G LOBAL FI R E I N ITIATIVE

Technic al Repor t
Fire Management Assessment of
the Songshan Nature Reserve,
China

April 200 8

GFI technical report 2008-1a

 Citation: Myers, R., D. Johnson and M. Krawchuk. Fire Management Assessment of the
Songshan Nature Reserve, China. GFI technical report 2008-1a. The Nature
Conservancy, Arlington, VA.

For more information:

Ronald L. Myers
Latin America and Caribbean Fire Director
Global Fire Initiative
The Nature Conservancy
Tall Timbers Research Station
13093 Henry Beadel Drive
Tallahassee, FL 32312 USA
850-668-5569
rmyers@tnc.org
www.tncfuego.org

Cover Photo: Old-growth Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) in Songshan Nature
Reserve. ©Ronald Myers

2
 contents
contents

Section Page

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Fire Management Assessment Framework & Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Focus & Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Vegetation, Fire Environment & Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Fire Response Categories, Fire Regimes & Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Disturbance History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Adaptations to Fire & Other Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16

Fire Management at Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

Conclusions & Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Future of Chinese Red Pine Under Current Management Regime . . . .27
Current Fire Management Approach at Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Ecological Disturbance Model for Songshan Nature Reserve . . . . . . . . .28
Future Fire Management Options at Songshan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Fire Management Options in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Next Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

iii
1

introduction
introduction

Purpose
During 27–31 August 2007, a team of fire
management and fire ecology experts from
the United States traveled to Beijing to
meet with Chinese foresters, ecologists
and geographers interested in fire manage-
ment issues. The Team also made a field
visit to Songshan National Nature Reserve
north of Beijing to assess the role of fire,
if any, in the dynamics and maintenance of
Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis Carr. )
and associated vegetation. Preliminary
Nature Conservancy conservation planning
in the area pointed to the lack of regenera-
tion of red pine in the Reserve.

Team Members
- Darren Johnson, Fire Ecologist, Global Fire Team, The Nature Conservancy,
USA
- Meg Krawchuk, PhD., Post-doctoral Researcher, Center for Fire Research &
Outreach, University of California at Berkeley, USA
- Ronald Myers, PhD., Fire Director, Latin America & the Caribbean, Global Fire
Team, The Nature Conservancy, USA
- Yu Guangzhi, Protected Area Strategy Manager, The Nature Conservancy,
China
- Matthew Durnin, PhD., Conservation Scientist. The Nature Conservancy, China
- Xiaorui Tian, PhD., Research Institute of Forest Protection, Chinese Academy of
Forestry, China
The team was accompanied by Ruiyi Chen, Lili Li and Wanjie Jiang from the
Conservation Sector at Songshan Nature Reserve.

During the trip, the Assessment Team met with:

Hu Yuanhui, Division Director, International Forestry Cooperation Center, State
Forestry Administration, Beijing, China
Fu Yuling, Institute of Geographic Sciences & Natural Resources Research, Chinese
Academy of Science (CAS) Beijing, China
Zheng Du, Professor, Institute of Geographic Sciences & Natural Resources Research,
CAS, Beijing, China
Guirui Yu, PhD., Synthesis Center of Chinese Ecosystem Research Network, CAS,
Beijing, China
Ying Sun, PhD., Chief, Office of International Cooperation, Institute of Geographical
Sciences & Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing
Wu Shaohong, PhD., Professor, Institute of Geographical Sciences & Natural
Resources Research, CAS, Beijing
Keping Ma, PhD., Director & Professor, Institute of Botany, CAS, Beijing
Yang si qi, Journalist of Current Events, The Beijing News

1
introduction
The objectives of the assessment were to:
(1) Gather information on fire manage-
ment needs and issues at Songshan
National Nature Reserve that may be
important in biodiversity conservation and
management of the Reserve.
(2) Assess whether fire plays a role in the
regeneration and maintenance of Chinese
red pine at the site.
(3) Evaluate fire management planning,
training, research and information needs at
the Songshan Nature Reserve, and gain
some preliminary insights into the status
of fire management and fire ecology in
China as a whole.
(4) Provide fire managers and conservation
management specialists with recommenda-
tions on long-term strategies and actions
to reduce fire-related threats at the
Reserve.
(5) Introduce ecological concepts related
to fire that could be adapted to conserva-
tion management strategies throughout
China.
(6) Provide The Nature Conservancy
(TNC) in China with a conceptual frame-
work for identifying and addressing fire-
related threats to biodiversity conservation
at their priority conservation areas.
This assessment was conducted as part of
the Global Fire Partnership, which
includes the Conservancy’s Global Fire
Initiative and the University of California
at Berkeley’s Center for Fire Research &
Outreach.
2
Fire Management Assessment
Framework & Process
Prior to arriving in China and visiting
Songshan Nature Reserve, the assessment
team gathered background information on
the Reserve and the fire situation in north-
west China. Key areas of inquiry were:
(1) Review of ecological/environmental
and socio-economic information of the
assessment area.
(2) Identification of ecological and socio-
economic equivalents elsewhere in the
world which the assessment team was
familiar with or where there already exists
considerable information and management
experience.
(3) Identification of key ecological and fire
management experts: (1) within the specif-
ic area or region to be visited and (2) in
ecologically equivalent ecosystems else-
where in the world.
(4) Determination of current approach to
fire management in the area by reviewing
existing management plan, fire policies,
and fire staffing, etc.
(5) Understanding how the socio-econom-
ic and political systems in China influence
the type, approaches and effectiveness of
fire management.
Once in China, the assessment team pur-
sued information about: fire management
at the Reserve, national and local fire poli-
cies and laws, and perceptions of the pub-
lic, scientists and land managers about
wildland fire and fire management, includ-
ing their basic understanding of fire
regimes and fire as an ecological process.

