Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OF
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
BY
Add to
K.
J.
HOLLAND.
OUTLINES
OF
MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
BY
LONDON
PREFACE.
The
the object of this
book
is
twofold: (i)
To
refute
many wrong opinions which are entertained by Western critics concerning the fundamental teachings
of
Mahayana Buddhism
of
(2)
To awake
interest
among
scholars
of the
in the
development
faith as exemplified
by
forces
The book
It is
is
therefore at once
in the
popular
sense that
expose the fallacy of the general attitude assumed by other religionists towards Mahayanism.
tries to
It
it
endeavors
expound some
the
of
the
most
salient
and systematically.
attempting
object,
however,
it
because
impossible to present within this prescribed space all the data that are available for a comprehensive and systematic elucidation of the
is
Mahayana
whose history began in the and ran through a period of more than two thousand years before it assumed the form in which it is at present taught
Buddhism,
in the Orient.
During
Mahayana
928
VI
China,
and Japan
that
ever
produced.
It
is
no
wonder then
contradictory
so
many
are
comprised under the general name of Mahayana Buddhism. To expound all these theories even tentatively would be altogether
teachings
outside the scope of such a
work
could
or
to
Mahayanism,
detailed
in
making
more
exposition
particular.
of
the
To
outside
the
sphere
seemed imperative
so prejudiced
the
reason
that
some
critics are
com-
prehended by them.
may be
I
prejudiced in
have wondered
The
very
history
to
of Mahayana
Buddhism
This
little
known
Occidental
scholars.
mainly due to the inaccessibility of material which is largely written in the Chinese tongue, one of the
most
languages for foreigners to master. In this age of liberal culture, it is a great pity that so few of the precious stones contained in the religion
of
difficult of
Buddha
is
are obtainable
essentially
nature
the
VII
whenever and
the
wherever
conditions
mature we see
this fact ever
same
the
spiritual
phenomena; and
in
ultimate
reign
lovingkindness.
It
is
my
my
intellectual attain-
ment permits
and to share
In
shall
be allowed to pursue
my
study
my
findings with
this
my
fellow- beings.
concluding
that
this
prelude,
is
say
little
book
to
with a
full
knowledge of
not
fail
its
which he
will
CONTENTS.
PREFACE
.
.
v
I
INTRODUCTION
(1)
Two
ana.
The Mahayana and Htnayana Buddhism. Why the Doctrines? -- The Original Meaning of Mahay-
An
MahayI
Is the Mahayana Buddhism the genuine teaching Buddha ? No Life Without Growth Mahayanism a of
Living Religion
(3)
1 1
Injustice
Some Misstatements about the Mahayanism. Why Done to Buddhism. Examples of Injustice. 16 Beal. Waddell Monier Monier- Williams.
.
(4)
The Mystery.
CHAPTER
i.
32
No God and No
atman.
kaya. Nirvana.
n.
Tendency
of Buddhism.
CHAPTER
YANISM
HISTORICAL
CHARACTERISATION
OF MAHA-
60
Seven Conception of Mahayanism. Features of Mahayanism. - - Ten Essential
--
Sthiramati's
Principal
Features of Mahayanism.
SPECULATIVE MAHAYANISM.
CHAPTER
in.
77 Buddhism and
. .
.
CHAPTER iv. CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE. 87 Illusion. Relative Three Forms of Knowledge. -- Absolute World-Views Knowledge. Knowledge. founded on the three Forms of Knowledge. Trans.
CHAPTER
99
Such-
ness Conditioned.
The
Theory
of Ignorance.
Evil.
CHAPTER
vi.
VIJNANA
The Alaya-vijnana and The Garbha and Ignorance. The Manas. The Samkhya Philosophy its Evolution.
and Mahayanism.
CHAPTER
vn. THF.
--
Atman.
THEORY OF NON- ATMAN OR NON-EGO 140 The Buddha's First Line of Inquiry.
-
Skandha. --
Ananda's King Milinda and Nagasena. Atman and the "Old Attempts to Locate the Soul. The Vedantic Conception. Man." Nagarjunaonthe The Svabhava. Non-atman-ness of Things. Soul. Real Significance of Emptiness.
CHAPTER vm.
Definition.
of Karma.
Social injustice.
-
--An
XI
PRACTICAL MAHAYANISM.
CHAPTER
ix.
THE DHARMAKAYA
--
217
God.
Object.
as Love.
-
Dharmakaya and
The Freedom
the Dharmakaya.
CHAPTER
x.
242
An
The Trikaya
All
Attitude of
Modern
CHAPTER
xi.
THE BODHISATTVA
Strict Individualism.
-
277
The
Bodhisattva
Bodhisattvas.
in
"Primitive"
Buddhism.
dha's
Life.
We
-
are
all
The
Bodhisattva
and Love.
Meaning
Karuna.
-
of
The Awakening
The Bodhi-
sattva' s Pranidhana.
CHAPTER xn.
Gradation in our Spiritual Life. -- Pramudita. Vimala. -- Prabhakari. -- Arcismati. Sudurjana. Bhimukhi. - - Durangama. - - Acala. Sadhumati.
Dharmamegha.
XII
CHAPTER xiu.
Nihilistic
NIRVANA
Nirvana not the First Object.
331
Nirvana
is
Positive.
of Nirvana.
Sense.
- Nirvana as the Dharmakaya. Nirvana in its Fourth Nirvana and Samsara are One. - The Middle
Course.
How
Intelligence.
Love Awakens
375
INDEX
409
INTRODUCTION.
i.
terms "Mahayana" and "Hinayana" may sound unfamiliar to most of our readers, perhaps even to those who have devoted some time to the study of Buddhism. They have hitherto been
"*
HPHE
induced
to
believe
that
there
is
Buddhism,
as
Mahayanism and Hinayanism. But, as a matter of fact, there are diverse schools in Buddhism just as
in 'other
religious
systems.
It is
few hundred years after the demise of Buddha, there were more- than twenty different schools, t all claiming
According to Vasumitra's Treatise on the Points of Conby the Different Schools of Buddhism, of which there are three Chinese translations, the earliest being one by Kumarajiva (who came to China in A. D. 401), the first great schism seems to have broken out about one hundred years after the Buddha. The leader of the dissenters was Mahadeva, and his school was known as the Mahasangika (Great Council), while the orthodox was called the school of Sthaviras (Elders). Since then the two schools subdivided themselves into a number of minor sections, twenty of which are mentioned by Vasumitra. The book is highly interesting as throwing light on the early pages of the history of Buddhism in India.
i
1
tention
2
to
INTRODUCTION
be the orthodox teaching of their master. These, however, seem to have vanished into insignificance one
quite
after
another,
in
when
its
there arose a
new
school
its
different
general
constitution
from
predecessors,
but
far
cance
as
rather system
made
latter
itself
the other
which
became
a class
that
taught
everything
be Buddhistic, but
it was very comprehensive in its and method and scope. And, by reason of principle Buddhism was now split into two great systems, this,
latter indiscriminately
Ma-
hayanism
in their
formal establishment.
and Hinayanism is this Mahayanism is more liberal and progressive, but in many respects too metaphysical and full of speculative thoughts that frequently
:
reach a dazzling eminence Hinayanism, on the other hand, is somewhat conservative and may be considered
:
in
many
points
simply.
literally means "great vehicle" and Hinaor inferior vehicle," that is, of salvation. "small yana
Mahayana
This
of
distinction
is
Mahayanism, unwelcome title of Hinayanism was given to their rival brethren, thinking that they were more pro-
INTRODUCTION
gressive
the
of
latter.
The
course,
refused to
trine as the
that
their
there
could
to
genuine teaching of Buddha, and insisted not be any other Buddhism than
own,
was a
found
sort of heresy.
and Japan, while the conservative school established 1 itself in Ceylon, Siam, and Burma. Hence the Mahayana and the Hinayana are also known respectively Northern and Southern Buddhism.
passant, let me remark that this distinction, however, is not quite correct, for we have some
En
The Anagarika Dharmapala of Ceylon objects to this geographical distinction. He does not see any reason why the Buddhism of Ceylon should be regarded as Hinayanism, when it teaches a realisation of the Highest Perfect Knowledge (Anuttara-samyak-sambodhi) and also of the six Virtues
1
these two features, among some others, being considered to be characteristic of Mahayanism. when the so-called Mahayanism gained It is possible that
of Perfection (Paramita),
great
and Aryadeva,
over Central India in the times of Nagarjuna also found its advocates in the Isle of Lion, or at least the followers of Buddha there might have been influenced to such an extent as to modify their conservative
power
all
it
views
ever,
it
how
this
took place.
When
thorough comparative review of Pali, Singhalese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Chinese Buddhist documents is effected, we shall be able to understand the history and development
a
of
Buddhism
to its
full
extent.
4
schools
in
INTRODUCTION
and Japan, whose equivalent or counterpart cannot be found in the so-called Northern
China
Buddhism, that is, Buddhism flourishing in Northern India. For instance, we do not have in Nepal or in Tibet anything like the Sukhavati sects of Japan or
China. Of course, the general essential ideas of the Sukhavati philosophy are found in the sutra literature as well as in the writings of such authors as Agvaghosa, Asanga, and Nagarjuna. But those ideas were not developed and made into a new sect as they
were
to
in the East.
Therefore,
it
divide
Buddhism
Why
two schools, Hinayanism and Mahayanism, are no more than two main issues of one original source, which was first discovIn spite of this distinction, the
ered by (Jakyamuni
find
we
of
them.
of
many common traits which are essential to both The spirit that animated the innermost
Buddha
not
is is
heart
as
in
Northern
is
Buddhism.
or
The
difference between
as imagined
them
some.
ing
radical
qualitative
by
It
of
the
consciousness
and
a constant
broadening
other
of
to
the
intellectual
hand,
the
the
conservative
rules
preserve
schools
monastic
with
and
traditions.
Both
started
the
same
spirit,
pursuing the
INTRODUCTION
after a while
feel
any and
words
spirit,
has
all
available
sources, in
system
diverse
rally
that
These
inclinations
among
led
to
the
nayanism.
We
as
in
to
cannot here enter into any detailed accounts what external and internal forces were acting
the
body of Buddhism
or as to
to produce the
it
Mah^yana
itself
system,
how
gradually
all
unfolded
so
as to absorb
and assimilate
with
that
came
in
in contact
it.
to state
is
and
fre-
answer
general
by "Why Buddhism ever allow itself to be differentiated into two systems, which are apparently in contradiction
in
quently asked
did one
more than one point with each other?" In other words, "How can there be two Buddhisms equally
representing the true doctrine of the founder?" The reason is plain enough. The teachings of a
great
religious
founder
are
them
by
his
disciples.
And
it
is
on
this
very account of comprehensiveness that enables followers of diverse needs, characters, and trainings to
INTRODUCTION
and severally
with the teachings of their master. This comprehensiveness, however, is not due to the intentional use by the
leader of ambiguous terms, nor
scurity
initiator
lectual,
is
it
and confusion of
of
his
own
conceptions.
The
has
as well as intelall
its
possible
and consequences. When the principle of the movement is understood by the contemporaries and
details
the
part
foundation
as initiator
of
is
is
solidly laid
will
left
The
latter
all
the
work and
all
carry
it
out in
its
particulars, while
making
to be played
by the
originator
necessa-
rily indefinite
and comprehensive.
Kant,
sophy,
sophical
for instance, as
promoter of German
philo-
has
become the
systems as Jacobi's Fichte's, Hegel's, Schopenhauer's, etc., while each of them endeavored to
develop some points indefinitely or covertly or indirectly stated by Kant himself. Jesus of Nazareth,
as
instigator
of
revolutionary
movement
later
against
Judaism,
did
not
have
doctrines, such as
were established
doctors.
The
it
indefiniteness of his
parent that
ples
caused even
of
dissension,
among
while
sort
disciples
cherished
INTRODUCTION.
of a
ties
divine kingdom on earth. But those externaliwhich are doomed to pass, do not prevent the movement once awakened by a great spirit of the
noble.
The same
Buddha.
spirit
What he
was the
followers
of that
as
Buddhism.
now known
by
their
his
severally developed
special
needs
and circumstances,
to the
distinction of
first
used to designate
the highest principle, or being, or knowledge, of which the universe with all its sentient and non-sentient
beings
is
manifestation,
they
final salvation (moksa or nirvana). the name given to any religious was not Mahayana doctrine, nor had it anything to do with doctrinal
can attain
controversy,
though
later
it
was so
utilised
by the
progressive party.
Agvaghosa, the first Mahayana expounder known to used the us, living about the time of Christ,
term
on
in his
religio-philosophical
book
called Discourse
'
1 Translated into English by the author, 1900. The Open Court Pub. Co. Chicago. 2 These terms are explained elsewhere.
INTRODUCTION
of Mahayanism.
faith
in,
highest
principle
of,
He
likened
the
recognition
and
this highest
being and
principle into a
across
the
conveyance which will carry us safely tempestuous ocean of birth and death
Soon
the
between
two
schools
of
Buddhism,
conservatives
and
progressionists
as we might call them, became more and more pronounced and when it reached its climax which was most probably in the times of Nagarjuna
;
and Aryadeva,
the
i.
e.,
progressive party ingeniously invented the term Hmayana in contrast to Mahayana, the latter having
been
adopted
school.
by them
as
The Hinayanists and the Tirthakas * then were sweepingly condemned by the Mahayanists as
own
An
became
juna
Before the distinction of Mahayanists and Hinayanists definite, that is to say, at the time of Nagaror
even before
it,
those Buddhists
who
held a
tried to distinguish
viz.,
among
class.
Followers
is
The term
of any religious sects other than Buddhism. sometimes used in a contemptuous sense, like
heathen by Christians.
INTRODUCTION
9
of Buddhists who,
The Bodhisattva
is
that
class
believing in the Bodhi (intelligence or wisdom), which is a reflection of the Dharmakaya in the human soul,
direct
all
developing
The Pratyekabuddha
philosopher,
a "solitary thinker'' or a
who, retiring into solitude and calmly contemplating on the evanescence of worldly pleasures,
endeavors
to
attain
his
own
a
fellow-beings.
considered,
impassive, egotistic,
hearer"
is
inferior in
of
buddha,
enables
he
him
to think independently
pious heart, he
willing to listen
in
Buddha, to believe
within
him,
to observe faithfully
all
by
him,
and
rests
fully
contented
narrow
To
its
further
elucidation
of Bodhisattvahood and
important bearings in the Mahayana Buddhism, we devote a special chapter below. For Mahayanism is
no
of Bodhisattvas, while
the Prayekabuddhas and the (Jravakas are considered by Mahayanists to be adherents of Hinayanism.
INTRODUCTION
We
to
can
now form
somewhat
is.
definite notion as
It is
the
Buddhism
which, inspired by a progressive spirit, broadened its as it did not contradict the original scope, so far inner significance of the teachings of the Buddha,
and
liefs
which assimilated other religio-philosophical bewithin itself, whenever it felt that, by so doing,
intel-
people of more widely different characters and lectual endowments could be saved. Let us be
fied
satis-
at
present
with
this
statement, until
of
its
we
enter
into
more
detailed
exposition
doctrinal
peculiarities in the
It
may
the
that
term
Mahayanism
is
used
in
this
work
form of Buddhism, merely which is flourishing in Ceylon and Burma and other central Asiatic nations, and whose literature is principally written in the language called Pali, which comes
in contradistinction to that
from the same stock as Sanskrit. The term "Mahayana" does not imply, as it is used here, any sense of
superiority
over
the
Hinayana.
is
When
it
the historical
aspect
of
Mahayanism
its
treated,
may
naturally
develop that
unnecessarily emphasised
ical
reader
to
true spirit
but the
form
INTRODUCTION
I I
of thought and faith can find its congenial and welcome home; why then should we make it militate against
its
own
IS
fellow -doctrine,
Hinayanism?
2.
What
by
the
is
generally
known
to the
is
Western nations
whose
and
in Pali
It
name
as
of
Buddhism
Hinayanism,
scriptures
was
through
this
language
that
the
Buddhism was acquired by urally they came to regard Hinayanism or Southern Buddhism
Buddha.
sist,
as
the
only
genuine
teachings
of the
still
They
insisted,
in-
that to have
edge
of
may
be learned from other sources, i. e., from the Sanskrit, Tibetan, or Chinese documents should be considered as throwing only a side-light
on the
reliable
information
Pali,
the knowledge
certain cases
from the
rated
form
nate hypotheses,
of
Mahayanism
as
those
a living religion has been entirely ignored; and even who are regarded as best authorities on the
is
worse,
INTRODUCTION
No
This
is
be-
mankind
there in
remained
entire
same,
throughout
there
is
its
course?
vitality
any religion which has shown some signs of and yet retained its primitive form intact
in
and unmodified
ness,
every respect.
to
that
is,
susceptibility
vitality? Every organism grows, sign which means a change in some way or other. There is no form of life to be found anywhere on earth, that does not grow or change, or that has not any
essential
of
itself to
the surrounding
Take,
the
for
example, Christianity.
Is
Protestantism
genuine teaching of Jesus of Nazareth? or does Catholicism represent his true spirit? Jesus himself
did not have any definite notion of Trinity doctrine,
nor
did
he
propose
to
any
suggestion
for
ritualism.
Synoptics, appears to have cherished a rather immature conception of the kingdom of God than a purely ideal one as conceived
According
the
he
by
Paul,
and
his
personal
disciples
who were
just
were
anxiously
realisation
tants,
in
waiting
these
mundane
INTRODUCTION
13
Again, think of Jesus's view on marriage and social Is it not an established fact that he highly advocated celibacy and in the case of married people
life.
strict
continence,
and also
In
these
the
monks
of the Medieval
cannot
say they are ascetic and poor in their living) must be said to be in more accord with the teaching of
the master than their Protestant brethren. Protestants
But what
defend
all
would seriously
venture
to
of their Lord
? Taking all in all, these contradictions do not prevent them, Protestants as well as Catholics, from calling themselves Christians and even good,
pious,
devoted
or
Christians,
sciously
spirit,
unconsciously
animated
by the same
that
was burning
in the
of
reasoning
it
would be absurd to
at the
expense
of
Take
for
granted
the
from
other
it?
what of
not
Christianity
also
an amalgama-
14
tion, so to speak,
INTRODUCTION.
of Jewish, Greek,
Roman, Babylo-
nian, Egyptian, and other pagan thoughts? In fact every healthy and energetic religion is historical, in
in
the
course of
its
development,
it
itself to
the
within
at first
even threatening
own
ex-
adaptation, and modification has been going on from its very beginning. As the result, we see in the
Christianity
of
to-day
its
original type so
metamoris
phosed, so
ed,
that
Mahayanism a Living
So with Mahayanism.
Faith.
Whatever changes
evolution,
its
its
it
has
made
during
its
historical
all
spirit
and
those of
it
founder.
The
ques-
to
mean
the
lifeless
we
teaching
we may add
Ma-
it
The
is
fossils,
how-
forever departed.
INTRODUCTION
far
from
this
it
is
an ever-growing
its
in all
old gar-
ments as soon as they are worn out. But its spirit originally inspired by the "Teacher of Men and Gods"
($dstadevamanusyanam) is most jealously guarded against pollution and degeneration. Therefore, as far
as
its
spirit
its
is
concerned, there
;
is
no room
left
to
doubt
a
genuineness
complete
survey
of
significane of
It
is
Mahay an ism.
idle talk to question the histois
naught but an
active
in all
rical
now
full
of vitaltreat
it
ity
and
its
functions,
and to
like
of the
Mahay a-
nism
ity
is
great
ces are
organism its moral and 'religious forexercising an enormous power over mil-
lions of souls;
and
its
further development
is
sure to
be a very valuable contribution to the world-progress of the religious consciousness. What does it matter,
then,
whether or
not
Mahayanism
is
the genuine
teaching of the Buddha ? Here is an instance of most flagrant contradictions present in our minds, but of which we are not
conscious
on
account
of our
preconceived
ideas.
Christian critics vigorously insist on the genuineness of their own religion, which is no more than a
INTRODUCTION.
religion
as
through
It
is
various
stages
of
development
like theirs.
sical
of
of no practical use to trouble with this nonsenthe question of the genuineness question, Mahay anism, which by the way is frequently
raised
by outsiders as well
as
by some unenlightened
Buddhists themselves.
3.
MAHAYANA DOCTRINES.
Before
this
entering fully into the subject proper of work, let us glance over some erroneous opinions
the Mahayana doctrines, which are held by some Western scholars, and naturally by all uninitiated readers, who are like the blind led by the blind. It may not be altogether a superfluous work them a passing review in this chapter and to. give to show broadly what Mahayanism is not.
about
Why
Injustice is done to
Buddhism.
timents habitually
religious
The people who have had their thoughts and sentrained by one particular set of
dogmas,
frequently
are
misjudge
the value of
those
thoughts
that
call
them.
We
moral
may
this class
of people bigots or
fine religious
religious enthusiasts.
and
sentiments
;
own
religious
training goes
but,
a broader
point
of
view,
they
INTRODUCTION.
17
with
prejudices,
superstitions,
and
fanatical beliefs,
pumped
into their
receptive minds, before they were sufficiently developed and could form independent judgments. This
fact
so
perceive and appreciate whatever is disqualified good and true and beautiful in the so-called heathen
religions.
This
is
why
I
those Chris-
ing
the
spirit
of religion
generally
mean, those
missionaries
who come
by no means prompted by
any partisan spirit. My desire, on the contrary, is to do justice to those thoughts and sentiments that
have
working consciously or unconsciously in the human mind from time immemorial and shall
been
work on
sentiments
till
if
there
To
which,
tance
all
the prejudices
we
are liable
to
cherish,
quite
is
and
keeping
in the religious
we must not confound it with its which are doomed to die in the course
of time.
INTRODUCTION.
Examples of
Injustice.
As specimen of injustice done to the Mahayana Buddhism by Christian critics, we quote the following Wadpassages from Monier- William's Buddhism
,
dell's
Buddhism
all
in Tibet,
in China,
in its
own
field.
on Sanskrit
and
his
works
in this depart-
ment
he attempts to enter the domain of religious controversy, his intellect becomes pitiously obscured by his
preconceived ideas.
principal feature
He
the
amplifying the
of
consists merely in
are con-
"perpetual
residence
off
(P.
all
in
the
heavens,
desires
for
190.)
is
This remark
so absurd
that
it
will at
rejected by any one who has a first-hand knowledge of the Mahayana system, as even unworthy of refutation,
but
Monier-Williams
takes
special
pains to
a show of rational
he,
explanation.
"men
instinctively recoiled
from utter
INTRODUCTION.
lation,
in
it
chan-
and converting
into
(!),
from
lazy
non-existence
state
of
beatitude
in
celestial regions
whether monks or laymen to make a sense of dreamy bliss in Heaven (!), and not total aged
all
men
extinction
(P.
of
life,
the
end
of
all
their
efforts."
156.)
This view
of
the
by Monier- Williams is nothing but the conception of the Christian heaven colored with paganism. Nothing is more foreign to Buddhists than this distinguished
ence.
Sankritist's
interpretation
of celestial existis
The life of devas much subject to the law of men on earth. What
for the
(celestial beings)
just as
of birth
Mahayanists striving after the highest principle of existence, only to find themselves transmigrated to a celestial abode,
that
is
Always working
the
fellow-creatures,
Bodhisattvas
for
never
desire
selves.
themlaw of
Whatever
merits,
according
to
the
do not have any wish to enjoy them by themselves, they will have all these merits turned over
(parivarta) to the interests of their fellow-beings. This is the ideal of Bodhisattvas, i.e., of the followers
of Mahayanism.
2O
INTRODUCTION.
Beat.
is
the
his
Mahayana conception of Dharmakaya, says in Buddhism in China (p. 156): "We can have little
at
by Buddhists
presence
several
spots,
consecrated
invisible
by the
of the Teacher,
to an
presence.
This presence was formulated by the later Buddhists under the phrase, 'the Body of the Law', Dhar-
makaya."
Then,
alluding
to
Law
given by him
:
should
be regarded as himself, Beal proceeds to say "Here was the germ from which proceeded the idea or formula of an invisible presence teaching and power
:
of the
or
fit
Law (Dharma)
represented
the
Dharmakaya
Law-Body
for reverence."
To
is
interpret
Dharmakaya
nothing
as the
Body of
the
Law
To
the Hinaya-
nists,
there
is
beside
Body
1
of the
Law
The
idea
the
central
is
commonly rendered
in
and the right compreThe Body of the Law, English, is not exact and leads
The
point
INTRODUCTION.
is
21
distinctly
Mahay^nistic,
its
but
Beal
is
formed about
the Buddhists.
tation, as
I
real significance as
understood by
The
judge,
in his
rendering
dkarma by
all
"law",
while
itself
even when
the transient
short,
"being,"
or "substance."
things.
This notion plays such an important r61e in Mahayanism that an adequate knowledge of it is indispensable to understand the constitution of Mahayanism
as a religious system.
Waddell.
Let
us
state
author of
of
Buddhism
in Tibet,
referring
point divergence Northern Buddhism and the Southern, says (pp. 10 u): "It was the theistic Mahayana doctrine which
substituted,
for
the
morality
of
the
simple
with a mysticism
of sophistic nihilism in
ground."
MaMyana [meaning NagSirjuna's MadhyatnikajschooJ] was essentially a sophistic rnnltism, or rather Parinirvana, while ceasing to be exagain
:
And
"This
tinction of
life,
state
which
admitted of no definition."
22
It
INTRODUCTION.
may
not be wrong to
in a
call
Mahayanism a specu-
wide sense, but it must system be asked on what ground Waddell thinks that it has " in its background "a mysticism of sophistic nihilism
lative
theistic
Could a
religious
it
makes a
close inquiry
in order to
show how
to seek salvation
through the intellect alone? Could a religious system be called a nihilism when it endeavors to reach the
highest reality
which
transcends
existences
it
?
the phenomenality
of concrete
individual
Could a doctrine
the
be
called nihilistic
when
defines
absolute as
?
some more passages from other BudWest and show how far Mahayanism has been made by them a subject of misrepresentation. But since this work is not a polemic,
could cull
dhist scholars of the
but devoted to a positive exposition of its basic docSuffice it to state trines, I refrain from so doing.
that one of the
injustice
done
to
comes from
their
their
which
they
may
not be aware,
"impartial"
more
vitiate
judgments.
4.
me
and
to
say
INTRODUCTION.
23
of religion.
spirit
clear
knowledge of this distinction will greatly facilitate the formation of a correct notion about Mahayanism and
will
also
help
us duly to appreciate
its
significance
By
the
spirit
of
religion
mean
that element in
unchanged throughout its successive stages of development and transformation while the form of it is the external shell which is
religion
:
which
remains
by circumstances.
No Revealed
It
Religion.
religion, as
everything
as a
else
is
and
therefore,
there
is
no
such
thing
revealed religion, whose teachings are supposed to have been delivered to us direct from the hands of
an anthropomorphic or anthropopsychic supernatural being, and which- like an inorganic substance, remains
forever the same, without changing, without growing, without modifying itself in accord with the surrounding conditions. Unless people are so blinded by a belief
in
this
kind of religion as to
absolutely
dogmas
have suffered
its
no
"revelation," they
must recognise
every clear-
every religion,
distinguished
from
its
quintessence
When
this discrimination is
24
will
INTRODUCTION.
at
once assert
itself,
its
truths
in
religion
and superstitions is the only orthodox the world, and all the other religions are
like.
and the
religionists,
penetrate
heart and who longs to feel the fullest of should foster in himself in the least life, meaning a disposition of bigotry. degree
the
human
The Mystery.
Religion
that
is
the
under the yoke of a seemingly finite existence groans and travails in pain. Mankind, from their first
appearance on earth, have never been
the
finiteness
satisfied with
and impermanency of
life.
They have
always been yearning after something that will liberate them from the slavery of this mortal coil, or from
the
cursed
bondage
it.
of
.thinkers
express
of
its
account
transcending
the
principles
of
separation
and
phenomena of
this mundane existence, has always remained as something indefinite, inadequate, chaotic, and full of mystery. And, according to different
degrees
and
nations,
people
this
INTRODUCTION.
25
all
sorts of
human
feelings
and
intelligence.
Most of modern
scientists are
now
content
with the hypothesis that the mystery is unfathomable by the human mind, which is conditioned by the law of relativity, and that our business here,
intellectual,
moral as well as
troubling
ourselves
of mystery;
But
the
this
final
hypothesis can in no wise be considered sentence passed on the mystery. From the
point of view, the
scientific
maxim
of agnosticism
is
the
realm
presents
itself,
this
Intellect
and Imagination.
is
The human
heart
not
an
intellectual crystal.
in its full glory,
When
the
the
intellect
still
displays
itself
heart
aches
and
struggles
to get hold of
something
clare that
it
beyond. The
has at
intellect
may sometimes
is
de-
hand on what
demanded
by the heart. Time passes on, and the mystery is examined from the other points that escaped consideration
before,
and,
the
heart,
the
wanting.
The
intellect
baffled.
never gets
satisfaction
tired
of
its
yearnings
pressingly.
and demands a
Should they
?
ever
a
more
be
considered
Surely
26
not,
for
INTRODUCTION.
herein
lies
the
field
where
religion claims
supreme authority, and its claim is perfectly right. But religion cannot fabricate whatever it pleases; it must work in perfect accord with the intellect. As
the essential nature
in intellect,
of
man does
or
will,
of imagination. Most of the superstitions fondly cherished by a pious heart are due to the disregard of the intellectual element
self
against
the
unrestrained
flight
in
religion.
imagination creates the intellect discriminates. Creation without discrimination is wild discrimination
:
The
without
creation
is
barren
be
at
one-sided
The
soul
its
makes an abis
normal growth
finally
balance, and
given
up
Those pious
religious enthusiasts
who
it
see
a natural
all
enemy
in
science
and
denounce
with
their
energy, are, in
my
opinion, as purblind
and distorted
think that
of soul-
men
those
of
of science
the
who
I
science
activities
alone
as
must claim
well as
whole
field
of nature.
am
is
not in
just as
sympathy
arrogant in
with
its
either
them
of
for
one
examination
of both sides
we
it.
are
not
upon
discrimination
INTRODUCTION.
2?
monopoly of
plementary
other.
is
:
science.
They
do
comthe
one
cannot
anything
science
without
The
is
difference between
and
religion
certitude
and probability.
The
difference
vity.
Science
relative,
tional,
and
When
it
explains a given
phenomenon by some
nothing but
a
generalisation
is
i.
task of science
done,
e.,
go beyond
this,
to
make an
whence, whither, and why of things, is beyond its realm. But the human soul does not remain
satisfied here,
it
lying
all
so-called
laws
and
hypotheses.
:
Science
is
indifferent
to
the
teleology of things
its intellecis
But
in
it
religion
teleology
of para-
mount importance,
problems,
definite
is
system which does not give any conception on this point is no religion.
and a
Science, again,
does
not care
its
beyond
but
a
or
outside
religion
which does
it,
not
possess
God
or
it
anything corresponding to
fails
human
heart
The
fall
as far as they
is
experience,
large-
28
ly
INTRODUCTION.
a
matter
of
personal conviction,
determined by
faith
The conceptions of
infinitely
thus
formulated
are
naturally
diversified;
even among the followers of a certain definite set of dogmas, each will understand them in his own way,
owing to individual
their conceptions
peculiarities.
faith
If
we
could subject
analysis as a
of
to a strict
we
the possible forms of differentiation. But all these things belong to the exterior of religion and have
nothing to do with the essentials which underlie them. The abiding elements of religion come from within,
in
hidden
that,
in the
human
heart,
and
of personality
revolution,
about
a
great
spiritual
which
complete change of
this
one's world-conception.
When
mysterious sen-
timent finds expression and formulates its conceptions in the terms of intellect, it becomes a definite system
which is popularly called religion, but should which properly be termed dogmatism, that is, an intellectualised form of religion. On the other
of beliefs,
hand, the outward forms of religion consist of those changing elements that are mainly determined by the
intellectual
and
moral
development
of the times as
well as
by
enlightened Buddhists may, therefore, find their point of agreement in the recogChristians
True
and
INTRODUCTION.
nition
29
that consti-
this agreement does by no means prevent them from retaining their individuality in the conceptions and expressions of
faith.
My
conviction
their
is
If
the
Christ
changed
accidental
of
birth,
and Jesus
of
However
as
is
great a
man may
be
an echo of the
He
never stands,
supposed by some, so aloof and towering above the masses as to be practically by himself. On the
contrary, "he," as
Emerson
ideas
and necessities of
They were
nothing but the concrete representatives of the ideas and feelings that were struggling in those times against
the established institutions, which were degenerating fast and menaced the progress of humanity. But at
the
ideas
and
Soul,
outburst
Eternal
which
its
occasionally
will,
through
Believing
sition
that
a bit
as
above indulged
3O
INTRODUCTION.
Christian readers sincerely to
my
of a religious
system
as
it
now
proceed
to
Maha-
CHAPTER
I.
OUDDHISM
*^
ment
is
considered by some to be a religion without a God and without a soul. The stateis
true
we
Buddhism does not recognise the existence of a being, who stands aloof from his ''creations," and
who meddles
his capricious
occasionally with
human
affairs
when
will pleases him. This conception of a supreme being is very offensive to Buddhists They are unable to perceive any truth in the hypotheses,
universe out
peopled beings owing to a crime commited by them, which, however, could have been avoided if the cre;
of nothing and
that,
first
it
ator
so
desired,
they
;
were
eternal
feeling
damnation
pity
remorse for
only beloved
rescuing
If
son
the
earth
for
the purpose of
mankind from universal misery, etc., etc. Buddhism is called atheism on account of its
32
refusal
CHAPTER
to
I.
take
fact,
its
followers
we understand by
all
soul
atman,
which,
mental
activities, direct
them
an organist striking different notes as he pleases, Buddhists outspokenly deny the existence of such a fabulous being. To postulate an
after the fashion of
Skandhas
independent atman outside a combination of the five 1 of which an individual being is supposed
,
by Buddhists to
egoism
with
all
consist,
its
is
to unreservedly
welcome
and
pernicious corollaries.
And what
distinguishes
Buddhism
from
or
all
most
characteristically
is
emphatically
of
other religions
the doctrine
non-atman
of
postulate
most of
is
Buddhism
To make
let
these
points
clearer
in a
us
tenets of
Buddhism
etc.
as
Dharmakaya,
Some
common
sive
property
comprehen-
here
will furnish
general
notion
about
and
will also
exposition of the
1
follows.
They are:
(5)
and
form or materiality (rupa} (2) sensation deeds (samkard), consciousness (vijndna). These terms are explained
(i)
elsewhere.
CHAPTER
I.
33
Karma.
One
by Buddha
that
nothing
in
this
world
comes
from a single cause, that the existence of a universe is the result of a combination of several causes
(hetu)
and conditions
active
(pratyaya),
the future.
and
is
at
the
same time an
duction
of
an effect
As
far as
phe-
nomenal existences are concerned, this law of cause and effect holds universally valid. Nothing, even God,
can interfere with the course of things thus regulated,
materially
as well as morally. If a
God
really exists
and has some concern about our worldly affairs, he must first conform himself to the law of causation.
Because the principle of karma, which is the Buddhist term for causation morally conceived, holds supreme everywhere and all the time.
The conception
role in
ciple
Buddhist
ethics.
Karma
It
is
of the
universe.
The reason
why we cannot change our present state of things as we may will, is that it has already been determined
by the karma
not
that
was performed
in
our previous
lives, only individually but collectively. But, for this same reason, we shall be able to work out our
is
worked by ourselves
in this
life.
34
Therefore, says
CHAPTER
I.
Buddha
"By self alone is evil done, By self is one disgraced; By self is evil left undone, By self alone is he purified;
Purity and impurity belong to No one can purify another." 1
self:
Again,
"Not
in the
sky
Nor in the midst of the sea, Nor entering a cleft of the mountains,
Is
as an
conservation of energy. Everything done is done once for all; its footprints on the sand of our moral and
social evolution are forever left
;
nay,
evil,
more than
and waiting
left,
they
are
generative,
good or
under
for
further
development
favorable
conditions. In
the physical world, even the slightest possible movement of our limbs cannot but affect the general cosmic
motion of the earth, however infinitesimal it be; and if we had a proper instrument, we could surely
measure
with
with
its
precise
extent
of effect.
So
is
it
even
our deeds.
its
leaving
1
once performed, together subjective motives, can never vanish without some impressions either on the individual
v.
v.
deed
165. Tr.
127.
by A.
J.
Edmunds.
CHAPTER
consciousness
consciousness.
or on
I.
35
i.
the supra-individual,
e.,
social
We
karma
In
general aspect
scientifically verified
our
moral
and material
life,
relativity rules
karma must
be considered thoroughly valid. And as long as its validity is admitted in this field, we can live our
phenomenal
a
life
personal
God,
significant
work
do
on
evolution
was presented to
if
Emperor Napoleon.
But
nate
it
it
will
injustice
to
Buddhism
we
desig-
agnosticism or naturalism, denying or ignoring the existence of the ultimate, unifying principle, in which all contradictions are obliterated. Dharmakaya
the
given by Buddhists to this highest principle, viewed not only from the philosophical but also
is
name
In
the
Dharmakaya,
Buddhists find the ultimate significance of life, which, when seen from its phenomenal aspect, cannot escape
the bondage of
karma and
its
irrefragable laws.
Avidyd.
is the problem of most of the essential features is one which nescience, of Buddhism. Buddhists think, nescience (in Sans-
What
avidya) is the subjective aspect of karma, involvRebirth, considered ing us in a series of rebirths. by itself, is no moral evil, but rather a necessary
krit
36
CHAPTER
I.
if
perfection
ever be attainable
is
here.
