recommand), etc., n funcie de sens: Officer to soldiers: Clean the barracks!

Aceste verbe sunt urmate n mod obligatoriu de complemente indirecte sau prepoziionale. Dac ele nu menionate n vorbirea direct, vor fi adugate: Give me my

Dac verbul din principal este la diateza pasiv, complementul indirect nu mai este necesar: Go to bed! they said to Tommy. Tommy was told to go to bed. Imperativul pentru persoana I plural (lets + infinitiv) exprim de obicei o sugestie i se exprim n vorbirea indirect prin verbul suggest + Gerund/completiv direct introdus de that:

ball! the little boy shouted. The little boy shouted at the bigger to give him his ball.

says that we are to do the next exercise.

Imperativele exprimnd un ordin n general se pot transforma n vorbire indirect i: - cu ajutorul verbului be to, n special cnd: a) verbul din principal este la prezent: He says, Do the next exercise! He

Nick said, Lets watch TV. Nick said, What about watching TV? Nick suggested watching TV. Nick suggested that they should watch TV. Nick suggested that they watch TV. (n engleza american).

310

b) ordinul este precedat de o propoziie temporal sau condiional: He said, If she comes, ring me up. He said that if she came we were to ring him up. - cu ajutorul lui should: The Captain ordered that the sailors should clean the deck.

26.4. Vorbirea indirect liber

Acesta reprezint un stadiu intermediar ntre vorbirea direct i indirect i este utilizat frecvent n stilul narativ. Se caracterizeaz prin schimbarea timpurilor, a pronumelor i adverbelor ca i n vorbirea indirect, dar propoziia principal este de obicei omis i se pstreaz unele forme din vorbirea direct: propoziii interogative, vocative, ntrebri disjunctive etc. Aceast form este adeseori folosit n literatur pentru exprimarea gndurilor unui personaj. n consecin, verbul he thought este de obicei mai potrivit dect he said n asemenea cazuri.

311