These issues and questions included:
(1) Based on meetings with key area man-
agers, Nature Conservancy staff, country or
regional decision makers, scientists and
natural historians, and community-level
stakeholders: What are current views about
fire? What are current policies? Are poli-
cies effectively applied? Ignored? Counter
productive?
(2) What is the general perception about
fire in different levels of society in the area
or region?
(3) What is the fire history of the area-
long-, medium- and short-term? Have
recent fires been mapped and fire effects
evaluated? Are there old photographs of
the area? Have fire ignition sources been
documented? Given fuel conditions, plant
adaptations, climatic conditions and local
capacity, is there evidence that lightning
ignitions are appropriately identified or
under-reported?
(4) Ecological review: General classifica-
tion of vegetation/ecosystem responses to
fire, i.e. dependent, sensitive, independent.
Are these categories accepted by scientists
and fire managers? Identify adaptations to
fire of keystone and dominant species in
fire-dependent ecosystems.
(5) Assess current and desired conditions
and fire regimes, and define role of fire and from The Nature Conservancy’s China
potentially acceptable fire regimes in each
ecological state, and fire regimes or actions village of Dazhuangke located within the
that cause shifts, i.e. create a preliminary
conceptual ecological model. What is the
long-term prognosis of the area under
existing management and fire regimes?
(6) Brief qualitative assessment of fire
danger, fire risks, and values at risk to fire
in and around area. How might these
introduction
change, or how are they changing now, as a
result of fire prevention and suppression
and/or fire use practices?
(7) Be prepared to address concerns about
fire effects on fauna, specific plant species,
and soils. What are current local views?
How do these relate to what we know
about ecologically equivalent ecosystems
and species elsewhere?
(8) How is fire related to climate change,
invasive species, watersheds and water
quality/quantity, etc. at the site?
(9) Evaluate the role of human burning in
creating, maintaining and negatively
impacting existing vegetation, desired con-
ditions and fire regimes.
(10) What broad economic and social poli-
cies and cultural traditions are affecting
fire regimes and fire management effec-
tiveness, e.g. agricultural policies, land
tenure issues, forestry and logging prac-
tices, industrial agriculture, energy explo-
ration, urbanization or domestication of
the landscape?
Focus & Constraints
Information in this report is based on
observations made at Songshan National
Nature Reserve and through discussions
with: (1) Reserve staff, an ecologist with
the Chinese Academy of Sciences, staff
program, and a local resident living in the
Reserve (during a day and a half visit in
the Reserve); and (2) State Forestry
Administration officials, and scientists
with the Chinese Academy of Science
(during a three-day visit in Beijing). The
Team’s observations in the Reserve were
limited to the main trail in the Reserve
that follows one of the primary drainages
3
introduction
and is open to the public. The Team was
also able to enter a portion of an old-
growth stand of Chinese red pine that is
closed to the public. The team was not able
enter the core conservation area, which is
closed to the public. Although the Team
could observe vegetation patterns on slopes
and ridges from the valley bottom trail,
they were not able to enter this vegetation.
The short duration of the visit and limited
access prevented the Team from observing
the full range of forest conditions at
Songshan. The interpretations presented
in this report are largely inferences based
on the Team’s observations, their profes-
sional expertise and experience with fire
management and fire ecology in ecological-
ly equivalent habitats elsewhere, and drawn
4
from scientific studies in similar ecosys-
tems around the world.
The Team was informed that there is a
substantial body of ecological literature in
Chinese that addresses ecological succes-
sion and vegetation structure and dynamics
throughout China. The Team had no abili-
ty to access these materials. The validity of
interpretations in this report will eventual-
ly have to be determined through a thor-
ough review of the Chinese ecological lit-
erature, and the results of future studies
and monitoring programs that focus on
fire and disturbance regimes at the
Reserve, and on effects, and responses of
species, habitats and vegetation types to
fire and other types of disturbances that
occur within the Reserve.
2
vegetation, fire environment
& disturbances
General Information
Songshan National Nature Reserve is
located approximately 120 km northwest
of Beijing in Beijing Province at latitude
400 32’ N (Figure 1); about the same lati-
tude as Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA. It
is imbedded in the Yanshan mountain
range and includes Mt. Hai-tuo, which, at
2200 m is the second highest mountain in
the province. The lowest point of the
Reserve (628 m) is at the southern
entrance. Soils throughout the Reserve are
derived from granite parent material.
Granite outcrops are common, particularly
on the ridge tops and upper slopes.
Granite boulders protrude throughout the
Reserve.
The climate is considered temperate conti-
nental monsoon with an annual rainfall of
493 mm falling primarily in the summer
months. Maximum recorded temperature
is 39 °C and the minimum is -27.3 °C.
There are approximately 150 frost-free
days per year. The fire season extends from
November to April.
Figure 1. Map of China with provinces and location of Beijing Province and the Songshan Nature
Reserve.
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
Vegetation
The vegetation is described as zonal mixed
deciduous broad-leaved forest intermixed
with pine and oak, and has been classified
into eight forest communities (modified
from descriptions provided by Reserve
staff ):
Oak forests ( Quercus mongolica). Widely
distributed on shallow soils on steep slopes
in mid- to upper watersheds (Figure 2).
Pine may occur scattered throughout.
Mixed Broad-leaved forests. This forest
consists of genera typical of mixed-broad-
leaved forests in the northeastern USA:
Tilia, Acer, Fraxinus, Carpinus, Celtus,
Betula, Juglans, Prunus, Morus, Robinia.
These forests are best developed in valley
bottoms and lower slopes (Figure 3). There
may be scattered pine throughout.
Pine forests. Monospecific stands of
Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis)
(Figure 4). These forests are scattered
Songshan
Nature
Reserve
5
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
Dry shrublands/forests. Widely-distributed
on upper slopes and ridges. Consists of
short-statured, drought-resistant trees and
shrubs. Characteristic species are Ulmus
macrocarpa, Syringa reticulate, and
Armeniaca sibirica. Chinese red pine is
widely scattered throughout (Figure 6).

Fire Response Categories, Fire

Figure 2. Quercus mongolica forest in the upper
watershed at Songshan Reserve. Oak-dominated
forests are frequently the result of relatively fre-
quent, low-intensity surface fire that removes
shade-tolerant competition. As large individuals,
oaks have relatively thick bark that allows them to
survive the fires. Smaller individuals frequently
have the ability to re-sprout if damaged by fire. The
fire response and adaptations of Q. mongolica are
unknown. Photo courtesy of Songshan Nature
Reserve.
throughout from ridge tops to slopes and
valley bottoms.
Mixed pine-hardwood forests. Scattered
throughout the Reserve. The Reserve staff
consider this the most unique vegetation
type in the Reserve.
Regimes & Fuels
The Conservancy uses three very broad
categories to classify vegetation according
to its response to fire. These fire response
categories are: fire-dependent, fire-sensi-
tive and fire-independent (Shlisky et al.
2007; Myers 2006).
Fire-dependent ecosystems are those that
require fire. If they do not burn under an
ecologically appropriate fire regime, they
change to something else and species and
habitats are lost. The vegetation tends to be
flammable and readily carries fire. The
majority of plant species have adaptations
to respond positively to fire and they fre-
quently have characteristics that facilitate
the spread of fire.

Juglans mandshurica forests. Distributed

in valley bottoms on better soils.

Birch forests (Betula dahurica and B.

platyphylla).. Distributed between 1000-
2000 m; often mixed with other hard-
woods.

Aspen forests ( Populus davidiana).

Distributed between 900 - 1500 m as
pure stands or mixed with maple, ash
and/or birch (Figure 5).
Figure 3. View of valley bottom and lower slopes
dominated by Mixed Broad-leaved forests. Chinese
red pine clumps and individuals are scattered in
this type and grade into the Mixed pine-hardwood
forest type. Photo courtesy of Songshan Nature
Reserve.

6
 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
Figure 4. Naturally regenerated, even-aged Chinese red pine stand along main visitors’ trail. The trees are
probably 35-40 years old. The low herbaceous ground cover may be due to the dense shade of the pine
canopy, but many stands along the trail exhibited trampling due to heavy visitor use. Reserve staff are
working to restrict visitor use to trails. Photo by R. Myers.