It
is
an
evil
only
when
it
the
outcome of ignorance,
ignorance as to the
true
Ignorant are they who do not recognise the evanescence of wordly things and who tenaciously cleave
to
them
as
final
realities
who madly
self
;
struggle
to
;
brought
to
folly
will
who
savagely
cling
the
the
of
who take particulars God, as Christians would say as final existences and ignore one pervading reality which underlies them all who build up an adaman;
tine wall
in a
word,
that there
all
no such thing
as
indiv-
idual existences
are
makaya.
Buddhism,
therefore,
most
emphatically
we must
of
all
evil
and suffering
in
in this
life.
The
is
technically
expressed following formula, which is commonly called the Twelve Nidanas or Pratyayasamutthe
pada, that
(
i
is
to say Chains of
is
Dependence:
;
(2)
Ignorance (avidya) in the beginning from Ignorance Action (sanskara) comes forth
)
There
comes forth (3) from Action Consciousness (vijndna) (4) from Consciousness Name-and-Form (namarupa) comes forth; (5) from Name-and-Form the Six Organs
;
(6)
from
the
Six Organs
CHAPTER
I.
37
Touch
(sparga)
comes
forth
forth;
;
(7)
tion (vedana)
comes
;
forth
(9)
(8)
from Desire Clinging (upacomes from forth; (10) dana] Clinging Being (bhdva) comes forth; (11) from Being Birth (jati) comes forth; and (12) from Birth Pain (duhkhd) comes
(trsna)
forth.
comes
According to
formula
previous
is
explained as follows
life
we
our desires and act wantonly. Owing to this karma, we are destined in the present life to be endowed with consciousness (yijndna), name-andlet
loose
form (namarupd), the six organs of sense (sadayatand), and sensation (vedana). By the exercise of
these faculties,
to,
we now
In
which
have no ultimate
of this
reality
whatever.
Live"
we
that
"Will to
the
make up
karma
lead
us to further metempsychosis
The formula
exhaustive,
is
by no means
fundamental
logical,
nor
that
is
it
but
the
notion
life
Non-Atman.
The problem
doctrine usually
of nescience
naturally
leads to the
i.
known
as that of
non-Atman,
e.,
was made
at the beginning
38
of this chapter.
of the subjects
CHAPTER
This
that
I.
doctrine
of
Buddhism
There
is
one
have caused
Its thesis
much
:
criticism
is
Christian scholars.
runs
by no such
thing
as
ego-soul,
is
which,
the
interpretation,
And
this is the
reason
why Buddhism
is
sometimes
is
perhaps
who,
having
no speculative
power, blindly accept the traditional, materialistic view of the soul. They think, they are very spiritual in endorsing the dualism of soul and flesh, and in
making the soul something like a corporeal entity, though far more ethereal than an ordinary object of
the senses.
in the
They
of
think
form
an
release
from
They
its
imprisonment
tions.
the
body, groans in pain for its to bear its mundane limitaof the soul
is
The immortality
a continuation
after the
much resem-
bling
the
Samkhyan Lingham
Self-consciousness
will not a whit ksama-fartra. suffer in its continued activity, as it is the essential function of the soul. Brothers and sisters, parents
and sons and daughters, wives aud husbands, all transfigured and sublimated, will meet again in the
CHAPTER
celestial
I.
39
home
after the
manner of
its immortality must disappointment or even resentment, when they are asked to recognise the Buddhist theory of non-atman.
and
The
absurdity
of
ascribing
due
corres-
ponding to
it.
The
soul,
what
the
is
tantamount
is
notion,
ego,
name
coordination
of mental activities.
Abstract names are invented by us to economise our intellectual labors, and of course have no corresponding realities
as
particular presences
in the
concrete
objective
history
world.
of
the
imagine that all names, irrespective of their nature, must have their concrete Their individual equivalents in the sensual world.
they
realists
those
idealism
or spiritualism, so called,
is
in fact a gross
form of materialism,
of ignorance!
in spite of their
unfounded
;
fear
curse
that there
is
Buddhism
calls
this
system of coordination
is
Vijnana
consciousness, while
4O
atman
is
CHAPTER
the
I.
a hypostatic agent which, abiding in the deepest recess of the mind, directs
to
its
own
discretion.
This view
is
radically rejected
by Buddhism.
atrnan
the notion
Wheel
the
name given
form of the spokes, axle, tire, hub, rim, is that given to a combination of roofs,
dows,
floors,
house
win-
pillars,
walls,
etc.,
after a certain
model and
these
parts
for a certain
purpose.
Now,
is
take
all
independently, and
to
where
be found?
a
House
certain
or wheel
designating
form
in
What an absurdtematically and definitely disposed. on the independent it must be to insist ity, then, existence of the wheel or of the house as an agent
behind the combination of certain parts thus
ly
!
definite-
It
outcome of modern psychological researches at the time when all other religious and philosophical systems were eagerly
concerning
the
cherishing dogmatic superstitions nature of the ego. The refusal of
to have soul
all
modern psychology
a
It
rehearsal
of
a unity of consciousness,
CHAPTER
for to
41
deny
this is to
but
it
refuses
to
absolute,
unconditioned,
and
independent.
is
phenomenal
phase of existence,
and conditions (pratyaya) brought together according to the principle of karma; and everything that is compound is finite and subject to
certain causes (hetu)
dissolution, and, therefore, always limited
else.
by something
Even the
is
soul-life,
as far as
its
phenomenality
goes,
no exception to
To
maintain
the
to
is
lie
is supposed hidden behind the phenomena of consciousness, not only misleading, but harmful and productive
of
conclusions.
The
is
supposition
that there
really nothing,
makes us
result
no other
than
of sufferings. So
we read
in the
Lankavatara Sutra,
horns,
III
"A flower in the air, or a hare with Or a pregnant maid of stone: To take what is not for what is, Tis called a judgment false.
"In a combination of causes, The vulgar seek the reality of
self.
not,
From
further
than
Hina-
yamsm
atman,
in the
for
it
42
of the
existence
of
CHAPTER
the
i.
I.
conception of things,
lars as
e.,
Hinaya-
nism, indeed, also disfavors this conception of thinginess, but it does so only implicitly. It is Mahayanism
that definitely insists
(dharma) ego. According to the vulgar view, particular existences are real, they have permanent substantial entities,
remaining
forever
as
such.
They
think,
therefore,
remains
matter
much
as
inorganic
are
remains inorganic
that,
as they
essentially
different, there is
no mutual
soul
is
transformation
different
between them.
The human
beings from non-sentient beings the difference being well-defined and permanent, there is no bridge over
We
may
call this
Mahayanism, against
world, extends
its
this egoistic
conception of the
\ lying outside
ducible
us.
maintains
that there
is
no
irre-
reality
in
particular
existences,
so long as
and condi-
brought
as
together
by
is
the
principle of karma.
Things As soon
that
by karma.
and
force
made
dissolve,
and
their places
will
ditions
and existences.
Therefore,
what
is
organic
CHAPTER
to-day,
I.
43
may be
which is stored within the earth Carbon, appears in the form of coal or graphite or diamond but that which exists on its surface is found somefor instance,
;
an animal or a vegetable, sometimes in its free elementary state. It is the same carbon everywhere
;
organic,
in itself
according
to
its
which directs
will.
its
transformation
by
is
its
own self-determining
Mutual
is
transformation
everywhere
observable;
there
constant shifting of forces, an eternal transmigration of the elements, all of which tend to show the
transitoriness
istences.
The
in
it
moving
like a whirl-wind,
nothing
proving to be stationary,
its
nothing in
it
rigidly adhering to
own form
of existence.
Suppose, on the other hand, there were an atman behind every particular being; suppose, too, it were absolute and permanent and self-acting and this
;
phenomenal world would then come to a standstill, and life be forever gone. For is not changeability
the most essential feature
also the strongest evidence
and condition of
life,
and
The
it
physical
sciences
mutual transformation
the law of the con-
and
call
servation
of energy
and
of
matter.
Mahay anism,
recognising its negative side, proposes the doctrine of the non-atman-ness of things, that is to say, the
44
CHAPTER
I.
impermanency of all particular existences. Therefore, it is said, "Sarvam anityam, sarvam gunyam, sarvam
\
anatman"
out ego.)
(All
is
transitory,
all
is
void,
all is
with-
Mahayanists condemn the vulgar view that denies the consubstantiality and reciprocal transformation of
all
it
is
scientifically
unten-
able,
but
mainly
it
because,
ethically
and religiously
considered, fraught with extremely dangerous ideas which finally may lead a "brother to ideas,
is
deliver
child,"
rise
up
the
and, again,
may
up against
to
their parents
put
death."
Why?
Because
view,
born of
would dry up the well of human love and sympathy, and transform us into creatures of bestial
egoism,
selfishness
;
because
sense
this
view
is
of mutuality and commiseration and of making us disinterestedly feel for our fellowbeings. Then, all fine religious and humane sentiments
us
with
the
hearts,
than
rigid,
lifeless
blood
every
running.
day on this altar of egoism They are not necessarily immoral by nature, but blindly led by the false conception of life and the world, they have been
rendered incapable of seeing their in their neighbors. Being ever
sensual
nature,
own
spiritual
doubles
their
controlled
by
impulses,
they
sin against
humanity, against
CHAPTER
I.
45
We
read
in
the
:
Mahayana-abhisamaya Sutra
(Nanjo, no.
196)
of ego
the nature of
all
exists.
"Nor end nor beginning having Nor any middle course, All is a sham, here's no reality whatever: It is like unto a vision and a dream.
"It is like
It is like
It is
unto clouds and lightning, unto gossamer or bubbles floating like unto fiery revolving wheel,
It is like
unto water-splashing.
"Because of causes and conditions things are here: them there's no self-nature [i. e., atman] All things that move and work,
In
:
Know them
as such.
"Ignorance and thirsty desire, The source of birth and death they are: Right contemplation and discipline by heart, Desire and ignorance obliterate.
"All beings in the world,
Beyond words they are and expressions: Their ultimate nature, pure and true, Is like unto vacuity of space." l
The Dharmakaya.
literally
means "body or
of
being,"
is,
This last passage should not be understood in the sense of a total abnegation of existence. It means simply the transcendentality of the highest principle.
46
CHAPTER
I.
all
particular phe-
nomena;
individuals
it
is
that
;
which
it
possible
it
is
raison
d'etre of the
universe; the
is
the
norm of
course
of
The conception
for the
of Dharmakaya
peculiarly
Mahayanistic,
far as to formulate
its
adherents
stopped short at a positivistic interpretation of Buddhism. The Dharmakaya remained for them to be the
Body
of
the
as
taught by him. The Dharmakaya may be compared in one sense to the God of Christianity and in another sense to
in the truth
embodied
the
It
is
different, however, from the former in that it does not stand transcendentally above the universe, which,
according to the Christian view, was created by God, but which is, according to Mahayanism, a manifesta-
tion of the
himself.
is
It
is
also different
The Dharmakaya, on
the
use
phraseology, it is Karuna (love) and Bodhi (intelligence), and not the mere state of being.
Buddhist
This pantheistic
and
at
in
the
same time
entheistic
Dharmakaya
sentient
is
working
beings are
of the
Dharmakaya.
are
not
isolated
existences, as imagined
by most people.
If isolated,
CHAPTER
they
are
I.
47
nothing,
which vanish
one
many
in
soap-bubbles
vacuity of
the
meaning
only
when they
are
thought
veil
of in their oneness in
i.
the Dharmakaya.
The
of Maya,
e.,
subjective
ignorance
perceiving
may
which we are
which
in the
is
one. But
or intellect,
a reflection of the
is
Dharmakaya
so
fully
enlightened,
we no
more
teum
spiritual
is
meum and
obliterated,
entanglement over us
in
me
tat
tvam
asi.
Or,
What
is
Who
From
This
spiritual
'
state
of enlightenment of the
ego,
may be
or,
called
the the
expansion
negatively,
ego.
A
is
never-drying stream
the
of sympathy
will
and love
which
flow
now spontaneously
out
head of Dharmakaya.
The
no
doctrine of non-ego
is
t-
reality in individual
existences,
we do not
48
CHAPTER
doctrine
of
I.
The
Being
teaches
us that
we
as
supplement
in
this,
and
us
only
the
the
shows
folly
individual exist-
ences and of coveting the immortality of the egosoul; the other convinces us of the truth that we
are saved
by
living
into
the
unity
of Dharmakaya. us
The
doctrine
of non-atrnan
;
liberates
from the
shackle of unfounded egoism but as mere liberation does not mean anything positive and may perchance
lead
us
to
asceticism,
we apply
the
energy
thus
The
questions
"Why
bors as ourselves?
Why
things whatsoever we would that they should do to us?" are answered thus by Buddhists: "It is because
we
are
all
one
in the
clouds of ignorance and egoism are totally dispersed, the light of universal love and intelligence cannot
help
but
shine in
all
its
glory.
And, enveloped
in
this glory,
we do
not. see
we
the Dharmakaya.
There
is
'my
will' here,
but
we
and move and have our being." The Apostle Paul says "For as
:
in
Adam
alive."
all
die,
?
even
so
in
Christ
shall all
be made
Why
Buddhists
his
Adam
asserted
egoism
giving
is
himself
in truth
up
to ignorance, (the
tree of
knowledge
CHAPTER
for
I.
49
thee)
;
from
it
while
Christ on the contrary surrendered his egoistic assertion to the intelligence of the universal
Dharmakaya.
are
That
is
why we
die
in
the
former and
made
Nirvana.
been variously interpreted by non-Buddhist students from the philological and the historical standpoint but it matters little
of Nirvana has
;
The meaning
what conclusions they have reached, as we are not nor do they at all going to recapitulate them here
;
our presentation of the Buddhists' own view as below. For it is the latter that concerns us here most
affect
and constitutes the all-important part of the problem We have had too much of non-Buddhist speculation
on the question
while claiming
at issue.
The majority
and
of the
critics,
to
be
fair
impartial,
have,
by
some preconceived
which
is
ideas,
not at
all
escaped
chiefly
mation on the
of the
represents
many
and
is,
time of King Agoka. The probability Buddha himself did not have any stereotyped conception of Nirvana, and, as most great minds do,
after the
that
expressed his ideas outright as formed under various circumstances though of course they could not be
;
5O
in contradiction
CHAPTER
I.
beliefs,
which must
have remained the same throughout the course of his religious life. Therefore, to understand a problem in
all
its
apparently
contradictory
aspects,
it
is
very
necessary to grasp at the start the spirit of the author of the problem, and when this is done the rest will be understood comparatively much easier.
Non-Buddhist
ification
;
therefore,
is
no wonder
Buddhists
themselves
are
always
reluctant
to accede to their
interpretations.
for apology. Nirvana, according to Budannihilation of consciousdoes not an dhists, signify ness nor a temporal or permanent suppression of
Enough
mentation
1
',
as
imagined
by some; but
it
is
the
Guyau, a French sociologist, refers to the Buddhist conI take ception of Nirvana in his Non-Religion of the Future his interpretation as typical of those non-Buddhist critics
to
who are very little acquainted with the subject but pretend know much. (English translation, pp 472 474.)
"Granted the wretchedness of
mists
life,
the
remedy
that pessi-
propose
is
the
new
religious
.
.
salvation that
desire, and to practise a sort of complete psychial circumcision; to recoil upon yourself and to believe that by so doing you enter
to prune away all the young offshoots of recognise that to be rid of them is a deliverance ;
into the society of the great totality of would say, of God); to create an inner
things
(the
mystic
feel
vacuum, and to
dizzy in the void and, nevertheless, to believe that the void is plenitude supreme, pleroma, these have always constituted
Mankind has been tempted to temptations to mankind. meddle with them, as it has been tempted to creep up to
annihilation
all
of the notion of ego-substance and of the desires that arise from this erroneous concep-
tion.
But
this
represents
its
the
doctrine,
and
positive
love or
sympathy (karund) for all beings. These two aspects of Nirvana, i. e., negatively,
positively,
the
of sympathy, are complementary to each when we have one we have the other. and other; Because, as soon as the heart is freed from the
cangue of egoism, the same heart, hitherto so cold and hard, undergoes a complete change, shows animation, and, joyously escaping from self -imprisonment,
finds its
this
freedom
sense,
in
the
bosom of Dharmakaya.
is
In
latter
Nirvana
is
the "humanisation" of
Dharmakaya,
earth as
it
that
is
to
say,
"God's
If
will
done
in
in
heaven."
we make use of
the
the verge of dizzy precipices and look over . . . Nirvana leads, in fact, to the annihilation of the individual and of the race, and to the logical absurdity that the vanquished are the victors over the trials
and miseries of life author recites the case of one of his acquaintances, who made a practical experiment of Nirvana, rejecting variety in his diet, giving up meat, wine, every kind of ragout, every form of condiment, and reducing to its lowest possible terms the desire that is most fundamental in every living being the desire of food, and substituting a certain number of cups of pure milk. "Having thus blunted his sense of
Then, the
taste
"
and the grosser of his appetites, having abandoned all physical activity, he thought to find a recompense in the pleasure of abstract meditation and of esthetic contemplation. He entered to a state which was not that of dreamland, but neither was it that of real life, with its definite details."
$2
CHAPTER
I.
is
the former,
and the Dharmakaya is the latter, phase of one and the same principle. Again, psychologically, Nirvana
is
The
may
and
gospel of love and the doctrine of Nirvana appear to some to contradict each other, for
former
is
while
the latter
is
ascetic quietism.
tional
love
is
the emo-
aspect
intellectual aspect
of
which constitutes
That Nirvana
is
is
plainly
shown
in this stanza
To
When
the giver merit is increased; the senses are controlled anger arises not. wise forsake evil,
destruction of desire, sin, and infatuation, attains to Nirvana.'"
The
following which
was breathed
forth
by Buddha when
Nirvana
is
understood in
"Fearing an endless chain of birth and death, And the misery of transmigration, Their heart is filled with worry, Bnt they desire their safety only.
1
this
118.
Strong
CHAPTER
I.
53
They contemplate on
Thinking how impure
is!
And
seek:
Incapable of love and sympathy are they, For on Nirvana abides their thought." *
Against
this
ascetic
practise of
Buddha
sets forth
life
:
what might be
the Buddhist
"Arouse thy
will,
supreme and
great,
;
Practise love and sympathy, give joy and protection Thy love like unto space,
Be
it
Merits establish, not for thy But for charity universal Save and deliver all beings,
;
own
sake,
apparent that the ethical application of the doctrine of Nirvana is naught else than the Golden
It
is
1
This
sists in
a peculiarly Indian religious practice, which concounting one's exhaling and inhaling breaths. When a
is
man is intensely bent on the practise, he gradually passes to a state of trance, forgetting everything that is going on around and within himself. The practise may have the merit of alleviating
nervousness and giving to the mind the bliss of relaxation, but it oftentimes leads the mind to a self-hypnotic state. 2 Here Nirvana is evidently understood to mean self-abnegation or world-flight or quietism, which is not in accord with
the true Buddhist interpretation of the term.
54
Rule,
1
CHAPTER
so called.
I.
ascribed to a cer-
does
not
satisfy
an
anything on mere authority, for it wants to go to the bottom of things and see on what ground they
are standing.
finding
this
problem by
oneness of things in Dharmakaya, from which flows the eternal stream of love and symAs we have seen before, when the cursed pathy. barrier of egoism is broken down, there remains
the
us
renness of heart after the annihilation of egoism, are much mistaken in their estimation of human nature.
its
forms of activity
our
life
are propelled
to preserve self
and the
race.
They,
that
that
1
therefore,
naturally
all
teaches that
there
is
the Golden Rule is not the monopoly of has been expressed by most of the leaders of thought, thus, for instance ''Requite hatred with virtue" "Do (Lao-tze). "Hate is only appeased by love" (Buddha). not do to others what ye would not have done to you by others" (Confucius). "One must neither return evil, nor do
Christianity
;
The sentiment of
it
an*
evil to
if
one has to
suffer
from them"
CHAPTER
immortality
the truth
idea of
is,
I.
55
people. But
is
so
the
self,
but in
spring of love does not lie in the its removal. For the human heart,
being a reflection of the Dharmakaya which is love and intelligence, recovers its intrinsic power and good-
when the veil of ignorance and egoism is The animation, energy, strenuousness, which were shown by a self-centered will, and which
ness, only
cast
aside.
egoism had enveloped them. But they will an ever nobler interpretation, ever more elevating gain and satisfying significance; for they have gone through a baptism of fire, by which the last trace of egoism
which
has been thoroughly consumed The old evil master servants are still is eternally buried, but the willing
to
do
their service,
now more
for their
new
ritative lord.
Destruction
is
in
common
parlance
closely associ-
ated with nothingness, hence Nirvana, the destruction of egoism, is ordinarily understood as a synonym of
But the removal of darkness does not bring desolation, but means enlightenment and order and
nihilism.
peace.
left
It
is
the
it
same chamber,
before.
in
all
the furniture
is
there as
was
goblins
in its
walked wild;
56
CHAPTER
I.
The
Intellectual
Tendency of Buddhism.
I
One
to,
is
wish to refer
and impassive. By
mean
its
intellectuality.
The
savors of philosophy.
In ancient India
resources
and speculative exercises. Being rich in natural and thus the struggle for existence being
reduced to a minimum, the Brahmans and the Ksatriyas gathered themselves under most luxuriously growing
trees, or retired to the
mountain-grottoes undisturbed the world, and there they by hurly-burly devoted all their leisure hours to metaphysical specuthe
of
and discussions. Buddhism, as a product of these people, is naturally deeply imbued with intellations
lectualism.
was
at
the
and philosophy. Every philosophical system same time a religion, and vice versa.
with the Hindus was not an idle display
Philosophy
of logical subtlety which generally ends in entangling itself in the meshes of sophistry. Their aim of philos-
ophising
was to have an
significance of existence
They
did
anything on mere
istically
Buddha most
character'
my
echoes this sentiment when he says, 'Follow teachings not as taught by a Buddha, but as
CHAPTER
I.
57
spirit of self-reliance
and
self-
salvation later
became
still
singularly Buddhistic.
merely an enthusiastic
he
of this
the
spirit,
for
most emphatically
following
the
pathetic
famous passage,
to
whether there
for
not
be settled
me by
by
tranquilisation,
will
It
grasp myself whatever is ascertainable about is not mine to receive a view which is full of
uncertainties,
conflicts,
and
contradictions.
other's
faith?
enlightened
*
men would go by
What The
say simply, "Love your enemy," was not satisfactory to the Hindu mind, it wanted to see the reason
To
why.
people were convinced intellectually, they went even so far as to defend the faith with their lives. It was not an uncommon event
as
And
soon as
the
that
into
before
a
party
discussion they
made an agreement
that the
penalty of defeats should be the sacrifice of the life. They were, above all, a people of intellect, though
of course not lacking in religious sentiment. It is no wonder, then, that Buddha did not
the
1
make
first
The Buddhacarita,
Book
IX, 63-64.
58
CHAPTER
1.
the kingdom of heaven is at hand," but by the establishment of the Four Noble Truths. 1 One appeals
to
the
feeling,
intellect.
That
intellect naturally
is,
seems to be
passionate,
always
ready to yield
itself to
The
doctrine of Nirvana
first
is
recog-
human
life
as
its
proved by
it
then finds
cause in our
and
in
our
spiritual
make
then
us
tenaciously cling to
the
evil,
things
chimerical
it
proposes
all
is
complete
by which,
and,
of
heart
restored,
objectively, the
possible.
becomes
Buddhism, thus, proceeds most logically in the development of its doctrine of Nirvana and universal love.
Says Victor
reduction
Hugo (Les
Miserables^ vol.
II):
"The
love."
When
man
1 According to one Northern Buddhist tradition, Buddha is recorded to have exclaimed at the time of his supreme spiritual beatitude "Wonderful All sentient beings are univerwith the intelligence and virtue of the sally endowed
: !
Tathagata!"
CHAPTER
I.
59
the
expand his being to God. When he shuts himself in narrow shell of ego and keeps all the world outside, he cannot reduce the universe to his innermost
self.
To
love, therefore,
is
one must
first
enter Nirvana.
The
truth
through
the
disposition
some
are
others to
sentimentality (in
its
psychological sense).
Let us then follow our own inclination conscientiously and not speak evil of ombse.- Tto^U called the
Doctrine of Middle Path.
^s
CHAPTER
II.
HISTORICAL CHARACTERISATION OF
MAHAYANISM
"\ It
7E
are
now
in a position to
exposition of the
Mahayana
to consider the doing so, it views that were held by the Hindu Buddhist thinkers
concerning its characteristic features in other words, to make an historical survey of its peculiarities.
;
As
Mahayana
was invented
when
dhisattva
classes
reached a climax.
desiring to
doctrine,
The
progressive
essential
Hindu Buddhists,
features
announce the
did so
of their
naturally at the
expense of their rival and by pointing out why theirs was greater than, or superior to, Hinayanism. Their views were thus necessarily vitiated by a partisan
spirit,
critically
enume-
rating
of Mahayanism,
they placed rather too much stress upon those points that do not in these latter days appear to be very essential, but that were then considered by them to
be
of paramount
importance.
These
points, never-
CHAPTER
theless,
II.
61
throw some
light
Buddhism as
guineous
rival
historically
and fellow-doctrine.
Sthiramati
states
in
his
Indroduction
is
to
Mahayanism
from the
that
Mahayanism
Bodhisattvas,
who
are
viz,
to be distinguished
buddhas.
consists
The
in
essential
belief
of
the
doctrine
the
objects
of the
senses
are merely
that
the
indestructible
vading constitutes the norm of existence,, that all Bodhisattvas 2 are incarnations of the Dharmakaya, who
not by their
by
1
their
karma previously accumulated, but boundless love for all mankind, assume
evil
is
his works, of
not known, but judging from the contents of which we have at present two or three among the Chinese Tripitaka, it seems that he lived later than
His date
to,
book occupies a very important position in the development of Mahayanism in India. Next to Agvaghosa's Awakening of Faith, the work must be carefully studied by scholars who want to grasp every phase of the history of
Mahayana school
1
as
far
as
it
Chinese documents.
Be
it
not a particu-
larly favored
We
the
man in the sense of chosen people or elect. are all in a way Bodhisattvas, that is, when we recognise truth that we are equally in possession of the Samyak-
sambodhi, Highest True Intelligence, and through which everybody without exception can attain final enlightenment.
62
CHAPTER
II.
corporeal existences, and that persons who thus appear in the flesh, as avatars of the Buddha supreme,
associate
social
all
possible
relations,
them
to a state of enlightenment.
this
is
While
very
a
Mahayana
doctrine,
its
enumeration of
made
l
in the
Miscel-
lanea
on
3
Mahayana
Metaphysics,
2
The Spiritual
Stages of
Doctrine,
4
the Yogdcara,
An
nism,
A Comprehensive Treatise on Mahay aand others. Let us first explain the "Seven
in the first three
little
later
than
at the
Madhya-
mika
Mahayanism
as distinguished from Hinayanism, are as follows: (i) Its Comprehensiveness. Mah^nism does not
confine itself to the teachings of one
1
Buddha alone;
Asanga. Nanjo,
Mahayana-abhidharma-sangiti-fastra,
1199.
by
No.
*
Yogacarya-bhumi-f&stra, Nanjo, No. u7o. The work is supposed to have been dictated to Asanga by a mythical Bodhisattva.
8
By Asanga. Nanjo,
1177.
CHAPTER
II.
63
is
assimilate
it
in its
own
system.
*
are
taught by taken up in the coherent body of Mahayanism. Universal love for All Sentient Beings. Hinaya(2) nism confines itself to the salvation of individuals
all
laws
Buddhas
of
all
only
it
its
bliss universally, as
each
own
aims
deliverance.
at
Mahayanism,
salvation;
it
on
the
other
hand,
general
All
the
motives,
efforts,
Bodhisattvas
welfare.
(3)
pivot
on the
furtherance of universal
Its
Greatness
in
Intellectual
Comprehension.
regard
to
things in general. While it denies the hypothesis of a metaphysical agent directing our mental operations, it also rejects the .view that insists on the noumenal
or
thingish
reality
of
our senses.
(4) Its
spiritual
Perceiving an incarnation of the Dharmakaya in every leader regardless of his nationality and professed
creed, Mahayanists recognise a Buddha in Socrates, Mohammed, Jesus, Francis of Assisi, Confucius, Laotze, and many
others.
64
CHAPTER
II.
accomplish
this
momentous
object.
To
try
to
attain
and to be
to
period without paying any attention the welfare of the masses, is not the teaching of
enlightenment
self-sufficient
Mahayanism.
(5)
Its
Greatness
in
the
literally
Exercise of the
sympathetic
command
in
order
each
according to his disposition and environment. Mahayanism does not ask its followers to escape the metempsychosis of birth and death for the sake of
entering
for
in
into
the
lethargic
tranquillity of Nirvana;
metempsychosis
its
in itself is
no
evil,
and Nirvana
coma
is
And
as
rest
in
unselfish
heart,
all his
so
until
he leads
of Buddhahood.
rable
To
disinterested
lovingkindness.
(6) Its
In
Hinayanism
the
highest
attainable
does
Arhatship which
of
its
ascetic saintliness.
not
Mahayanism
spiritual
attain
(7)
Its
When
the
Bodhisattva
CHAPTER
II.
65
reaches the stage of Buddhahood, he is able to manifest himself everywhere in the ten quarters of the universe *
spiritual
needs of
all
sentient
These
the
seven
peculiarities
are
enumerated
to be
reasons
why
gressive Buddhists
to be called
vehicle,
in
Mahayanism, or the
to
vehicle. In each
doctrine
of
great
contradistinction
between
other
doctrines
which existed
at his time.
The
tures of
following
Mahayanism
from
sive Treatise on
Mahayanism,
the
made from
a diffefor
rent
standpoint
believed
the
existence
who, not hampered by the limitations of space and time, can manifest themselves everywhere for the benefit of all sentient beings. We notice some mysterious figures in almost all Mahayana sutras, who are very often described as shedding innumerable
rays of light from the forehead and illuminating all the three thousand worlds simultaneously. This may merely be a poetic exaggeration. But this Sambhogakaya or Body of Bliss (see
p. 101)
is
very
difficult for
comprehend
as
it
is
literally
described.
For a
5
fuller
66
and Vasubandhu
school
CHAPTER
rather
II.
than
that
of
Mahayanism
of Nagarjuna
constitute
Hindu Mahayanism. 4 The points enumerated by Asanga and Vasubandhu as most essential in their system are ten.
(i) It teaches
in
an immanent existence of
all
things
was suggested by Buddha in the so-called Hinayana sutras but on account of its deep meaning and of
;
the liability of
its
conception,
in
he
did
being confounded with the ego-soul not disclose its full significance
their
sutras;
sutras.
but
made
it
known only
in
the
Mahayana
According to the Yogacara school, the Alaya is not an universal, but an individual mind or soul,
whatever we
all
may term
in
it,
in
things
exist
their
ideality.
The
objective
world
1
in reality
does not
Though I am very much tempted to digress and to enter into a specific treatment concerning these two Hindu Mahayana doctrines, I reluctantly refrain from so doing, as it
requires a somewhat lengthy treatment and does not entirely fall within the scope of the present work. 2 That Agvaghosa's conception of the Alaya varies with the
view here presented may be familiar to readers of his Awakening of Faith. This is one of the most abstruse problems in the philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism, and there are
several
divergent
theories
concerning
like this,
it
its is
nature, attributes,
activities, etc.
In a
work
impossible to give
CHAPTER
jective illusion that
ject
all is
II.
67
these
outside world, and imagine that they are there really as they are while the Manovijnana (ego-consciousness)
;
which
too a product of illusion, tenaciously clinto the ging Alayavijfiana as the real self, never abanis
dons
ferent
its
egoism.
The
Alayavijnana, however,
for,
*
is
indif-
to,
and irresponsible
all
these errors on
The Yogacara
I.
of
knowledge:
or
Illusion (parikalpita),
Discrimi3.
native
Relative
Perfect
The known
a
Knowledge (parinispanna). distinction may best be illustrated by the wellanalogy of a rope and a snake. Deceived by
in
similarity
appearance,
men
frequently take a
may be
development
in India.
The Alayavijnana, to use the phraseology of Samkhya philosophy, is a composition, so to speak, of the Soul (purusa) and Primordial Matter (prakrti). It is the Soul, so far as it
all those phenomenal manifestaas well as without us. It is within on going Primordial Matter, inasmuch as it is the reservoir of everything, whose lid being lifted by the hands of Ignorance, there instantly springs up this universe of limitation and relativity.
is
neutral
and
indifferent to
Enlightenment or Nirvana, therefore, consists in recognising the error of Ignorance and not in clinging to the products of imagination.
1
For a more detailed explanation of the ideal philosophy my article on the subject in Le Muse'on,
68
are terribly shocked
CHAPTER
II.
approach and carefully examine it, they become at once convinced of the groundlessness of this apprehenwhich was the natural sequence of illusion. This considered to correspond to what Kant calls be may Schein
sion,
.
Most
their
people,
however,
in
inquiry.
They
empirical
come
in
When
for
they
a snake was really nothing thing they but a yard of innocent rope, they think their knowl-
mistook
is
philosophical
whether
the
rope
which to them
just
what
it
any
They do
stop
moment
knowledge
merely
relative,
for
phenomenal significance of the things they perceive. But is an object in reality such as it appears to
be to our senses? Are particular phenomena as such
really
actual?
What
into
is
When we make
as
these, the
an
investigation
such
problems
we
and
has
independent of the perceiving subject. They are the "ejection" of our ideas into the outside world, which
are
centred
and conserved
in
which are
awakened
into
activity
by
subjective
CHAPTER
II.
69
ignorance. This clear insight into the nature of things, i.e., into their non-realness as atman, constitutes perfect
knowledge.
(3)
When we
the
we
no
an
recognise
ideality
is
really
But
even
supposedly
a
real
existence
of the
Alayavijnana
forth
by the ignorant Manovijnana. The Manovijnana, or empirical ego, as it might be called, having no
adequate
Alaya, takes the latter for a metaphysical agent, that like the master of a puppet-show manages all mental
operations according to
its
imprisons
itself
in
by
itself,
the
illusory
(4)
life,
the Yogacara
the
I
.
six
Paramitas
(giving),
4.
(virtues
2.
of perfection),
which are
3.
Dana
6.
Ksanti (meekness),
of
Virya (energy),
Dhyana
(meditation),
Prajna
(knowledge or wisdom). In
way
to
explanation,
or
to
in
wealth
says Asanga: "By not clinging pleasures (i), by not cherishing any
thoughts
dejected
by not
feeling
(3),
by not awakening
(4),
7O
CHAPTER
II.
by maintaining serenity of mind in the midst of disturbance and confusion of this world (5), and finally f and by truthfully by always practising ekacitta
comprehending the nature of things
that there
creation.
(5)
is
(6),
nothing that
is
Mahayanism teaches
stages of Bodhisattvahood,
3 Prabhakari, 4. Arcismati,
7.
Pramudita,
6.
2.
Vimala,
Sudurjaya,
Abhimukhi,
Durangama,
2
.
8.
Dharmame-
gha
By
another,
we
reach
the oneness of
Dharmakaya.
(6)
The
are practised
Yogacarists claim that the precepts that by the followers of Mahayanism are far
superior
to those of Hinayanists.
The
latter
tend to
externalism and formalism, and do not go deep into our spiritual, subjective motives. Now, there are
physical, verbal,
and
spiritual
precepts observed by
the
Buddha.
neglecting
The Hinayanists observe the first two the last which is by far more important
For
ten
instance, the (Jravaka's interpretaiksas
3
than the
tion
1
rest.
of the
is
literal
and not
spiritual;
which
2
-'One mind" or "one heart" meaning the mental attitude is in harmony with the monistic view of nature in its
broadest sense.
These ten stages of spiritual development are somewhat minutely explained below. See Chapter XII. 8 The ten moral precepts of the Buddha are: (i) Kill no living being; (2) Take nothing that is not given; (3) Keep
CHAPTER
II.
71
to
attain
own
others'.
The
Aiming
he
mankind,
if
necessary.
The
right
(7)
the
inner
outward,
exclusive
its
teaching applies not to things principles are not of the ascetic and
its
kind.
to
;
commingle themselves with the "dust of worldliness" they aim at the realisation of the Bodhi; they are
not
afraid
of
being
metempsychosis;
benefits
to
all
sentient
their attitude,
whether
themselves
they
Mahayana,
by vanity and
worldly
pleasures
;
with
be
in
touch
trine
of non-atman
live
being
from
all
spiritual
in perfect
discharge
their
without
the
matrimonial sanctity; (4) Do not lie; (5) Do not slander; (6) Do not insult; (7) Do not chatter; (8) Be not greedy; (9) Bear no malice; (10) Harbor no scepticism.
72
least
life
is
CHAPTER
conceit or self-assertion
:
II.
in a
(8)
is
The
shown by
his possession of
1
knowledge of non-par-
ticularisation (andndrtka).
phically considered,
is
The
Bodhisattva's
from the dualism of samsara (birth-anddeath) and nirvana, of positivism and negativism, of being and non-being, of object and subject, of ego
is
mind
free
and non-ego.
the
limits
His
final
knowledge,
realities,
in
short,
transcends
to
of
soaring
high
the
realm
of the
absolute
ticurality.
(g)
In
consequence
the
Bodhisattva
many"
1
in the
He
Mahayanism recognises two "entrances" through which a comprehensive knowledge of the universe is obtained. One is called the "entrance of sameness" (samatd) and the other
the
"entrance
us
of
to
diversity"
(nandtva).