Figure 5. An aspen (Populus davidiana ) stand within Songshan Nature Reserve. Aspen is a genus fre-
quently associated with fire, and fire plays an important role in the maintenance of aspen on a site. Aspen
is shade-intolerant and does not regenerate under an intact canopy. Fire opens a stand and stimulates
vigorous re-spouting. In the absence of fire stem density decreases over time and the stand succeeds to
shade-tolerant species. Low-stature aspen sprouts are an important browse species for animals like deer.
This food source becomes unavailable as the height to the canopy increases. Most aspen stands are
clones formed from the sprouting from roots. This adaptation allows aspen to expand into adjacent
burned or disturbed areas. Photo by R. Myers.

7
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances

Figure 6. Dry shrublands on upper slopes with scattered individual Chinese red pine. Shrubs are decidu-
ous and leaves are on the ground during the fire season. Pine may be a component of this vegetation
even without fire or major disturbances. Photo by R. Myers.

Fire-sensitive ecosystems are those where
the species lack adaptations to survive fire
or to respond reproductively to it. They are
generally not very flammable, and fire
tends to be a problem only during droughts
or protracted dry seasons. A moderate
amount of fire may be important in creat-
ing specific habitats and initiating succes-
sional processes and creating habitats that
are important to biodiversity. In these situ-
ations, the ecosystem can be considered
fire-influenced, but if fire becomes too fre-
quent and/or too intense, it is very damag-
ing and is likely to change the vegetation to
a more flammable type, e.g. forests being
converted to grasslands or shrublands, if
ignitions sources persist.
Fire-independent ecosystems are those
where fire plays little or no role. They
occur in environments that are too wet,
too dry or too cold to burn. Ecosystems in
this category can become flammable if they
are subject to non-native invasive species
that change fuel characteristics.
A fire regime is defined as a set of recur-
ring conditions of fire that characterize a
given ecosystem (Myers 2006). Those
conditions include the frequency at which
fire returns to a given spot on the ground;
fire behavior-the intensity and rate of
spread of fires; burn severity-the impact
that fires have on vegetation, fauna and
soils; timing of burn-usually considered the
time of year or season in which fires occur,
but also involves timing in relation to
meteorological or phenological events;
type of fire-ground, surface, crowning;
and pattern and extent of burning over
the landscape.

8

Virtually all vegetation types have a fire
regime, even those that are fire-sensitive or
fire-independent. Fire, even if very infre-
quent, is a recurring event in most ecosys-
tems. Altering a fire regime will change
vegetation structure and species composi-
tion and may lead to a different vegetation
type and species loss.
The fire regime concept can be applied at
multiple scales from a fire regime needed
to maintain a particular species’ habitat, to
specific vegetation types or vegetation
structures, to vegetation patterns and
mosaics within a reserve, or to a bioclimat-
ic region (see Box 1).
A fire regime may be only one component
of an overall disturbance regime at a given
site. Examples of additional disturbance
agents that might contribute to a distur-
bance regime include: wind damage, flood-
ing, insect outbreaks, frost events, or man-
agement. In fire-dependent ecosystems,
fire tends to be predominant. In fire-
Figure 7. Natural distribution of Pinus tabuliformis in
China. The dashed line is the 400 mm rainfall iso-
pleth, which is considered the northern edge of the
East Asia monsoon climate. From Wang & Feng
(1991) as it appears in Hongyan et al. (2002).
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
sensitive and fire-independent ecosystems,
fire’s influence may be much more subtle
and difficult to ascertain.
Applying the general ecosystem response
categories to the vegetation at Songshan,
aspen and oak forests are generally consid-
ered to be fire-dependent, i.e. they are
maintained or created by fire. Their pres-
ence and maintenance of these forests at a
site require a specific fire regime that stim-
ulates regeneration, frequently by re-
sprouting, and that limits the competition
of less fire-adapted, shade-tolerant species.
Oaks generally have the ability to survive
low-intensity surface fires as larger indi-
viduals, owing to their thick bark. Top-
killed individuals usually have the ability to
re-sprout after fire.
The assessment team did not have the
opportunity to enter the Quercus mon-
golica vegetation type and only observed a
few scattered individuals of the species. It
may be that existing stands will show mul-
tiple stems that may indicate re-sprouting
after fire.
Aspen has the ability to vigorously re-
sprout after fire and will not regenerate in
the shade produced by dense older stands.
Its presence and maintenance on sites is
usually a function of fire, but the current
stands at the Reserve could also be the
result of regeneration after logging.
Reserve staff indicated the area had been
actively logged as recently as 1960 (see
Disturbance history).
The broad-leaved forest and the other
hardwood forest types, such as those domi-
nated by Juglans and birch, fall into the
fire-sensitive category, although fire may
have influenced the current distribution
and relative abundance of species. These
9
 Box 1. Historical fire regime of the Songshan National Nature Reserve:
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
Statistical inference from comparison with the United States.

China and the United States occupy a similar global latitude and area that has inspired eco-
logical comparisons between the two countries, especially in their eastern regions. Recent
interest has focused on floristic comparisons resulting from shared historical and climate
conditions. The intercontinental parallels in vegetation and climate suggest we might also
find resemblance in historical fire regimes between the two countries since fire occurs as a
function of fuel availability (vegetation cover/biomass) and fuel moisture (weather/climate),
in addition to ignition source (lightning or human activity). Little is known about the histori-
cal regime of fire in China. The long history of human settlement and development in China
has resulted in many environmental changes to its landscapes. Here, we infer the historical
fire regime for the region of the Songshan Nature Reserve using statistical models devel-
oped for the United States. This model is not an endpoint; it is a springboard for further dis-
cussion about the importance of ecological disturbance in Chinese ecosystems.

We were interested in determining what fire regime would be predicted for the Songshan
National Nature Reserve based on its climate envelope and our understanding of climate -
fire relationships in the United States. The last 30 years has provided prolific scientific study
of the causes and effects of wildfire in the United States. The Landfire (Landscape Fire and
Resource Management Planning Tools Project; www.landfire.gov) initiative was developed to
produce "consistent and comprehensive maps and data describing vegetation, wildland fuel,
and fire regimes across the United States". The Landfire Rapid Assessment identifies a
Reference Fire Regime predicted for all areas of the conterminous United States using five
classes. We used global climate data and the Reference Fire Regime classes adopted by
Landfire (Schmidt et al. 2002) for the U.S. to develop a preliminary assessment of historical
Fire Regimes in China.

The Landfire Reference Fire Regime classification uses five classes to describe fire severity
and return interval. We developed spatially explicit statistical models to quantify the relation-
ship between climate variables and the spatial distribution of each Fire Regime class in the
United States. The relationships were estimated using generalized additive models (gams)
with a binomial response in the R statistical program. The gams allowed for non-linear rela-
tionships between fire regime type and climate variables. The response data for each model
was the occurrence (presence or absence) of a given Regime class in a 100 km cell; models
were built for each Fire Regime. We used interpolated global climate surface data prepared
by Hijmans et al. (2005) and Willmott and Matsuura (2001, using Willmott and Feddema
1992) to describe variation in 14 climate variables including: annual mean temperature, diur-
nal range, temperature seasonality, maximum temperature of the warmest month, minimum
temperature of the coldest month, temperature annual range, annual precipitation, precipita-
tion of the wettest and driest months, preciptation seasonality, annual water balance and
moisture deficit frequency (Krawchuk and Moritz 2007). A final model was selected for each

10
 vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
Box 1, continued.