The
first
entrance
universality of things and suggests a pantheistic interpretation of existence. The second leads us to the particularity of things culminating in monotheism or
introduces
the
polytheism, as it is viewed from different standpoints. The Buddhists declare that neither entrance alone can lead us to the sanctum sanctorum of existence and in order to obtain
;
a sound, well-balanced
knowledge of things
in general,
we
parti-
CHAPTER
changing one' inward life is
transitory
tal
1
II.
73
in in
According to the former, he does not recoil as ascetics do when he comes in contact with
Suchness.
;
he
is
the the
ills
is
heir to;
according to
latter,
he never
clings
inmost
consciousness
of eternal Suchness.
(10)
The
it
final
characteristic
is
to be mentioned as
distinctly
Mahayanistic
is
the
doctrine
of Trikaya.
is
There
is,
asserted,
the ultimate
cause
all
This
is
called
Dharmakaya,
luteness,
effect.
it
in its
abso-
reveals itself
It
a devil,
an
animal
lower grade,
adapting
itself
to
the
degrees of the intellectual development of the people. For it is the people's inner needs which necessitate
the
special forms of
manifestation.
This
is
called
Nirmanakaya,
that
is,
the
body of transformation.
himself in the person
of Gautama, the son of King of (^uddhodana about two thousand five hundred years ago on the Ganges, is
a
form
of
Nirmanakaya.
or
The
bliss.
third
one
is
is
called
Sambhogakaya,
body of
This
the spiri-
74
tual
CHAPTER
II.
body of a Buddha, invested with all possible grandeur in form and in possession of all imaginable
psychic powers. is full of wild
The conception
!
of
Sambhogakaya
imaginations which are not easy of modern minds. by comprehension enumerated at seven or ten characteristics These
are what
first
as peculiarly Mahayanistic
dhist philosophers of the
fifth
century
of
down
to the
or
sixth
century
to be
the
most
essential
their faith
and
entitled
Vehicle" (Mahay ana) of salvation, in contradistinction to the faith embraced by their conservative brethren.
But, as
and besides
more
or
less
scattered and
salient fea-
of Mahayanism.
Nor do they
the
furnish
much
information
concerning
nature
of
Mahayanism
system of religious teachings. They a but general and somewhat obscure delineation give of it, and that in opposition to Hinayanism. In point
as a coherent
of
fact,
Mahayanism
is
a
in
has
many
characteristics
common
the former
with Hinayais
nism.
also that
of the
and as
concerned
far
Buddhism
The
in the
doctrine ol Trikaya will be given further elucidation chapter bearing the same title.
CHAPTER
phasising
other.
II.
75
school
the
significance
of one
I
over the
On
impartial
exposition of
the Buddhism, which has been persistently designated by its followers as Mahayanism.
SPECULATIVE MAHAYANISM.
CHAPTER
III.
/TAHAvANISM
*
in
two
main
divisions, as
tures in
its
doctrinal
development.
may
a
is
call
one
The
first
part
is
essentially
of
Buddhist
solely
in
metaphysics,
ratiocination
plays a very prominent part, and some of most abstruse problems of philosophy are freely discussed. Speculative followers of Buddhism have
intellect
the
taken great interest in the discussion of them and have written many volumes on various subjects.
'
1 No efforts have yet been made systematically to trace the history of the development of the Mahayana thoughts in India as well as in China and Japan. have enough ma-
We
it has taken, as Chinese and Tibetan collections of Tripitaka are concerned. When a thorough comparison by impartial, unprejudiced scholars of these documents has been made with the Pali and Sanskrit literature, then we shall be able to
the
general
course
far as the
write a comprehensive
history
of the
human thoughts
that
CHAPTER
III.
77
The second
with
or practical phase of
religious
beliefs
Mahayanism deals
constitute
such
that
the
life
to
is
the
sentiment which
practical
part,
it
inherent
is
human
far
nature.
This
therefore,
by
more important,
and
is
in fact
can be
merely a preparatory step toward it. Inasmuch as Mahayanism is a religion and not a philosophical system, it must be practical, that is, it must directly
appeal to the inmost
life
of the
human
heart.
Relation of Feeling
and
Intellect in Religion.
between
who
tion,
so
firmly
believe
the
identity
of
religion
supernatural revelais
that
the
considered
by them
no midway
in religion.
is
religion
which
is
rational
is
no
religion.
Now, Buddhism
been
declared
has
by some
to be a philosophy.
is
The
title
apt to
have governed the Oriental people during the last two thousand years. When this is done, the result can further be compared with the history of other religious systems, thus of humanity throwing much light on the general evolution
78
CHAPTER
III.
be taken as a confirmation of such opinion. To remove all the misconceptions, therefore, which might be
entertained concerning the religious nature of Mahaya-
nism
and
it
its
attitude
toward intellectualism,
have
deemed
relation
There
tical;
it
essentially prac-
require
theorisation.
The
latter,
properly
speaking,
the
business
of
If religion was a product of the intellect could not give satisfaction to the needs of solely, man's whole being. Reason constitutes but a part of
philosophy.
it
however
high,
is,
when
abstracliving
becomes a concrete
and speculation a
in short,
when philosophy
becomes
religion.
Philosophy as such, therefore, is generally distinguished from religion. But we must not suppose that
religion as the deepest expression of a
human being
intellectual
can
eliminate
altogether
from
it
the
element.
role in religion
may
be played by the imagination and feeling, but ratiocination must not fail to assert its legitimate right in
the co-ordination of beliefs.
religion
When this
right
is
denied,
becomes
CHAPTER
III.
79
The
and always
tries
up
for
examination.
This
alienation
from
concrete
facts
constantly tends to disregard the real significance of of which it is also a manifestation. Therefore, life,
the conflict between feeling and reason, religion and
science,
instinct
Seeing
to
this
fact,
are generally
condemn religion as barring the freedom prone and obstructing the progress of scientific investigations.
It is
other
of
extreme and
it
reason;
is
true
that
case
with
Christianity,
that
ments upon the domain of reason. It is also true the feeling and the intellect are sometimes at
that
variance,
what the
is
most
crushed by the reason, while the feeling looks with utmost contempt at the results that have been reached by the
valuable
treasure
at times relentlessly
intellect
flict
is
after
much
lucubration.
fight
tail
But
this fatal
con-
of a hydra
when
it
cut in twain
it
We
a
cannot
live
forever;
when we know
is
altogether due to
our understanding.
The
8O
truth
is
CHAPTER
that
feeling
III.
and
reason
"cannot do withinsepasince
out
rably
the
process
of
human development,
reason without feeling could have nothing to act for and would be impotent to act, while feeling without
reason
is
that would act tyrannically and blindly to say, if either could exist and act at all with-
out
the other;
for
in the
it
end
is
it
is
reason,
which
as
acts, but
feels
the
man who
(H.
cording
he
and
reasons".
Maudsley's
Natural Causes and Supernatural Seemings, p. vn). If it is thus admitted that feeling and reason must
co-ordinate
and co-operate
religion,
in the realisation of
hu-
man*
of
ideals,
the
emotional
much
on the pro-
man
ried to
life.
In
claims
be
of
faith.
In India,
divi-
was no
;
and every
teaching, every system, and every doctrine, however abstract and speculative it might appear to the Western
mind,
was
at
bottom
religious
There was no
ophical
system
thinkers
that
did not
purpose.
Indian
could
not
CHAPTER
philosophy,
practice
III.
81
from
theory.
Their philosophy
flowed
out
of
the
human
heart
and
If
was not a mere display of fine intellectuation. their thinking were not in the right direction
fallacy
and led to a
they
which made
life
more
miserable,
were ever
the
their
right track,
life
not
hesitate
to
sacrifice
fire
for
it.
much
as religion.
Buddhism and
Owing
is
Speculation.
as
to this fact,
Buddhism as much
Hinduism
are
full
tions so
much
to
so
that
some
Christian
critics
inclined
deny the
religiosity of
Buddhism. But no
of the science of comparative religion would indorse such a view nowadays. Buddhism, in spite of
student
its
is
really a religious
it emphasises the raelement of religion more than any other religious teachings, but on that account we cannot say that
it
altogether
disregards
the
to be played
phical
ciating
religion
by the feeling. Its speculative, philosophase is really a preparation for fully apprethe
is
subjective
significance
of
religion,
is
for
ultimately
subjective, that
to say, the
essence of religion is love and faith, or, to use Buddhist phraseology, it is the expression of the Bodhi which
6
82
consists
in
CHAPTER
III.
prajna
or
karuna
(love
little
value in
it
human
life.
When not
guided by
love
and
faith,
What
Tennyson
says
in
the
:
following
verses
is
Buddhism
"Who
loves not
knowledge
Who
shall rail
May
she mix
shall fix
Who
prevail.
"But on her forehead sits a fire She sets her forward countenance
;
And
Submitting
things to desire.
"Half grown as yet, a child, and vain She cannot fight the fear of death. What is she, cut from love and faith,
"Of demons
fiery-hot to burst
her onward race For power. Let her know her place; She is the second, not the first.
All barriers in
"A
If all
higher hand must make her mild, be not in vain, and guide
Her footsteps, moving side by side With Wisdom, like the younger child."
1
onymous and
reason, bodhi
Prajna, bodhi, buddhi, vidy& and jha or jnana are all synin many cases interchangeable. But they allow
a finer discrimination.
Speaking
in a general
way, prajn&
is
wisdom or
intelligence,
buddht
enlightenment,
CHAPTER
But
ignores the
it
III.
83
purification
of
faith.
For
all
it
is
by the judicious
religious superstitions
finally destroyed.
The intellect is so far of great consequence, and we must respect it as the thunderbolt of Vajrapani, which crushes everything that is mere sham and false. But at the same time we must also remember that
quintessence of religion like the house built on the solid rock never suffers on account of this destructhe
tion.
Its
foundation
lies
human
and have acquired technical meaning. In this work both prajna and bodhi are mostly translated by intelligence, for their extent of meaning closely overlaps each other. But this is rather vague, and wherever I thought the term intelligence alone to be misleading, I either left the originals unTo be more translated, or inserted them in parentheses. exact, prajna in many cases can safely be rendered by faith, not a belief in revealed truths, but a sort of immediate
knowledge gained by intuitive intelligence. Prajna corresponds in some respects to wisdom, meaning the foundation of all reasonings and experiences. It may also be considered an equivalent for Greek sophia. Bodhi, on the other hand, has a decidedly religious and moral significance. Besides
being prajna
to
itself,
it
is
also
love (karuna)
for,
according
Buddhism, these two, prajna and karuna, constitute the essence of Bodhi. May Bodhi be considered in some respects synonymous with the divine wisdom as understood by Christian dogmatists? But there is something in the Buddhist notion of Bodhi that cannot properly be expressed by wisdom or intelligence. This seems to be due to the difference of philosophical interpretation by Buddhists and Christians of
the conception of God.
farther.
It
will
become
clearer as
we proceed
84
heart
to
CHAPTER
III.
be
long as there
burning
powerful
with
will
of
life,
under foot
is
religious sentiment
more
glo-
intrinsic virtue.
The true
what
digging its own grave. For purpose has science other than the unravelling
science
is
of the
mysteries
of
nature
and
is
meaning
tutes
final,
it
of existence?
And
this
must
find
its
intellectual
exercise
consideration.
Religion
and Metaphysics.
sociologist, M. Guyau, says in his the Future (English translation p. 10) of Irreligion
:
The French
"Every positive and historical religion presents three distinctive and essential elements: (i) An attempt
at
mythical and
non-scientific explanation
miracles,
nation so of
forth)
(2)
is
to say,
forcibly
symbolic
ideas,
imaginative
beliefs,
CHAPTER
III.
85
even
are susceptible of
no
scientific
demonand
cult
system of rites, that is to say, of more or less immutable practices regarded as possessing a marvelous
efficacy
things, a propi-
tiatory virtue.
without
cult,
no
more than
that
'natural religion,'
which
M
in
Guyau seems to think that what will be left religion, when severed from its superstitions and
imaginary beliefs and mysterious rites, is a system of metaphysical speculations, and that, therefore, it is not a religion. But in my opinion the French sociologist
shares
the
error
that
is
very
prevalent
perfectly
among
the
scientific
men
of to-day.
all
He
its
is
ephemeral elements and external integuments, but he is entirely wrong when he does this at the expense of its very essence, which consists of the inmost yearings of
the
human
the
heart.
And
this
with
nourishment.
philosophising
Nor does
and
it
concern
itself
with mere
constructing
hypotheses
it.
about
is
Far
from
Religion
depths of the
it
human
heart,
and
identifies
itself
with
it,
finds that
86
CHAPTER
III.
this
something
for
it
I
has
subjective
only,
all
it
as
Goethe
in
all,
name
in the
Why?
be
Because
cannot objec-
tively
intellectually
demonstrated, as
human
is
understanding.
And
this
subjectivity
of religion
what makes
If
religion
be considered,
system
as
M. Guyau
thinks,
nothing but a
of metaphysics,
we
its
subjective significance or
indeed constitutes
its
raison d'etre.
* * *
Having this in view we proceed to see first on what metaphysical hypothesis speculative Mahayana
Buddhism
to
is
built
up
Mahayanism
of
more
essential part,
under the
heading
"Practical
Mahayanism,"
in
CHAPTER
CLASSIFICATION OF
IV.
KNOWLEDGE
JV/T
AHAYANISM
a sort
proposes to ascertain
the extent and nature of human knowledge, from a religious point of view. Its object is to see
what kind of
human knowledge
is
most
reliable
annihilation of ignorance and the attainment of enlightenment. The Mahayana school which has given most attention to this division of Buddhist philosophy is
the Yogacara of Asanga and Vasubandhu. The Lankavatara and the Sandhinirmocana and some other
Sutras,
foundation,
sutra
into
forms
as
literature,
however,
any
it
merely
knowledge and points out what form of knowledge is most desirable by the Buddhists. To obtain a fuller and more discursive elucidation, we
classifies
school.
Of
the
text books
of the
88
CHAPTER
IV.
Yogacara, we may mention Vasubandhu's Vijnanamatra with its commentaries and Asanga's Comprehensive
Treatise on
Mahdydnism
The
following statements
three forms of knowledge as classified by the Yogacara are: (i) Illusion (parikalpita), (2) Relative
The
(3)
Absolute Knowledge
Illusion.
Illusion
is
by the categories
it
of the
understanding;
that
is
to say,
is
a purely
and no
is
critical
application
evil
of
in
psychical
in
and
as
such
it
is justified.
A
in
straight rod
the
refraction
light
a sensation
is
often
felt
system has not yet adjusted itself to the new condition. They are all illusions, however. They are doubtless
the
in
correct
question,
interpretation
of
but
they
are
sense-impressions
whose
coordination
necessary
involved
The moral
this
is
all
must be based on
illusory premises.
knowledge and
not on
CHAPTER
IV.
89
Mahayanists declare
to
Reasoning
this class of
in
this
wise,
the
knowledge, though of a different order, and that those who tenaciously cling to egoism as
their final stronghold are believers
fata
in
an intellectual
morgana, and are like the thirsty deer that madly water in the desert, or like the
crafty
monkey
in the water.
in the
existence of
a metaphysical agent behind our mental phenomena is not confirmed by experience and sound judgment,
it
being merely a product of unenlightened subjectivity. Besides this ethical and philosophical egoism, all
is
founded on the
as fetichism,
illusion,
such
the
like,
Relative Knowledge.
a
or
welt-anbetter,
knowledge,
upon the knowledge of the law of relativity. According to this view, everything in the world has a
relative
and
conditional
existence,
free
claim
an
absolute
reality
from
limitations.
This closely
most of modern
QO
^
CHAPTER
IV.
The paratantra-laksana,
It
therefore,
consists in the
from our
deals
with
the
highest ab-
we
It
can
is
positivistic
strictest sense.
It
says
The
our knowledge is necessarily limited. Even the highest generalisation cannot go beyond the law of relativity.
It
is
impossible
for
us to
know
;
the
first
cause and
the
nor have we any ultimate end of existence need to go thus beyond the sphere of existence, which would inevitably involve us in the maze of mystic
imagination.
The paratantra-laksana,
agnosticism,
therefore,
is
a positivism,
or
in its spirit.
all
these
really
is
declared
by the Mahayanists,
knowledge
is
sound as
;
far
it
as our
perceptual
concerned
but
does not
ence, for
life
exhaust
it
human
experi-
does not take into account our spiritual and our inmost consciousness. There is some-
thing in the
human
merely systematising under the so-called laws of nature those multitudinous impressions which we There is a singular receive from the outside world.
with
feeling, or sentiment, or yearning,
call
it,
whatever we
may
in
CHAPTER
description
IV.
91
than
statement.
This
its
seems despite
intellect
The
may
try
to
persuade us with
all
its
subtle
reasonings to subdue this disquieting feeling and to remain contented with the systematising of natural
laws, so called.
But
it is
because
the
far
intellect
is
and so
it
not forced to self-contradiction, must accommodate itself to the needs of the heart.
as
it
is
That
is
to say,
we must
life
and experiences.
The
of these indispensable
postulates of
life
recogcon-
stitutes the
parinispanna-laksana.
Absolute Knowledge.
Parinispanna-laksana literally means the worldview founded on the most perfect knowledge. According
to
this
view,
the
universe
is
a monistico-
pantheistic
system.
While
phenomenal existences
by conditionality and individuation, they by no means exhaust all our experiences which are stored in our inmost
are regulated
by
consciousness.
the absolute
late
this is
demand of humanity,
of experience,
Will, or Intelligence,
all
existences, forms
92
the
basis
CHAPTER
IV.
of cosmic, ethical, and religious life. This highest Will, or Intelligence, or both may be termed God, but the Mahayanists call it religiously Dhar-
makaya, ontologically Bhutatathata, and psychologAnd they think it must ically Bodhi or Sambodhi.
be immanent
all
in
the
;
universe
it
manifesting
itself
in
places
and times
;
petual creation
it
must be the
This
of
its
being so,
to the recognition
say that
when our
minds are clear of illusions, prejudices, and egotistic assumptions, they become transparent and reflect
the
truth
like
a
in
dust-free
mirror.
The
illumination
thus
gained
our
consciousness
constitutes
the
The
reason
will
be
obvious
to
the
reader
why
es
the
Yogacara
school
of world-conception
The parikalpita-laksana is most knowledge. most and primitive puerile. However, in these days of enlightenment, what is believed by the masses is
of
naught else than a parikalpita conception of the world. The material existence as it appears to our senses
is
to
them
off
all
in
all.
They seem
to be unable to
shake
realism.
yoke of egoistic illusion and naive Their God must be transcendent and anthrothe
CHAPTER
popathic,
IV.
93
affairs as his
whim
pleases.
How
which the multitudes of unreflecting minds are is, living, from that which is conceived by Buddhas and
in
Hartmann, a German thinker, is right, when he says that the masses are at least a century
Bodhisattvas
!
behind
strange
in
their
in
intellectual
culture.
is
But
the most
thing
the
world
their ignorance
and superstitious
waves of
them onward
a step further,
it
is its
persis-
consciousness
alone
is
The
intellect
can
we must
intellect is
supposed to prevail. This region which is. no more nor less than the field of religious consciousness
is
intellectual
people
on the plea that the intellect by its very nature is unable to fathom it. But the only way that leads us
to
the
final pacification
of the heart-yearnings
is
to
go
beyond
the
horizons
of limiting
reason and to
in the heart
been planted
as the sine
qua non of its own existence and vitality. And by faith I mean Prajna (wisdom), transcendental
94
CHAPTER
IV.
knowledge, that comes direct from the intelligenceessence of the Dharmakaya. A mind, so tired in vainly searching after truth and bliss in the verbiage
of philosophy and the nonsense of ritualism, finds itself here completely rested bathing in the rays of
divine
effulgence,
whence
filled
felt.
this
is,
it
does
not
question, being so
which alone
spiritual
are
state Nirvana or
is
laksana
from
this
subjective
ideal enlightenment.
other
of
Hindu Mahayanism,
the
Madhyamika
Madhyamika come
to the
same
the
requested
to
peruse
Asanga's Comprehensive
Mahayanism (Nanjo's Catalogue, No. 1183), Vasubandhu's work on Mahayana idealism ( Vijnanamatra astra,
Treatise on
Nanjo, No. 1215), the Sutra on the Mystery of Deliverance (Sandhinirmocana-sutra, Nanjo. Nos. 246 aud 247), etc 2 When the eminent representatives of both parties, such
as Dharmapala and Bhavaviveka, were at the height of their literary activity in India about the fifth or sixth century after
Christ, their partisan spirit incited them bitterly to denounce each other, forgetting the common ground on which their principles were laid down. Their disagreement in fact on which they put an undue emphasis was of a very trifling nature. It was merely a quarrel over phraseology, for one insisted on using certain words just in the sense which the
other negated.
CHAPTER
IV.
95
by the Madhyamika philosophy are Samvrtti-satya and Paramartha-satya, that is, conditional truth and transcendental truth. We read in Nagarjuna's
Madhyamika fdstra
pp.
180, 181):
truths
is
founded
doctrine of Buddhas:
Truth conditional,
And
The
truth transcendental.
verily know not distinction of the two truths.
"Those who
Know
Of Buddhism which
meaningful."
The
knowledge of the
Yogacara
school, while
the tran-
scendental truth corresponds to the absolute knowledge. In explaining these two truths, the Madhyamika
philosophers have
made
by
Christian
of Nagarjuna's transcendental
truth
is
philosophy.
nature,
for
Absolute
it
void
in
its
ultimate
contains
individual that
makes
it
concrete or real or
But
this
must not
be
as
is
done by
absolute
some
1
superficial
critics,
the
sense
of
Dve satye samupa9ritya buddhanam dharde^ana Lokasamvrttisatyafi ca satyafi ca paramarthatah. Ye ca anayor na jananti vibhagam satyayor dvayoh,
Te tatvam na
vijananti
gambhirabuddhagasane."
96
nothingness.
CHAPTER
IV.
The Madhyamika philosophers make the satya (transcendental truth) empty when contrasted
with the realness of phenomenal existences. Because it is not real in the sense a particular being is real; but it is empty since it transcends the principle
it
of
individuation.
When
considered absolutely,
can neither be empty nor not-empty, neither gunya nor agunya, neither asti nor ndsti, neither abhdva
nor
bhava,
neither
real
imply
relation
is
and
contrast,
Paramdrtha
There-
Satya
trasts
fore,
above
them,
in
or
its
it
better,
and antitheses
absolute oneness.
at
all
even to designate
may
is
understanding
naming
object
edge.
It
is
particularising.
as
such,
an
of intellectuation
or of demonstrative knowl-
be a particular
Understanding
One may
an
abstract
standing,
say:
If
transcendental truth
is
of such
nature,
how can we
enjoy its blessings? But Nagarjuna says that it is not absolutely out of the ken of the understanding;
through the understanding that we become acquainted with the quarter towards
it
is,
on the
contrary,
which our
spiritual
efforts should
be directed, only
CHAPTER
let
IV.
97
us
not
cling
to
the
the
final
reality.
finger
needed to point
at
the moon,
let
but when we have recognised the moon, us no more trouble ourselves with the finger. The
carries
fisherman
a has
basket
to
but
what need
we
let
way
to enlight-
enment,
edge
or
conditional
it.
or lokasamvrttisatya
as
Nagarjuna terms
"If
not by worldly knowledge, truth is not understood; When the truth is not approached,
The
Nirvana
is
not attained."
From
religious
this,
it
is
to
discourages
the
scientific,
investigation
of
beliefs.
it
For
it
is
science that
and that
final
should point out in which direction our spiritual truth and consolation have to be sought.
it
Science
is
alone
which
is
built
on
relative
knowledge
our religious cravings, but it is certainly able to direct us to the path of enlightenment. When this path is at last revealed, we shall
not
able to satisfy
all
know how
to
avail
ourselves
of the discovery, as
Wisdom) becomes
the
Vyavaharam anagritya paramartho na degyate, Paramartham anagamya nirvanam na adhigamyata. The Madhyamika, p. 181.
7
98
guide of
life.
CHAPTER
IV.
Here we enter
for
unknowable. The
demonstrable,
spiritual facts
we experience
are not
glimpse of them.
CHAPTER
BHUTATATHATA
V.
(SUCHNESS).
Parinispanna
(transcendental truth)
is
called
ence."
suchness in
world,
is
subjective
is
Godhead of Buddhism and it marks the consummation of all our mental efforts to reach the
the
highest principle, which unifies
tions
all
possible contradic-
events. In short,
is
does
not belong to the domain of demonstrative knowledge it or sensuous experience is unknowable by the
;
grasped, declare the Buddhists, only by the minds that are capable of exercising what might be
it
is
Agvaghosa argues, in his Awakening of Faith for the indefinability of this first principle. When we say
it
is
its
being indepen-
IOO
dent of
all
CHAPTER
V.
we
attribute
to things relative
it
for
and conditional, people would take the nothingness of absolute void But when we
it
define
as
real
reality,
as
'it
of
we
ourselves
an
eternal
life.
It
is
like
describing to the blind what an elephant looks like; each one of them gets but a very indistinct and
imperfect conception of the huge creature, yet every one of them thinks he has a true and most comprehensive idea of
Agvaghosa, thus, wishes to eschew all definite statements concerning the ultimate nature of
l
it.
is
the only
we
mortals
to
them
others,
can express our ideas and communicate he thinks the best expression that
it
can be given to
is
Bhutatathata,
i.
e.,
"suchness of
Bhutatathata (suchness), thus absolutely viewed, does not fall under the category of being and non-being;
and minds which are kept within the narrow circle of contrasts, must be said to be incapable of grasping
it
as
it
truly
is.
Says Nagarjuna
XV.)
"Between thisness (svabhava) and thatness (parabhdva), Between being and non-being,
Who
The
1
Cf.
CHAPTER
Or,
V.
IOI
"To think
To
think 'it
not', is nihilism:
1
Again,
"The dualism of to be and not The dualism of pure and not-pure Such dualism having abandoned,
'
'
to be,
:
'
in the middle." 9
To
(pp.
quote,
again,
from
its
the
Awakening of Faith
defiled, i.e.,
5859):
has
it
"In
that
nothing
is
to
free
do with things
from
in
all
conditional:
sation,
signs of individualiit is
such as exist
phenomenal objects:
Indefinabitity.
its
definitions.
We
terms as
this
much
and
1
as
subject
that,
Astiti ca^vatagraho, nastltyucchedadarcanam: Tasmadastitvanastitve nacriyet* vicaksanmh 1 Astiti n&stiti ubhe pi anti
'
Madhye
'
pi
IO2
CHAPTBft V.
is
may be
the only
it.
can express
But when
to
this
word, cunyata,
is
be more
fully
interpreted,
is
is
we would
say with
is
non-existence; neither
once existence and non-existence, not at once existence and nonis which nor that
which
is
at
existence;
it
is
is
which
is
and
plurality,
plurality.'*
is
is
and
1
This
22; IV, 5, 5). The Atman or Brahman, it says, "is tc be described by No, No! He is incomprehensible, for h< cannot be comprehended; he is imperishable, for he cannot perish; he is unattached, for he does not attach himself
unfettered,
he does not suffer, he does not fail. Him (whc knows), these two do not overcome, whether he says that foi some reason he has done evil, or for some reason he has don< good he overcomes both, and neither what he has done, noi
affects him."
p. 59. Cf. this
Areopagite,
is
as quoted by Prof.
W.
:
Jaraei
his
Varieties
all
41641?
Th<
il
cause of
it
things
imagination, opinion, or reason, or intelligence; nor is spoken or thought It is neither number, nor order, noi magnitude, nor littleness, nor equality, nor inequality, noi It neither stands, nor moves similarity, nor dissimilarity. nor rests..*. It is neither essence, nor eternity, nor time
CHAPTER
Nagarjana's
V.
IO3
same
spirit,
which declares
l
"There
what paradoxical manner, making the historical Buddha a real concrete manifestation of Suchness
:
deem not
'
thus:
The Buddha
still
is
here,
living,
The Buddha
is
in the
literature
cite
the
:
Dhyana
school of Mahayanism.
3
,
To
one instance
When Bodhi-Dharma
the founder
Even
one
science
;
does not belong to it. It is neither nor truth. It is not even royalty nor wisdom not not unity not divinity or goodness nor even spirit as
intellectual contact
;
;
we know
T
ad libitum. it.". Anirodham anutpadam anucchedam ac.ac_vatam, Anekartham ananartham anagamam anirgamam.
.
. .
(Madhyamika fdstra,
2
first
stanza.)
Na
3
'
(Madhyamika,
p.
199).
the third son of king of Kac.i<?) in southern India. He came to China A. D. 527 and after a vain attempt to conto his own view, he retired to a monastery, vert Emperor
He was
Wu
where,
it
is
reported, he spent
all
day
in
IO4
of the
CHAPTER
V.
Dhyana
sect,
(A D. 502
556),
saw Emperor Wu of Liang dynasty he was asked what the first principle
of the Holy Doctrine was, he did not give any lengthy, periphrastic statement- after the manner of a philosopher,
but laconically replied, "Vast emptiness and nothing The Emperor was bewildered and did not know holy.
how
to take the
words of
he did not expect such an abrupt answer, and, being ventured another question: disappointed, greatly
"Who
is
me?" By
:
this
he meant to repudiate the doctrine of absolute SuchIf there is ness. His line of argument being this
nothing
in the ultimate
nature of things
that distin-
guishes between holiness and sinfulness, why this world of contrasts, where some are revered as holy,
for
instance,
Bodhi-Dharma who
in
is
at
this
very
moment
front of
Bodhiconto
fully
human tongue
is
express
which
revealed only
without making any further venture to propagate his mysticism. But finally he found a most devoted disciple in the person
the
of Shen Kuang, who was once a Confucian, and through whom Dhyana school became one of the most powerful Mahayana
in China as well as in Japan. Dharma died in the year Besides the one here mentioned, he had another audience 535. with the Emperor. At that time, the Emperor said to Dharma: "I have dedicated so many monasteries, copied so many
sect
sacred books, and converted so many bhiksus and bhiksunis what do you think my merits are or ought to be?" To this, however, Dharma replied curtly, "No merit whatever."
CHAPTER
intuitively
V.
IO5
to
the
religious
consciousness.
His con-
clusive
answer was, "I do not know" 4 This "I do not know" is not to be understood
the
spirit
in
of
agnosticism, "but
is
in
the
sense of
no God,"
for in se est
per se conceptur. This way of describing Suchness by negative terms only, excluding all differences of name and form (namarupa) to reach a higher kind
of affirmation,
seems
to
be
the
most appropriate
is
human understanding
but, nevertheless,
it
limited
many
respects
has caused
much
misinterpretation even
selves, not to
ars of to-day,
sophy.
It
was
pretations
made
the
is
paradoxical
assertion
that
absolute
Suchness
There yet
absolute
remains
another
mode
of explaining
most
effective
the
may prove
1
very
Another interesting utterance by a Chinese Buddhist, who, for earnestly pondering over the absoluteness of Suchness several years, understood it one day all of a sudden, is: "The very instant you say it is something (or a nothing),
IO6
It
is
CHAPTER
V.
to an
the
"Dharma
*
of
Non-duality/'
as
it
is
termed
in
the Sutra
to
visit
him,
how to enter into the Dharma of Non-duality. Some replied, "Birth and death are two, but the Dharma itself was never born and will never die. Those who understand this are said to enter into the Dharma of Non-duality." Some
express
views as to
"
said,
T
are
think
'I
am'
there
'I
But as there
is
no
am'
where
reflecting
shall
we
look
into
By
thus
we
enter
the
Dharma
of
Non-
duality."
Some
replied,
two.
But
and there
birth
neither
bondage
thus
nor release,
neither
nor
death.
By
reflecting
we
enter into
the
Dharma
and enlightenment are two. No ignorance, no enlightenment, and there is no dualism. Why? Because
those
is
no sense-impression, no cogitation, are free from ignorance as well as from enlightenment. This holds
true
with
enter
all
the
other
into
dualistic
categories.
Those
who
*
thus
the
thought
of sameness are
II,
Chapter
CHAPTER
said to enter into the
V.
lO/
Still
Dharma
of Non-duality."
others
answered,
are
"To
of
worldliness
dualism.
shun not worldliness, and we are free from dualism. Why? Because bondage and release are relative terms,
this is called
Dharma
of Non-duality."
of similar nature
came
forth
leader
Manjugri.
to
give
his
I
own
"What
think
may be
is
in all beings wordless, speechless, shows no signs, is not possible of cognisance, and is above all questo know this is said to tionings and answerings,
Dharma
of Non-duality."
Finally, the host Vimalakirti himself was demanded by Manjucri to express his idea of Non- duality, but
he
kept
completely
silent
Thereupon,
done, well
Manjugri
admiringly
1
"Well
is
done
truly
above
1
letters
and words!"
Deussen relates, in his address delivered before the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1893, a similar attitude of a Vedantist mystic in regard to the highest Brahma. 'The
Bhava, therefore, when asked by the king Vaksalin, to explain the Brahman, kept silence. And when the king repeated his request it you, again and again, the rishi broke out into the answer 'I tell but you don't understand it f&nto 'yam dtmd, this atmais silence !"
:
;
IO8
CHAPTER
V.
Now, of this Suchness, the Mahayanists distinguish two aspects, as it is comprehended by our consciousand non-conditional, or the phenomenal world of causality and the transcenness,
dental
realm
of
to
absolute
that,
in
freedom.
the
field
This distinction
of knowledge, of
d
corresponds
relative truth
1
and transcendental
truth.
It is
makes a
is
a well-known fact that the Vedanta philosophy, too, similar distinction between Brahman as sagunam
(qualified)
and Brahman as nirgunam (unqualified). The former phenomenal, and has characteristics of its own; but the latter is absolute, having no qualification whatever
relative,
to speak
of, it is
absolute
Here, a very interesting question suggests itself: Which the original and which is the copy, Mahayanism or Vedantism ? Most of European Sanskrit scholars would fain wish to
dispose of it at once by declaring that Buddhism must be the borrower. But I am strongly inclined to the opposite view, for there is reliable evidence in favor of it. In a writing of Acvaghosa, who dates much earlier than Qankara or
Badarayana we notice this distinction of absolute Suchness and relative Suchness. He writes in his Awakening of Faith et seq.) that though Suchness is free from all modes (p- 55 of limitation and conditionality, and therefore it cannot be thought of by our finite consciousness, yet on account of Avidya inherent in the human mind absolute Suchness manifests itself in the
phenomenal world, thereby subjecting itself law of causality and relativity and proceeds to say that there is a twofold aspect in Suchness from the point of view of its explicability. The first aspect is trueness as negation (funyata) in the sense that it is completely set
to
the
apart
veritable reality
from the attributes of all things unreal, that it is a The second aspect is trueness as affirmation
(afunyata), in the sense that it contains infinite merits, that it is self-existent. Considering the fact that Acvaghosa comes
CHAPTER
V.
IO9
Suchness Conditioned.
Absolute transcendental Suchness defying all means of characterisation does not, as long as it so remains, have any direct significance in the phenomenal world
and human
tional
life.
When
it
does,
it
Suchness as Gesetzmassigkeit in nature and as ethical order in our practical life. Suchness as absolute
too
is
remote,
too
abstract,
Its
metaphysical
value.
existence
non-existence
seems not to
as
it
affect us in
is
transcendental.
limited
consciousness,
activities,
to
conscious
to
regulate
course
of the
its
absoluteness.
its
When
seat
in
down from
all
sovereignthis
realm
of
unthinkability,
we have
its
diversity
meadows, towering mountains, and rolling waves the the beasts birds cheerfully singing in the woods
;
wildly running through the thickets; the summer heavens ornamented with white fleecy clouds and on
earlier than
any Vedanta philosophers, it stands to reason to latter might have borrowed the idea of distinthe two aspects of Brahma from their Buddhist
predecessors.
ankara also makes a distinction between saguna and mrguna vidya, whose parallel we find in the Mahayanist samvrtti and
paramartha
satya.
IIO
earth
all
CHAPTER
branches
V.
in
abundant
animation, luxury; only with naked trees here and there trembling in the dreary north winds; all these manifestations, not
all
varying
hair's
breadth
of
deviation
from
their
mathematical,
biological
astronomical,
are
physical,
else
chemical,
and
laws,
naught
When we
the
turn to
human
life
and
history,
we have
in all
work of
forms
tions,
of activity
intellectual
passions, aspirations,
etc.
It
imaginadesire
it
efforts,
makes us
to
eat
to drink
when
thirsty;
the
keeps
frolic;
braces
the
burden of
us
to
causes
cry,
have
liberty
it
or
die"
when we
to
leads us even
murder and
sentiments are aroused to the highest pitch, it makes us ready to sacrifice all that is most dear to us. In
the kaleidoscopic changes of this phenomenal world, subjective as well as objective, come from the
brief, all
playing
hands
the
of
conditional
Suchness.
blessings
It
not only
life,
constitutes
goodness and
of
is
but
1
heir to.
While passing,
polemic
in
cannot
footnote.
this
The
critics
stubbornly
refuse
to
CHAPTER
V.
Ill
Ac.vaghosa in his Awakening of Faith speaks of the Heart (krdaya) of Suchness and of the Heart
of
Birth-and-Death.
By
the
Heart
of Suchness he
means the absolute and by the Heart of Birth-andDeath a manifestation of the absolute in this world
of particulars.
says
insisted
"They
they
are are
not
one,
separate,"
for
he,
but
the
however, Heart of
by Buddhists themselves. Even scholars who are supposed to be well informed about the subject, go astray and make false charges against Buddhism. Max Mueller, for example, declares in his Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (p. 242) that "An important distinction between Buddhists and Vedantists is that the former holds the world to have arisen from what is not, the latter from what is, the Sat or Brahman." The reader who has carefully followed my exposition above will at once detect in this Max Mueller's conclusion an incorrect statement of Buddhist doctrine As I have repeatedly
Suchness, though described in negative terms, is not a of nothingness, but the highest possible synthesis that the human intellect can reach. The world did not come from
said,
state
the void of Suchness, but from its fulness of reality. If it were not so, to where does Buddhism want us to go after deliver-
Max Mueller in another place (op. cit. p. 210) speaks of the Vedantists' assertion of the reality of the objective world for practical purposes (vyavaharartham) and of their antagonistic
attitude
dhists" this
school,
toward "the nihilism of the Buddhists." "The Budseems to refer to the followers of the Madhyamika
a
careful
but
manifestation of conditional
but
its
independent
as such.
The Madhyamika
was not in any sense a nihilistic system. True, its advocates used many negative terms, but what they meant by them was obvious enough to any careful reader.
school
112
CHAPTER
is
V.
Suchness
account
the
Heart
of Birth-and-Death.
It
is
on
of
our limited
senses and
finite
mind
it
that
is,
we have
world
of
particulars, which, as
is
And
that
yet
it
is
through
this
fragmentary manifestation
we
in its entirety. Says Agvaghosa, on the "Depending Tathagata-garbha, there evolves the Heart of Birth-and-Death. What is immortal and
nature
of
being
what
are
is
mortal
not
are harmoniously blended, for they nor are they separate Herein all one,
Hereby
the
all
The
above
is
from
ontological
standpoint.
When
is
viewed psychologically, the Heart of Suchness enlightenment, for Buddhism makes no distinction
thought,
is
Now,
considered to be absolutely speaking of the nature of enlightenment, "It is like the emptiness of space says
in that
it
is
true,
and
real,
It
is
and
is
things.
In
in
it
reflected
every
phase
of
life
and activity
is
it,
nothing enters
destroyed.
into
It
is
nothing
is
annihilated, nothing
soul,
one
it.
eternal
It
defile
is
By
reason
of
in
its
it,
numerous
it
immaculate
the
virtues
all
which inhere
beings." Thus,
the
hearts of
is
enlightenment and
CHAPTER
the
V.
13
in
essence
of
intelligence,
constantly
works
and through the hearts of all human beings, that is, in and through our finite minds. In this sense, Buddhism declares that truth
highly
abstract
is
not
to
be
philosophical
formulae,
life
phenomena
acts
of our
everyday
such
dressing, walking,
sleeping, etc.
it
The Heart
of Suchness
synthesises
and does
Speaking
Suchness,
of
the
world
as
manifestation
of
we
dawn
leave
of intellect.
its
They
in
are
Why
ever
abode
the
mysterious
realm
of
transcendentality
form of misery greets us on all sides ? What inherent necessity was there for it to mingle in the dust of
worldliness
bliss
while
it
could
enjoy
-In
the
unspeakable
of
its
own
absoluteness?
ever
other words,
why
did
absolute
Suchness
become
conditional
Suchness ?
cerning
and positivism but the fact is, they are not questions whimsically framed by the human mind when it was
in the
mood
most
of playing with
vital
itself.
They
are queries
of the
the
importance
life
ever
significance
of
entirely hangs
on our
inter-
pretation of them.
8
14
CHAPTER
V.
is is
unsolvable
absolutely
the
human mind,
finite
for
it
intellect
of a logical demonstrability. The mystery can only solved in a practical way when we attain the
spiritual
highest
enlightenment
with
its
of
Buddhahood,
in
which
the
Bodhi
unimpeded supernatural
very abyss of Suchness.
The
kernel
Bodhi
of
or
Intelligence
is
which
partial
constitutes
the
our being,
realisation in us
is
of Suchness.
When
Body
into
this
intelligence
merged and
boundless
expands
vessel
in the
poured
it
waters
of
the
once perceives and realises its nature, ocean, its destiny, and its significance in life. Buddhism is a religion and leaves many topics
at
of
it
metaphysics unsolved, at least logically. Though more intellectual and philosophical than any other religion, it does not pretend to build a complete
is
system
of
speculation.
As
is
far
as
theorisation
is
concerned,
Buddhism
dogmatic
and
assumes
without revealing their dialectical But processes. they are all necessary and fundamental
many
propositions
hypotheses
the ultimate
of the
religious consciousness
soul.
propositions after
It
is
enough
for
religion to state the facts as they are, and the intellect, though hampered by limitations inherent in it, has to
them together
in a
coherent system.
CHAPTER
V.
115
The
stated
free
solution, then,
and
it
from
all
serious
dufficulties,
but
is
practically
serves
religious
required
purposes
and
I
conducive
to
discipline.
By
this
mean
the Buddhist
Theory of Ignorance.
or ignorance (avidya) is an attempt by Buddhists to solve the relation between the one and the many, between absolute Suchness
and conditional Suchness, between Dharmakaya and Sarvasattva, between wisdom (bodhi) and sin (klega)^
between
Nirvana and
What
ised
not give us any systematic exposition of the doctrine. it says is categorical and dogmatic. "This
is
universe
really the
Dharmadhatu
;
*
;
it
is
character-
all
things
have
no pudgala
(self).
But, because of
mahdbhuta (elements),
(or eight)
skandha
these
(aggregates),
six
vijndna
(senses),
and twelve
niddna (chains of
Or,
causation).
All
are of nes-
cience
or
"The
Heart
;
of Suchness
it
Dharmadhatu
is
the
doctrines.
it
The
1
ultimate
nature
does
not
perish,
nor does
Dharmadhatu is the world as seen by an enlightened mind, where all forms of particularity do not contradict one another, but make one harmonious whole.
I 1
6
All
CHAPTER
particular
V.
decay.
fused subjectivity (smrti). Independent of confused is no outside world to be perceived there subjectivity,
and
the
discriminated."
law
of birth
ignorance
are
and
karma."
Such statements
in
as
these
lite-
found
but
almost
as
to
everywhere
the
the Buddhist
rature;
question
this
negative
in
principle
of ignorance
came
to assert itself
the
find
body
thing,
of
Suchness, we
to
an authoritative however,
and
is
answer to
is
it.
One
creates
certain,
which
this
Ignorance
the
absolute oneness of being, that tosses up the roaring billows of existence in the eternal ocean of Suchness,
that
breaks
of
the
silence
of
Nirvana
and
starts the
that,
wheel
metempsychosis perpetually
of Suchness
therein,
rolling,
transforms the
sameness (samata) of Suchness to the duality of and thatness and leads many confused thisness minds to egoism with all its pernicious corollaries.
Perhaps,
the
is
best
way
to attack the
ignorance
to understand that
Buddhism
problem of is a tha
roughly idealistic doctrine as every true religion should be, and that psychologically, and not ontologic-
*The word literally means recollection or memory. Acvaghosa uses it as a synonym of ignorance, and so do many other Buddhist philosophers.
CHAPTER
ally,
V.
117
nescience
should Suchness be conceived, and further, that is inherent in Suchness, though only hypoapparently, and not really in any
thetically, illusively,
sense.
According to Brahmanism, there was in the beginning only one being and this being willed to be two
;
which naturally resulted in the differentiation of subject and object, mind and nature. In Buddhism, however,
Suchness
is
any desire to
is
not explicitly stated as having had be other than itself, at least when it
But as Buddhism
conditioned
by the
principle of
ignorance,
ignorance
rather
negatively
existed
its
affirmed
itself,
it
did so by negating
to
that
by permitting
is
itself
be
conditioned
by the
latter,
principle
as
of ignorance
or
individuation.
The
and
This
expressly stated everywhere in Buddhist sutras and a c.astras, is no more than an illusion
quantity,
it
negative
is
merely the
of
of
veil
of
Maya.
chimerical
nature
essential
absoluteness
rrakes
the
monism
of the
is
roughly consistent.
is
What
as
this:
world
of particulars
evanescent
is
and
dream-like.
When
ignorance
alone
taken notice
Il8
CHAPTER
V.
all
this multitu-
dinousness
positively
of
things
to
is
denied,
void.
this
existence
is
declared
be
But when
even
an enin
lightened
mind
an
perceives
Suchness
the
life
midst
of the
utter
assumes
entirely
new
aspect,
and we come to
To
is
return
to
defined
1
by Acvaghosa
a spark of conscious-
ness
According to
ignorance
and
with
to
shades
of
meaning.
Ignorance
is,
so
speak,
is
that
which
latter possible,
in turn
an
illusive
emanation
of Suchness.
It
is
of consciousness
rising
marks the
of this
universe
self-
identity
of Suchness.
implies
of
con-
sciousness
the separation
and
the
perceived,
the
mind and
The
in
eternal
abyss
of Suchness, so called,
the
point where
absolute
oneness.
It
is
1 Smrti or citta or vijnana. They are all used by Ac. vaghosa and other Buddhist authors as synonymous. Smrti literally means memory; citta, thought or mentation; and vijnana is generally rendered by consciousness, though not very accurately.
CHAPTER
V.
119
speaking chronology does not apply here, when all "the ten thousand things" of the world have not yet been differentiated and even when the God
who made
where
"created
his
the
heaven and
earth"
debut.
To
is
sense-perceptions
vanish,
and
where we are
a state of absolute
;
unconsciousness. This sounds mystical but fact that in the field of our established
activities
it
is
an
mental
there
is
an
abyss
where consciousness
sometimes
which
arguments. Here is the region where the consciousness of subject and object is completely
but
here
annihilated,
we do
is
not
is
it
The
self
here
lost in the
it
of something
as
to
indescribable, or better,
presence expands so
within
itself,
and
and
is
;
not but
conscious
it
any
merely
of
feels
the
fulness
of
reality
touch
others
celestial
joy
that
cannot be imparted to
by anything human. The most convincing from spiritual insight into the nature of being comes
source.
to
this
Enlightenment
the
actual
is
the
name given by
of
this
insight.
Buddhists
gaining
is
I2O
spiritual
CHAPTER
V.
When
before,
power that brings about this enlightenment the mind emerges from this state of sameness,
it
vanished
the
memory
of the experience so
unique and now confronting the world of contrasts and mutual dependence, in which our empirical ego moves. The transition from one state to the other
is
like
the
of lightning scintilating from behind clouds; though the two, the subliminal and the
a
flash
superficial consciousness,
seem
to
be one continuous
activity, permitting no hiatus between them. At any rate, this awakening of subjectivity and the leaving behind of transmarginal consciousness marks
form of
the
start
of
ignorance.
Therefore,
psychologically
with
being.
the
awakening of consciousness
in a sentient
our intellectual efforts to unravel, which is: How and why has ignorance, or what is tantamount, consciousness,
from
the
absolute
and why have the (gdnti) waves of mentation ever been stirred up in the ocean
of
eternal
tranquillity
?
calmness
How
Acvaghosa
simply
says,
"spontaneously." This by no means explains anything, or at least it is not in the line with our so-called
nor does it give us any reason why. Nevertheless, religiously and practically viewed, "spontaneous" is the most graphic and vigorous
scientific interpretations,
term there
is
CHAPTER
as
is
V.
121
there
they
pass
before
fact,
always
indefinite in
all
our
psychological
With whatever
scientific
accuracy, with whatever objective precision we may describe the phenomena that take place in the mind, there is always something that eludes our scrutiny,
is
too slippery, as
all
it
so that
after
and perspicuous
compelled
reader.
In
our
expositions,
we
are
still
to
leave
much
case
experience
he
we
shall
vainly
hope
the
awaken
degree
in
him the
said
impression
realness
It
is
with
same
of intensity and
for
this
reason
that
Mahayanists declare that the rising of consciousness out of the abysmal depths of Suchness is felt by Buddhas and other enlightened minds only that have
actually
gone
ignorance of Suchness
through the experience. The why of nobody can explain as much as the why
spiritual fact,
But when we personally experience this we no more feel the need of harboring
any doubt about how or why Everything becomes transparent, and the rays of supernatural enlightenment
shine like a halo round our spiritual personality.
We
i.
move
and
e.,
which we
the most
unique
phenomenon
a sentient being.
122
CHAPTER
V.
Evil.
As we cannot
world
is
be other than that of our own mind, that to say, as we cannot think subject and object to
to
different
is
be
our conclusion
of
naturally
that
the
same
principle
Ignorance
phenomena
universe
in
in
its
Suchness
The
entirety
is
an
infinite
ginal
mind, and our limited mind with its transmarconsciousness is a microcosm. What the finite
mind
feels in its
inmost
self,
must
also
be what the
cosmic mind feels, nay, we can go one step further, and say that when the human mind enters the region lying beyond the border of subjectivity and objectivity,
it
is
in
communion with
secrets
whose
between
are
revealed
here
without
reserve.
Therefore,
Buddhism does not make any distinction knowing and being, enlightenment and
Suchness.
When
the
mind
is
free
no more
in
We
the
harmony and even one with Suchness. must, however, remember that ignorance
principle
as
of
individuation
is
and
a
evil.
expression of Suchness,
no moral
kening of subjectivity or the dawn of consciousness forms part of the necessary cosmic process. The
separation
of
of
a phenomenal
world,
is
CHAPTER
of the cosmic
V.
123
performs
the
as well
an
function
is
in
the evolution of
world-totality.
Ignorance
inherent in Buddhas
as
in
all
sentient beings.
Every one of us
world (visaya)
cannot
help
perceiving
an
external
conceptions
We
do not
there is really anything morally wrong, then we cannot do anything with it, we are utterly helpless before it, for it is not our fault, but that of the
cosmic
being.
soul
in
Ignorance
relativity
ably linked with death, congregation with segregation, evolution with involution, attraction with repulsion,
the centripetal with the centrifugal force, the spring
with the
fall,
God
sary
evil,
with
Adam
ad
with
Eve,
Buddha with
Devadatta,
etc.,
ect.,
conditions
the
they must be abolished, and with their abolition very reason of existence is abolished, which
an impossibility as means absolute nothingness, of work as The exist. we ignorance in the world long
of conditional
dhists
Suchness
is
not
contaminated by
Nirvana
to
confused
subjectivity.
Those
who speak
conceive
who
124
CHAPTER
V.
and the happiness of absolute annihilation, are considered by Buddhists to be unable to understand the
significance of Ignorance.
Is
Not
to
It
Ignorance
that
is,
itself,
it,
when we
is
wrong
as
to
and
to
object
final
take
the
work of ignorance
It is
to
stands.
wrong,
thinking that the awakening of consciousness reveals the whole world, to ignore the existence of unseen
realities.
In
short,
evils
quickly
follow
our
steps
when we
without
knowing its true relation to Suchness. Egoism is the most fundamental of all errors and evils.
hindering the light of intelligence from penetrating to the bottom of reality, we usually understand the term ignorance
When we
speak
of
ignorance
as
but
in
the
the
sense
of
confused
subjectivity,
which
conceives
work of Ignorance
egoism. So,
is
as the
final reality
culminating
in
we might
in
philosophically justified,
unenlightened
actualisation
our practical
life
of dire calamities.
CHAPTER
VI.
CUCHNESS
existence,
as
it
is
viewed
manifestation.
as
it
Suchness
the
it
constitutes
reason
is
of
Buddhahood
the
is
it
is
the
Dharma, when
;
considered
norm of
existence
it
is
the Bodhi
when
it
it
the source of
intelligence
Nirvana,
when
it
egoism and
passions
intelligently
directs
it
the
is
course
of
nature;
the
as
Dharmakaya, when
the
religiously
considered
;
fountain-head of love
and wisdom
it
when
is
QunyatH
its
(vacuity),
when viewed
is
as transcending
all
particular
forms
the
summum bonum
(kugalam)^
the
when
ethical
emphasised; phase (paramattha), when its epistemological feature is put forward; the Middle Path (madhyamarga), when it
is
Highest Truth
of
existences;
its
the
Essence
is
of
Being
(bhutakoti),
when
ontological aspect
taken into
126
CHAPTER
VI.
account
gata),
Womb
of Tatha-
when
where
all
is
earth,
all
where
of
And
it
is
that
here
propose
consider
at
some
means Tathagata's
womb d
store,
in
thagatahood remains concealed under the veil of IgnoIt rance. may rightly be called the womb of universe,
The Tathagata-Garbha,
therefore,
may be
explained
by Ignorance and ready to be realised in the world of particulars, that is, when it is about to transform itself
to the duality of subject and object, though there is yet no perceptible manifestation of motility in any
form. Psychologically,
it
is
man
just
karmaic causation
as the
1
coming under the bondage of the law of Though pure and free in its nature
Cf. tt&
(S.
"The Brahman
womb
for
From
things.
all
that,
descendant
E. Vol. VIII, chap. XIV, p. 107): me, in which I cast the seed. is the birth of all of Bharata
!
Of the bodies, son of Kunti which are born from wombs, the main womb is the great Brahman, and I am
!
CHAPTER
VI.
127
is
now
it
influenced
by
organic
determinations.
As
It
it
is,
is
differentiation
and
limitation,
save
that
will,
however, as soon as
form,
laws
unfold
;
is
actualised
in
special
all
its
own
to
is
it
will
its
hunger,
material
desire,
strive,
Xlapndfew and
will
then,
absoffirc^
/
pheno-
menal
Garbha
particularisation.
is
The
minds
here preserved
whenever
its
it
is
always in association with passions and desires that are of Ignorance. read in the frimdld-Sutra : "With the storage
therefore,
is
the
Garbha
We
of passions attached
or,
from the storage of passions is called TathagataGarbha." In Buddhism, passion or desire or sin (kief a) is generally used in contrast to intelligence or Bodhi
or
Nirvana.
a
As
the
latter,
religiously
considered,
represents
particular
manifestation
in the
human
a reflection of universal Ignorance in the microcosm. Therefore, the human soul in which, according to
128
CHAPTER
VI.
be
Garbha
called Alayavijndna.
its
Evolution.
As we have
Soul
is
human mind
of the
Tathagata-Garbha.
It
is
an individual, ideal
this
It is
"psychic germ,"
as
the Alaya
is
^1
the
Mahayanism
is
essentially
idealistic
make
and
thought
and
being,
mind and
nature,
consciousness and energy. Therefore, the being and activity of the Alaya are essentially those of the
as
the
Garbha
is
and Suchness, so is the Alaya the product of desire (klega} and wisdom (bodki). The Garbha and the Alaya, however, are each in
ation of universal Ignorance
itself
innocent
state
existing
condemn
this life
and
reli-
some
is
The
so-called wickIt
edness
is
life.
merely
desire,
superficial.
the
CHAPTER
Bodhi,
VI.
129
or sinful or
evil.
they
cease
to
be
wicked
Says
75)
:
goodness of the Alaya and the Garbha Agvaghosa in his Awakening of Faith
(p.
Ignorance
obtains,
starts
and from non-enlightenment [thus produced] that which sees, that which represents, that
which apprehends an objective world, and that which constantly particularises." Here we have the evolution
of the Garbha in
other
its
psychological manifestation; in
words,
we
have
here
the
evolution
of the
When
its
the
no longer
(samatd)
(visayiri)
;
retains
but there
come
to exist
is
that
which sees
a
seen (visaya),
the
mind
of
interaction
have
now
before
our eyes the entire panorama and noiselessly moving with its never-tiring steps A most favorite simile with Buddhists to illustrate
these
is
incessant
activities
to
compare them
to the
ever rolling in a boundless ocean, while the body of waters which make up the ocean is compared to
Suchness,
up the waves to the principle of birth-and-death or ignorance which So we read in the Lankdvatdra is the same thing
and
the wind
that stirs
Sutra
I3O
CHAPTER
VI.
Without interruption;
Even so
in the
Alaya-sea
But
full
all
thus
as different
in
the
Mind
(citta)
itself.
It
is
merely
the nature of
our understanding that we think of attributes apart from their substance, the latter being imagined to be in possession and control of the former. There
is,
however,
its
in fact
of
attributes,
conceptions
of Buddhism,
no
soul-
in-itself
considered apart
from
various manifesta-
tions
etc.
such as imagination, sensation, intellectuation, The innumerable ripples and waves and billows
that
of mentation
are
stirred in
Tathagata-Garbha, are not things foreign or external to it, but they are all particular expressions of the
same essence, they are working out its immanent destiny. So continues the Lankdvatdra Sutra
:
This
is
translated from
:
the Chinese of
Qksananda; the
"Taranga hi udadher yadvat pavanapratyaya irita, Nrtyamanah pravartante vyucchedag ca na vidhyate Alayodhyas tatha nityam visayapavana iritah, Cittais tarangavijnanair nrtyamanah pravartate."
CHAPTER
VI.
131
"The saline crystal and its red-bluishness, The milky sap and its sweetness,
Various flowers and their fruits, The sun and the moon and their luminosity These are neither separable nor inseparable.
:
As waves are stirred in the water, Even so the seven modes of mentation Are awakened in the Mind and united with
it.
When
We
the waters are troubled in the ocean, have waves that roll each in its own way:
stirred, therein diverse mentations arise Manas, and Manovijfiana.
:
When
Citta,
These we distinguish as attributes, In substance they differ not from each other
For they are neither attributing nor attributed. The sea-water and the waves, One varies not from the other: It is even so with the Mind and its activities Between them difference nowhere obtains.
;
Citta
is
Manas
reflects
Manovijfiana
The
1
five
From
the Chinese.
:
The
tha lavane gankhe ksire ca carkare, Kasayaih phalapuspadyaih kirana yatha bhaskare No nyena ca nananyena taranga hi udadher mata VijSanani tatha sapta, cittena saha samyukta.
"Nile rakte
'
Udadheh parinamo sau taranganam vicitrata, Alayam hi tatha cittam vijnanakhyam pravartate; Cittam manac ca vijfianam laksanartham prakalpyate
'
na laksya na ca laksana. Udadhec. ca taranganam yatha nasti vigesana. Vijnananam tatha citte parinamo na labhyate. Cittena ciyate karmah, manasa ca viciyate,
Abhinna laksana
hi astau
Vijnanena
vijanati,
The Manas.
The
Alayavijfiana
which
is
sometimes, as
called
in
the
as such,
itself to
citta (mind),
death,
i.
place as yet
no "awakening" or
"stirring
up"
the
(vttti),
When
Manas
to
by
the
in the
its
reason of consciousness
reflects
on
it
as well as on
world,
and becomes
conscious
of the
this
distinction
between
me and
is
not- me.
But since
of the Alaya
itself,
the
Manas must be
it
be
self-reflecting,
when
If the Alaya ject and object. of itself, the Manas is, as the
latter
comes
is
to realise
The Alaya
to
be
compared
center
in
sense
the
Manas
is
the
of self-consciousness.
(or Citta) are not
two
one
is
created
by the
other.
It
is
better to under-
CHAPTER
VI.
133
Now, the
capable
to
Manas
volition.
is
not only
contemplative, but
to cling
of
It
the
state
of
individuation,
;
harbors
egoism,
:
passion,
and
the
prejudice
it
wills
and creates
is
for
Ignorance,
principle of birth-and-death,
there
here
forever
Therefore,
the
Manas
really
particularising
Conserving Mind. The mind which was hitherto indifferent and neutral here acquires a full consciousness
;
ego and non-ego; feels pain and pleasure clings to that which is agreeable and shrinks from that which is disagreeable urges activities
discriminates
between
according to judgments, false or truthful; memorises in what has been experienced, and stores it all:
mentation come into play with the awakening of the Manas. According to Agvaghosa, with the evolution of
short,
all
the
modes
of
the
Manas
there
arise
five
activities
which characterise
motility
(2)
;
the
are
( i )
that
is
the capability of
(3)
karma;
to
(5)
the
(4)
power
the
to perceive;
the
power
;
respond
power
able
to
discriminate
and
individuality.
functions,
to
its
the
Through Manas is
create
according
will,
134
over
to
CHAPTER
VI.
what
retain
it
likes
its
and what
it
dislikes,
and
the
finally
all
own "karma-seeds"
for
in
past
to
the
future,
according
evolution of
complete. Practically,
it
is
the
consummaripe
is
now.
The
can affirm
intellect
its
and the
can exercise
discriminating, rea-
soning, and image-retaining faculties. The Manas now becomes the center of psychic coordination. It receiv-
messages from the six senses and pronounces over the impressions whatever judgments, intellectual or volitional, which are needed at the time for its
es
own
and,
conservation.
It
also reflects
on
its
own sanctum,
the
perceiving
there
to
the
presence
of
Alaya,
lies wrongfully jumps the real, ultimate ego-soul, from which it derives the notions of authority, unity, and permanency. As is evident, the Manas is a double-edged sword.
It
may
destroy
itself
it
by
conception, or
reasoning faculty, destroy all the misconceptions that arise from a wrong interpretation of the principle of
The Manas destroys itself by being overwhelmed by the dualism of ego and alter, by taking them for final, irreducible realities, and by thus fosIgnorance.
tering absolute ego-centric thoughts
and
desires,
and by
making
itself
religiously
a willing prey of an indomitable egoism, and morally. On the other hand, when it
CHAPTER
VI.
135
of individuals,
in the
when
it
dualism of
d'etre
i.
me and
of
e.,
not-me, when
in
it
the
raison
existence
in
is
the
recognises essence of
it
Tathagatahood,
that
Suchness,
when
realises
is
the
Alaya which
cosmic
no
reflection
Garbha,
at
once
transcends the
evil
faulty
in
the
dualism of subject and object, in the individualising operation of birth-and-death (samsdra), only so long
as
our
of false egoism.
ates every fiber
The
gravest error, however, permeof our mind with all its wickedness
and
irrationality, as
of the evolthe
A little digression here. It has frequently been affirmed of the ethics of Mahayanism that as it has a nihilistic tendency its morality turns towards asceticism ignoring the significance
of the sentiment
and
instinct
It
is
true
that
Mahayanism
:
perfectly agrees with Vedantism "If the killer thinks that he kills,
is
when
if
;
killed,
is
for this
nor
II
in non-action (Laotzean
Wu
istence of a world of relativity, but he will be a superficial critic who will stop short at this absolute aspect of Mahayana
136
CHAPTER
VI.
denies the
existence of a personal ego which is imagined to be lodging within the body and to be the spiritual master
of
does not necessarily follow that it denies the unity of consciousness or personality or individuality.
it,
it
In fact, the
most
a
sense,
is
facts
What
to
is
most
persistently
its
negated by them
final,
ultimate
fully
reality.
But
discuss
this
subject
more
to
we have
a special
"Atman."
The Samkhya Philosophy and Mahayanism
If
we draw
and
comparison
philosophy
Mahayanism,
may
philosophy and refuses to consider its practical side. As we have seen above, Buddhists do not conceive the evolution of the Manovijnana as a fault on the part of the cosmic mind, nor do they think the assertion of Ignorance altogether wrong and morally evil. Therefore, Mahayanism does not deny the claim of reality to the world of the senses, though of course relatively, and not absolutely. Again, "Tat tvam asi" (thou art it) or "I am the Buddha"
this assertion, though arrogant it may seem to some, is perfectly justifiable in the realm of absolute identity, where the serene light of Suchness alone pervades. But when we
practical,
descend on earth and commingle in the hurly-burly of our dualistic life, we cannot help suffering from its
limitations.
mundane
We
we
hunger,
feel
we
thirst,
we
grieve at the
CHAPTER
VI.
137
(purusa)
be
considered
an
unification of Soul
and
Buddhi
(intellect)
or
Mahat
Ahankara
(ego).
while
of
Purusa
is
witnessing
perceiving (drastttva).
philosopher
Prakrti
would
will
;
the
in
blended
Geist
one, they
(unconscious
is
Mahayanism does not teach the annihilation of those human passions and feelings. There was once a recluse-philosopher, who was considered
by the
villagers
to
desires and
human
have completely vanquished all natural ambitions They almost worshipped him
and thought him to be superhuman. One day early in Winter, a devotee approached him and reverentially inquired after his health. The sage at once responded in verse
:
"A hermit truly I am, world-renounced Yet when the ground is white with snow,
;
chill
goes through
me and
shiver."
A
so
false
many
into
conception of religious saintliness as cherished by pious-hearted, but withal ignorant, minds, has led
them
still
superstitions,
whose curse
is
Our earthly life has so many lingering even among us. The ills that the flesh is heir to limitations and tribulations.
must be relieved by some material,
scientific
methods.
138
CHAPTER
to
VI.
corresponds
activity.
the
will
as
the
principle
is
of
blind
The
Samkhya
philosophy
an
avowed
dualism
independent of each other. Mahayanism is fundamentally monistic and .makes Ignorance merely a condition
necessary
to the unfolding of Suchness
splits into two,
*
Therefore,
Mahayanism puts
the
between
Buddhi,
Manovijnana,
is
intellect,
de-
adhyavasdya (Kdrika, 23), while Ahankara interpreted as abhimanas (Kdrika, 24), which is
as
evidently self-consciousness.
As
to the exact
meaning
:
of adhyavasdya,
there
is
divergence
the
of opinion
"ascertainment,"
"judgment,"
"determination,"
"ap-
are
some
of
English
equivalents
of Buddhi
clear
enough
it
indicates the
rationality,
awakening of knowlthe
first
edge, the
light
dawn of
commentators give as the synonyms mati (understandthe jndnam, prajnd, etc or intelliwhich mean these, knowledge gence, being also technical terms of Mahayanism. And, as we have seen above, these senses are what the
ing),
khydti
(cognition),
last
two of
Buddhists
1
give
to
their
That the Buddhist Ignorance corresponds to the Samkhya Prakrti can be seen also from the fact that some Samkhya commentators give to Prakrti as its synonyms such terms as fdktt (energy) which reminds of karma or sankara, tamas (darkness), mayd, and even the very word avidya (ignorance)
CHAPTER
latter
VI.
139
of discriminating
in
addition
has
the faculty
between teum and meum, while in the Samkhya this is reserved for Ahankara. Thus, here, too, in place
of the
Samkhya
point
dualism,
Another
that
Samkhya philosophy
pluralises
the Soul (purusa, Kdrika, 18), while Buddhism postulates one universal Citta or Alaya. According to
the followers of Kapila,
therefore,
there must be as
many
souls
as
there
are
individuals,
and
at
every
must be
assumed a corresponding soul passing away or coming into existence, though we do not know its whence
and whither. Buddhism, on the other hand, denies the existence of any individual mind apart from the AllConserving Mind (Alaya] which
ality first
is
universal. Individu-
The
appears awakening of the Manovijnana. quintessence of the Mind is Suchness and is not
at the
But as
soon
as
it
it
asserts
in
the
world
and,
'
of particularisation,
negates
thereby,
becoming
specialised,
gives rise
to individual souls
1
oneness of the Alaya or Citta (mind) not be acceptable to some Mahayanists, particularly to those who advocate the Yogacara philosophy but the present
may
author
typical
is
here trying to expound a more orthodox and more and therefore more widely-recognised doctrine of
i.
Mahayanism,
e..
that of Acvaghosa.
CHAPTER
VII.
am
of
the philosophy
all
indeed, of
would sug-
(2) All
(3) All
(4)
is
is
All
is
These four
tenets, as
or
fall,
they
all
inevitably share
different
fate together.
Whatever
may
hold on
concur at least
Of these
four
propositions,
the
first,
the second,
and the fourth have been elucidated above, more or If the existence of a relative world less explicitly.
is
as
such has no
final
;
illusory
though account
does
life
not
is
necessarily
follow
that
our
not worth
living.
We
must not
CHAPTER
confuse
tological
VII.
141
the
moral
value
problem of its phenomenality. It all depends on our subjective attitude whether or not our world and life become full of significance When the illusiveness or phenomenality of individual existences
is
use the world accordingly, that is, granted "as not abusing it," we escape the error and curse of egoism and take things as they are presented to
us, as
and we
reflecting
the
Dharma
of
of Suchness.
as
We
no
more
cling
to
forms
particularity
something
life.
We
their
take
them
for such as
recognise
realisation of
Such-
further.
Suchness, indeed,
them,
Things are empty and illusory so long as they are particular things and are not thought of in reference to the All that is Suchness and Reality.
in them.
From
this,
it
logically
of relativity
all is
Even independently
self-evident
made above,
is
an almost
not
require
any
its
validity.
The
desire
immortality
which
is
so
opment of the
desire
has
been thought
142
religious
CHAPTER
systems,
is.
VII.
things
on
this
earth
constant
flux
of
becoming,
stationary
people
If
that there is nothing permanent or our individual existences; if otherwise, would never have sought for immortality.
in
and
this
be
granted
as
fact
of
our
everyday
experience,
we
naturally
is
ask:
"Why
fleeting?
are things so
changeable?
that
this,
is
Why
life
so
What
is
it
makes
mutable and transitory?" To things the Buddhist's answer is: Because the universe
so
resultant
product of
many
are
destiny
no
over
its
the according to different karmas those forces being that no one force or one set of forces can constantly be predominant
acting
of
all
potential
karma,
universal
it
is
has
been steadily
coming forward
cadence
of
meantime.
Hence the
Where
there
there
is
is
there
force,
is
is
repulsion;
where
the
centripetal
there
is
the
centrifugal
force.
Because
it
the
law
the
of
karma
that
at the very
moment
neck
of
of birth
life.
The
to
universe
rhythmic
in
manifestation
their
of
certain
working
conformity predetermined laws; or, to use Buddhist terminology, this lokadhdtu (material world) consists in a concatenation of hetus (causes)
their
karma.
CHAPTER
If
VII.
143
this
were not
of
so, there
which perfect equilibrium things would be maintained, or an inexpressible confusion of things of which no knowledge or experience
fixed
state
in
would
have
latter
be possible.
universal
case,
In
the
former case,
we
should
varieties
cannot
be
otherwise
than
in a state of
constant
vicissitudes
transitoriness.
Now,
non-ego
relations
the
is
argument
for
the
theory of
are due to
this
If
individual existences
obtaining
in
between diverse
unison
with
forces,
which
in
act
sometimes
and
sometimes
opposition to one another as predetermined by their karma, they cannot be said to have any transcendental
agency behind them, which is a permanent unity and absolute dictator. In other words, there is no
atman
no
or
thing-in-itself
(svabhdva),
so
to
speak,
behind
each particular form of existence. This is called the Buddhist theory of non-atman or non-ego.
Atman
Buddhists
first,
1
in
two senses
and secondly,
in
Pudgala or pudgalasamjna
yanists as a
synonym
of atman.
in the
144
that
CHAPTER
of
VII.
thing-in-itself, perhaps,
cation
of
its
commonly
"atman
"
use
the
term
to
here
for
first
sense
first
as
to
equivalent
bhutalman,
we
are going
and
later of that of
Atman
and
is
is
'
technical
term
used
both
by Vedanta
have
to note
in
philosophers
at
and
Buddhists.
that they
But we
the
beginning
the
When
later one,
is
self
is
which
used
not
in its
does
mean
sense of ego-substratum may be considered to correspond to the Vedantist Jivatman, which is used in contradistinction to
characteristic of
Mahayana Buddhists generally understand the essential atman to consist in freedom, and by freedom
they
mean
eternality,
is
A
is
absolute unity, and supreme authority. transitory is not free, as it is conditioned by and therefore it has no atman. being that
an aggregate
of elemental
matter or
forms of energy
is
not absolute, for it is a state of mutual relationship, and therefore it has no atman. Again, a being that has no authoritative command over itself and other beings, is not free, for
be subjected to a power other than itself, and therehas no atman. Now, take anything that we come across in this world of particulars and does it not possess one or all of these three qualities transitoriness, compositeness, and helplessness or dependence ? Therefore, all concrete individual existences not excepting human beings have no atman, have no ego, that is eternal, absolute, and supreme.
it
will
fore
it
CHAPTER
VII.
145
commonly understood by
hand,
vulgar minds.
On
the other
Buddhists
understand
by atman
this vulgar,
conception of the soul (bkutdtman] and denies its existence as such. If we, for positively convenience' sake, distinguish between phenomenal
materialistic
and noumenal
a
in
our
is
notion
of ego
or
soul, the
atman of Buddhism
is
thinking,
is
noumenal ego as the raison d' etre of our psychical life. The one is in fact material, however
ethereal
it
is
metaphysical
a highly reach of
human
discursive
knowledge.
The
latter
may
be
identified
with
Jivatman.
Paramatman
to
according
phenomena,
Jivatman
people mental
is
world
of
may be
said
Buddhism.
the ego-soul as
it is
conceived by ignorant
directing
all
as
an
independent
It
is
entity
latter
the
activities.
this
atman
that
was
transmigrate,
rest,
hath been
my
fate,
10
146
CHAPTER
"Tent-designer!
I
VII.
know
art
thee now;
thou
Quite out are all thy joyful fires, Rafter broken and roof-tree gone,
Gain eternity
dead
desires."
\
in
Buddhism
the
all
evils
and sufferings
vulgar
material
its
conception
ethical
of the ego-soul,
force
and concentrates
upon the destruction of the ego-centric notions and desires. The Buddha seems, since the beginning of his wan-
entire
dering life, to have conceived the idea that the way of salvation must lie somehow in the removal of
this
egoistic
prejudice,
its
for
so
long
as
we
are not
liberated
from
curse
we
are liable to
:
become
the
covetousness,
and anger, and to suffer the misery of birth and death and disease and old age. Thus, when he received his first instructions from the Samkhya
philosopher,
satisfied,
because he
did
abandon
embodied
2
earnest search after the ego that was supposed to be snugly sitting behind our mental experiences, and the result was
this utterance.
by A. J. Edmunds. term of Samkhya Prakrtivikrtayas. philosophy and means the modes of Prakrti, as evolved from See Satis Chandra Banarji, it and as further evolving on.
1
The Dharmapada,
vs.
153
154. Tr.
This
is
a technical
Samkhya-Phzlosophy,
p.
XXXIII
et seq.
CHAPTER
is
still
VII.