Fire Regime class; the climate variables retained in the final model were chosen based on
the principle of parsimony using the Akaike Information Criterion. Parameter estimates
from the final model for each Fire Regime class were used with climate data to predict
the distribution of the Fire Regime in the United States and China. A complete description
of model development and concepts can be found in Krawchuk and Moritz (2007).

The models suggested that Fire Regime II (short return interval (0 to 35 years, surface
fire) is most probable in the Songshan Reserve region (Figure 1) based on its climate
envelope. In the United States, Fire Regime II dominates in the central plains and eastern
forests (Figure 1a). In grassland areas of China such as the Inner Mongolian steppe, this
regime would represent replacement severity grassland fire, similar to the prairies of the
central United States. In forested regions, this regime would represent the replacement of
understory shrubs, grasses and forbs (surface fire), but rarely if ever a stand replacing
(crown) fire. Overall, the spatial distribution of Fire Regime II in eastern China appears
intuitively sound based on vegetation and climate patterns for the country. Contributors to
The Nature Conservancy’s Global Fire Assessment (Shlisky et al. 2007) support the desig-
nation of the north and eastern regions of China as fire dependent.

While the floristic analogy between the eastern United States (temperate, grassland and
north-eastern regions) and eastern China is strong (Qian 2002), the same annual precipi-
tation and temperature, their interaction and seasonality can also produce disparate biot-
ic communities. Furthermore, the two countries are substantially different in the west
(Guo et al. 1998; Qian et al. 2005). The U.S. is bounded by ocean on both the eastern and
western edges, while China is adjacent to the large Eurasian land mass on its western
boundary. The warm, dry, northwest Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and the cool,
dry, southwest Tibetan plateau in the Xizang (Tibet) Autonomous Region of China lack an
analogue in the United States. The validity of predicting Fire Regimes into the climates of
western China needs further assessment. Overall, further research into fire and fire
regimes is required in China to understand the importance of disturbance regimes in the
conservation of ecological systems.

11
 Box 1, continued.
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances

Probability
of occurance

Characteristics
• 0-35 year fire return interval.
• grassland and eastern forest.
• surface fire; understory burn in forested
stands, replacement severity fire in grassland.

The predicted distribution of Fire Regime II in China and the United States. This regime is characterized
by a low fire return interval (0 to 35 years) of surface fire. Grasslands would experience replacement
severity events, and forested stands would experience understory burns. Stand replacing fire in forested
stands (such as in the Songshan Reserve) would be extremely rare. The spatial distribution of Fire
Regime II was strongly influenced by five climate variables: annual mean water balance, temperature
annual range, precipitation of wettest month, minimum temperature of coldest month, and the annual
12 mean temperature.

forests are subject to, or can be influenced
by, surface fires in the dry season when
leaves are on the ground, but the majority
of species that make up these forests do
not have adaptations to survive fire or to
respond positively to fire events. The vast
majority of the species in these forest types
have little resistance to damage by fire.
Mortality and top-kill can be extensive,
even from low-intensity fires burning in
the leaf litter. Some of the species do have
the capacity to re-sprout and others can
readily re-seed burned areas or any area
where the vegetation is removed or cleared.
Betula and Robinia species are usually
early successional, and their presence and
abundance at the Reserve may be the result
of past fires, agriculture abandonment, and
other human-induced disturbances.
The Chinese red pine forests have some
features that allow the type to persist and
to regenerate after fire, but these charac-
teristics are not pronounced (see
Adaptations to fire and other distur-
bances). We are confident in saying that
the species is disturbance-dependent, but
not specifically fire-dependent.
The dry shrubland/forests type, due to the
harsh environment where it is found and
due to its growth form, probably has the
capacity to re-sprout after fire. It is diffi-
cult to categorize this type without know-
ing the regeneration requirements of its
dominant species. The Team only had the
opportunity to observe this type from the
valley bottom and lower slopes, but we
speculate that without periodic burning
their biodiversity might decrease.
Fuels in all of the vegetation types are pri-
marily leaf litter (including pine needles),
which are available to burn during the late
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
fall, winter and early spring. Crown fires
could occur in the dense pine stands under
appropriate conditions, e.g. high winds, low
relative humidity. Scattered individual pine
trees could torch when surface fires reach
them. The Team was unable to ascertain
when the fire season is at its peak, but we
assume that it is in the spring (March-
April) when leaves are on the ground, and
the hardwood and shrub canopy is leafless,
thus allowing solar radiation to dry surface
fuels, and when daily temperatures and
solar radiation are increasing. During the
summer monsoon season, fuels are proba-
bly too moist and too shaded to effectively
carry fire.
Disturbance History
Past disturbances associated with human
activities were evident in the areas visited
by the Assessment Team, and most likely
are present throughout the Reserve. All of
the vegetation was relatively young and of
low stature, with few trees over 35 to 40
years of age. Much of the valley bottoms
and lower slopes showed the effects of rel-
atively recent, human habitation and use,
i.e. abandoned in the decades prior to the
establishment of the Reserve in 1985.
Remains of home sites and what had been
abandoned agricultural fields were evident.
At lower elevations, the old agricultural
fields tended to be occupied by Chinese
red pine plantations, while naturally regen-
erated stands appeared to occupy these
sites at mid-elevations. The latter suggests
a rapid colonization of abandoned agricul-
tural fields by Chinese red pine.
Reserve staff said that there had been no
fires in the Reserve since it was established
in 1985. The oral history of the area
obtained from the resident of Dazhuangke
village emphasized the fact that the 1930’s
and 1940’s were periods of social upheaval
13
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
and war that severely impacted the vegeta-
tion. Between 1937 and 1945, the occupy-
ing Japanese military repeatedly burned
much of the area that includes Songshan to
drive out resistance forces and sympathiz-
ers, and to eliminate food supplies. From
1945 to 1949 the Kuomintang (Chinese
Nationalist Party) used the same tactics
during the Civil War to drive out
Communist sympathizers and fighters.
People living in what are now the Reserve
and its environs used fire to clear vegeta-
tion for agricultural use. This activity con-
tinued up to the time of the establishment
of the Reserve. Some of these fires were
reported to have escaped. Fuel wood col-
lection and cutting of trees for lumber
were also widespread. Reforestation efforts
began in 1961. At that time the area was
largely denuded of forest vegetation. The
most recent fires in the vicinity of
Dazhuangke village occurred in the 1960’s
and in 1982.
According to Reserve staff, the Chinese
red pine forests had a long history of
repeated exploitation for timber. In the
1960’s, logging was banned, forest farms
(plantations) were established, and refor-
estation efforts where undertaken. There
were some efforts to plant species not
native to the area, but most of the refor-
estation focused on Chinese red pine, and
the Chinese red pine plantings were the
most successful.
Because of the history of extensive logging
and other human activities, few Chinese
red pines in the Reserve appear to be older
than 35 years. On the lower slopes in the
upper reaches of the watershed there is an
older growth forest of Chinese red pines
that for some reason escaped the final
round of logging in the 1960’s. It supports
trees in a stand covering 150 ha that are
reportedly 85 to 110 years old. The trees
14
have an average diameter of 32 cm with the
largest individual 86 cm. A sign placed
within the stand states that some trees may
have an age of 360 years. Regardless of the
actual age of the trees, it is claimed that
this is the oldest and best protected stand
of Chinese red pine north China. The
ground cover in this stand is severely dis-
turbed and the soil compacted because the
area had only recently been closed to the
public.
As a contrast, the Team had the opportuni-
ty to visit the gardens at the Summer
Palace located just outside of Beijing. The
gardens have groves of Chinese red pine,
and the trees appeared to be very old and
were considerably larger than the trees we
saw at Songshan. They also had large flat
topped crowns, which we did not see in the
Reserve. The specific epithet tabuliformis,
i.e. table form, comes from this character-
istic flat or table-shaped crown. The trees
at the Summer Palace gave an inkling of
what Chinese red pine forests might have
looked like at some time in the past. They
must have been quite impressive.
At Songshan, the Team observed no fire
scarred trees, charcoal in the soil or other
evidence of past fires anywhere in any of
the stands along the access trail. Reserve
staff maintained that they did not have
lightning-ignited fires. Scientists from the
Chinese Academy of Science (CAS)
informed us that lightning fires are rare in
China. The Team’s experience is that in
many of the world’s fire-dependent ecosys-
tems, lightning ignited fires are markedly
under-reported in fire records.
When speculating on possible “natural” or
ecologically appropriate fire regimes in the
Reserve, it is important to keep in mind
the very long history of human habitation
and land use in this part of China, and how
human activities may have altered vegeta-