147
of
birth
subject
to
the
condition
and has
dor-
the
condition of a seed.
as
it
mant so long
is
of coming into contact with the requisite conditions of quickening and being quickened, but since its germinating power has not been destroyed, it will
surely
develop
into
all
its
potentialities as
soon as
it
is
brought
the
that
free
necessary
contact.
Even though
[i.
e.
from the
liberated, yet,
long
as
the
ego-soul
1
absolute
abandonment of
there
can be no real
through which he reached his final conclusion and declares: "There is no real separation of the qualities and their subject for fire cannot be conceived apart
;
from
its
heat
carried
and form."
out,
it
When
this
argument
is
logically
leads
nowhere but
that
to the
Buddhist
existence
from sensation, perception, imagination, intelligence, volition, etc., and, therefore, it is absurd to think
that
there
is
an
independent
an
individual
its
soul-agent
To
from
that
imagine
its
that
object
qualities,
is
there
in
1 The passages quoted here as well as one in the next paragraph are taken from A^vaghosa's Buddhacarita.
148
possession
CHAPTER
of
VII.
such
and
it
such
characteristic
itself
marks by
(laksana)
whereby
makes
perceivable
our senses, says Buddhism, is wrong and unwarranted by reason. Fire cannot be conceived apart from its
form and heat; waves cannot be conceived apart from the water and its commotion the wheel cannot
;
exist outside of
its
thus,
are
made
and conditions,
is
impossible
for
our
pudgala
or atman or ego or
soul
of things.
Let
me
in
this
connection
state
an
interesting
the
second patriarch
of the
Dhyana
sect in China,
this
He was
at
Confucianism
His
soul
did not
was wavering between agnosticism and scepticism, and consequently he felt an unspeakable
anguish in his inmost heart. When he learned of the arrival of Bodhidharma in his country, he hastened
to his monastery
spiritual
advice.
and implored him to give him some But Bodhidharma did not utter a
word,
tation.
being
from him some religious instructions at all hazards. So it is reported that he was standing at the same
his
spot seven days and nights, when he at last cut off left arm with the sword he was carrying (being
CHAPTER
a military officer) and placed "This arm is a token of
instructed in the
VII.
149
:
it
Holy Doctrine. My soul is troubled and annoyed; pray let your grace show me the way to pacify it." Dharma quietly arose from his meditation
and said:
I
"Where
it
and
will
have
been searching
succeeded
exclaimed:
this,
it
for
all
have never
in
laying
I
hand on
it."
Dharma then
"There,
is
across
the
"soul
M/
was
The Skandhas.
When
in the
their previous
the five skandhas are combined according to karma and present a temporal existence
by
an
ego-substratum. In fact, the material body (rupakaya) alone is not what makes the egosoul, nor the sensation (vedana), nor the deeds (sanskara),
immortal
nor the consciousness (vifndna), nor the conception (samjna) but only when they are all combined
;
in
this
form they make a sentient being. Yet combination is not the work of a certain indecertain
pendent entity, which, according to its own will, combines the five skandhas in one form and then
hides itself in
it.
The combination of
the constituent
I5O
elements,
selves
CHAPTER
VII.
Buddhism
their
declares,
is
after
karma.
When
a certain
achieved by themnumber of
atoms of hydrogen and of oxygen are brought together, they attract each other on their own accord
or
owing to
the
their
the
result
is
water.
to
The ego
is
bring
out of
them. Even so
skandhas.
Skandha (khanda
or
in Pali) literally
means "aggregate'
"aglomeration",
it
exegetists,
is
existence
is
an
according to the Chinese called so, because our personal aggregate of the five constituent
and,
individual
elements of being, because it comes to take a definite form when the skandhas are brought together according to their previous karma. The first of the
five
aggregates
is
is
ity
The
material
of our existence in the five sense-organs called indryas: eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and the body.
part
is
called
sensation
or sense-
results
The
third
is
called
is
to our conception.
It
we
ticular objects.
The
fourth
is
CHAPTER
VII.
151
disagreeable
acts
bear
fruit
in
the
coming
generations.
(caitta)
and non-mental
(cittavi:
And
the
mental
is
good
(kugala], tormenting
(aku$ala),
and
indefinite
enumerate what
light on the practical ethics of Buddhism. There are ten fundamental sanskaras
to
the
cetana
(desire),
tion),
(mentation),
4.
6.
manaskara
(concentration),
8.
7.
adhimoksa
(unfettered intelligence),
samadhi
I.
("meditation).
(faith), 2.
The
virya
ten
graddha
3. upeksa (complacency), apatrapa (shame), 6 alobha (non-covetousness), 7. advesa (freedom from hatred), 8. ahimsa (gentleness of heart), 9. pragradbhi (mental repose), 10. apramada
(energy),
5.
4. hri (modesty),
(attentiveness).
follows
3.
kausidya
styana (sloth-
ahrtkata,
state
not
being
modest,
or
arrogance,
or self-
152
assertiveness,
CHAPTER
VII.
and
2.
or to be without conscience.
The
(anger),
liness),
krodha
mraksa
irsya
(secretiveness), 3.
matsarya (niggard6.
4.
(envy),
7.
5.
pradaga (uneasiness),
(malignity), 8.
vihimsa (noxiousness),
(trickiness), 9.
upanaha
may
cathya (dishonesty), 10. mada (arrogance). The eight indefinite sanskaras are: I kaukrtya (repent.
ance),
2.
middha
5.
(sleep),
(investigation),
7.
raga (excitement),
6.
pratigha (wrath),
mana (self-reliance), 8. vicikitsS. (doubting). The second grand category of sanskara which
:
is
not included under "mental" or "psychic," comprises fourteen items as follows I prapti (attainment), 2.
.
aprapti
(non-attainment),
3.
sabhagata (grouping), 4
asanjfiika
sthiti
(existing),
10. jara
(decadence),
n.
namakaya
(name),
13.
padakaya
return
to
vyanjanakaya
fifth
(sentence).
Now,
skandha
to
is
the
called vijnana,
commonly rendered
is
consci-
not quite correct. The ousness, which, however, vijnana is intelligence or mentality, it is the psychic
power of
be
discrimination,
and
in
many
are,
:
cases
it
can
to
translated
by
sense.
There
according
Hinayanists,
six
vijnanas or senses
visual, auditory,
;
and cogitative
according
CHAPTER
to
VII.
153
:
eight vijnanas
the manovij-
This psychological phase of Mahayana philosophy principally worked out by the Yogacara school,
abounds with expositions of the doctrine of non-ego, as it is one of the most important foundation-stones
on which the magnificent temple of Buddhism is built. The dialogue * between King Milinda and Nagasena,
among many
reasons and
the
following
others,
full
discussion of theirs concerning the of problem ego abstracted from the Dialogue. At their first meeting the King asks Nagasena,
monk-philosopher replies: I am known as Nagasena, and it is by that name that my brethren in the faith address me. But although parents give
this the
"How To
is
such
name
as
Nagasena,
or Surasena, Virasena,
is
only a
common
For there
is
no permanent
surprised
matter."
Being
1
greatly
by
this
Vol.
XXXV.
154
volleys
"If
CHAPTER
VII.
upon Nagasena a series of questions as follows there be no permanent self involved in the matter,
:
who
saries
is
it,
pray,
Order your
for
you members of the robes and food and lodging and necesgives to
who
the
sick?
things
when given?
?
Who Who
is
it
is
it
who who
Way, to the Nirvana of Arhatship? And who destroys living creatures? who is it takes what is not his own? who is it who lives an evil life of worldly lusts, who speaks lies, who drinks strong drink, who in a word commits any one
it
of
the
in
five
this
sins
life?
which
If
work out
be
is
even
merit
that
so,
there
is
neither
nor
dement;
there
If
we
are to think
were a
l
man
it
to
kill
you
there
would be no
murder,
then
You
is
tell
me
Order
you
as Nagasena.
Now,
what
that
is
Nagasena?
Do you mean
to say that
the hair
Nagasena?"
query being denied by the Buddhist sage,
asks:
This
the
last
King
"Or
is
it
the
nails,
This reminds
us of the
cf.
the footnote to
CHAPTER
the the
VII.
155
heart,
liver,
the
sweat,
the the
fat,
mucus,
"Is
oil
of these, that
is
is
Nagasena ?
Nagasena, or the
?"
sensations,
Nagasena
in
To
a
thus,
all
uniform
exclaims
1
excitement
ask as
is
may,
can
discover
"Then, no Nagasena.
:
Nagasena
Nagasena
that your
a mere
empty sound.
?
l
Who
It
is
then
is
the
that
we
see before us
a falsehood
Reverence has spoken, an untruth?" Nagasena does not give any direct answer, but
quietly proposes
Ascertaining that
philosopher,
he
"Is
it
the
wheel,
or
the
To
is
this,
on
1
the king says, "No," and continues "It account of its having all these things that it
:
As cited elsewhere, Bodhi-Dharma of when questioned in a similar way, replied, Walt Whitman echoes the same sentiment
lines:
the
"I
in
Dhyana
sect,
do not know."
the lollowing
to
"A
child said,
full
How
fetching
it
me
with
it
is,
156
CHAPTER
VII.
comes
under
in
the
generally
understood
term,
the
designation
common
use, of 'chariot.'"
grasped the
it
meaning of
of
'chariot.'
And
just
even
so
is
on account
body,
and the
that
five
I
skandhas
elements
of being)
come under
in
the
common
Then,
passage
the
designation
from
by the
its
condition
precedent
of the co-existence of
'chariot' is used, just
word
so
is
that
when
we
talk
of a 'being.'"
* *
To
earlier
non-atman from
Buddhist
literature,
let
me
:
The Bodhisattva
a drink
of
you have
the forest?"
The
is
him
in his
words "What
:
the Ganges
Is
Is
the water
Is
the
further
Is
the
"If
CHAPTER
water,
VII.
157
the
sand,
the
hither
find
Following
is
this
Ananda's Attempts
In
to
the
Surangama Sutra
people
will
in personal immortality,
chimerical
and
logically
it
untenable
critically
their
notion
of
the
soul,
when
is
examined as
Ananda's
conception of the soul is somewhat puerile, but I doubt whether even in our enlightened age the belief
There seem to be two Chinese translations of this Sutra, one by Kumarajiva and the other by Paramartha, but appar1
ently they are different texts bearing the same title. Besides these two, there is another text entirely in Chinese transliteration. Owing to insufficiency of material at my disposal
I cannot say anything definite about the identity or diversity of these documents. The following discussion that is reported to have taken place between the Buddha and
here,
Ananda
fasciculi
is
first
of Paramartha's
translation.
Beal
his
from
first
-369)
Though
this
translation
may
is
158
entertained
CHAPTER
VII.
by the multitude
by the
the
is
his.
When
body.
ligent
is
it
questioned
Buddha
as to the locality
of the soul,
Ananda
asserts that
Thereupon,
soul
it
Buddha
that
resides within your corporeal body, how does not see your inside first ? To illustrate,
first in
what we
see
and
it
is
only when
and woods.
impossible
the
for
us
who
to
see
outside
in
Reasoning
that
is
similar way,
why does
the
considered
to
be
within
If
however
it
to
solve
the
problem by
says that the
He
is
Where
within
the
the
light
shines
everything
visible,
but
room
here
therefore
prevails
nothing
of
the
body.
But the
Buddha argues
felt
that
"it
is
If so,
what the
may
not
be
the
is
is
body feels may not be felt by the no relationship between the two. The
that
however,
my hand thus stretched, you are conscious that you have the perception of
see
CHAPTER
it.
VII.
159
As
far as there is a
soul
the
The
the
is
that
soul
hides
a
just
man
why
says
it
is
that
it
resides
But
over
the
Buddha:
perceive
is
''When we have a
lens
an
eye,
we
If
outside world.
the soul
it
not see the sense-organ itself? organ, why As it does not in fact, it cannot be residing in the
place
does
you mention."
theory. "Within,
:
stomach,
orifices.
liver,
heart,
etc.
without,
we have we have so
many
is
Where
darkness;
light.
but where we have openings, there is the Close eyes and the soul sees the darkness
inside.
Open
the
eyes
and
it
sees
the brightness
outside.
What do you
says:
see
eyes
are
you consider
your
this
or not? In the
wherever there
impossible,
for seeing presupposes the existence of subject and object. Besides this, there is another difficulty. Grant-
l6o
CHAPTER
VII.
your supposition that the ejte could turn itself inward or outward and see the darkness of the
ing
interior
or
the
brightness
it
could also see your own face when the eye is opened. If it could not do so, it must be said to be incapable
of turning the sight inward."
The
the
ence,
fifth
is
is
that
soul
which
but
it
not
middle,
which
comes
the
into
actual
existence as
it
soon
as
confronts
is
taught by the Buddha that the world exists on account of the mind and the mind on account of the world.
To
comes
an
this
the the
Buddha
soul
replies:
"According to your
it
argument,
tact cannot
must be
in contact
a contact with the external world, but assuredly before the contact. Granting this, we come back again to the
old
side,
difficulties
Does the soul come out of your inor does it come in from the outside? In case
:
of the
its
first
to see
is
eyes,
and the soul has nothing to do with it." The Buddha objects "If so, a dead man has eyes l He must be able just as perfect as a living man.
Cf the following which is extracted from the Questions of King Milinda (Sacred Books of the East, vol. XXXV,
1
CHAPTER
to see things, but
if
VII.
l6l
he sees at
all,
he cannot be dead.
Well,
if
should
it
it
your be
Should
be thought of as
the
If it
only
in a particular spot
a simple unit,
when
one
of your limbs is touched, all the four will at once be conscious of the touch, which really means no touch. If the soul is a compound body, how can
it
it
is
filling
the
body
all
over,
must be the case according to the first of a simple soul-unit. Finally, if it occusupposition pies only a particular part of the body, you may exsensation, as
perience
certain
feelings
all
All
experience and cannot be logically maintained." For the sixth time, Ananda ventures to untie the
be
Gordian knot of the soul-problem. "As the soul cannot located neither within nor without, it must be
in the middle."
somewhere
Should
re-
extremely
indefinite.
be
located
?
as a point in space or
some-
If it is
of the eye were thrown down [if the eye were plucked out] could it stretch out its head, as it were, through the larger aperture and [with greater range] see forms much more clearly than before? Could one hear
this,
if
the door
sounds better
destroyed?"
if
off,
or taste better
if
the
body were
62
is
is
CHAPTER
not
the
VII.
it
middle;
If
it
if
it
is
in
the
body,
it
then within.
is
said to
occupy a point in
space,
how
an indication, a point is no point; and if an indication is needed, it can be fixed anywhere arbitrarily,
will
be no end of confusion."
Ananda
this
mean
kind of "middle."
in their interac-
tion; and then it is said that there exists a soul. Says the Buddha: "If the soul, as you say, exists
in the relation
their
respective sense-objects (visaya), should we consider the soul as uniting and partaking the natures
of these two incongruous things, visaya and indrya? If the soul partakes something of each, it has no
own.
If it
unites the
more.
'In
the middle'
is
is
to
between the
indryas and the visayas is to make it an airy nothing." The seventh and final hypothesis offered by Ananda is that the soul is the state of non-attachment, and that,
therefore,
it
has
this
no particular
is
locality in
which
it
abides.
by the "Attachment presupposes the existence of beings to which a mind may be attached.
But
Buddha who
declares:
CHAPTER
VII.
163
the
If
not
exist,
is
there
nothing to attach
the external
how can we manage not to come in it ? When we say that things are devoid
it
characteristic marks,
tion
that
they
are
non-existent.
Now, the external world some marks (laksana) and it must by certainly be considered as existing. There then is all means no room for your theory of non-attachment." At this, Ananda surrenders and the Buddha discloses
has
his
theory
of Dharmakaya, which
in the
we
shall
expound
it.
at some length
By way
so-called
of a
summary
ego
of the above
let
me remark
to
contradistinction
the
latter
to
the
on the Yogacara's idealistic philosophy declares that the existence of atman and dharma is only hy-
and not in any sense in modern terms, this To ultimate. and real express the soul and the world, or subject and object, have only relative existence, and no absolute reality can
pothetical, provisional, apparent,
64
CHAPTER
VII.
be
one of us has an ego or soul which means the unity of consciousness; and physically, this world of phe-
nomena
or
is
one energy
is
con-
sidered
by
physicists.
To
what
confine ourselves to the psychological question, Buddhism most emphatically insists on is the
non-existence
soul-substance,
of
concrete,
individual,
is
irreducible
whose immortality
so
much coveted
by most unenlightened people. Individuation is only not absolute. Buddhism knows how relative and
far
the
principle
out,
c6uld
its
safely
and
consistently
be
carried
to
and
where
some
of
incapacitates
the
eternal
sunshine
immortality
which
strangely
sought
life
after
its
by some people;
to trace this
it
so much mundane
to
fountainhead of which
drinks so freely,
to rise rejuvenated
from the
To
a mysterious something behind the empirical ego and that this something comes out triumphantly after
the fashion of the immortal phoenix from the funeral
pyre of corporeality,
is
not Buddhistic.
in
What
CHAPTER
VTI.
165
problem of the soul, is its relation to that of Alayavijnana, of which it is said that the Buddha was very
reluctant to talk, on account of
founded with
was explained,
our individual empirical souls are considered to have evolved. The Manas which is the first offspring of
the
Alaya is endowed with the faculty of discrimination, and from the wrongful use of this faculty
there arises in the
as the ego,
Alaya, however, is not a particular phenomefor it is a state of Suchnes's in its non, evolutionary
disposition
The
in
it
yet to suggest
its
concrete individuality.
error
When
the
Manas
and
lifts
it
body
ulis
of
the Alaya,
Atman and
the
"Old Man."
:
"Put away your exclaim an empty notion, a mere word ego without reality," some of our Christian readers may
the
When
Buddhists
is
if
there
or
is
no ego, what
will
become of
this point
our
will
personality
individuality?
as
Though
let
become
that
clearer
we
proceed,
us remark
the
Christian
notion
of
"flesh" or the
66
CHAPTER
VII.
"old
acts.
man,"
I
which
:
is
the
source
of
all
our sinful
;
Says Paul
live
life
;
"I
am
not
1
neverin
theless
yet
me
and the
which
live
Son of
(Gal.
live
by
is
loved
me and
gave
himself for
interpreted
hilated
m."
by
ii,
When
is
this
passage
through
our
false
is
notion of
an ego-soul (atman)
the grace of
living
through
God
is
Dharmakaya.
When
contrast
Christians
and advise
put the spirit and the flesh in us to "walk in the spirit" and
it
not
must be said
by the
flesh
predominantly
and by the spirit, that which transcends particularity and egoism; for "love, joy, peace, longindividual,
suffering, faith,
made
Buddhism
is
more
intellectual
than
popular language which leads often to confusion. Compared with the Buddhists' conception of tman, the
"flesh"
lacks
in
perspicuity
speak
of
its
dualistic
tendency which
extremely
CHAPTER
VII.
167
Though
to
acknowledge
its
importance
in
our religious
life.
Having grown
in
the
same
soil
under similar
is
cir-
taken from
supposed
to
be a Vedantic
work,
like
Upagama
:
P.,
ch.
sounds almost
Buddhistic
"I
am
free
absolute,
am
am
art
thou that
unreal
1
am
not
bound by
the
body
like?
Where shall we conargues so to be residing in this called, ego-soul, of flesh and bones? and what does it look
then
:
We
to
move our
vital
is
limbs,
(vdtd].
but
the
movement
is
due
the
airs
We
of
sciousness
(mahacitta).
to
manifestation
the
great
mind
We
the
body
to
imagine
flesh
is
constitute
thing,
The
The
one
the
blood
another,
and so
vitality (spandd}.
mind
'smi
asanmaya
(31)
68
CHAPTER
VII,
thinks, but
is
that
:
which we
call
"ego"
Then comes
conclusion
is
no such thing as the ego-soul, nor is there any mine and thine, nor imagination. All this is nothing
but
the
is
Ndgdrjuna on
In
the Soul.
conclusion, let
me
:
on the subject from Nagarjuna's Discourse on the Middle Path (chapter 9) 2 "Some say that there are
because there is something seeing, hearing, which exists even prior to those [manifestations]. Fpr how could seeing, etc. come from that which does
feeling, etc.,
not
exist? Therefore,
it
being [i.e. soul] existed prior to those [manifestations]. "But [this hypothesis of the prior (purva} or inde-
is
if
existed prior to
If
seeing, etc.,
that
being.
be
known by any
could
this
before
it
How
1
exist
Yatha bhutataya na ahammano na tvam na vasana Atma guddhacidabhasah kevalo yam vijrbhate. (44) The following is a somewhat free translation of the
ori-
ginal Chinese of Kumarajiva, which pretty closely agrees with the Sanskrit text published by the Buddhist Text Society
of India.
CHAPTER
that
exist
VII.
l69
all
without
things relative
manifestations
it
is
the
same
must be assumed
facts.
the
each
of these manifestations.
This, however,
in that
not
warranted
by
[Because
be able to hear with the eyes, see with the ears, as one soul is considered to direct all these diverse
faculties at its will.]
on the other hand, the hearer is one, and the seer another, the feeler must be still another. Then, there will be hearing, seeing, etc. simultaneously,
"If,
is
against experience.]
"Further,
the
soul
in the
element
(bkuta) on which seeing, hearing, feeling, etc. depend. use modern expression, the soul does not exist
[To
in the
"If
no soul that
exists
no existence as
For how could that exist without this, and this without that} Subject and object are mutually consuch.
ditioned.
The
soul as
it
is
vidual
that
whatever.
Therefore,
The Sanskrit
170
CHAPTER
VII.
is
to
be abandoned as
Non-dtman-ness of Things.
is
only psychologically in the sense of soul, self, or ego, but also ontologically in the sense of substance or
thing-in-itself or thinginess
is
;
and
its
existence in this
capacity strongly denied by them. For the same reason that the existence of an individual egoalso
soul
is
untenable,
they
reject
the
hypothesis
of
the
such.
life,
so there
no
real, eternal
existence of individuals
as
individuals,
which,
ceases
when
to
of
karma
is
exhausted,
subsist.
Individual
existences
cannot
be
by and will never remain permanent as such; for they are constantly becoming, and have no selfhood
sory,
real
though they may so appear to our particularising senses on account of our subjective ignorance. They are
in
reality
void of atman.
Svabkdva,
(self-essence or
noumenon)
is
all
dharmas have no
self-
CHAPTER
essence,
say,
VII.
171
is
to
that
we
is
no such thing as svabhava or atman or noumenon which resides in them. Svabhava and atman
whereas there
are
thus
habitually
used
by Buddhists as
quite
synonymous. What do they exactly understand by "svabhava" whose existence is denied in a particular object as
perceived by our senses
citly
?
defined
seem
to
understand
dual,
there-
fore, stands in opposition to gunyata, emptiness, as well as to conditionality. Inasmuch as all beings are
transient
and empty in their inherent being, they cannot logically be said to be in possession of selfessence which defies the law of causation. All things
are
mutually
conditioning
from
their relativity
be known by us. Therefore, says Nagarjuna, "If substance be different from attribute, it is then beyond 1 For "a jag is not to be known comprehension."
independent of matter et cetera, and matter in turn 2 is not to be known independent of ether et cetera."
1
tal
laksyam alaksanam.
Rupadi vyatirekena yatha kumbho na vidyate, Vahyadi vyatirena tatha rupam na vidyate.
CHAPTER
VII.
As there
is
for the other. Does self-essence then exist in causa" whatever is subject to conditionality, is tion? No,
by
its
yad
owes
conditions
tranquil (gdnta\
is
empty,
it
is
not
human understanding
its
inherent limitations.
:
cloth exists
Says Pingalaka, a commentator of Nagarjuna "The on account of the thread the matting is
;
possible
its
on account of the
had
.be
self-essence,
If
it
could not
its
fixed,
self-essence,
could not be
own made
flax,
from
But
must be
the
had no
like
fixed,
unchangeable
that
self-essence.
It
is
just
between the burning and the burned. They are brought together under and thus there takes place a certain conditions,
relation
obtains
phenomenon
burned,
called
burning.
each
has
no
one
so
is
It is
with
empty,
CHAPTER
without
self,
VII.
173
the will-'o-the-wisp."
From
will
but
of
it
simply
means
conditionality or transitoriness
it
all
phenomenal existences,
is
synonym
for
aniyata
to
or pratitya. Therefore, emptiness, according the Buddhists, signifies, negatively, the absence of particularity, the non-existence of individuals as such,
and
phenomenal world, a constant flux of becoming, an eternal series of causes and effects. It must never be understood in the sense of annihilation or absolute nothing-*
ness, for nihilism
is
as
as naive realism. as a
remedy
who
in turn cling to
is
medicine
indispensable
it
long as there
is
disease
after
to heal, but
turns poisonous
point
u
completely
clear,
let
me
from Nagarjuna's Mddhyamika fastra (Chap. XXIV). [Some one may object to the Buddhist doctrine of
emptiness,
1
declaring:]
If
all
is
void
{gunya)
and
astra,
Abstracted from Pingalaka's Commentary on the Mddhyamika Chapter VII. The Chinese translation is by Kumarajiva.
CHAPTER
there
is
VII.
it
must
be
concluded
exist.
even the
does not
exist,
the
recognition
Accumulation,
the
advancement of
cannot
without
will
Discipline,
must be
said to be
be any of the four states of saintliness and these states there cannot be anybody who
;
aspire
is
for
them.
If
Sangha
Fourfold
then
impossible.
Further, as there
is
is
no
Noble
;
Truth,
as
there
is
no
(saddkatma)
and
there
neither
nor Sangha, the existence of Buddha himself must be an impossibility. Those who talk of emptiness,
therefore,
(triratna)
must be
of
altogether.
the
law
causation
retribution
"[To
"
this
it
is is
remarked that]
annoyed over such scepticism who understands not the true significance and interpretation
Only he
of emptiness (gunyata).
"The Buddha
'
's
of two kinds of truth (satya) absolute and relative. Those who do not have any adequate knowledge of them are unable to grasp the deep and subtle
beyond verbal
definition
or
intellectual
compre-
CHAPTER
hension,
for
is
VII.
175
there
is
it,
and
it
even
like
is
unto
Nirvana.
The
all
nature of
Suchness, tattva,
tionally,
frivolities,
it
it
is
tranquil,
distances
is it
phenomenal
truth
is
particularised].*
"But
if
not
truth,
absolute
is
unattainable, and
when
absolute truth
not attained,
Nirvana
not to be gained. "The dull-headed who do not perceive the truth for they are like an rightfully go to self-destruction,
is
an unskilled snake-catcher
who
before them.
"The objection
to
that
emptiness and thereby exposes itself to grave for there are no errors, entirely misses the mark
;
errors
in emptiness.
Why?
all
Because
it
is
on account
of emptiness
that
all
things are at
things
will
all
possible,
and
without
emptiness
come
fault
is
to naught.
Those who deny emptiness and find like a horseman who forgets that he
"If
with
it,
are
on horseback.
self-essence
they think that things exist because of their (svabhava), [and not because of their
they thereby
emptiness,]
make
things
come out
of
causelessness
1
(ahetupratyaycC),
in
they
destroy
those
The passage
parentheses
is
176
relations that exist
CHAPTER
VII.
make up
"All
that
is
is declared empty because there is nothing not a product of universal causation (pratyayasamutpada). This law of causation, however, is merely
provisional,
though herein
is
lies
not an object (dharma) which not conditioned (pratitya), so there is nothing that not empty.
is
"If all
birth,
is
is
no death nor
"How
of causation?
Impermanence
is
suffering.
But with
self-essence there will be no impermanence. [So long as impermanence is the condition of life, self-essence
which
is
a causeless
which
is
in
turn becomes
when emptiness
is
when
Suffering
not admitted.
no Cessation, for with the hypothesis of self-essence Cessation becomes a meaningless term. Again, when
Suffering
is
be no Path.
of selfcessence
"If there
is
must
be
said
that
is
the
Path
Suffering
also non-existent.
is
"If there
CHAPTER
VII.
177
be recognised now, as it had not been recognised, for self-essence as such must remain forever the same.
[That
is
to
say,
enlightened
minds,
through
the
teaching of Buddha,
Suffering,
now
though they
still
did
they were
uninitiated. If things
were
all in
a fixed,
self-determining state
it
on account of their
self-essence,
would be impossible for those enlightened men to discover what they had never observed before. The
recognition
possible
of
the
this
Fourfold Noble
Truth
is is
is
only
when
phenomenal world
that
is,
in
a state of
as
it
constant
really
is.]
it
becoming,
when
it
empty
with the recognition of Suffering, so it is with the stoppage of Accumulation, the attainment of
is
"As
on account of
were unattainable before, how could they be realised now, still upholding the hypothesis of selfsaintliness
essence ? [But
fact,
we can
many holy men who through their have spiritual discipline emerged from their former life of ignorance and darkness. If everything had its own
for there are
self-essence
which makes
it
impossible to transform
from one state to another, how could a person desire to ascend, if he ever so desire, higher and higher on
the scale of existence?] "If there were no four states of saintliness (catvdri
phaldm\ then
there
would be no aspirants
for
12
it.
178
CHAPTER
if
VII.
no eight wise men (purusapungala\ there could exist no Sangha, "Again, when there could not be the Fourfold
And
there
were
Noble Truth, the Law would be impossible, and without the Sangha and the Law how could the Buddha
exist
?
You might
say
account of wisdom (Bodhi), nor does wisdom exist on But if a man did not have
Bodhi] he could not hope however Buddhahood, strenuously he might
[that
is,
Buddha-essence
to attain to
"Further,
[i.
if all is
is
e.
if
all
in a fixed,
ness],
how
be good and
effect (phala]
could there be any doing ? How could there evil ? If you maintain that there is an
or
evil,
[which
esis
is
of self-essence],
then
it
means
that retribution
evil.
[But
is
this
justified
it
good
evil
or
evil
becomes
could
must be
then
how
"When you
of universal
this
is
negate the doctrine of emptiness, the law causation, you negate the possibility of
phenomenal world.
there
negated,
done;
and a
When the doctrine of emptiness remains nothing that ought to be thing is called done which is not yet
is
accomplished; and he
said to be a doer
who
has
CHAPTER
VII.
179
not done anything whatever. If there were such a thing as self-essence, the multitudinousness of things must
be regarded as uncreated and imperishable and eternally existing which is tantamount to eternal nothingness.
"If
there
were
of
attainment
would there
extinction of
what has not yet been attained, nor be the annihilation of pain, nor the
the passions (sarvaklega).
is
all
it
taught by the Buddha that those who recognise the law of universal causation, recognise the Buddha as well as Suffering, Accumulation,
"Therefore,
transmitted
doctrines
thus
formulated and
is
mentation
is
produced by
the co-ordination of various vijnanas or senses. Individual existences have no selfhood or self-essence
or
reality,
qualities
for they are but an aggregate of certain sustained by efficient karma. The world of
is
particulars
Buddha
in his
When
of
dual
this veil of
Maya
is
Dharmakaya
existences
shines in
all
magnificence. Indivi-
then
oneness
no more the
ISO
of
as
CHAPTER
VII.
gratification
selfish cravings,
it
of
Dharma
works
its
multitudinousness of things. The self does not stand any more in a state of isolation (which is an illusion),
it
is
absorbed
itself
in the universal
in
all
body of Dharma,
it
recognises
inanimate,
and
When we
are said
reach
this
we
CHAPTER
KARMA.
VIII.
Definition.
TV^ARMA,
or Sanskara which
is
sometimes used as
^^
its
synonym,
different
shade of meaning,
root kr, "to do," "to make," "to perform," "to effect,"
"to
produce,"
as
etc.
concrete
well
as in
an antithesis to intelligence, contemplation, or ideation in general. When karma is used in its most abstract
and corresponds
Schopenhauer;
is
to
the
Will
or
blind
activity
of
for ignorance as
negative
manifestation
(Bkuta-
tathdta] and marks the beginning or unfolding of a phenomenal world, whose existence is characterised
by incessant
karma.
activities
When
as
it
term "That"
in the
sense of
karma
is
here understood.
is
When karma
used
in its
concrete sense,
it is
the
82
of
:
CHAPTER
in
VIII
principle
activity
it
the
in
namarupas
becomes
principle of conservation of energy, in the biological realm that of evolution and heredity etc., and in the
moral world that of immortality of deeds. Sanskara, when used as an equivalent of karma, corresponds to
this
concrete
signification
of
it,
as
it
is
the case in
tyayasamutpdda).* Here
it
and precedes consciousness (vijnana). Ignorance in this case means simply privation of enlightenment,
and
imply any sense of activity which is expressed in Sanskara. It is only when it is coupled with the latter that it becomes the principle of activity,
does not
and creates as
mentality.
In
its
first
offspring
consciousness or
activity are
:
fact,
one,
their
logical
being
this
the former
emphasises
the ethical
;
the
other
one
to
is
statical
and the
are
draw a comparison
between the
four
of
we can take
Ignorance
activity, san-
(sanskara),
(namarupd), (5) Sensation (vedana), (8) Desire (trsna), (9) Attachment (7) (upddana), (10) Procreation (bhavd), (n) birth (jati\ (12) Old Age, Death, etc. (jara, marana, fo&a, etc.)
are: (i) Ignorance (avidyd), (2) action Consciousness (vijnana), (4) Name-and-form Six Sense-organs (ayatand), (6) Contact (spared),
CHAPTER
skara,
in
VIII.
183
the
Twelve
Chains
as
corresponding
to
and
the
Namarupa
which the principle of karma works in its concrete form. As we have a special chapter devoted to "Ignorance"
as
an
equivalent of
karma
karma
in
the
i.
e.
of
karma
in its
we
we
is
The Buddhist conception of karma briefly stated this Any act, good or evil, once committed and
:
may
be, in
embodied
for
it
in
every
it
act
and thought,
is
mind.
When
it
is
sure to germinate
its
vitality.
Says Buddha:
"Karma even after the lapse of a hundred kalpas, Will not be lost nor destroyed; As soon as all the necessary conditions are ready, Its fruit is sure to ripe," J
1
From
a Chinese
Mahayana
sutra.
184
CHAPTER
VIII.
Again,
"Whatever a man does, the same he in himself will find, The good man, good: and evil he that evil has designed; And so our deeds are all like seeds, and bring forth fruit
in kind."
1
grain of wheat,
in
it
is
said,
good condition in a
its
tomb more
than a
germinating energy,
and, when planted with proper care, it actually started to sprout. So with karma, it is endowed with an enormous vitality, nay, it is even immortal. However
remote the time of their commission might have been, the karma of our deeds never dies it must work
;
out
its
own
destiny at
whatever
force.
cost,
if
not overcome
is
by some counteracting
irrefragable.
The
law of karma
The
irrefragability of
is
karma means
our moral sphere just as much supreme as in the physical, that life consists in a concatenation
causation
in
of
causes
and
effects regulated
in
by the principle of
of an individual or
karma,
a
that
nothing
the
life
nation
or
The
Buddhists,
therefore,
do
any
is
special
moral
in in
life.
The
banned
Buddhism. Whatever
our present
1
life
is
The
CHAPTER
since
VIII.
185
the
beginning of
life
on
earth.
Nothing sown,/
mark
;
and even
and
an
this
mark
of
will
exhaustion
the
overwhelming
is
counter-karma.
of an act
it
ical
or
spiritual.
lives after
them," but also the good, for it will not be "interred with their bones," as vulgar minds imagine.
read in the
We
Samyukta
Nikdyfr,
III,
What is it one can call his own? What with him take as he goes hence? What is it follows after him, And like a shadow ne'er departs?
"His good deeds and his wickedness, Whate'er a mortal does while here; Tis this that he can call his own, This with him take as he goes hence. This is what follows after him,
And
"Let
like a
shadow
ne'er departs.
'
p. 214.
86
In
CHAPTER
accordance
with
this
VIII.
karmaic
preservation,
Buddhists do not expect to have their sins expatiated by other innocent people so long as their own hearts remain unsoftened as ever. But when the all-embracing
love
of Buddhas for
smallest
the
spark
and when
-
this ever-vacillating
magnitude under propitious conditions, the sinner gets fully awakened from the evil karma of eons, and enters, free from all curses,
grows
to
its
full
Karma and
w
Social Injustice.
The doctrine of karma is very frequently utilised by some Buddhists to explain a state of things which
must be considered cases of
There are some
noble
social injustice.
people who
to
and destined
enjoy
all
forms
of earthly
happiness and all the advantages of social life, though they have done nothing that justifies them in luxu-
such a fashion any more than their poor These people, however, are declared by neighbors. some pseudo-Buddhists to be merely harvesting the
riating
in
crops
of
in their
former
lives.
On
the
and low that are struggling to eke out a mere existence in spite of their moral rectitude and honest
industry,
are
considered
to
be
suffering
the
evil
karma
previous
which
lives.
had
been
accumulated
during
is
their
The law
of moral retribution
never
CHAPTER
VIII.
IS/
suspended, as they reason, on account of the changes which may take place in a mortal being. An act, good or evil, once performed, will not be lost in the
eternal
succession
and
does not matter whether the actor has gone through the vicissitudes of birth and death. For the Buddhist conception of individual identity is not that
it
of personal
continuity,
they
invariably
fruit
do
abandon themselves
then they
not
enjoyment
in their
of
sensual
pleasures,
if
are
sure
life,
future
births,
in their
present
to gather
the
thus
themselves.
life,
The
they do not
get
despaired of their present sufferings and give themselves up to temptations, but dutifully continue
to
their
present
will
of their present
deeds.
us
This view as held by some pseudo-Buddhists gives a wrong impression about the practical working
tries
to
nomena which lie outside of the sphere of cability. As I understand, what the theory
appli-
of
karma
88
CHAPTER
is
VIII.
proposes to explain
not
and economic
The overbearing
the unnecessary sufferings of the poor, the over-production of criminals, and suchlike social phenomena
from the imperfection of our present social organisation, which is based upon the doctrine of absoarise
People are allowed to amass wealth unlimitedly for their own use and to bequeath it to the successors who do not deserve it in any way.
lute private ownership.