tion, fuel characteristics and ignition fre-
quency and patterns. This long history begs
a historical perspective quite different
from the conventional perspective that
managers and scientists tend to have of
humans and fire regimes in North
America.
In North America, the temporal extent of
human impacts on fire regimes is generally
considered not to exceed 10,000 to
12,000 years. The actual impacts of
human-induced fires on fire regimes and
vegetation patterns are hotly disputed.
Many fire management approaches in
North America focus on the “natural fire
regime”, i.e. the regime that would occur
without human interference. “Desired
future conditions” are frequently modeled
on assumed or inferred conditions extant
prior to settlement by Europeans. This
management philosophy thus looks at a
history of at the most 500 years, while in
many places no more than 200 years.
Considerable debate centers on the degree
to which pre-European human peoples in
North America may have influenced vege-
tation structure, species evolution, species
abundance and the extent of fire-
dependent and fire-sensitive vegetation
through their land use and fire use prac-
tices. Nonetheless, strong arguments can
be made that in many areas of North
America, even those with high lightning
frequencies, anthropogenic fires were
effective in increasing the frequency of
fires and may have markedly altered the
seasonal distribution of fires. Altering sea-
son of burn and fire frequency can signifi-
cantly affect which species of plants and
animals are present, vegetation patterns
and structure, and the areal extent of vege-
tation and habitats.
China presents a far longer history of
human occupation and probable impacts
on vegetation, fuels and fire regimes. In
vegetation, fire environment & disturbances
fact, in China one has to consider a possi-
ble hominid influence on fire regimes that
predates the appearance of modern
humans (Homo sapiens). Peking man
(Homo erectus) was in the vicinity of
Songshan between 200,000 and 300,000
ybp. Although evidence is equivocal in
China on Peking man’s use of fire, else-
where in Eurasia there is strong evidence
that H. erectus used fire at a time consid-
erably earlier than the dated remains of
Peking man in China. Even if H. erectus
did not use fire in China, there is still a
history of over 100,000 years of H. sapi-
ens in China. Agriculture and its associated
burning was well established in China at
least 4200 ybp.
There was no evidence at Songshan of
other natural disturbance processes that
are known to affect the distribution and
regeneration of pine species in other parts
of the world, e.g. soil slumping and land-
slides, severe erosion following intense
precipitation events, insect outbreaks, and
wind damage. Reserve staff stated that
they were unaware of these disturbances
occurring in at Songshan. Clearly, the pre-
dominant disturbances over the past cen-
tury at Songshan have been agricultural
clearing, logging and fuel wood collection,
and fire.
15
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
3 characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Distribution
Chinese red pine (in some older texts the
name is spelled Pinus tabulaeformis), also
known simply as Chinese pine, is one of
the most abundant and widespread of the
22 pine species found in eastern Asia. It
occurs in a broad, discontinuous band from
southern Inner Mongolia and southern
Manchuria to northeastern Tibet and
Yunnan province (Richardson & Rundel
1998) (Figure 7). There are two varieties:
Pinus tabuliformis var. tabuliformis, which
is found in China except Liaoning
Province, and Pinus tabuliformis var. muk-
densis, which is restricted to Liaoning and
North Korea. It intermixes, and likely
hybridizes, with P. yunnanensis in south-
eastern China (Mirov 1967). It is consid-
ered an extremely variable species. Another
closely related species is P. hwangshanensis
which occurs at scattered sites across cen-
tral and eastern China (Richardson &
Rundel 1998). Richardson & Rundel
(1998) state that little is known about the
ecosystem processes that affect the struc-
ture and dynamics of any of these pine
forests. The range of P. tabuliformis corre-
sponds to the region in China subject to a
summer monsoonal climate, and its range
has expanded and contracted during
Holocene intensification and weakening of
the summer monsoon zone (Hongyan et
al. 2002).
Adaptations to Fire & Other
Disturbances
There is no available information on the
role of fire or other disturbances in main-
taining Chinese red pine, or on the effects
that fire or other disturbances have on pine
survival and regeneration. That notwith-
16
standing, fire is known to be an important
disturbance factor, and in some cases an
essential process, throughout the range of
the genus (Pinus). Virtually all pine
species regenerate in response to canopy
and soil disturbances that create exposed
mineral soil and direct sunlight reaching
the forest floor. In many cases the pre-
dominant disturbance is fire, although
there are a few pine species that depend
largely on windfall damage, and soil slump-
ing and landslides to create regeneration
niches.
Chinese red pine at Songshan appeared to
have no obvious adaptations to fire.
However, older individuals have relatively
thick bark and can probably withstand the
heat of low-intensity surface fires. Saplings
can probably survive very low intensity sur-
face fires. Seedlings would be killed even by
very low intensity fires. The trees growing
in dense stands self-prune, which would
serve to keep the canopy out of lethal reach
of low-intensity surface fires. If recurring,
such fires would limit the establishment of
shade-tolerant species under the pines.
Also, the understory vegetation in dense
pine stands tends to be very sparse and
there is little fine fuel accumulation. This is
probably due to the relatively limited avail-
ability of light. The low fuel loads and
shading would also tend to limit the inten-
sity of surface fires.
Single individuals scattered in the low-
stature vegetation of upper slopes and
ridges have a different growth form and
have branches that reach the ground. Their
crowns are probably more susceptible to

Figure 8. Chinese red pine stands on ridge tops, around rock outcrops and scattered on a slope of dry
shrubland vegetation. Photo by R. Myers.
fires that might occur in the surrounding
shrub land vegetation. Chinese red pine
apparently has the capacity to produce
pollen and cones at a very early age, 1-4
years old (Mirov, 1967), which may be an
adaptation to respond to fire and other
disturbances.
With the exception of the presence of a
few younger individuals, all pine stands
observed at Songshan seemed to be even-
aged, i.e. they likely regenerated all at the
same time when competition from other
vegetation and pines was low and soils
were exposed to sunlight. Most trees were
the same size, except for occasional sup-
pressed individuals. This suggests that
Chinese red pine, as with most other
pines, is shade-intolerant and needs
exposed mineral soil and direct sunlight to
successfully regenerate to any significant
degree.
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
The distribution of Chinese red pine in
the Reserve falls into at least seven cate-
gories:
(1) Stands of pine on ridge tops and rocky
outcrops (Figure 8).
(2) Scattered individuals and small stands
or clumps of pine in the dry shrub vegeta-
tion on mid-to-upper slopes (Figure 8).
(3) Scattered individuals and clumps in
hardwood vegetation types on lower slopes
and valley bottoms.
(4) Scattered monospecific stands on
lower slopes and the lower valley bottom
that are plantations.
(5) Scattered monospecific stands that had
either colonized abandoned agricultural
fields and home sites, or regenerated from
17
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis

Figure 9. Monospecific Chinese red pine stand that probably became established after agricultural
abandonment or regeneration after an existing stand was harvested. Although these stands are com-
mon in the Reserve, they are an artifact of past land use. They will persist in the landscape through the
lifespan of the pine, which is at least several hundred years. Without disturbances like high-intensity
crown fires, these stands will eventually be replaced by broad-leaved forests.

adjacent seed sources when existing stands
were harvested (Figure 9).
(6) Some older growth stands in the upper
reaches of watersheds that escaped the
more recent exploitation (see cover photo).
(7) Plantations and former nursery areas
in lower valley bottoms and slopes.
Chinese red pine may be able to maintain
itself on ridge tops and rock outcrops
without any disturbance, except possibly
vegetation dieback due to drought. The
ridge tops and outcrops are probably the
central habitat of the pine from which it
will spread downslope if disturbances cre-
ate suitable regeneration sites. Fire has
likely been an important disturbance
accounting for some of the current distri-
bution of the pine, but the abundance of
stands on the lower slopes and valley bot-
toms are probably more a function of land
use and agricultural abandonment.
Other disturbances in the Reserve that
may play a role in Chinese red pine distri-
bution and abundance are landslides and
soil slumping, and flash flooding after
heavy rainfall. Reserve staff have never
observed these processes. If they occur,
they are likely rare and very localized.
Ecologically similar species to Chinese red
pine in North America are red pine (Pinus
resinosa), pitch pine (Pinus rigida), table
mountain pine (Pinus pungens), and
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). Probably
the closest analogue is Virginia pine, as the
other three species have obvious adapta-

18
 characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
tions to fire. Red pine has the capacity to
re-sprout after fire. Pitch pine possesses
epicormic buds that can re-sprout after fire
and may have serotinous cones in certain
parts of its range. Table mountain pine has
serotinous cones. All four of these species,
like Chinese red pine, tend to be found on
top of ridges and on rocky outcrops and
readily invade disturbed areas on slopes
and valley bottoms. They can be main-
tained on any of these sites indefinitely by
recurring fire.

The hypothetical ecological relationships of

fire, vegetation types, and pine stand
dynamics at Songshan can be illustrated in
a qualitative ecological or fire regime
model (see Box 2).

19
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis Box 2. Ecological disturbance model for the Chinese red pine and related
vegetation types at Songshan Nature Reserve using the Vegetation Dynamics
Development Tool (VDDT).

Ecological models are useful tools in illustrating and summarizing current scientific and
management knowledge, as well as inferences and hypothesis, about the dynamics of vege-
tation and fire regimes. Ecological models illustrate relationships between vegetation types
and their disturbance regimes.

The Vegetation Dynamics Development Tool (VDDT) is a public-domain, state-and-transition

model developed by Essa Technologies Ltd. that provides a framework for quantifying the
rate and effects of succession and disturbance on a landscape (Essa Technologies Ltd.
2007). The model (Figure A), representing a Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) ecosystem,
has been used to partition the landscape into states (e.g., combinations of cover and
structure) and define the transitions (e.g., disturbances and succession) that cause move-
ment between classes. VDDT is a non-spatially explicit model.

Figure A. VDDT state and transition model of Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) ecosystem at
Songshan National Nature Reserve in Beijing province, China. Five successional stages or classes are
depicted: Class A through E. Descriptions of each class and disturbance regime hypotheses are:

20
 characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Box 2, continued.

Class A. Early successional development:

Primary species present are grasses and/or shrubs including young pine (Pinus tabuliformis)
and oak (Quercus mongolica).

I Canopy closure from 0% to 100%

I Maximum shrub height at this stage of development is approximately 1 meter.
I In the absence of disturbance this stage persists for approximately 5 years before suc-
ceeding to the next seral stage (Class B).
I Disturbances include short return interval fires that maintain the stage as Class A.
I With fire or other stand replacement disturbances, other successional stages may return
to this stage (Class A.)

Class B. Mid-development, open canopy:

Primary species present include Chinese red pine (Pinus tabuliformis) saplings with oak
(Quercus mongolica) and shrubs in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 20% to 60%

I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 5 meters.
I This stage persists for approximately 15 years before succeeding to the next successional
stage (Class C).
I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 40 years
returns vegetation representative of this seral state back to successional stage Class A.
I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape with an average fire return interval of
approximately 40 years maintains vegetation characteristic of this seral state in succes-
sional stage Class B.

Class C. Mid-development, closed canopy:

Primary species include immature to mature pine (Pinus tabuliformis) occupying the overstory
with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 60% to 100%

I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 10 meters.
I This stage persists for approximately 45 years before succeeding to the next successional
stage (Class D).
I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 150 years
returns vegetation in this stage back to successional stage Class A.
I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 80 years takes vege-
tation representative of this seral state back to successional stage Class B.
I Surface fire recurring on the landscape approximately every 5 years maintains vegetation
representative of this seral state in this successional stage (Class C).
I Infrequent wind events would take this stage back to successional stage Class B.
I Anthropogenic disturbances such as logging or agriculture would take this seral stage
back to successional stage Class A.

21
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Box 2, continued.

Class D. Late development pine, closed canopy:

Primary species include mature to over-mature pine (Pinus tabuliformis) and some oak
occupying the overstory with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the understory.

I Canopy closure from 40 to 75 percent.

I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 20-30 meters.
I This stage will persist to the maximum life span of the pines
I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape approximately every 150 years will
take vegetation in this stage back to the earliest successional stage (Class A).
I Mixed severity fire occurring on the landscape after 90+ years will take vegetation repre-
sentative of this stage back to successional stage Class B.
I Surface fire occurring on the landscape at any interval will maintain this stage up to the
life span of the pines. As mortality creates canopy openings and if the fire return interval
permits pine regeneration an uneven aged pine forest could be maintained indefinitely.
I Wind events occurring infrequently would take this stage back to successional stage
Class B.
I Wind damage, followed by fire, would take this stage back to successional stage Class A.
I Anthropogenic disturbances such as logging or agriculture would take this stage back to
successional stage Class A.
I The absence of fire or other disturbance for at least the life span of the pines will result in
this stage succeeding to successional stage Class E.