And
they
injuries this
system may upon / community to which they belong, and upon other * members individually. The rich might have slaughtered
economically and consequently politically and morally millions of their brethren before they could reach
places of social eminence they
to
its
of
full extent. They might have sacrificed hundreds thousands of victims on the altar of Mammon in
order to carry out their vast scheme of self-aggrandisement. And, what is worse, the wealth thus accu-
mulated by an individual is allowed by the law to be handed down to his descendants, who are in a sense
the
parasitic
members of
not
the community.
They
are
privileged
ers,
to live
who know
are daily
upon the sweat and blood of othwhere to lay their heads, and
who
of their free choice, but forced upon them by society. Let us here closely see into the facts. There is one
portion
of
society
CHAPTER
the
VIII.
189
is
promotion
of
another portion that, besides carrying the burden not of its own, is heroically struggling for bare existence.
to the imperfec-
of
social
organisation,
attribute
we
should
we
them
to diversity of indivi-
dual
is
what
really
munity
due to the faulty organisation of the comwhich they belong? No, the doctrine of
karma
certainly
to explain
The
region
is
made
to
our
moral
economic
field.
Poverty
evil
deeds, nor
affluent
ciple of
is
economy
concerned. Morality and economy are two different realms of human activity. Honesty and moral recti-
tude do not necessarily guarantee well-being. Dishonesty and the violation of the moral law, on the contrary,
are
very
frequently
utilised as
handmaids of
material prosperity.
Do we
we
many
good,
conscientious
poverty-stricken
curse of evil
Shall
karma
in their
when we
can
understand
injustice
is
?
social
nay,
it
even productive of
to establish a rela-
CHAPTER
tion
VIII.
have no causal dependence. Karma ought not to be made accountable for economic inequality.
their being
virtuous
man
is
his
and miserable
pecuniary
ward' and
there,
conditions, he has no
find
is
mind
his
nor
he anxious
about
future earthly
fortune which might be awaiting him when his karmaic energy appears in a new garment. His heart is altogether free from such vanities and anxieties. He
is
he
is
well
conscious
that
their
karma would
spiritually benefit
it,
and
also that
it
realisation of good-
Why,
karma
then,
as
is
a
in
poor
theory
of
order that they might give him a spiritual solace for his material misfortune?
Vulgar people are too eager to see everything and every act they perform working for the accumulation
and the promotion of material welfare. They would want to turn even moral deeds which have no relation to the economic condition of
of
earthly
wealth
life
mundane
They would
set
point
of
fact,
CHAPTER
meritorious deeds
tranquillity of
bility
is
VIII.
IQI
contentment,
of
faith,
could be corrupted by moth or rust. And what more can the karma of good deeds bring to us ? And what more would a man of pious heart desire to
not
gain
from
his
being
good?
"Take no thought
for
your life, nor yet for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more than meat and the body more than raiment?" Let us then do away with the worldly
interpretation
spirit
what ye
shall eat,
of karma, which
is
so contrary to the
of Buddhism.
as
is
As long
things,
it
we
live
under
the
present state of
injustice and economic inequality. Some people must be born rich and noble and enjoying a superabundance
of material
wealth, while others must be groaning under the unbearable burden imposed upon them by
cruel society. Unless we make a radical change in our present social organisation, we cannot expect every one of us to enjoy equal opportunity and fair chance. Unless we have a certain form of socialism
installed
which
is
liberal
and
rational
and systematic,
there
are
this
economically
state
more
is
favored
But
of affairs
is
phenomenon
to die
of
worldly
institution
and
doomed
will
away sooner
is
or later.
The law
in
of karma, on
of
the
contrary,
the
Dharmakaya
manifested
this
world
of
Q2
CHAPTER
VIII
particulars.
We
of
human
the world-authority.
An
There
is
Individualistic View of
Karma.
mean by
This
this
an individual-
view
of
the
doctrine.
deeds, good or
evil,
only his
in
any
fate, no other's being affected thereby possible way, and that the reason why we
is:
own
for we,
and not
have
to
suffer
its
evil
I
consequences. This
call
conception
of
karma which
individualistic,
presupposes the absolute reality of an individual soul and its continuance as such in a new corporeal exist-
ence
which
is
made
possible
soul
by
is
its
previous karma.
Because an
individual
here
understood
as
an independent unit, which stands in no relation to others, and which therefore neither does influence
nor
is
influenced
by them
is
in
any wise.
to
All that
is
done by oneself
other
suffered
people
have
anything
nor do
they suffer a whit thereby. Buddhism, however, does not advocate this individualistic
interpretation
it
is
not
in
accord
with
the
that of
Dharmakaya.
to
According
the
CHAPTER
force
VIII.
193
of
deeds
identity. Deeds once committed, good or evil, leave permanent effects on the general system of sentient
beings,
of which
it
part
and
is
the
actor
body constituting a grand psychic community called "Dharmadhatu" (spiritual universe), that suffers or
enjoys the outcome of a moral deed.
is
soul
belongs to
all
sentient
beings,
each
forming
these units are so intimately knitted together in blood and soul that the effects of even apparently trifling
deeds committed by an individual are felt by others just as much and just as surely as the doer himself.
Throw an
of
water,
and
it
will
certainly
create
an
expanse almost
never
stop
till
they
The
tremulation
as
thus caused
felt
much
as
to
The
universe that
may seem
crude
community, and every one of sentient beings forms its component part. This most complicated, most
subtle,
spiritual
most
sensitive,
atoms
tricity from one particle to another with utmost rapidity and surety. Because this community is at bottom an expression of one Dharmakaya. However diversified
13
194
CHAPTER
dissimilar
it
VIII.
and
it
may appear
all
aspect,
is
after
of things finds its unity and identity. Therefore, it for the interests of the community at large, and
own
from transgressing moral laws and are encouraged to promote goodness. Those whose spiritual insight thus penetrates deep into the inner unity and
interaction of
It
is
all
human
spirit,
with
this
me
Buddhists
any
but
wish
turn
all
to the de-
liverance
of
of ignorance.
The most
treatise
way
:
of concluding
therefore, runs
any
religious
by Buddhists, manner
"The deep
I
significance
By
pray to deliver
sentient beings
l
And
Or,
May And
from this my exposition abide and be universally distributed among all beings may they ascend in the scale of existence and increase in bliss and wisdom,
;
On the
CHAPTER
VIII.
195
supreme,
perfect,
And soon
great,
attain
to
an
enlightenment
l
and far-reaching."
a moral deed performed by one to the attainment by others would contribute person of supreme enlightenment, is that souls which are
ordinarily supposed to be individual
and independent
not so in fact, but are very closely with one another, so that a stir produced in intermingled one is sooner or later transmitted to another influencing
of others
are
it
The karmaic effect of my own deed determines not only my own future, but
rightfully or wrongfully.
to
not
little
extent
desire
dedicate
all
the
merits
attain to the
The
and
facilitate
communication
in
every possible
intrinsic
is
way is
for
oneness of
another
name
lives
others,
be
in
individual
souls
in
karma
merits
enlightenment
196
CHAPTER
VIII.
Karma and
If
Determinism.
the irrefragability of
life,
fatalism pure
and simple.
the
result
quite true
our
present
in
life
is
of
the
karma
no
accumulated
long as
the
karma preserves
its
vitality there is
consequences, good or
meanest sparrow
shall
on the ground without the knowledge of God, and as the very hairs of our heads are all numbered
not
by him, so even a
karma.
It
is
were not
a possible
life
near-sighted
as
it
is,
we
could
reduce
complexity
exists
into
of the
its
conditions
which
mathematical precision the course of a life through it is destined to pass. If we could record all
our previous karma from time immemorial and all its consequences both on ourselves and on those who
come
in
in
The
happens, is incapable of undertaking a work of such an enormous magnitude, we cannot perceive the full significance of
intellect,
human
however,
determinism; but, from the divine point of view, determinism seems to be perfectly justified, for there
cannot
be
any short-sightedness
on the part of a
world-soul as to
CHAPTER
is
VIII.
197
human
nothing but its own expression. It is only from the point of view that we feel uncertain about our
final disposition
from a mechanical, now from a teleological standpoint, and yet, strange enough, at the bottom of our soul we feel
that there
is
thy
will
be done." While
we have
and outside the pale of intellectual analysis a belief in the supreme order, which is absolutely preordained
and which
not controllable by our finite, limited, fragmentary mind, yet the doctrine of karma must not be understood in the strictest sense of fatalism.
at least is
As
a
far as a general
is
thought
of,
leaves
then
how
is
"each of us
ous confidence
us always the best of things, is in a determinism. But if, in applying the doctrine to our
practical
life,
we
that
all
the
possibilities
might
lie in
kened only
be no
moral characters, no personal responsibility, no noble the mind will be nothing but a reflex aspirations
;
life
a sheer machinery.
198
In fact
CHAPTER
VIII.
karma
is
is
not inca-
self-multiplication.
it
Karma
expands, like unto
but,
is a wonderful organic power; it grows, and even gives birth to a new karma. It
is
grain
of mustard,
of
vitality,
the
it
least
of
all
seeds,
it
in
being contact
tree
full
grows
as soon as
comes
a
in
nourishing soil and becometh so that the birds of the air come and lodge
with
the
thereof. Its mystery is like that of waves that pass through all the hearts sympathetic which feel the great deeds of a hero or listen to the
the
branches
in its
insignificant
rich crop.
Even
comes a chance
for
effected in his
repentance by dint of a single good karma ever life, which has extended through many
a kalpa.
tual
And
is
world
and Nirvana
karma thus bringing repentance the heart of the meanest awakens and karma
potentially slumbering in other
rekindles a similar
hearts and leads
ficial
Inasmuch as we confine ourselves to general, superview of the theory of karma, it leads to a form of
in
determinism, but
our practical
life
which
is
a product
all
chances
of development.
ception of
life,
We
we
CHAPTER
VIII.
199
and
we
are
assured
it
of
however remote
may
be.
Though
karma may sometimes hang upon us very heavily, there is no reason to bury our aspirations altogether
in the
grave; on the contrary, let us bear it bravely all the acts of goodness to destroy the of evil and to mature the stock of
good karma.
The Maturing of Good Stock (kugalamula) and the Accumulation of merits (punyaskandka).
One
well
we cannot
afford
of
karma,
his
Buddhist
belief that
(Jakyamuni
after a long
reached
practise
through
very
of the six virtues of perfection (paramitds) many a rebirth. This belief constitutes the
of the ethics of
foundation
The
doctrine of
karma
ethically considered
is
Sentient
beings
can
by an
of ideals,
in other
karma of good deeds untiringly practised throughout many a generation. Each single
only
through
the
act of goodness
we perform to-day
is
recorded with
2OO
strict
CHAPTER
accuracy
so
in
VIII.
the
annals
of
human
evolution
and
is
much
On
every thought
of self-aggrandisement, every word of impurity, every assertion of egoism, is a drawback to the perfection of humanity. To speak concretely, the Buddha represents
the
crystalisation
all
in
the
historical
person of
(Jakyamuni of
in
the good
karma
that
was accumulated
innumerable
kalpas
And
if
Devadatta,
was
really the
enemy
karma
was
being
stored
up
with
results
in
represent in these two historical figures the concrete of good and evil karma, and tries to show
what direction
its
spiritual energy.
The
of
field.
doctrine of
karma
is,
evolution
As
heredity as working in our moral Walt Whitman fitly sings, in every one of
and
"converging objects of the universe" are perpetually flowing, through every one of us is "afflatus
us,
the current and index." And surging and surging these converging objects and this afflatus are no more than our karma which is interwoven in our being
and which
being matured from the very beginning of consciousness upon the earth. Each generation
is
karma and
transmits to the succeeding one its stock either impaired or augmented. Those who are blind enough not to
CHAPTER
see the significance of
for the sole reality,
VIII.
2O I
life,
those
and those
the most worthless, most ungrateful, and most irresponsible people of the world. Buddhism calls them
the children of
Mara engaged
in the
work of destruction.
Dr. G. R. Wilson of Scotland states a very pretty u story about a royal robe in his article on The Sense
how
or
in
potential
out of mind
is
consciousness
the
"An
a
was, whose beginning was in prehistoric dynasty of which the hieroglyphics are
Oriental robe
undecipherable.
so
With
garment has handed down, not through hundreds of years, but through hundreds of generations, generations,
been
stale
and dreary
A garment of kings,
and of queens, a garment to which, as tradition a prescribed, each monarch added something of quality,
jewel
of
price,
embroidery,
and
with
patch of each
gold,
hem
of
rich
contribution
a legend,
worked
the
Did something of the personality of these kings and queens linger in the work of their hands? If so, the robe was no dead thing, no mere covering
giver.
to be lightly
assumed or
but a living
2O2
CHAPTER
VIII.
power, royal influence, and the wearer, all unwitting, must have taken on something of the character of
the dead.
sensitive
It is
of
and mystical, trembling on the apprehensive monarchy, who dons the robe, and as she
its
upon
its
querors.
As she
she
them
idly,
she
is
thrilled
with an
emotion
does
they embody.
by
and learning; and as the girl's fingers stray towards them the inspiration changes and her mind reverts to the purposes of
the
civilised
scholar.
Here
is
of
an
life
unfaithful
until
queen,
steeped in intrigue
it;
her
to
murder ended
examine
it
maiden
lifts
it
more
closely, she
learns with
shame and
this
has
wrought
change
deep down
in
The
of
that an act
love
for
not
the
appreciation
of
works
of
your worthy
ancestors
and
CHAPTER
all
VIII.
203
humanity and your contribution to the world- treasury of moral ideals. Mature good stock, accumulate merits,
evil
purify
cultivate
karma,
for
all
love
of Nirvana
will
We
of
"Did you guess anything lived only its moment? so exist no part palpable or impalexists without being from some long previous consummation and that from some other, Without the farthest conceivable one coming a bit nearer
No consummation
Immortality
We
to
"Your Majesty,
is
as
if
man were
to ascend
the story of a house with a light, and eat there; and the light in burning were to set fire to the thatch
in
in
burning were to set fire to the house burning were to set fire to the vil;
village
were
fire
to seize him,
?'
and
to the village
say,
fire
to the village.
I
The
different
1
light
fire
ate
was a
;
to the village'
"Manhattan's Streets
if
2O4
CHAPTER
VIII.
and they, quarreling, were to come to you. Whose cause, Your Majesty, would you sustain?" "That of the people of the village, Reverend Sir," etc.
"And why?"
"Because, in spite of what the
latter fire
man might
say, the
the
ence
to
different
at
is
end
death, nevertheless,
is
sprung from
evil
Therefore
deeds."
The above
identity
the
Buddhist
notion
of individual
and
its
to follow the
the
seed.
The seed
it
is
in fact a
karma.
When
it
velopment,
tains in
fruit.
This
fruit
con-
ditions
a latent energy which under favorable congrows to a mature plant of its own kind. The
new
plant
now
is
its
prede-
cessors
went through,
attained.
and an
eternal perpetuation
of the plant
The
life
of an individual plant
cannot be permanent according to its inherent nature, it is destined to be cut short some time in its course.
But
this is
vitality that has been running in the plant ever since the
beginning
is
not
individual in
vicissi-
CHAPTER
VIII.
2O5
of particular plants.
all
life
may
not be manifested in
it
its
kinetic form
the
time,
but potentially
seed.
of the
and do not
plant,
which
of vegetation.
This energy of vegetation is that which ed in a mature plant, that which makes
in the springtime,
lies
is
it
blossom
resuscitates
ings.
them
to sprout
among
favorable surround-
when
This energy of vegetation, this mysterious force, stated in Buddhist phraseology, is nothing else
vegetative
than the
expression
of karma, which in
law of heredity,
transmission
of acquired character, or
some
other
gist
And
laws which might be discovered by the bioloit is when this force manifests itself in the
affairs that
karma obtains
its
Now, there are several forms of transmission, by means of which the karma of a person or a people
or
a
nation
or
race
is
able
to perpetuate itself
to eternity.
called genealogical, or, perhaps, bioloare descendants of an illustrious here gical. Suppose ancestors distinguished themof whose family, some
One may be
intelligence, or
faculties.
These
206
CHAPTER
VIII.
their
ancestral
spirits
still
generations and
lingering
their
this fact
family might
the
by they appear now, through the inspiration they could get from the noble
forefathers,
examples of the past. The respect they are enjoying and the possibility of inspiration they may have are
all
the
The
author
work of the karma generated by the ancestors. or authors of the noble karma are all
their
gone now,
individual
their
of the past
it
but
karma
of
time.
was on
the day of
its
end
left
generation and will so remain till the If some of them, on the other hand,
karma
family,
will
tenaciously
to
the history
of the
and
the descendants
as
its
will
is
vitality
have to suffer the curse as long kept up, no matter how innocent
Here one important thing I wish to note is the mysterious way in which evil karma works. Evil does
not
turns
will
always
out
induce
moral
being to overcome
it
with his
CHAPTER
VIII.
2O7
His being conscious of the very fact that his family history is somehow besmirched with dark spots, would rekindle in his heart a
utmost
spiritual
efforts.
then
eclipse
the
evils
new
page
before
him,
which
full
of bliss
and
glory.
Everything in
seems to turn to be
merely a means for the final realisation of Good. Buddhists ascribe this spiritual phenomenon to the
virtues of the
To
have
return
to
the
subject.
It
further illustration to
show
that
all
the race, the tribe, clan, nation, or any other form of community. History of mankind in all its manifold
aspects
nothing but a grand drama visualising the Buddhist doctrine of karmaic immortality. It is like an immense ocean whose boundaries nobody
of
existence
is
swelling and
now
times,
whirling, now refluxing, ebbing, day and night, illustrate how the laws
now
we understand the following words of Tolstoi in the karmaic light which we gain from the Buddhist doctrine of more find we shall meaning in them perhaps immortality, than the author himself wished to impart: "My brother who is dead acts upon me now more strongly than he did in life he even penetrates my being and lifts me up towards him."
1
If
2O8
of
CHAPTER
VIII.
karma are
at
work
and
ever
in
One
so
act
provokes
eternity
another
without
that
losing
third
and
on to
the
chain
of karmaic
causation.
Next,
we come
to a
be
called
historical.
such as buildings, literary works, productions of art, implements, or instruments. In fact, almost any object,
human
itself,
is
or
natural,
which,
however
insignificant
in
memory
of a great man,
bears his karma, and transmits it to posterity. Everybody is familiar with the facts that all literary
work embodies
and
spirit,
and that posterity can feel his living presence in the thoughts and sentiments expressed there, and that
whenever the
work and
reader,
different
actualises
in action, the
though
times,
corporeally
separate
and
living
in
must be said
pulsation
same
heart.
And
the
same
enter
thing
is
When we
Roman
in
artists,
we
feel as if
we were
right
the
midst
of these
art-loving
in us the same impressions that We forget, as they did, the them. were received by reality of our particular existence, we are unconsciously raised above it, and our imagination is filled with
seem
to
reawaken
What
a mysterious power
it is
the
CHAPTER
VIII.
2O9
away
it
to a world of ideals
What
a mysterious power
is
by-gone
artists
!
on
sheet
of
It
was
not
indeed
ignorant people intuitively believed in the spiritual power of idols. What they failed to grasp was the
distinction
spirit
and
its
objective
As
far
as their religious
feeling,
and not
was concerned,
they
were
all
Taking
chord
still
Buddhist
doctrine
the
immortality of karma.
vibrates
full
their works,
its
force
down
Architectural
creations
bear
out
the
doctrine of
karma with no
less force
As
the
would
fall
uppermost bricks on an Egyptian pyramid on the ground with the same amount of
required to raise them up in the times as a burning piece of coal in the furnace
was dug out from the heart of the earth emits the same quantity of heat that it absorbed from the
sun some hundred thousand years ago even so every insignificant bit of rock or brick or cement we may find
;
among
is
Roman
pantheons,
2IO
CHAPTER
VIII.
the ancient peoples to construct those gigantic architectural wonders. The spirit is here, not in its individual form, but in these insignificant,
singularly
its
responsive
inspirations
coming from
of the
splendor of the gods, glory of the kings, peace nation, prosperity of the peoples, etc., etc.
souls
Because our
chain
of
and
theirs
are. linked
with the
karmaic
those
visible
karma of those
tality
its
breathing
its
immor-
those architectural productions and sending sympathetic waves out to the beholders. When
in
thus
we come
of
to
be convinced
immortality
Christians,
karma,
death,
we can
where
is
truly
exclaim with
"O
thy sting?
grave,
where
It
is
is
thy victory?"
to
hardly necessary to give any further illustration establish the doctrine of karma concerning its
significance.
apparatus and instruments are an undying eye-witness of the genius of the inventors. All industrial machines and agricultural
historical
All
scientific
exact proportion
the
progress of humanity.
The instruments
implements may be superseded by later and better ones, and possibly altogether forgotten by succeeding generations, but this does not annul the fact that the
CHAPTER
VIII.
211
improved ones were only possible through the knowledge and experience which came from the use of
the older ones,
of the
in
thoughts through those of their successors, just as much as in the case of genealogical karma-transmission. Whatever
other words, that the ideas and former inventors are still surviving
garb the karma of a person may wear down to posterity, it is ever there where
tion
is
in its
its
way
inspiratrivial
felt.
Even
in
an
article
of
most
significance,
time-worn paper,
with the
feeling
memory
and
if
and an unutterable
the
heart
imperceptibly
the
creeps
into
of the
beholder;
would be an opportunity
how our own karma at that moment is made up. We now come to see more closely the spiritual
purport of karmaic
could
infer
activity.
Any
been
intelligent
reader
from what
has
said
above what
important bearing the Buddhist doctrine of karma has on our moral and spiritual life. The following remarks,
however,
will greatly
help
him
to understand the
full
on
its
merits.
if
looms up most conspicuously the characteristic difference between Buddhism and Christianity as to their conception of
Here,
not anywhere
else,
soul-activity.
Christianity,
if
understand
as
it
rightly,
conceives
our
soul- phenomena
the
work of an
212
CHAPTER
VIII.
To
its
Christians,
incarnation
in the flesh is
pation,
it
imprisonment. It groans after emancicraves for the celestial abode, where, after
it
bodily death,
can enjoy
It
all
its
naked existence.
finds
the
nectar of immortality
up in Heaven and in the presence of God the father and Christ the son, and not in the perpetuation of
karma
that
in
this
universe.
is
The
eternally
soul.
damned,
conceded
liberated
As soon
as
is
from the bodily incarceration, it is hurled into the infernal fire, and is there consumed suffering unspeakable
believe
soul.
agony.
the
soul
Christianity,
therefore,
does
not
of a
in
transmigration
or reincarnation
once
it
departed
either
from
the
flesh
never
life
returns
to
it;
is
living
an eternal
in
Heaven
suffering an instant annihilation in Hell. This is the necessary conclusion from their premises of an individual concrete ego-soul.
or
Buddhism, however, does not teach the metaphysical All our mental and spiritual
declares, are
inherits its
karma which
"seeds of activity" (karmabtja), and which has brought the five skandhas into the present state of co-ordination.
The
present karma,
while in
its
force, generates in
turn the
conditions
"seeds of activity"
grow
CHAPTER
as the force of
VIII.
213
karma
five
is
there
are
the
existence
and working
so
as
person.
Karma-reproduction, speak, effected in this manner, is the Buddhist conception of the transmigration of a soul.
Japanese national hero, General Kusunoki Masashige, who was an orthodox Buddhist, is said to have
uttered
the
:
following
"I
will
words when
he
fell
in
the
battle-field
complete House."
discharging
my
not
duties
for
the
Imperial
And he
did
utter these
words to no
more
spirit is still
alive
among
countrymen, and indeed his bronze statue on horseback is solemnly guarding the Japanese Imperial
palace.
He was
will
be reborn as long as the Japanese as a nation exist on earth. This constant rebirth or reincarnation means
no
more nor
less
than
Says Buddha: "Ye disciples, take after my death those moral precepts and doctrines which were taught to
you
in
for
my own
person, for
live in
them/'
is
To
live
the Buddhist
conception
agree with the sentiment expressed by a noted modern poet in these lines
will perfectly
:
"We
live in
on a
dial,
We
should count time by heart-throbs. He most lives Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best."
214
CHAPTER
like
VIII.
Some may
unsatisfactory,
to
call
this
kind of immortality
and impetuously demand that the egoinstead of soul, mysterious force of karma, should be
made immortal,
as
it
is
more
preciated by the masses. The Buddhist response to such a demand would be; "If their intellectual and
moral
in the
insight
is
it."
make
children
find
pleasure
abstract meta-
physical problems, whatever truth and genuine spiritual consolation there might be in them. What their hearts
are after are toys
and
fairy- tales
is
:
motto
of
Buddhism
according to their wants and conditions." make a plant grow even an inch higher by we have but to wait till pulling its roots
;
We cannot
artificially
it is
ready
for
we
away
childish things.
The
is
obvious
we
good karma and the cleansing of the heart from the contamination of evils. In good karma we
maturing of
are
made
to
live eternally,
but in
evil
one we are
doomed, not only ourselves but every one that follows our steps on the path of evils. Karma is always generative
;
therefore,
one
the
is
eternal
is
infinite bliss,
and
evil
appearance
Buddha
the Jambudvipa
CHAPTER
VIII.
215
heaven and earth resounded with the joyous acclamation of gods and men. It was a signal triumph for the cause of goodness. The ideal of moral perfection
found a concrete example in the person of (Jakyamuni. It showed how the stock of good karma accumulated
and matured from the beginning of consciousness on earth could be crystalised in one person and brought to an actuality even in this world of woes. The
Buddha, therefore, was the culmination of
all
the
good
karma previously stored up by his And he was at the same time the
the
spiritual ancestors.
fermentation
of
moral
"seeds of activity" which were generated during his lifetime have been scattered liberally wherever his
virtues
his
and teachings could be promulgated. That karma-seeds have been sown in the souls of
beings.
in
is,
all
sentient
are
infinte
number
moral
begins
doers.
activity. In proportion
how
strong
it
grows and
to
bear
fruit,
is
it
destroys
Good karma
it
while
it.
protects itself
destroys
is
all
that
is
against
Therefore,
good karma
is
mortal,
but
it
immortality
is
dynamically so; that is to say, its not a mere absence of birth and death,
but a constant positive increase in its moral efficiency. Pious Buddhists believe that every time Buddha's name is invoked with a heart free from evil thoughts,
he
enters
right
into
2l6
Buddha's
CHAPTER
VIII.
enjoying of an anthropomorphic
invocation
of his
ego-substratum which might have been immortal spiritual bliss in the presence its
God descends on
earth at the
in that
capacity
whatever help the supplicant needs. It means, on the other hand, that the Buddhist awakens in his personal
karma
that
in
the
to
Buddhahood
is
whenever occasioned
nation, never
fails
to befree itself
from a combiit
to generate heat
which
absorbed
;
at the time of
this
place no matter how remote the time of combination was. It is even so with the karma-seed
takes
of Buddha.
It
in the
barren
soil
of
a sinful heart, and, being deeply buried there for many a year, might have been forgotten altogether by the owner. But, sooner or later, it will never fail to grow
under favorable conditions and generate what it gained from the Buddha in the beginning of the world. And
this
regeneration
will
not
;
predominantly
biological
for
PRACTICAL BUDDHISM.
CHAPTER
IX.
THE DHARMAKAYA.
have
considered
the
doctrine
of
Suchness
(Bhutatathata)
under
"Speculative
Buddhism,"
where
any
such
appeared altogether too abstract to be of practical use to our earthly life. The theory as
it
did
on our
pass
fully
not seem to have any immediate bearings religious consciousness. The fact is, it must
through
satisfies
some
our
in
practical
spiritual
this
modification
before
is
it
needs.
As
is
there
no
concrete
figure
world that
since
a perfect type
of mathematical
exactitude,
everything
here
less distorted
:
itself,
modified while passing through our affective-intellectual objectives. This modification of pure reason, however,
is
human
point of view
because
mere abstraction
value
for
contentless, lifeless,
life,
and has no
our practical
cravings
will
religious
not
be
satisfied with
empty
concepts lacking
vitality.
We
may sometimes
ignore
2l8
CHAPTER
rest
satisfied,
IX.
and
with
though usually unconsciously, which are conflicting when critically examined, but we cannot disregard by any means those of the religious sentiment, which finds satisfaction
assertions
only
in
If it
ever harbored
some
it
flagrant
in
the
name
of faith,
to
was because
the
be
at the
religious
consciousness
it
of
is
all
demands
fact,
and when
to
is
attains
that,
not of
much
consequence
interpretation
it
whether or not
its
intellectual
logically tenable. If
logic be all-important and demand the first consideration and the sentiment had to follow its trail without a
murmuring,
aspect,
void,
our
life
would surely
be
a
turn the
tasteless,
world would
mere succession of
meaningless events, and what remains would be nothing else than devastation, barreness, and universal misery.
The
the
truth
is,
predominates and
intellect
all
while
some
which explains the fact that existing religions on the one hand display logical inaccuracy and on the other hand a
subserves
is
gaining ground
religion
in
is
still
playing an important
life.
everywhere
for
our practical
Abstraction
is
it
good
is
when
the
question
of
life
and
death
we must have
vitality
something more
theorisation.
It
substantial and of
more
than
may
CHAPTER
IX.
219
and
certain
real
proposition,
but
is,
it
it
living,
theory,
that
of the inmost consciousness of our being. What practical transformations then has the doctrine
of Suchness, in order to meet the religious demands,
to suffer?
God.
Buddhism does not use the word God. The word rather offensive to most of its followers, especially
it
is
when
the
of
is
idea
creator
who produced
downfall
nothing,
caused
the
of mankind, and,
touched by the pang of remorse, sent down his only son to save the depraved. But, on account of this,
as an atheism
which
an
agnostic,
materialistic
it.
interpretation of
universe.
Far
from
Buddhism outspokenly
acknowledges the presence in the world of a reality which transcends the limitations of phenomenality,
but
which
is
nevertheless
in
its
manifests
live
itself
full
and
in
which we
God
called
and move and have our being. or the religious object of Buddhism
is
generally
Dharmakaya-Buddha and occasionally VairocanaBuddha or Vairocana-Dharmakaya-Buddha still another name for it is Amitabha-Buddha or Amitayur;
Buddha,
followers
the latter two being mostly used by the of the Sukhavati sect of Japan and China.
22O
CHAPTER
IX.
Again, very frequently we find (Jakyamuni, the Buddha, and the Tathagata stripped of his historical personality
and
identified
with
the
highest
truth
and
reality.
however, by no means exhaust a legion of names invented by the fertile imagination of Buddhists
These,
for their object of reverence as called forth
by
their
Dharmakaya.
Western scholars usually translate Dharmakaya by "Body of the Law" meaning by the Law the doctrine
set
forth
It
is
said that
when Buddha was preparing himself to enter into eternal Nirvana, he commanded his disciples to revere the Dharma or religion taught by him as his own
person, because a
man
deeds, and words left behind himself. So, Dharmakaya came to be understood by Western scholars as
meaning
religion.
the
person
of
Buddha incarnated
in
his
This interpretation of the term is not very accurate, however, and is productive of some very serious misinterpretations concerning the fundamental
doctrines
Historically, the Body of Buddha incarnate might have been the sense of Dharmakaya, as we can infer from the occasional use of the term in some Hinayana texts.
of
Mahayanism.
the
the
Law
as
But as
an
with
it
is
it
has acquired
entirely
new
significance,
having nothing to do
the
body of
by
the Buddha.
CHAPTER
This transformation
has
in the
IX.
221
conception of Dharmakaya
been effected by the different interpretation the term Dharma came to receive from the hand of the
Mahayanists.
covers a
root
Dharma
is
a very pregnant
word and
wide range of meaning. It comes from the dhr, which means "to hold," "to carry", "to bear," and the primitive sense of dharma was "that
which
carries
or
bears
"that
or
supports,"
and
the
then
it
came
to
signify
which forms
that
norm,
or
regulates
is,
"law," "in-
which
exists," "reality,"
"being/'
frequently
etc.
The
English
equivalent
most
is
used
for
dharma by Oriental
scholars
may
be
all
go
but when
we wish
Mahayana terms, such as Dharmadhatu, Dharmakaya, Dharmalaksa, Dharmaloka, etc., we are placed in an awkward position and are at a loss
pretation to the
how
are
to
get
at
in
the meaning
passages
Mahayana
literature
which the
whole significance of the text depends upon how we understand the word dharma. And it may even be
said
that
one
of
of
the
many
reasons
why
Christian
students
Buddhism so frequently
fail
to recognise
the importance of
pretation
Mahayanism
is
due to
their misinter-
of dharma.
Max
remarks
of
in his introduction to
an English translation
the
Vajracchedika
Sutra,
when he
says
"If
we
222
CHAPTER
IX.
were always to translate dharma by law, it seems to me that the whole drift of our treatise would become
unintelligible."
Not
but
its
only
that
particular
text
of
Mahayanism,
In
entire literature
would become
cases "thing,"
utterly incomprehensible.
in
many
"substance,"
"being,"
or
"reality,"
both
in its
particular and in its general sense, though it is also frequently used in the sense of law or doctrine. Kaya
may be
but
in
in the
sense of personality,
of system,
unity,
Dharmakaya,
the
thus means the organised totality of things or the principle of cosmic unity, though not as a purely philosophical concept, but as an object of the religious
consciousness
original
Throughout this work, however, the Sanskrit form will be retained in preference
to any English equivalents that have been used heretofore for Dharmakaya conveys to the minds of
;
flavor,
which,
when
translated
by
either
God
or the All or
some
Dharmakaya as
As
aforesaid, the
Religious Object.
philosophical
to Suchness
has a religious signification as the object of the religious consciousness. The Dharmakaya is a soul, a willing and knowing being, one that is
;
CHAPTER IX
will
223
It
is,
and
intelligence,
understood
by
the
as
abstract
is
metaphysical principle like Suchness, but spirit, that manifests itself in nature as
thought.
is
living
well as in
The universe as an expression of this spirit not a meaningless display of blind forces, nor is it an arena for the struggle of diverse mechanical powers.
Buddhists
ascribe
to
Further,
the
Dharmakaya
in-
numerable merits and virtues and an absolute perfect intelligence, and makes it an inexhaustible fountain-head
of
compassion; and it is in this that the Dharmakaya finally assumes a totally different aspect from a mere metaphysical principle, cold and lifeless.
love
and
gives
some comprehensive
itself in
the
It
world,
is
free
desires.
unfolds itself here, there, and everywhere responding to the call of karma. It is not an individual reality,
it
is
not a
false existence,
it
but
is
It
goes to
nowhere
it
does
not assert
is
itself, nor is it subject to annihilation. It serene and eternal. It is the One, devoid
of
determinations.
This Body of
Dharma
has no
boundary, no quarters, but is embodied in all bodies. Its freedom or spontaneity is incomprehensible, its
spiritual
sible.
it
is
incomprehen-
is
able to create
all
things.
224
material
CHAPTER
IX.
of karma,
treasure
illuminates
intelligence,
all
it
creations.
is
Though
it is
the
of
void of particularity.
There
does
is
no place
prevail.
in the universe
where
this
Body
not
The
it
universe
It
Body
and
forever
remains.
is
is
free
but this
contraries, yet
working
them
to Nirvana."
More Detailed
Characterisation.
The above
what the Dharmakaya is, but let ing more detailed description of
me
it,
may more
teristically
clearly
"O
Buddhistic conception of the highest being. 1 The Tathagata 2 is not a ye, sons of Buddha
!
particular
nor has
it
dharma, nor a particular form of activity, a particular body, nor does it abide in a
is
its
On
involves
infinite
infinite
dharmas,
infinite
activities,
bodies,
infinite spaces,
all
salvation of
things.
"O
ye, sons of
in
Buddha!
like
contains
itself all
the
vacuums
1
that obtain
establish-
The Avatamsaka
Buddhabha-
dra, fas.
1 3
XXXIV.
That is the Dharmakaya personified. Hindu philosophy space is always conceived as an objective entity in which all things exist.
In
CHAPTER
es
itself
it
IX.
225
say of
that
it
is
or
it
is
presents
in all directions, dharmas, and in all beings; yet the Dharmakaya itself has not been thereby particularised. Because the Body of the Tathagata has
itself
anywhere
things.
in
"O
is
ye, sons of
Buddha!
It is like
boundless, comprehends in
itself
[partiality].
even
Dharmakaya
of the Tathagata.
illumi-
nates
it
good works worldly as well as religious, but betrays no passion or prejudice. Why ? Because the
all
is
Dharmakaya
l
perfectly
free
from
all
passions and
of Buddha!
It
is
like
The
all
benefits conferred
living
by
upon
g.
by nourishment to all trees, gives dispelling it vanquishes humidherbs, grains, plants, and grass
beings
e.
darkness
ity;
1
it
illuminates ether
whereby benefitting
all
the
"God maketh
his
sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust." The Dharmakaya is universal in its love, as space is in Its comprehensiveness Because it is absolutely free from human desires and passions that are
the product of egoism and therefore tend always to be discriminative and exclusive.
'5
226
living beings in air
CHAPTER
its
IX.
whereby bringing
full
blossom;
it
impartially shines on
figures
and
forms
earth.
and brings into completion all the works on Why? Because from the sun emanate infinite
ye, sons of
"O
Buddha
It is
Body of
the Tathagata which in innumerable ways bestows benefits upon all beings That is, it benefits us by
evils, all
destroying
to
growth; it benefits us with its universal illumination which vanquishes t'he darkness of ignorance harbored in
all
beings
it
benefits us through
its
great compassionate
all
beings
it
;
benefits
us
through its great loving heart which delivers all beings from the misery of birth and death it benefits
;
us
religion
whereby
it
we
strengthened
in
benefits
us
by giving
all
which cleanses
it
benefits
by helping
of which
we
;
disavow
the
law of
causation
it
which
;
by avoiding injurious deeds which may destroy the stock of merits accumulated by all beings it benefits us with an intellectual light which unfolds
benefits us
;
the mind-flowers of
all
Why?
CHAPTER
IX.
227
ye,
sons
of
Buddha!
first
the
rising
sun
shines
higher
and
mountains, then on those of high mountains, finally all over the plains and fields; but the
itself
sunlight
does
all
not
the
make
highest
this
shine
first
on
gradually
plains
ascending
fields.
and
higher and higher shine on the The reason why one gets the
sunlight
there
earth.
is
than
another
is
"O
ye,
sons
of
is
Buddha
It
is
Tathagata who
in possession of
immeasurable
suns
of universal intelligence.
The
in-
numerable rays of the Light of Intelligence, emanating everlastingly from the spiritual Body of the Tathagata,
will
first
fall
who
the
Nidanabuddhas,
beings
as
then
those
who
they
are
endowed with
each
good
character,
will
capacity
liverance,
unhesitatingly
and
finally
on
common
mortals whose
may be either indefinite or definitely bad, providing them with those conditions which will prove But the Light of beneficial in their future births
character
Intelligence
emanating
thought:
'I
make
this
from the Tathagata does not will first shine on the Bodhi-
228
sattvas
CHAPTER
IX.
and then gradually pass over to all common mortals, etc.' The Light is universal and illuminates
the
to
everything without any prejudice, yet on account of diversity that obtains among sentient beings as
their
the Light of them. diversely perceived by Intelligence "O ye, sons of Buddha When the sun rises above
character,
is
aspirations,
etc.,
the
their
horizon,
those
people
born
blind,
on account
all,
but
they
it
are
gives
that
nevertheless benefited by the sunlight, for them just as much as to any other beings
is
necessary for the maintenance of life: it dispels dampness and coldness and makes them feel agreeable, it destroys all the injurious germs that are
all
produced on account of the absence of sunshine, and thus keeps the blind as well as the not-blind comfortable and healthy.
"O
Sun of
by the
or
ye,
sons
of
Buddha
It
is
Intelligence of the Tathagata. All those beings whose spiritual vision is blinded by false doctrine, or
violation of
evil
by
Intelligence;
devoid of
faith.
;
But
it
they
by the Light
for
comforts,
for
it
destroys
the
root of
all
passions,
By
the
Bodhisattvas
and the
CHAPTER
IX.
229
(Jra-
knowledge of
vakas
poorly
*
;
all
things, the
all
Nidanabuddhas and
will
destroy
endowed and
and believe
in the four
views
of existence
animal realm,
evils
and torture
or celes-
and
tial
be born
in the
human
world ....
ye, sons of
"O
is
like
unto the
It It
full
attributes: (i)
satellites
;
outdoes in
and
(2)
shows
and decrease
as observable in the
Jambudvipa
(4)
Whoever
endowed with
"O ye,
of
It
perfect sight, perceives it vis-a-vis. sons of Buddha Even so with the Dharmakaya
!
theT athagata,
(2) It
is
wondrous attributes
(i)
etc.
shows
which
to
due to
it
whom
manifests
itself,
while the
Dharmakaya
The four views are: That the physical body is productive of impurities that sensuality causes pain; that the individual soul is not permanent; and that all things are devoid of the Atman. 2 That is to say: The Dharmakaya, that assumes all forms
1
;
of existence according to
itself, is
what class of being it is manifesting sometimes conceived by the believers to be a shortlived god, sometimes an immortal spirit, sometimes a celestial being of one hundred kalpas, and sometimes an existence of only a moment. As there are so many different dispositions,
23O
itself
is
CHAPTER
eternal
IX.
in
any
way;
seen
in
the Bodhi
All
who understand
the
obtain deliverance,
calibre, think that
their
is
Tathagata face to face, while the not a particular object of understanding, but univer-
Buddha-works
!
into completion.
The Dharmakaya is like ye, unto the Great Brahmaraja who governs three thousand chiliocosms. The Raja by a mysterious trick makes
sons of Buddha
himself
"O
seen
universally
by
face;
all
realm
has has
and
never
causes
them
to
his
them
he
in
seen
him
face
but
divided
"O ye, sons of Buddha Even so with the Tathagata he has never divided himself into many, nor has he ever assumed diverse features. But all beings, each ac;
cording
recognise
to
his
understanding
the
Body
never made this thought that he will show himself to such and such particular people and not to others "O ye, sons of Buddha! The Dharmakaya is like
. .
.
in
the
waters,
whose wondrous
characters, karmas, intellectual attainments, moral environments, so there are 'as many Dharmakayas as subjectively etc.,
represented
in
the
absolutely one.
CHAPTER
light
IX.
231
transforms
it
everything
color.
that
comes
in
contact
it
with
to
its
own
The eyes
its
that perceive
become
there
is
purified.
Wherever
illumination reaches,
scription,
marvelous display of gems of every dewhich gives pleasure to all beings to see.
sons
of
"O
called
ye,
Buddha!
It
is
be
all
Whoever comes
touch with
this
light,
is
all
same
light, all
comes
in
touch with
Beings.
that
From
these
statements
it
is
evident
the
Dharmakaya or the Body of the Tatha^gata, or the Body of Intelligence, whatever it may be designated, is not a mere philosophical abstraction, standing aloof
world of birth and death, of joy and sorrow, but calmly contemplates on the folly of mankind that it is a spiritual existence which is "absolutely
from
this
one,
all
is
real
and
true,
all
beings, transcends
modes of upaya,
[or
is
free
from
desires
and
struggles
compulsion],
and stands
1
It
is
Asanga's
samparigrahd).
General
Treatise
on
Mahayanism.
(Mahay&na
232
also evident that the
CHAPTER
IX.
Dharmakaya, though itself free from ignorance (avidya) and passion (klega] and desire (trsna), is revealed in the finite and fragmental
consciousness of
human
being, so that
is
we can
say in
the
Dharmakaya"
form
and
also in a generalised
body of
is
all
the
Dharmakaya
in the latter
As we thus partake something in ourselves of the Dharmakaya, we all are ultimately destined to attain Buddhahood when the human intelligence, Bodhi, is
perfectly identified with, or absorbed
in,
that of the
life
becomes the
Dharmakaya.
us
Here an important consideration forces itself upon which is, that the Dharmakaya is not only an
intelligent
heart, that
it is
not only
a god of rigorism of
who does
mercy that is constantly belaboring to develop the most insignificant merit into a field yielding rich
harvests.
The Dharmakaya
wrong and does not permit the exhaustion of their karma without sufficient reason and yet its hands
;
life
CHAPTER
IX.
233
of supreme goodness. "Pangs of nature, sins of will, defects of doubt, and stains of blood," discouraging
is
the
karma of
in
evil-doers
But
is
infinite
love
and goodness,
managing happy terminus. Every good we do is absorbed the universal stock of merits which is no more nor
than the Dharmakaya. Every act of lovingkindness practice is conceived in the womb of Tathagata,
is
less
we
again brought
its fruit.
;
Therefore,
no
life
no chaff
is
unquenchable. Every
is
existence,
or
insignificant,
a
as
reflection
of the glory
its
all-
of the
Dharmakaya and
love.
such worthy of
view
1
this
let
us cite
sutra:
The
thirsty desires of
;
all
refreshing
With compassion,
Which
like
With means
all
free
from
stain,
and
excellent,
He doth
1
creatures innumerable.
The Avatamsaka
"On
Merit."
234
CHAPTER
IX.
"With unfathomable love and with compassion All creations caressed by him universally;
Yet
free
is.
"As
compassion is great and is infinite, on every being he confereth, And himself showeth all over the universe;
his
Bliss unearthly
He'll not rest
till
all
Buddhahood
truly attains."
Later
the
Dharmakaya.
has been quoted almost exclusively from the so-called sutra literature of Mahayana Buddhism,
The above
is
which
ical
treatises
of
the
recorded
see
by
his
immediate
disciples.
Let us now
Dharmakaya by such
writers as
Asanga, Vasubandhu, etc. We read in the General Treatise on Mahay dnism by Asanga and Vasubandhu the following statement
:
"When
how have
4
they to picture
it
to themselves?
will
think of the
Dharmakaya
by picturing to themselves its seven characteristics, which constitute the faultless virtues and essential
This is by no means the case, for some of the Mahayana sutras are undoubtedly productions of much later writers than the immediate followers of the Buddha, though of course it
1
is very likely that some of the most important Mahayana canonical books were compiled within a few hundred years
after the
CHAPTER
functions
valed,
is
IX.
235
free,
of
the
Kaya.
(i)
Think of the
unri-
unimpeded
activity of the
all
manifested in
all
beings
(2)
of
of
Dharmakaya
all
(3)
Think
its
prejudice, intellectual
and
affective
ties that
(4) Think of those spontaneous activiuninterruptedly emanate from the will of the (5)
physical,
in
the
Body
of the
Dharma;
(6)
Think of
intellectual purity
;
which
(7)
works achieved
Tathagatas
who are reflexes of the Dharmakaya." As regards the activity of the Dharmakaya, which is shown in every Buddha's work of salvation, Asanga enumerates five forms of operation: (i) It is shown
his
in
power of removing
course
of
life,
evils
which
may
befall
us
in
the
to
cure
as
is
any physical
defects
such
(2)
It
shown
over
all
evil-doers,
are,
they ever
is
come
irrational
methods of salvation
shown
in his
power of curing
in
those
diseased
minds
that
believe
the
reality,
is,
permanency, and
in
the
pudgalavada.
shown
in his inspiring
236
influence
CHAPTER
over
IX.
those Bodhisattvas
yet
still
in
The Freedom
of the
Dharmakdya.
beings of the enlightened mind of a
all
Those
spiritual
influences
over
Dharmakaya
Buddha,
Asanga,
above
religious
as
stated
by
fraught the
with
significance.
spiritual
According
Buddhist
view,
those
the-
powers
everlastingly
emanating
trace
from
Body
of or
Dharma
flow
have
no
of
human
elaboration
constrained
effort,
its
from
its
immanent
take
it,
from
free will.
shower upon
merits,
all
creatures
its
innumerable
benefits,
and
tion,
blessings. If there
were
in
it
would mean a struggle within itself of divers tendencies, one trying to gain ascendency over another.
that
And
ally,
apparent that any struggle and its necessary compulsion, are incompatible with our conception
it
is
of
and perfect freedom is one of those necessary attributes which our religious consciousness cannot help ascribing
to
ly
its
affirm
the
activity
all
of
the
Dharmakaya
is
perfectly
from
Its
effort
and
internal.
every
CHAPTER
or love emanates from
its
IX.
237
free will,
own
unhampered
is
mankind.
such
a
is
This
free will
which
divine,
standing
"free
striking
will"
is
which
called
human and
l
limited,
''Purvapranidhanabala."
own accord
deed
;
it
its
and
it
evident
every
act
of
the
Dharmakaya
is
manifestations
and
it
need.
1
We
"Purvapranidhanabala"
power
original (or primitive) prayer." Literally, purva means ''former" or "original" or "primitive" and pranidhana, "desire" or "vow or "prayer"; and bala, "power." So far as literary
of
rendering is concerned, "power of original prayer" seems to be the sense of the original Sanskrit. But when we speak of
Dharmakaya or Tathagata, how shall we understand it? Has prayer any sense in this connection? The Dharmakaya can by its own free will manifest in any form of existence and finish its work in whatever way it deems
primitive prayers of the
There is no need for it to utter any prayer in the agony of struggle to accomplish. There is in the universe no force whatever which is working against it so powerfully as to make it cry for help and there cannot be any struggle or agony in the activity of the Dharmakaya. The term prayer therefore is altogether misleading and inaccurate and implicates us in a grave error which tends to contradict the general Buddhist conception of Dharmakaya. We must dispense with the term entirely in order to be in perfect harmony with the fundamental doctrine of Buddhism. This point will receive
best.
;
238
CHAPTER
IX.
nor have we to praise or eulogise its virtues to court its special grace, nor is there any necessity for us to
offer
or
lilies
supplication
to
the
Dharmakaya.
toil
nor
spin,
and
might
add,
;
which
ask
not
for
any
Solomon
The Dharmakaya
shines in
life,
august magnificence everywhere there is are all living nay, even where there is death.
its
We
in the
midst of
it
and
knows not
as
"the
the presence of water about itself," and also mountaineers recognise not the mountains
hunt," even so
profound
we
we
we
all
rest
this is
supremely
contented.
Dharmakaya, who does all excellent works and seeks no recompense whatever.
The Will of
the
Dharmakaya.
aspects
first,
as
it
reflected
in
sciousness:
it
is
is
love (karund)
and
We
know
that
that
it
is
intelligence
from
the
the
Dharmakaya
directs
course of the universe, not blindly but rationally ; know again that it is love because it embraces
we
all
CHAPTER
IX.
239
*
and
finally
we must
good
be
will
assume that
has firmly set
shall
it
is
will,
its
down
final
will,
aim of
of
all
be
the
goal
love
the universe.
Without the
realised lose
;
and
without
and intelligence
love
their
will
the
will
without
and
Dharmakaya
unity of
all
Dharmakaya,
are
for
will
differentiated
human,
finite
consciousness.
Some
Buddhists
may
view here expounded. They may declare "We conform to your view when you say the Dharmakaya is intelligence and love, as this is expressly stated in the
sutras
and gastras
a
will.
but
we do not
see
how
it
could
be
made
Dharmakaya is in possession of the Pranidhanabala, but this bala or power is not necessarily the will, it
is
The Dhar-
makaya
its
their spiritual
energy abiding
original
plan
all
and
universal
salvation of
It
creatures."
is
"I
am
my children."
24O
literally
CHAPTER
"the
IX.
power of
original
prayers."
its
But
this
inner significance
without
which the nature of the Dharmakaya would become unintelligible. We admit that the Dharmakaya
it is
conditioned,
has
that
it
any fragmentary, limited consciousness of human being, nor has it any intrinsic
it is
want by which
other
to
than
itself.
It
speak
of
its
prayer,
"original" or borrowed, as
some Buddhists
hand, we
is
On
its
the other
done by
own
free
will
all
affect
from outside.
can presume the reason
But
why
they speak of
the prayers of the Dharmakaya instead of its will. Here we have an instance of emotional outburst. The
fervency
of the
intense
frequently carries us
beyond the
full
landing
dictions.
us in a region
It
measure of
and
ascribes
all
earthly
human
and passions to an object which the mind well-balanced demands to be above all the
feelings
forms of human helplessness. The Buddhists, especid ally those of the Sukhavati sect, recognise the exist-
To get more fully acquainted with the significance of the Sukhavati doctrine, the reader is advised to look up the
1
Sukhavati sutras
in the
Sacred Books of
XLIX.
CHAPTER
ence
of
IX.
241
an all-powerful
will,
all-knowing intelligence in the Dharmakaya, but they want to represent it more concretely and in a more
followers.
The
all
result
thus
is
that
the
Dharmakaya
made prayers
self-
to himself to emancipate
sufferings of birth
addressed
out
its
prayers
of
will?
its
inmost
nature
what constitutes
16
CHAPTER
X.
The
Human and
the
Super-human Buddha.
and the Sanskrit, that is, between the Hinayana and the Mahayana Buddhist literature, is in the manPali
O NE
ner of introducing the characters or persons who take principal parts in the narratives. In the former, sermons
are delivered
by the Buddha
language
while
as
rule in such a
natural
feel
and plain
as to
make
the reader
philosophically
serene;
we
have
celestial
beings of
niac,
kinds,
human,
celestial,
and
open with
"Thus
it
Buddha
to
to deliver them,
the reader
in
the
CHAPTER X.
lucid
style.
243
Their opening or introductory matter is very simple, and we do not notice anything extraordinary in its further development. But with the Ma-
hayana texts it is quite different. Here we have, as soon as the curtain rises with the stereotyped formula,
grutam," a majestic prologue dramatically or rather grotesquely represented, which prepares the mind of the audience to the succeeding scenes,
in
"Evam maya
which
some of
the
boldest
religio-philosophical
The
perusal of this
its
may
without
much
ado declare that what follows must be extraordinary and may be even nonsensical.
illustration
Mahayana
"Thus
ing
at
was heard by me. Buddha was once stayRajagriha, on the Gridhrakuta mountain. He
it
was
in the Hall of
Ratnachandra
in the
Double Tower
of Chandana.
Buddhahood. He was surrounded by a hundred thousand Bhiksus and Bodhisattvas and Mahasattvas numbering
sixty times as
many
them were
possession of the greatest spiritual energy they had paid homage to thousands of hundred milin
1
What
follows
is
Mahavaipulva-Tathagatagarbha Sutra, translated into Chinese by Buddhabhadra of the Eastern Tsin dynasty (A.D, 371-420).
Nanjo,
No
384.
244
lions
CHAPTER X.
of niyutas
i
Wheel
of
Dharma; and
whoever heard
firmly in the
their
names could
establish themselves
were.
Highest Perfect Knowledge. Their names [Here about fifty Bodhisattvas are mentioned.]
"All
many
Bodhisattvas numbering sixty times as as the sands of the Ganges coming from innumethese
rable Buddha-countries
Devas, Nagas, Yaksas, Gandharvas, Aguras, Garudas, * This great assembly all Kinnaras, and Mahoragas.
joined
in
revering,
honoring, paying
homage
to the
Bhagavat, the World-honored One. "At this time the Bhagavat in the Double
Tower
upon a samadhi, and displayed a marvelous phenomenon. There appeared innumerable lotus-flowers with thousand-fold petals and each flower as large as a carriage-
wheel.
They had
and fragrant
odour, but their petals containing celestial beings in them were not yet unfolded. They all were raised
now by themselves
over
and simultaneously grew in size with wonderful vitality. But through the divine power of Buddha they all of
Niyuta is an exceedingly large number, considered to be equal to one billion.
1
but
generally
All
these
are
unhuman forms
of existence, including
etc.
CHAPTER
X.
245
a sudden changed color and withered. All the celestial Buddhas sitting cross-legged within the flowers now
came
hundred
the tran.
thousand-fold rays of
At
this
moment
scendent glory of the spot was beyond description." As is here thus clearly shown, the Buddha in the
.
.
Mahayana
walking
to
life,
scriptures
is
not an ordinary
;
human being
in a
sensuous world he
is
altogether dissimilar
that
son of Suddhodana,
in
wandered
who resigned the royal the wilderness, and after six years'
profound meditation and penance discovered the Fourfold Noble Truth and the Twelve Chains of Dependence
;
and we cannot but think that the Mahayana Buddha is the fictitious creation of an intensely poetic mind.
Let
is,
it
be
so.
"How
did
Buddhists
come
it
to relegate the
human Buddha
to oblivion, as
possible
or sometimes impossible majesty and supernaturality ?" This question, which marks the rise of Mahayana
which
sense corresponds to the Christian theory of trinity. According to this doctrine, the Buddhists presume
is, the Tathagata conceived by them as manifesting himself in three the Body of Transdifferent forms of existence
:
formation, the
Body
Body
of
Dharma.
Though
all
makaya
246
CHAPTER
as
X.
a Body of Transformation, and in the as a Body of Bliss. However differBuddha Mahayana ently they may appear from the human point of
Buddha
which
all
An
Historical View.
At present we are not in possession of any historical documents that will throw light on the question as to
how
conception came to be firmly established among Northern Buddhists and found its way in an alreadyfinished form as such into the Mahayana scriptures.
As
it
was
Mahayana
as early as the as
first
the
author declares,
Mahayana
as
taught by the Buddha in his various sutras. It is not an original work which expounds the individual
views of Agvaghosa concerning Buddhism. He wrote the book in a concise and comprehensive form, in
order
that the later generations
the
might peruse
with concen-
tration
of
mind and
of
synthetically
significance
many
Therefore,
in the
Awakening of Paith,
we
are supposed
CHAPTER X.
not
to
find
247
any Mahayana doctrines that were not already taught by the Buddha and incorporated in the
sutras. Everything Agvaghosa treats in his work must be considered merely a recapitulation of the doctrines which were not only formulated but firmly established
as the
His
recorder.
He
carefully
is
Mahayana
scriptures that
all the principal teachings here and there Mahayanism scatteringly told in them. His merit lies in compilation and systematisation.
doctrines
This being the case, we must assume that all the that are found in Agvaghosa and distinct
from those usually held to be Hinayanistic are the teachings elaborated by Buddhists from the time of
Buddha's death down to the time of Agvaghosa. But
as the latter apparently believes
all
these doctrines as
no doubt concerning their they were so, we must assume origin, again that these doctrines were in a state of comraises
even
if
correct
that
he lived
faith
in the first
century before
Christ, the
Mahayana
at
least
this
must be
said to have
been
his
is
formulated
age,
taking
for
presumably
formulation
the
time
that
required
the
and
faith
first
the
Buddha,
and,
we know,
was
during this
time that so
many
248
CHAPTER X.
also find the so-called "primitive"
each
of
only
authentic
transmission
the Buddha's teaching. Did Mahayanism come out of this turmoil of contention? Did it boldly raise itself
from
this
chaos
and claim
to
have solved
all
we do
not
know
the
of the
in
Agvaghosa;
but, as
far as
our
we must conclude
case.
glimpse of the state of things that were taking place in those early days of
give
To
Buddhism
the
in India,
will
Vasumitra's Discourse on
Points of Controversy
the
by once refered to
Different Schools
in the
of Buddhism,
work
The
two
principal
vana of the
known, the Elders and the Great Council, and though they were
as
is
Buddha were,
into
well
further
divided
number of smaller
sections
and
that
their views became so complex and intermixed some of the Elders shared similar views with the
Great
Council
School
and vice
versa,
yet
we can
fairly distinguish one from the other and describe the the essential peculiarities of each school. These points
of difference, generally speaking, are as follows, confining ourselves to their conceptions about the Buddha
:
CHAPTER X.
249
(i)
transcendental (lokottara),
and
all
that might
!
dgrava).
itary
For
come from the material existence (bhdvain the Buddha all evil passions hered-
and acquired were eternally uprooted, and his presence on earth was absolutely spotless. (The
Vibhasa, CLXXIII.) Contending this view, the Elders
though his mind was fully enlightened. His corporeal existence was the product of blind love veiled with ignorance and tangled with attachment.
Bhavacrava,
If
this
were not
so,
have awakened an impure affection in the heart of a maiden, an ill-will in the heart of a highwayman, stupidity in the mind of an ascetic, and arrogance in
that
J
of a
Agrava
literally
Roughly speaking, it is a general name for evils, principally material and sensuous. According to an Indian Buddhist scholar, Acrava has threefold sense: (i) "keeping," for it retains all sentient beings in the whirlpool of birth and death (2) "flowing," for it makes all sentient beings run in the stream of birth and death; (3) "leaking," or "oozing," for it lets such evils as avarice, anger, lust, etc., ooze out from the six sense-organs after the fashion of an ulcer, which lets out blood and filthy substance. The cause of Acrava is a blind will, and its result is birth and death. Specifically, Bhavacrava is one of the three Acravas, which are (i) kamacrava, (2) vidyacrava, and (3) bhavacrava. The first is egotistic desires, the second is ignorance, and the third is the material existence which we have to suffer on account of our previous karma.
;
25O
CHAPTER
life
X.
of the
apt
it
Buddha evince
to
that
corporeal
hearts,
agitate others'
was contaminated by
insists that
Bhavagrava.
(2)
every
word uttered by a Tathagata has a religious, spiritual meaning and purports to the edification of his fellowbeings
;
is
variously interpreted
by
but
his
all
own
disposition,
given
by the Buddha
is
rational
and
perfect.
Buddha
with
the
for
the
enlightenment
that
even with
Buddha something was out of his attainment, instance, he could not make every one of his
perfectly
hearers
understand
his
preachings
that
though the Buddha never taught anything irrational and heretical, yet all his speeches were not perfect,
he said some things which had no concern with rationality or orthodoxy.
(3)
The
corporeal
;
every Buddha's life is unlimited a Buddha knows no fatigue^ knows not when to rest, always occupying
himself with the enlightenment of
all
sentient beings
in their hearts of
pure
faith.
deify
insist
CHAPTER
X.
251
Elders agree with the Great Council in that the body assumed by the Buddha as the result of his untiring
accumulation of good karma through eons of his successive existences possesses a wonderful power, spiritual
and
all
material,
they
do not conceive
It to
be
beyond
limitations.
(4) The Great Council School says that with the Buddha sleep is not necessary and he has no dreams. The Elders admit that the Buddha never dreams,
As
the
Buddha
is
always
it
exalted
spiritual
meditation,
him
to think
certain
what to say when requested to answer questions. Though he might appear to the
if
inquirers as
presented to
is
he thoroughly cogitates over the problems him for solution, the Buddha's response
in
fact
immediate
the
efforts.
The
Elders,
on
other
as
mental
as
calculation
how
him everything is transparent, but he thinks over the best method of presenting his ideas before
his pupils.
1
!
that the
conceptions of the Buddha as entertained by the Mahasangika School (Great Council) closely resemble those of the Mahayana Buddhism. Though we are still unable to trace step by step
the
development of Mahayanism in India, the hypothesis assumed by most of Japanese Buddhist scholars is that the Mahasangika was Mahayanistic in tendency.
252
CHAPTER
X.
Now
above
Dharmakaya and
Trikaya.
When we
consider
these controversies as
it is apparent that among many other which arose soon after the demise of the Budquestions dha (Jakyamuni, there was one, which in all probability
stated,
his disciples.
mean
the
Was
he merely
human being
like ourselves?
reach such a height of a divine being ? But Buddha himself did not communicate anything to his disciples concerning his divinity,
nor did he
of his
truth.
tell
them
to accept the
Dharma on account
But
for
all
that
how
hearts
eradicate
from
for
their
reverence
their
teacher, which
was so
indelibly
engraved there?
anecdotes,
spirit
Whenever they
in
or
gathas
embodied
become so
ask
themselves:
"What
formed
the
What was
character?
that
it
that
in
What was
him
life ?
there in the
raised
religious
to such
a perfection of intellectual
it
and
of too
that
tions
How
was
such
Buddha
had
is
succumb
and death
ques-
the lot of
common
mortals
Some such
CHAPTER X.
could
253
and Trikaya.
Who was
The evidence
disturbing
the
Buddha?
were constantly
is
the
minds of the
into
Master's
entrance
Parinirvana,
scatteringly
revealed throughout the Buddhist texts both Southern and Northern. The regret of the immediate followers
that
they
did
not
ask
the
the
Buddha
told
to prolong his
earthly
life,
while
if
Buddha
them
that he
could do so
the
remains
of
the
of
Blessed
One,
"How
l
soon the
these
Light
the
utterances
may
drops foreboding
as
to
showers
of
doubt and
speculation
his
personality.
2 According to the Suvarna Prabha Sutra, a Bodhisattva, by the name of Ruciraketu, was greatly
annoyed by the doubt why (Jakyamuni Tathagata had such a short life terminating only at eighty. He
1
The Mahaparimbbana
sutta.
:
There are three Chinese translations of this sutra the first, by Dharmaraksa during the first two decades of the the second, by Paramartha of the Liang fifth century A. D. dynasty, who came to China A. D. 546 and died A. D. 569 and the third, by I-tsing of the Tang dynasty who came back from his Indian pilgrimage in the year 695 and translated this
; ;
sutra A. D. 703. The last is the only complete Chinese translation of the Suvarna Prabhct. A part of the orginal Sanskrit text recovered in Nepal was published by the Buddhist Text
254
taught
the
disciples
CHAPTER X.
that
those
who
any
ably
the
living
charity, in
beings, and those who generously practised their former lives, could enjoy a consider-
long life on earth; why then was the life of Blessed One himself cut so short, who practised
The
sutra
now
of four Tathagatas
sceptic
who
and
told
the
vast
ocean
(Jakyamuni
none
Sumeru we can
into
into
particles
and
count
them,
but
the
age
of
(Jakyamuni
never perish.
the
the
Good Dharma
He
kaya
germinating
1
out
of
the
corporeal
death
of
(Jakyamuni.
1
that spans
Spiritually
men never die seems to be universal. would never perish, because the ideas that moved them and made them prominent in the history of humanity are born of truth. And in this sense every person who is possessed of worthy thoughts is immortal, while souls that are made of trumpery are certainly doomed to annihilation. But the masses are not satisfied with this kind of immortality. They must have something more tangible, more sensual, and more individual. The notion of bodily resurrection
The notion
they
of Christ of Christ
is
When
the followers
opened the master's grave, they did not find his so body, says legend, and they at once conceived the idea
CHAPTER X.
the wide gap between the
255
human
akyamuni Buddha
and the
spiritual existence
of the Dharmakaya.
The
die after he partook of the food His age was not eighty. His life Chunda. by did not pass to an airy nothingness when his cine-
were divided among kings and Brahmans. His virtues and merits which were accumulated throughrary
urns
out
so
life
innumerable
abruptly.
kalpas,
could
not
the
come
not
to naught
What
constituted
essence
perish
of
his
could
with
The Buddha
transformation
forever
so
is
must abide
His Dharmakaya
above birth
and death and even above Nirvana; but his Body of Transformation comes out of the womb of Tathagata as destined by karma and vanishes into it when the
karma exhausts
seated
to
all
its
force.
is
still
at
among
beings the message of joy and bliss, and who other precious teachings bequeathed to us
of resurrection, for they reasoned that such a great Jesus could not suffer the same fate that befalls
mortals
only. The story of his corporeal took wing and went wild; some heard him speak to them, some saw him break bread, and others even touched his wounds. What a grossly materialistic conception early Christians (and alas, even some of the twentieth century) cherished about resurrection and immortality! It is no wonder, therefore, that primitive Buddhists raised a serious question about the
personality of Buddha which culminated in the conception of the Sambhogakaya, Body of Bliss, by Mahayanists
256
CHAPTER
X.
such sutras as the Avatamsaka, the Pundanka^ etc., is no more nor less than an expression of the eternal
spirit.
formulated
Thus came the doctrine of Dharmakaya to be by the Mahay anists, and from this the to that of Trikaya was but a natural sequence. transition
other could not give an of solution the problems above cited. adequate
Because
What
then
It
is
is
the
(i)
Trikaya or
triple
body of the
the
the
Tathagata? Transformation
Bliss
;
Nirmana Kaya,
and
(3)
Body of Body of
of Dharma. If
we draw
Body
of Transformation
may be
considered to correspond to Christ in the flesh, the Body of Bliss either to Christ in glory or to Holy
Ghost, and Dharmakaya to Godhead.
in
translation,
chap.
III.)
we
find the
following
statements
concerning
the
doctrine
of
Trikaya.
at the stage of
deeds of morality for the sake of sentient beings. The practise finally attained perfection, reached maturity, and by virtue of its
merits he acquired a wonderful spiritual power.
The
power enabled him to respond to the thoughts, deeds, and livings of sentient beings. He thoroughly understood them and never missed the right opportunity
CHAPTER
respond to their needs].
right
X.
257
revealed himself in
[to
He
the
place and
in the right
moment; he acted
rightly, assuming various bodily forms [in response to the needs of mortal souls]. These bodily forms
"But when the Tathagatas, in order to make the Bodhisattvas thoroughly conversant with the Dharma, to instruct them in the highest reality, to let them
understand that birth-and-death (samsdra) and Nirvana are of one taste, to destroy the thoughts of the ego,
individuality,
and the
and to
innumerable
in a
form
is perfect with the thirty-two major and eighty minor features of excellence and shining with the halo around the head and the back, the Tathagatas are
which
said
to
have
l
assumed
the
Body
of Bliss or
Samsins
bhogakaya.
"When
[material,
all
possible
obstacles
arising
from
intellectual,
and emotional]
are
perfectly
removed, and when all possible good dharmas are preserved, there would remain nothing but Suchness and
this is the Dharmakaya. the knowledge of Suchness, "The first two forms of the Tathagata are provisional
[and
temporal]
existences
the
but
the
last
one
is
reality,
wherein
Compare
17
258
their
CHAPTER
existence.
X.
Why?
Because
when deprived
ot
the
Dharma
particularity,
it
Suchness and Knowledge of Suchness that absorbs within itself all possible forms of Buddha-wisdom and
is
all
passions
and
sins [arising
from
particularity]."
According to the above, the Dharmakaya which is tantamount to Suchness or Knowledge of Suchness
is
absolute
is
reflected
in a
of the
When
it
responds to
spiritual life
needs
of
the
Bodhisattvas
whose
on a much higher plane than that of ordinary mortals, it takes on itself the Body of Bliss or
Sambhogakaya. This Body is a supernatural existence, and almost all the Buddhas in the Mahayana scriptures
belong to this class of being. Acvaghosa (p. ioi)says: "The Body has infinite forms. The form has infinite
attributes.
The
And
the accompanying fruition, that is, the region where they are destined to be born [by their previous
karma], also
Manifesting
is
everywhere,
limitless,
the
Body
of Bliss
[in
infinite,
boundless,
unintermittent
its
activity]
which
comes
directly
common
CHAPTER X.
mortals are not of this kind
259
are
They
common
mortals
womb
was
as
such
we
accumulated
of ignorance.
in
its
They do not
Dharmakaya
are blindly
They
dark wilderness, they are vainly seeking, groping they are wildly knocking. To the needs of these people
the Dharmakaya responds by assuming an earthly form
as a
human Buddha.
Revelation in All Stages of Culture.
En
passant,
is
let
us remark that
it
is
in this sense
that Christ
conceived by
festation of the
Dharmakaya
human
form.
He
is
Buddha and
akyamuni The Dharmakaya revealed itself as Qakyamuni to the Indian mind, because that was in harmony
its needs. The Dharmakaya appeared in the person of Christ on the Semitic stage, because it suited their
with
The doctrine of Trikaya, however, even further and declares that demons, animal goes gods, ancestor- worship, nature-worship, and what not, are all due to the activity and revelation of the Dharmakaya responding
to the spiritual needs of barbarous
26O
CHAPTER
X.
and half-cultured people. The Buddhists think that the Dharmakaya never does things that are against the
spiritual
is
welfare
it
of
its
done by
is
moment
of
revelation,
of
never throws a pearl before the swine, for animal's needs are for things more substantial. He does not reveal himself in an exalted spiritual
the
Dharma he knows
But as soon as they become dissatisfied with the animal or human-fashioned gods, there must
worshiping.
let
what
Cf.
I
Cor.
xm,
I
ii.
"When
child,
I
was a
child, I
spake as a
but when
child,
I
understood as a
thought as a
child,
became a man,
our ever-ascending spiritual progress is well illustrated in the Saddharma-pundarlka Siitra. See Chapters II, III, IV, V, and XI. The following passage quoted from chap. II, p. 49 (Kern's translation) will give a tolerably adequate view concerning diversity of means and unity of purpose as here expounded: "Those highest of men have, all of them, revealed most holy laws by means of illustrations, reasons and arguments, with many hundred proofs of skillfulness (updyakaufalya). And all of them have manifested but one vehicle and introduced but one on earth; by one vehicle have they led to full ripeness inconceivably many thousands of kotis of beings." As was
CHAPTER
X.
26l
They
of
are thus
all
sciously on
mystery,
real
they
come
and
with
the
meaning of the
"we
all,
open
Lord,
are
changed
Spirit
into
glory, even as
by the
why
by
when
his worldly
is
to be over
that
his
and death,
he wished to exemplify in him the impermanency of worldly life and the folly of clinging to it as final
reality.
it
Dharmakaya, it has an eternal life, was never born, and it would never perish; and
for his
As
when
it
in
needs of the Bodhisattvas, will cast off the garb of absoluteness and preach the form of a Sambhogakaya "never-ceasing sercalled
by the
spiritual
like a
be
evident
all
stream for ever and aye." It from this that Buddhists are ready
to consider
religious or
whatever their nationality, as the Body of Transformation of the Dharmakaya. Translated into Christian
thoughts,
God
is
worthy of him.
He
"strategy."
For
fuller
262
period
in
CHAPTER X.
history,
is
all
the time.
His
glory
human
nature
as
is
culture.
the stages of
from
the very
imagined by some "orthodox Christians." The following from St. Paul's first Epistle to the Corinthians
(Chap.
^i)7Hvhen
like a
read
in
this connection,
sounds
:
almost
there
are
diversities
"Now
Spirit.
And
it
the
in
all.
But the
given to every
man
to
withal
For
;
to
one
is
word of wisdom
to another the
;
by the same
Spirit
;
Spirit
to
to
Spirit
to another the
;
prophecy
other
to an-
the
interpretation
of
but
Spirit,
all
these
dividing
For as the body is one and hath many members, and all the members of that one body, being many, are one body so
severally as he
:
every man
For by one Spirit are we all baptised into one body, whether we be Jews or Gentiles, whether we be bond or free and have been all made to
also
is
Christ.
CHAPTER
X.
263
The Sambhogakaya.
One
hend,
is
peculiar
point
in
the
doctrine
difficult
of Trikaya,
to
comprebetween
God
incarnate or to that of
Avatara* Inasmuch as the Dharmakaya does not exist outside the triple world but in it as the raison d'etre
existence, all beings must be considered a manifestation of it and in this sense Buddhists partial
of
its
sometimes
of
call
is,
intelligence,
because
intelligence
(Bodhi)
beings is the
psychological
aspect
of the
Dharmakaya
as realised
in sentient beings.
is
altogether
limited consciousness.