Class E. Late development, broad-leaved trees, closed canopy:

Primary species include mature oak (Quercus mongolica), possibly with scattered old-growth
red pine, occupying the overstory with a variety of shade tolerant broadleaf species in the
understory. There may be a stage beyond this where the oak drops out and the canopy is
dominated by shade tolerant broadleaved species.

With infrequent disturbance this stage persists indefinitely.

I Canopy closure from 60% to 100%
I Maximum tree height at this stage of development is approximately 25 meters.
I With limited or no disturbance this stage persists indefinitely.
I Replacement severity fire occurring on the landscape at any time would take this stage
back to Class A. Replacement fire would be considered an infreguent event in this suc-
cessional stage (Class E).
I Mixed severity and Surface fire would favor the oaks and stimulate pine regeneration at
the expense of the shade tolerant broadleaved species.
I Infrequent wind events would take this stage back to successional stage Class B.

22
 characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Box 2, continued.

Model Run Outputs

The VDDT model was used to perform scenario analysis over a one thousand year time peri-
od. Analyses were conducted using four specific scenarios. For the purposes of the simula-
tion specific values for fire return interval and burn severity where used.

1. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) and anthropogenic (logging
and agriculture) disturbances included in the model run (Box A).
2. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) but no anthropogenic (log-
ging and agriculture) disturbances included in the model run (Box D).
3. Anthropogenic (logging and agriculture) but no fire disturbances included in the model
run (Box B).
4. All fire (replacement severity, mixed severity and surface fire) and anthropogenic (logging
and agriculture) disturbances excluded in the model run (Box C).

Simulation 1

Results from a model run using Scenario 1 (Box A) illustrate that over time, as a result of
both fire and anthropogenic disturbances, representation of Class E, late development closed
canopy broad leaf dominated stands, on the landscape becomes negligible. Classes B and C,
mid-development open canopy and mid-development closed canopy pine dominated stands
respectively, become the more dominant successional stages. Representation of Classes A
and D, early successional pine stands and late development closed canopy pine dominated
stands respectively, on the landscape would appear to remain consistent over time when
modeled under this scenario.

Simulation 2

Scenario 2 (Box D) outputs illustrate the potential effects of a fire management policy that
allow a percentage of the landscape to burn in the absence of logging or agriculture activi-
ties. The results are a bell shaped distribution of the 5 seral states being modeled with the
majority of the landscape being represented by Class C, mid-development closed canopy
pine dominated stands. It is important to note that under this scenario a significant portion
of the landscape is also represented by Class D, late development closed canopy pine domi-
nated stands.

23
characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Box 2, continued.

Simulation 3

Outputs yielded from Scenario 3 (Box B) indicate that, over time, in the absence of fire the
pine dominated seral states diminish resulting in a landscape composed predominantly of
Class E, late development closed canopy broad leaf dominated stands.

Simulation 4

Outputs resulting from a model run using Scenario 4 (Box C) are similar to those obtained
using Scenario 3 where over time the result is a closed canopy broad leaf dominated land-
scape. Of significance however is that the pine dominated seral states, Classes A thru D,
are represented on the landscape to an even lesser extent than in Scenario 3. This might
suggest that in addition to fire related disturbances, anthropogenic disturbances such as
logging and agriculture may also play a role in the proliferation of pine on this simulated
landscape.

Results from the four simulations are illustrated in Figure B. Specifically the bar graphs
within each scenario represent the percent of each successional class (A thru E) represent-
ed on the landscape at the beginning of the model run (Timestep 0), after 100 years
(Timestep 100), 500 years (Timestep 500) and finally after 1000 years (Timestep 1000).

24
 characteristics of Pinus tabuliformis
Box 2, continued.

Figure B. VDDT model run outputs illustrating the percent of successional Classes
A thru E represented on the Songshan Reserve landscape over a 1000-year time
period for each of the four scenarios being considered.

25
 4
fire management at Songshan
fire management at Songshan
Fire management at the Reserve focuses
on prevention and suppression. As a result
of government policy fire use has not been
an option. The largest administrative unit
at the Reserve, in terms of number of staff,
is the Forest Protection Division, which
includes a professional fire fighting brigade
and fire lookout towers scattered through
the Reserve. In order to reduce the proba-
bility of fires during the dry season, the
Reserve is closed to the public from
November to April.
Fire prevention is also a key component in
the Reserve’s fire management strategy. A
26
prevention campaign is directed at both
visitors and at the residents of the village
of Dazhuangke. Furthermore, 71 members
of the village (25 households) form a
brigade of ecological forest guards who
work in fire prevention and other manage-
ment activities, and are available for fire
fighting.
This aggressive fire exclusion strategy
seems to have been successful as no fires
have been reported in the Reserve since it
was created.
5
conclusions & recommendations
1. Future of Chinese red pine under
current management regime
The vegetation within the Reserve is in a
state of early recovery from past distur-
bances that were very large-scale, e.g. large
repeated fires, escaped agricultural fires,
various land use activities, and logging.
With the exception of an older growth
stand that we visited, the age of most of
the vegetation is probably no more than
one to three decades prior to the establish-
ment of the Reserve in 1985.
If Reserve management continues to
exclude fire from the area, this recovery
process will continue, with some early suc-
cessional species eventually becoming less
abundant. Although disturbance needs to
be recognized as an important ecological
process maintaining biodiversity in the
Reserve, there is no immediate need to
allow or create disturbances through burn-
ing or allowing fires to burn.
Over time, if the current management
regime is maintained, Chinese red pine
will become less abundant in the absence
of fire or other disturbances, and the cur-
rent pattern of pine distribution will
change, i.e. pine may persist on ridges, rock
outcrops, and upper slopes, but larger
stands in the valley bottoms and lower
slopes will eventually disappear and be
replaced by broad-leaved forests. From its
current state, it will be several centuries
before there is a significant loss of pine.
What will be missing are even-aged stands
conclusions & recommendations
of different ages and scattered individuals
of different ages. In particular, older aged
stands will senesce in the near future,
regeneration of red pine will not occur in
the understory as this is not the evolution-
ary strategy of the pine. Yet stands at other
locations in the landscape will grow to be
old.
2. Current fire management approach
at Songshan
Under current management philosophy
throughout China, having any wildfire in a
reserve or state forest is considered a fail-
ure on the part of managers. This leads to
inappropriate management actions for
ecosystems that require fire or distur-
bances to maintain their biodiversity and
character. At Songshan, for the foreseeable
future, there is no need to alter the fire
management approach, i.e. aggressive and
effective fire exclusion, but should fire
occur it should be recognized that the fire
is not necessarily always a negative to the
ecosystems and not always a management
failure, especially if a fire only affects a
small portion of the Reserve.
At this time, probably the only change that
could be made is to have Reserve managers
and administrators recognize that distur-
bance (fire) is an ecological process essen-
tial to the maintenance of biodiversity at
the Reserve. Should a fire occur at the
Reserve, it can and should be aggressively
suppressed if it threatens Reserve facilities,
the community, or visitors, or will nega-
27
conclusions & recommendations
tively impact the scenic quality of areas
accessible to visitors. All fires should not
however, be considered ecological catastro-
phes, especially those that only affect a
small percentage of the Reserve. With
experience and a change in policy, manage-
ment decisions on individual fires can
focus on using natural fuel breaks rather
than always focusing on aggressive direct
suppression that is used today to minimize
the area of vegetation affected.
3. Future fire management options at
Songshan
The Reserve could consider including spe-
cific quantitative fire management goals
within its management plan that state (as
an example): no more than an average of 1
percent of the Reserve should burn per
year with less than 5 percent of the
Reserve burning in any one year. Some
years would have no fires. Information for
visitors (signs, brochures) could discuss the
role of disturbance. Any disturbed areas
that develop along trails or are visible from
overlooks or vistas could have interpretive
signs that discuss the important ecological
role of fire and other disturbances. These
quantitative goals can be modified when
fire regimes and fire effects are better
understood. Such goals would acknowledge
that fire is an essential disturbance process
and would remove the stigma of failure if a
small percentage of the Reserve burns over
a given period.
To gain this understanding, recovery from
any fire should be monitored and area
burn severity classes should be document-
ed. Feedback from monitored trends will
drive future management approaches and
actions.
Reserve management would eventually
have to consider whether they want to
28
have management objectives that allow for
the creation of a dynamic mosaic of differ-
ent aged vegetation that will conserve bio-
diversity and maintain Red pine in even-
aged stands of different ages. Achieving
this would require active management
treatments using prescribed fire, and pos-
sibly logging, if prescribed fire is not an
option. At this time, however, because of
the young state of the vegetation, such
active management is not necessary. There
is time for study, capacity-building, and
changes in fire management policy
4. Fire management options in China
In our discussions with government agen-
cies and scientists in China, we learned
that the State Forestry Administration
(SFA) does use prescribed fire in forest
management to reduce hazardous fuels,
create fire breaks, and prepare sites for
regeneration. This takes place primarily in
northeast China. Additionally, the Botany
Institute of the Chinese Academy of
Sciences has been using experimental pre-
scribed fire in the steppes of Inner
Mongolian to evaluate its effect in halting
shrub encroachment into grasslands.
As a whole, Chinese society has a strong
cultural view of all fires being detrimental
and believe that all fires should be aggres-
sively suppressed. Although fire is recog-
nized by vegetation scientists in the
Chinese Academy of Science as an impor-
tant ecological process, fire occurrence in
protected natural areas is still considered
undesirable. The use of prescribed fire in
protected natural areas appears not to be
an option. What is needed in China as a
whole, particularly in protected natural
areas, is a review of the role of fire, the
classification of vegetation types as fire-
dependent, fire-sensitive, or fire-
independent, and the determination of
ecologically appropriate fire regimes need-

ed to maintain fire-dependent vegetation
types and desired habitats. This informa-
tion would allow planners and managers to
design management scenarios to maintain
desired vegetation types and habitats, and
would better justify the use of fire in cer-
tain instances. It would also begin the
process of gradually changing the way sci-
entists, managers, administrators, and soci-
ety thinks about fire and its effects.
The Nature Conservancy’s Global Fire
Initiative is promoting Integrated Fire
Management (Myers 2006) as a conceptu-
al framework for considering and manag-
ing fire for the maintenance of sustainable
ecosystems and communities. It integrates
fire management technologies with ecolog-
ical needs of ecosystems and habitats, and
with the socio-economic needs of commu-
nities that use fire or are impacted by fires.
This integration can be illustrated by a tri-
angle with three sides: (1) fire manage-
ment, (2) fire ecology, and (3) the socio-
economic-cultural aspects of fire (Figure
10). In other words, Integrated Fire
Management is an approach to addressing
the problems of, and issues posed by, both
unwanted and beneficial fires within the
Figure 10. Integrated Fire Management combines
the full range of fire management technologies
with the fire ecology of the area or vegetation
under consideration and with the socio-cultural-
economic necessities of using fire and the percep-
tions of fire held by different segments of society.
conclusions & recommendations
context of the natural environments and
socio-economic systems in which they
occur. Relative risks of fire are evaluated
and balanced with the beneficial or neces-
sary ecological, economic and social roles
that it may play in a given conservation
area, landscape or region.
China has a high degree of technical capac-
ity to predict, prevent, detect, and suppress
unwanted fires. Their fire organization and
programs are very sophisticated, and com-
munity involvement in these programs is
considerable. What is missing is the inte-
gration of this technical capacity and com-
munity involvement with ecological knowl-
edge of the benefits of fire in fire-depend-
ent ecosystems. Enhancing technical capac-
ity to include prescribed fire and other fire
use actions where they are appropriate,
including inside protected natural areas, is
a critical next step, that first needs to be
supported by administrative policies and
laws. Accomplishing this would involve a
paradigm shift in the way people and
reserve managers and administrators think
about fire and how prevention programs
are designed. It would also require training
to develop technicians skilled in prescribed
burning, and developing scientists focused
on studying fire ecology and fire effects.
29
 6
next steps
next steps
1. Translate and disseminate this report to
TNC’s China Program, Songshan
Nature Reserve, the State Forestry
Administration, the Chinese Academy
of Science, and other appropriate TNC
partners. (GFI)
2. Gather information that will fill in gaps
(much of China) in the Global Fire
Assessment. (GFI)
3. Consider translating the Integrated Fire
Management document “Living with
fire…” and the Global Fire Assessment
into Chinese. (GFI)
4. Designate a Global Fire Initiative lead
for China and a TNC-China staffer
who will have responsibility fire-related
issues. Provide the latter with training
and mentoring opportunities (some of
which are mentioned below). (TNC-
China & GFI)
5. Meet with TNC-China to discuss
strategy and action options, and next
steps. (GFI & TNC China)
6. Evaluate the role of fire at other TNC
priority conservation areas in China,
particularly those with pine species,
grasslands, or savannas. (GFI & TNC-
China)
7. Enhance TNC-China and staff of select
partners; understanding of fire manage-
ment, fire regimes, and prescribed fire
30
by organizing one or more study tours
of sites in North America that present
equivalent ecological and management
situations. TNC’s Maine Chapter,
working with the Global Fire Initiative,
has already proposed a study tour to
sites in the northeast United States that
are managed to maintain pitch pine-
and red pine-dominated ecosystems.
The evaluation of fire at other areas in
China beyond Songshan and Chinese
red pine may suggest other areas in
North America that would be useful to
visit. (GFI, TNC Maine Chapter, other
TNC Chapters)
8. Look for opportunities to include key
Chinese fire managers who speak
English to attend fire behavior, fire
effects, and prescribed fire courses in
the United States. These could be
courses offered by TNC or by the
National Interagency Prescribed Fire
Training Center. (GFI)
9. TNC-China’s fire lead (with assistance
from the Global Fire Initiative) will
identify conservation areas where cur-
rent fire management approaches need
to be modified and identify managers
that need to be introduced to
Integrated Fire Management concepts
and prescribed fire techniques.
Consider organizing workshops to pres-
ent these issues and techniques.
7
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