The
fact
when we
Bliss,
filling
is
are
the
the
Body of
other as a sort of religious object for the Bodhisattvas. That the Body of Bliss is corporeal and yet infinite
has
Suvarna Prabha and Acvaghosa on the preceding pages. For further confirmation of this point no less authority than Asanga and Vasubandhu will be here
refered to.
In
Mahayana and
264
in its
CHAPTER
X.
commentary, the author Asanga and the commentator Vastibandhu endeavor to prove why the Body of Bliss cannot be the raison d'etre of the
versa;
the
is,
Body
Skandhas, that
consciousness
larisation; (3)
(vijndna}\ (2)
it
it
is
subject to particu-
desires of Bodhisattvas (4) even according to the same individual it appears differently at different
to
the
times;
(5)
when
it
manifests
itself
simultaneously
and
in
qualifications,
it
at
order to satisfy their infinitely diversified inclinations (6) it is a creation of the Alayavijnana, All-conserving
Mind.
These
indeed
six
enumerated
of
the
as
it
into the
deep mystery of its nature. Its supernatural incomprehensibility remains the same forever. In a
certain
sense,
however,
the
Body
of Bliss
may be
merely messengers of
will
God communicating
the latter's
to
human
beings.
When
is
not of their
own
CHAPTER X.
account.
265
When
the
name of
selves.
they speak to him at all, it is by the being who sent them. They do not
own
will
by them-
On
It
the
its
contrary,
It
is
the
Body of
all
Bliss is the
master of
own.
makaya.
instructs
and benefits
who come
is
to
it.
It
acts according to
own
will
and judgment.
In
these
respects the
Body
of Bliss
altogether different
it
Let us make another quotation from later authorities than Asanga and his brother Vasubandhu, and let
more convincingly what complicated notions are involved in the idea of the Body of Bliss. According
us
see
to the
commentators on Vasubandhu's Vijndnamdtra * the fdstra (a treatise on the Yoga philosophy), of Bliss has The two distinct Body body aspects: (i)
obtained
by the
Tathagata
for
his self-enjoyment,
;
by
dint
The
1
of his religious discipline through eons body which the Tathagata manifests to
is
(2)
the
one of the most important philosophical works Yogacara school. Vasubandhu wrote the text (Nanjo, No. 1215) which consists only of thirty verses, but there appeared many commentators after the death of the author, who naturally entertained widely different views among themselves on the subject-matter, as it is too tersely treated in the text. Hsuen Tsang made selections out of the ten noted Hindu exegetists in A. D. 659 and translated them into the Chinese language. The compilation consists of ten fascicles and is known as Discourse on the Ideality of the Universe (a free rendering of the Chinese title Chang wei shilun, Nanjo, No. 1197).
This
of the
266
Bodhisattvas
in
CHAPTER X.
Pure Land (sukhavati}. This last body is in possession of wonderful spiritual powers, reveals the Wheel of Dharma, resolves all the religious doubts
raised
bliss
of the
lets
A
Judging
plausible
sceptical
from
conclusion
suggests
itself to
modern
is
minds
is
that the
Sambhogakaya must be a
mind, which
reality, but,
mere creation of an
intently bent
intelligent, finite
not
being able,
object
all
on account of
its
in
mind
fabricates
its
ideals
own
logically a contradiction,
but
and worship.
no more than the Body of Bliss. 4 It lies half way between the pure being of Dharmakaya and the earthly form of Nirmanakaya, the Body of
this being
is
And
Transformation.
It
does not
belong
It is
to
either,
but
in
a sense spiritual
May
God as
God
enter-
tained
the
by most Christians
itself?
Body of
Bliss rather
than
quite spiritual, but in others he is thought of as a concrete material being like ourselves. It seems to me that the human soul is
Dharmakaya
In
some respects
their
is
ever struggling to free itself from this paradox, though without any apparent success, while the masses are not so intellectual and reflective enough as to become aware of this eternal contradiction which is too deeply buried in their minds.
CHAPTER X.
like
267
it
the
cannot go beyond
thirsty after a
material
for
it
has
determinate.
When
the
human
pure being or an absolute which cannot be comprehended in a palpable form, it creates a hybrid, an
imitation,
or
just
a
as
reflection,
and
tries to
be
satisfied
with
yet
it,
little
girl
developed maternity satisfied by tenderly embracing and nursing the doll, an inanimate imitation
fully
And
this
the Mahayanists
childish
seem
to
humanness. They
of historical
facts,
and
made
of
all
the
Body of
Bliss of the
if
the
Dharmakaya
of the
Tathagata never entered into Parinirvana, why then could he not deliver sermons and cite gathas as often
as beings of intelligence (Bodhisattvas)
felt their
needs
(fas.
2,
sentiment as follows:
To
illustrate
does
not
nor
does the water-mirror, nor the from the body from which
light
[conceived separate
emanates]. But when all these three are brought together, there is produced an image [of the sun or the moon in the water]. So
it
is
with Suchness and Knowledge of Suchness. It not possessed of any particular consciousness, but
is
Spontaneous Will [inherent in the nature of Suchness, or what is the same thing, in the
by
virtue
of the
268
CHAPTER X.
reveals itself in
"And, expanding
of akasa
while
the
as
in
the
all
water-mirror
different
(void
medium
space
itself is
void of
all
particular marks, so
reflects its images severally in the minds of believers, and this by virtue of receiving Will. The Will creates the Body of Spontaneous
Dharmakaya
Transformation
as
well
as
the
Body
a
of Bliss in
all
Dharmathis
kaya,
does
not
suffer
one
whit
change on
account."
is
response from the Dharmakaya, and that this response is not always uniform as the recipient minds show
different
spiritually.
degrees
If
we
communion between
an
of
inspiration,
sentient
all
souls
and
the
that
Dharmakaya
flow
soul
the
phenomena
reflect
out
fulness
of
heart and
purity
;
of
should
be
called
"works of
inspiration"
and
their scriptures as
emanating
directly
Modern Mahayanists.
in
full
Modern Mahayanists
accordance with
this
CHAPTER X.
269
much importance on the objective aspects of the Body of Bliss (Sambhogakdya]. They consider them
at best the fictitious
they never
mysterious
tarry
moment
or
to think that
all
these
are
Tathagatas
Bodhisattvas
who
the
are decorated
with such
eye,
silver,
emerald, cat's
that
stones,
pious
Buddhists
these
would be transfered
ostentatiously
on
the
pedestals
of
innumerable
Bodhisattvas
and would
enjoy all the spiritual enjoyments that human mind can conceive. On the contrary, modern Buddhists
look with
disdain
on these
life.
egotistic
materialistic
conceptions
of
religious
For,
to
fully
en-
The reader must not think that Land which is elaborately described
1
there
is
in the Sukhavati
Vyuha
Sutra as the abode of the Tathagata Amitabha, situated innumerable leagues away in the West. On the contrary, the Mahayana texts admit the existence of as innumerable pure
single
are Tathagatas arid Bodhisattvas, and every one of these holy regions has no boundary and is coexistent with the universe, and, therefore, their spheres necessarily intercrossing and overlapping one another. It would look to every intelligent mind that those innumerable Buddhacountries existing in such a mysterious and incomprehensible manner cannot be anything else than our own subjective
lands
as there
creation.
2/O
sures be
?
CHAPTER X.
What
outside the bliss of embracing the will of the Dharmakaya as his own?
Recapitulation.
To sum
up, the
Buddha
in the
Pali scriptures
was
a human being, though occasionally he is credited to have achieved things supernatural and superhuman.
His historical career began with the abandonment of a royal life, then the wandering in the wilderness, and
a
long
earnest meditation on the great problems of
birth-and-death,
and
then
his
final
enlightenment
under
the
Bodhi
tree,
grination
along the valleys of the Ganges, and the establishment of a religious system known as Buddhism,
finally his eternal
and
that
leaves nothing
as
far
behind"
(anupadhigesanirvana).
of
And
these
earth.
as to
plain
seem
exhaust
the
life
^akyamuni on
But the deep reverence which was felt by his could not be satisfied with this prosaic disciples
humanness of
more
gives
master and made him something than a mortal soul. So even the Pali tradition
their
life
him a supramundane
one.
He
is
supposed
womb
was
of
his
of
of
Bodhisattvahood
of
his
acceded
him
which
on
account
deeds
self-sacrifice
were
praised
throughout
innumerable past
incarnations.
CHAPTER X.
ing
271
among
us
in
the
flesh,
he
was
glorified with
of a great man.
that
first
walked on earth to teach the Dharma, were already seven Buddhas before him, nor was he the last one that would appear among us, for
for there
1
Buddha
pp.
Buddha seems
death of the
process of mystifying or deifying the person of to have been going on immediately after the
Master; and the Mahayanistic conception of Nirmanakaya and Sambhogakaya is merely the consummation of this process. Southern Buddhists who are sometimes supposed to represent a more "primitive" form of Buddhism describe just as much as Mahayanism the thirty-two major and eighty minor exellent physical marks of a great man as having been
possessed by Qakyamuni, (for instance, see the Milindapanha, S.B.E. Vol. XXXV. p. 116). But any person with common sense will at once see the absurdity of representing any human being with those physical peculiarities. And this
those
way of portraying the human Buddha with mysterious signs. They transfered them through the doctrine of Trikaya to the characterisation of the Sambhotraditional
gakaya Buddha, that is, to the Buddha enjoying in a celestial abode the fruit of his virtuous earthly life. The Buddha who walked in the flesh as the son of King Suddhodana was, however, no more than an ordinary human being like ourselves, e. because he appeared to us in a form of Nirmanakaya, as a Body of Transformation, devoid of any such physical
i.
peculiarities
known
as
thirty-two
or
eighty
laksanas.
Southern Buddhists, so called, seem, however, to have overlooked the, ridiculousness of attributing these fantastic signs to the human Buddha; and this fact explains that as soon as the memory of the personal disciples of Buddha about his person vanished among the later followers, intense speculation and resourceful imagination were constantly exercised until the divers schools settled the question each in its own way.
272
a
CHAPTER
X.
Bodhisattva
is
now
in
heaven
of
the
and making
Buddhahood
Pali
time to come. But here stopped writers, they did not venture to make any
further
speculation
religious
on
the
nature
of
Buddhahood.
Their
yearnings
did
not
spur
them
to a
higher flight of the imagination. They recited simple sutras or gathas, observed the cilas (moral precepts)
as
strictly
and
literally
as they could,
still
and thought
the
tions
spirit of their
;
Master
alone the personality of the Tathagata. But there was at the same time another group of
let
the disciples of the Buddha, whose religious and intellectual inclinations were not of the same type as their
fellow-believers
;
faith in
the
Buddha
satisfy them. They perhaps reasoned in this fashion "If there were seven Buddhas before the advent of
the
Great
Muni of
is
more who
that
come, where, let us ask, did they derive their authority and knowledge to preach ? How
it
to
is
more Buddhas,
If
that
much
oftener?
they were
ourselves
human
beings
like ourselves,
why
not
we
them
to the theory of
Dharmakaya,
that
all
the
owe
the
Dharmakaya,
which alone
is
immortal
in
us
CHAPTER
as
X.
273
religious effort
well
as in
Buddhas
is,
The
first
we
have to make
of
all
Buddhas and
is
Dharmakaya
too abstract for the average mind to become so they the object of its religious consciousness personified or rather materialised it. In other words,
as such
;
him a Body of Bliss of the Tathagata while the historical human Buddha was called a Body of
and
called
Transformation
that
is,
and
of
all
beings
intelligence
destined
to
become
Buddhas.
This idealised Buddha,
or,
what
is
a personified Dharmakaya, according to the Mahayana Buddhists, not only revealed himself in the particular
person of Siddhartha Gautama in Central Asia a few thousand years ago, but is revealing himself in all
times
and
all
places.
There
is
no specially favored
spot on the earth where only the Buddha makes his appearance from the zenith of Akanista heaven down
;
to the bottom of Naraka, he is manifesting uninterruptedly and unintermittently and is working out his ideas, of which, however, our limited understanding
to
is
unable
have an adequate knowledge. The Avatamsaka Sutra (Buddhabhadra's translation, fas. 45, chap. 34) describes how the Buddha works out his scheme of
salvation in
all
Saddharma
18
274
CHAPTER
X.
2,
p.
30
et seq.,
all
whose
some-
number
times
is
innumerable as atoms.
the
He may
reveal
in
world
Nagas, Yaksas, Gandharvas, Asuras, Garudas, Kinnaras, Mahoragas, etc., sometimes in the world of Brahmans,
sometimes
in
in
world of human beings, sometimes the palace of Yamaraja (king of death), sometimes the underworld of damned spirits, ghosts, and beasts.
in the
His all-swaying compassion, intelligence, and will would all beings had been brought under his
all
shelter through
possible
achieve his work of redemption sometimes by means of his name, sometimes by means of memory, sometimes
of voice, sometimes of perfect illumination, sometimes of the
net
of illumination.
he does not depart from his seat in the tower; yet he reveals himself in all the ten quarters of the globe.
from
his
own body
the
an
undivided
personality,
and
all
itinerating
in all
sentient beings.
CHAPTER X.
275
an
ascetic,
times
honest worker], sometimes that of an artist, somethat of a deva. Again, he may reveal himself
in all the
sometimes
And whatever
all
may
his
be,
and whatever
accom-
modate himself to
....
The
is
of tolerance
in Buddhists.
As
all
the
Dharmakaya
all
uni-
sentient
times and in
places and
at
as
the
Buddhism are
tolerated through
all moving according to the Will that Spontaneous pervades everywhere and works
all
as
and
final
aim
is
may
and
Cf.
Cor.
xi.
19 et seq.
276
contradictions.
CHAPTER X.
The
Buddhism has done a great deal towards cultivating a tolerant spirit in its believers, and we must say that
the doctrine of Trinity which appears sometimes too
radical in its pantheistic spirit has contributed
much
to this cause.
CHAPTER XL
THE BODHISATTVA.
EXT
to the conception of
Buddha, what
is
impor-
Mahayana Buddhism is that of Bodhisattva (intelligence-being) and of that which constitutes its essence, Bodhicitta, intelligence- heart. As stated above,
tant in
the
followers
of Mahayanism do not
call
themselves
distinguish themselves
this
by the
be the
of
Bodhisattva.
What
means
will
Let us begin with a quotation from the Saddharmapundarika Sutra, in which a well-defined distinction between the Qr^vakas and the Pratyekabuddhas and
the Bodhisattvas
is
!
given.
"Now,
have
"Amongst them
follow
there
are
to
the
dictate
of
themselves to the
1
commandment
p. 80.
278
acquire
for
CHAPTER
the
XI.
the
sake of their
own complete
Nirvana. These,
one may
of the (Jravaka, fly from the triple world "Other beings desirous of the unconditioned knowtranquillity, apply themselves of the Tathagata to learn to understand the Twelve Chains of Dependence, for the
ledge, of self-restraint
and
to
the
commandment
sake of their
say, to
own complete
those
may
who, seeking the vehicle of the Pratyekabuddha, fly from the triple world "Other beings again desirous of omniscience, Buddha-
be
knowledge, absolute knowledge, unconditioned knowledge, apply themselves to the commandment of the
Tathagata and to' learn to understand the knowledge, powers, and conviction of the Tathagata, for the sake of the common weal and happiness, out of compassion
to the world, for the benefit, weal and happiness_of
the
world
of
at
large,
complete Nirvana of all beings. These, say, to be those who seeking the Great Vehicle (Mahay ana) fly from the triple world. Therefore,
sake
the
one may
from
the
features
of
Mahayana
not
exert
Here
but
his
the
Bodhisattva
for
does
the
religious
for
discipline
sake of his
own
fit
weal,
all
the
sake
of
fellow-creatures.
he
will,
he could,
CHAPTER
like
XI.
279
the
ravakas
and
our worldly tribulations are forever buried he could seclude himself from the hurly-burly of the world, and,
;
sitting cross-legged in a lonely cave, quietly contemplate on the evanescence of human interests and the frivolity
time
of
final
absorption
rivers
finally
into
the
absolute
All, as
streams
and
and become
self-sufficient
these
the
Bodhisattva
would not
ease, but he would mingle himself in the turmoil of worldly life and devote all his energy to the salvation of the masses of people, who, on
seek
his
own
account of their ignorance and infatuation, are forever transmigrating in the triple world, without making
final
goal of humanity.
Along this Bodhisattvaic devotion, however, there was another current of religious thought and practice
running
among
the
followers
of Buddha.
By
this
mean
buddhas.
Both of them
them were
may
was not
theirs
of
all
beings, and,
when they
sins
attained their
own redemption
from
pline
earthly
was
28O
CHAPTER
to
XI.
made by them
from
mingling
life
extend the
bliss of their
'
personal
recoiled
They
their holy
have
themselves among vulgar people lest should get contaminated. They did not confidence enough in their own power to help
pain
was
it.
for
others
alleviate
Sympathy was of no avail; because his own karma good or evil could be reward of the
suffered
by himself
the
it
be avoidable
even
1
by
doer
It
tion
was lacking altogether in the followers of Hinayanism. But what distinguished it so markedly from Mahayanism is that the former did not extend the idea wide enough, but confined it to Buddhahood only. Buddha attained omniscience
in
order that he might deliver the world, but we, ordinary mortals, are too ignorant and too helpless to aspire for Buddhahood; let us be contented with paying homage to Buddha
faithfully observing his precepts as laid down by him for our spiritual edification. Our knowledge and energy are too limit-
and
ed to cope with such a gigantic task as to achieve a univermankind; let a Buddha or Bodhisattva attempt it while we may rest with a profound confidence in him and in his work. Thoughts somewhat like these must have been going about in the minds of the Hinayanists, when their Mahayana brethren were making bold to strive after Buddhahood themselves. The difference between the two schools oi Buddhism, when most concisely expressed, is this: While one has a most submissive confidence in the Buddha, the other endeavors to follow his example by placing himself in his
sal salvation of
position.
The
following
quotation
("the Story of
Sumedha,"
CHAPTER
XI.
28l
indelible
once
for
all,
and
their
karma made an
mark
on the pages of his destiny. Even Buddha who was supposed to have attained that exalted position by
practising
lives,
in all his
evil
former
karma which
was quite unwittingly commited by him. This iron arm of karma seizes everybody in person and does
not
allow
to give a halt to the working of
only by applying a counter-force to it, and this with no other hand than his own. The Mahayanist conception of Bodhisattvahood
may be
considered an effort
somewhat
a Jataka
not dare to
make
this
"Or why should I, valorous man, The ocean seek to cross alone? Omniscience first will I achieve, And men and gods convey across.
"Since
now
make
Men,
Omniscience sometime
And
t
282
CHAPTER
XI.
Strict Individualism.
The Buddhism
buddhas
is
ethico-religious
of
the
individualistic
;
theory of
all
things
They would is "Your salvation say: exclusively your own business, and whatever sympathy I may have is of no avail.
left
undone are
undone by
oneself.
All
that
is
to let
way
to emancipation. If
you you do
not
follow
it,
am
my
Buddhism
of the
is
"entirely different. It
it
is
all-love.
he wishes to emancipate
the
from
rewards he
may
his
get
for
his
self-enjoyment as
the
karma of
virtuous
deeds,
over (parivarta) towards the uplifting of the suffering masses. And this self-sacrifice, this unselfish devotion
to
the
welfare
of his
fellow-beings
constitutes
the
essence of Bodhisattvahood.
therefore,
is
The
ideal Bodhisattva,
thought to
The
irrefragability of
karma seems
to
be satisfactory
CHAPTER
XI.
283
from the
intellectual
and
the intellect demands a thorough application of logic, and individualism does not allow the transfering of
from one person to another. From this viewpoint, therefore, a rigorous enforcement as demanded by Hinayanism of the principle of self-emancipation
responsibility
fault
divine grace
must
be
suspended as
the
curse
of
to
more than poor mortals qan endure. They want something more elastic and pliable
karma
is
When
is
no unifying bond
which
is
the
feeling,
they
are
too
weak
to resist
and overcome the ever-threatening force of evil, whose reality as long as a world of particulars exists cannot be
contradicted.
felt
in
our
inmost consciousness
reason
doctrine of
parivarta
(turning
over) founded
on the oneness of
Dharmakaya.
The doctrine of turning over (parivarta} of one's own merits to others is a great departure from that
which seems to have been the teaching of "primitive Buddhism." In fact, it is more than a departure, it
284
is
CHAPTER
in
XI.
even
some measure.
a predominant feature in
the religious practice of the (Jravakas and the Pratyekabuddhas, universalism or supra-individualism, if I am
allowed
is
latter believe that all beings, a manifestation of the being Dharmakaya, are in their
ignorance
is
concerned and
;
makaya which
produce
pation of
all
is
intelligence
and
love,
cannot
fail
to
universal benefit and to effect final emancibeings. Thus, the religion of the Bodhi-
by the
own
of others
It
is
in
Bodhisattvas conceive
life
;
it is
in this
that,
istence
on
:
they come
to the following
view
of
life
ing
evil
deeds
in
innumerable
ways; and, on
this
They do
not
recognise
the
Tathagata,
do
not
listen to his
teachings, do not pay homage to the congregation of holy men. And this evil karma will surely bring them
a heavy crop of misery. This reflection fills the heart of a Bodhisattva with gloomy feelings, which in turn
CHAPTER
gives rise to the
will
XI.
285
immovable
carry
all
the burdens
final
and
mably
nor
all
yield
He
will
es
and
sin,
until
and
marvelous
spiritual
limitations
to
eternity
when
comes
to a conclusion. Therefore,
cated to the emancipation of ignorant beings. "The Bodhisattvas do not feel, however, that they
are being compelled
by any external force to devote and uplifting of the massany outward authority,
react
They do not
violation
recognise
the
of which
may
upon them
in
the
yond
form of a punishment. They have already passed bethis stage of world-conception which implies a
;
they are on the contrary moving in a much wider and higher sphere of thought. All that is done dualism
spontaneous will, from the free activity of the Bodhicitta, which constitutes their reason of existence and thus there is nothing compulsotheir
;
minology, they are practising non-action, wu wei, and whatever may appear to the ignorant and unenlightened as a strenuous and restless life, is merely a natural
286
CHAPTER
XI.
The
wide
their
in "primitive"
Buddhism, only it did not have such a signification. All Buddhas were Bodhisattvas in
former
lives.
The
self-sacrificing deeds were done by them and how by the karma of these merits they finally attained Buddhahood. Qakyamuni was not the only
cribe
what
Buddha, but there had already been seven or twentyfour Buddhas prior to him, and the coming Buddha to be known as Maitreya is believed to be disciplining
himself in the Tusita heaven and going through the stages of Bodhisattvahood. The one who is thus destined to
be the future Buddha must be extraordinarily gifted in spiritual energy. He must pass through eons of self-discipline,
must practise deeds of non-atman with unflinching courage and fortitude through innumerable existences.
The
be sufficient to see what ponderous and exacting conditions were conceived by the so-called Hfnayanists
to
be
necessary
for
a
2
human being
to
become a
fully
1
qualified Buddha.
is
This
a very rough
of
as Parivarta and
summary of the doctrine that is known expounded in the Avatamsaka Sutra, fas. 21-22
Parivarta are distinguished and explained
CHAPTER
XI.
287
he,
"Of men
condition
existence,
it
is
he,
and only
who
is
in a fit
by
same
that
can
successfully
in a
in
fit
make
a wish to be
it
Buddha.
Of those
the
condition
is
only he
who makes
Buddha
a
foot
wish
the
presence
;
of a living
after the
death of
Bo-tree,
will
not be successful.
Of those
Buddha
it
who make
is
he
that
successfully
make
the
wish,
who
layman.
it
the world
is
Of those who have retired from only he who is possessed of the Five
is
master of the Eight Attainments make the wish, and no one can
do so who
even,
is lacking in these excellences. Of those, who possess these excellences, it is he, and only he, who has such firm resolve that he is ready
to sacrifice his
fully
life
for the
Buddhas
make
this
the
wish,
it
but
is
possess
great zeal,
make
Buddha
will
that
successful.
The
following comparisons
is
show the
:
"The man who, it all within the rim of the world were to become water, would be ready to swim across it with his own arms and get further shore,
he
all
is
or,
in case
within
the
rim
288
jungle
CHAPTER
of bamboo,
his
is
XI.
trample he side,
case
all
would be ready to elbow and way through it and get to the further the one to attain the Buddhaship or, in
;
become
a
to
terra
Jirma of thick-set javelins, would be ready tread on them and go afoot to the further side,
is
he
all
or, in
case
live
become
coals, would be ready to tread on them and so get he is the one to attain the to the further side,
Buddhaship,'
feats
if
he
for
himself but has such great zeal, determination, strenuousness, and power of endeavor
too
hard
that he
but
not
otherwise,
will
his
From
this
it
is
become a Buddha
aspiration
that
could
be
believe
in
the
teachings
of
Buddha,
to follow the
precepts
laid
Arhatship.
down by him, and to attain at most to The idea of Arhatship, however, was
cold,
considered
by Mahayanists
for
impassionate, and
hard-hearted,
was
be
the
object
for the
to go even
beyond the
soul
its spirituality
may
be.
They wanted
to
CHAPTER
a
XI.
289
being
like
akyamuni,
bliss
they
wanted
;
lavishly
to
distribute
the
all
of
enlightenment
they wanted
lie
to
remove
common
humanity. But
how
held
when
karma
was
it
the
fate
of each individual!
How
possible
for him to identify his being with the ideal of mankind? Perhaps this serious problem could not
memory
still
of (Jakyamuni was
It
vivid
before
task
their
mental eyes.
to
was probably no
feeling of
easy
for
them
overcome the
awe
and reverence which was so deeply engraved in their hearts, and to raise themselves to such a height as
reached by their Master, even ideally. This was certainly an act of sacrilege. But, as time advances, the personal
recollection of the Master
would not play so much influence as their own religious consciousness which is ever fresh and active. Generally
speaking,
all
words
or
acts
or
both
unravel
the
deepest
secrets of the
human
heart.
And
this feeling of
is
awe
even
of
worship
not due so
much
great characters themselves as to the own worshiper's religious consciousness. History passes,
to
the
An individual called (Jakyamuni in the course of time, but the sacred be may forgotten chord in the inmost heart struck by him reverberates
but the heart persists.
through
eternity.
29O
CHAPTER
at.
XI.
last
Master.
And
perhaps
in the following
way was
relative to the
We
lives
in his
former
are
all
so
we
Bodhisattvas
Buddhas
in a certain sense,
when we understand that all sentient beings, the Buddha not excepted, are one in the Dharmakaya. The Dharmakaya manifests in us as Bodhi which is
the
essence
This Bodhi can suffer no change whatever in quantity even when the Bodhisattva attains finally to the highest human perfection as (Jakyamuni Buddha. In this spirit,
therefore,
the
enlightenment, "It is marvelous indeed that all beings animate and inanimate universally partake of the nature of Tathagatahood." The only difference between a
Buddha and the ignorant masses is that the latter do not make manifest in them the glory of Bodhi.
JThey only are not Bodhisattvas who, enveloped
the
divine
sophically review the world of tribulations.
in
Even we
mortals
made
Dharmakaya and
CHAPTER
individual curse of
XI.
2Q1
karma
in the eternal
and absolute
as
As soon
we come
are
one's spiritual merits (punyd) to the service of others. Let us only have an insight into the spirituality of
we
are
all
us abandon the selfish thought of entering into Nirvana that is conceived to extinguish the fire of
Let
us
have
all
sympathy
for
all
suffering beings
and turn
over
way we
are
all
made
the
therefore,
simple, prosaic,
1
It
may be
connection
interesting to Christian readers to note in this that modern Buddhists do not reject altogether
the idea of vicarious atonement, for their religious conviction as seen here admits the parivarta of a Bodhisattva's merits
to
object
the spiritual welfare of his fellow-creatures. But they will to the Christian interpretation that Jesus was sent
down on earth by his heavenly father for the special mission to atone for the original sin through the shedding of his innocent blood, for this is altogether too puerile and materialistic
2Q2
they wanted to
"illustrating
CHAPTER
XI.
make
it
as ideal
and poetic
as possible,
of the Buddha.
the
The Mahayanists
Hinayanists,)
first
placed
Buddha
in
the
resolve
from
ocean of misery which throws up sickness as foam, tossing with the waves of old age, and rushwith
the
dreadful onflow
ing
of
his Parinirvana,
peak of the
In
this
the sermon of
appearance of
akyamuni on
earth,
elucidates
:
"Thus the
essential nature of
all
Bodhisattvas
all
is
sentient
beings constitute the object of its love. Therefore, all the Bodhisattvas do not cling to the blissful taste
1
The
full title
of the
work
is
Treatise on the
Transcen-
dentality
of Bodhicitta (Nanjo, No. 1304). It is a little book consisting of seven or eight sheets in big Chinese type. It
was
translated
into
CHAPTER
that
is
XI.
293
produced
by the
divers
modes of mental
covet the
fruit
not
of
may heighten
their
own
happiness.
"Their
(Jravakas,
spiritual
state
is
higher
for
all
behind them
truism,
they
a of
seek
[instead of (Jravaka-knowledge].
''With
sufferings
in
great
all
loving
beings,
heart
who
whose
of misery
made
with
possible on account of
sentient creatures]
sorts of
karma [committed by
sattvas
filled
The Bodhito
suffer
pity
and
love
desire
themselves for the sake of those miserable beings. "But they are well acquainted with the truth that
all
diverse sufferings causing diverse states of misery are in one sense apparitional and unreal, while
those
in
another
those
sense
that
who
they are not so. They know also have an intellectual insight into the
all
emptiness (cunyata) of
derstand
why
those
Bodhisattvas, in order to emancipate from sentient beings misery, are inspired with great spiritual energy and mingle themselves in the filth of
"Therefore,
all
2Q4
subject
are
free
CHAPTER
to
XI.
and attachments. They are like unto those immaculate, undefiled lotus-flowers which
from
it.
insight
is
in
the
emptiness
is
(cunyata) of
things, but [their work of salvation] " the world of sins and sufferings
never outside
What
It
is
is
word "Bodhisattva" ?
from the
root
and
Bodhi which
"to
comes
is
budh
meaning
wake/'
generally
rendered
means
or
"state of being"
English equivalent. "Bodhisattva" as one word means "a being of intelligence," or "a being whose essence is intelligence." Why
is,"
"that
which
being
the Mahayanists
came
is
to adopt this
word
in contradis-
tinction to (Jravaka
easily understood,
when we
see
When
by
did
it
not
bear
came
to express
some metaphysical
it
relation to the
conception
its
of
Dharmakaya,
ceased to be used in
CHAPTER
XI.
295
is
an expres-
Dharmakaya
in the
human
consciousness.
is
Dharmakaya
or Tathagata
;
Buddha bears a
religious
significance
while
all
and the
synonyms are nothing but different aspects of one same reality refracting through the several
though essentially an epistemological term, psychological sense when it is used in
with
citta,
i.e.
Bodhi,
assumes
conjunction
or Bodhihrdaya which
generally
more
used
than
in the
Mahayana
is
texts, especially
when
a
religious
import
empha,
'"
^
sised
above
its
is
VttttLte
gence-heart
Bodhicitta
reflex
in
the
human
is
heart of
its
Dharmakaya.
called anuttara-
when
further amplified
is,
samyak-sambodhicitta, that
is
"intelligence-heart that
supreme and most perfect." It will be easily understood now that what constiis
the very
same
thing that
is
nothing
an
expression
of the
latter,
though
The
an image and the Dharmakaya the prototype, one is yet just as real as the other, only the two must not be conceived dualistically. There is a Dharmakaya,
citta is
there
is
human
heart,
reflects itself
CHAPTER
in
XI.
the
latter
much
after
the
fashion
of the lunar
is
not
perfectly
correct;
is
of Buddhism
to view
human
heart,
and the
reflections of
one and
same
activity.
The
the
or,
Dharmakaya
essentially love
and
intelligence,
karuna, perhaps on the ground that karuna does not exactly correspond to the Christian notion of love,
as
if
it
savors
we understand by
that),
then karuna can correctly be rendered love, even in the Christian sense. Is not the Bodhisattva willing to
abandon
his
own
suffering creatures? Is he not willing to dedicate the karma of his meritorious deeds performed in his suc-
beings ?
all
his
not his one fundamental motive that governs activities in life directed towards a universal
Is
emancipation
that
of
all
egoism and to embrace the will of the Dharmakaya? If this be the case, then there is
from
CHAPTER
XI.
297
no reason why karun& should not be rendered by love. Christians say that without love we are become
sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal; and Buddhists would declare that without karuna we are like unto
a dead vine hanging over a frozen boulder, or like unto the cold ashes left after a blazing fire.
Some may
passive
that
say,
pathy or commiseration
contemplation
When
Christians say
God
when
ren
Buddha
he
is
all
own
child-
or
that
all
will
final
Nirvana
unless
cosms,
beings in the three thousand great chilionot a single soul excepted, are emancipated
his self-sacrificing
full
ever
there
of the
Bodhicitta.
the Bodhicitta.
determinations, that
categories
the
not a particular
298
existence which
It
is
CHAPTER
palpable.
its
XI.
It is
non-atmanic, universal.
is
is
uncreate
and
self-essence
void [funya,
immaterial, or transcendental].
everything
the
"The Bodhicitta
"Therefore,
all
of existence in this great loving heart. "The Bodhicitta, abiding in the heart of sameness
meaning "expedient," "stratagem," "device," or a technical sense in Buddhism. It is used in contrast to intelligence (prajna) and is synonymous with love
Upaya,
"craft,"
has
says in the sutra bearing his name "Prajna is the mother of the Bodhisattva and Upaya his father; there is no leader of humanity who is not born of them." Intelligence (prajna) is the one, the univer(karuna).
So, Vimalakirti
i
(chap.
8,
verses
4):
sal,
Upaya
representing the principle of sameness (samatd}. while is the many, being the principle of manifoldness (ndndtva). From the standpoint of pure intelligence, the Bodhisattvas
nothing that is not of the Dharmakaya: but when they see the universe from the standpoint of their love-essence, they
everywhere the conditions of misery and sin that from clinging to the forms of particularity. ^To remove these, they devise all possible means that are directed towards the attainment of the final aim of is only existencejJThere one religion, religion of truth, but there are many ways, many means, many upayas, all issuing from the all-embracing love ot the Dharmakaya and equally efficient to lead the masses to supreme enlightenment and universal good. Therefore, ontologically speaking, this universe, the Buddhists would say,
recognise
arise
is nothing but a grand display of Upayas by the Dharmakaya that desires thereby to lead all sentient beings to the ultimate
CHAPTER
XI.
299
this heart becomes emancipated view of birth and death and performs such acts as are beneficial both to oneself and to others.'*
Dharmadhdtu
nature
of
the
same view
as Nagarjuna's
I
on the
:
the
Bodhicitta,
which
summarise here
Paramartha, Buddha, Bodhicitta, or Bhutatathata, all these terms signify merely so many different aspects
of
one and
the
same
reality
and Bodhicitta
is
the
name
as
it
given to a
manifests
in
the
human
heart]
all
and
its
perfection, or negatively
its
liberation
from
egoistic
r^
its
Being
is
reflex of the
practically the
same
as the original in
char-
is
free
from
compulsive activities it has no beginning, it has no end it cannot be defiled by impurities, it cannot be
;
obscured
by
it
it
is
incorporeal,
realisation of
difficult
the
Buddhahood.
many
cases, thus,
it is
extremely
any of its English equivalents and yet to retain its original technical sense unsuffered. This is also the case with many other Buddhist terms, among which
to
render upaya by
fang
p'ien for
upaya which
means "means-accommodation."
Its full title is A Discourse on the Non-duality of the Mahay ana- Dharmadhdtu. It consists of less than a dozen pages in ordinary Chinese large print. It was translated by Devaprajna and others in the year 691 A. D.
3OO
it
is
CHAPTER
XI.
dental;
is
constantly
lost.
becoming,
yet
its
original
purity
"It
is
never
which
may be likened unto the ever-shining sunlight may temporarily be hidden behind the clouds.
modes of passion and
darken
the
Citta itself
sin arising
All the
from egoism
may
but
sometimes
the
external impurities.
It
may
all-
comprehending space which remains eternally identical, whatever happenings and changes may occur in things
enveloped
itself in
therein.
When
it
the
Bodhicitta
if
it
manifests
a relative world,
looks as
determinations,
it
is
above
the
death (samsdra).
"So long
sins
as
it
arising from ignorance and egoism, it is productive of no earthly or heavenly benefit. Like the
lotus-flower
whose
is
gold
that
deeply
dung and dirt, or like the light of the full moon eclipsed by Acura; the Bodhicitta, when blindfolded by the clouds of passion, avarice, ignorance, and folly,
does not reveal
"Destroy
at
its
once
;
those entanglements
like the
full
with your might and main all then like the full-bloomed lotus-
moon
glory,
like
kinds of
CHAPTER
cereals, like the
XI.
3OI
the
eternal
bliss
pated
from the misery of ignorance and folly, their hearts are filled with love and sympathy and free
from the clinging to things worthless. ^"However defiled and obscured the Bodhicitta
find itself in profane hearts,
)j is
may
essentially the
same
Buddhas.lTherefore, says the Muni of akya: 'O ariputra, the world of sentient beings is not different from the Dharmakaya the Dharmakaya
as
that in
all
;
is
not
different
from
the
What
constitutes
Dharmakaya
is
the world of
sentient
beings;
is
sentient beings
"As
far
as
the
is
is
concerned, there
be
made
is,
heart; yet
the
human
standpoint [that
from the phenomenal side of existence] the following general classification can be made:
"(i)
The
by numberless
egoistic
sins
"(2)
in
The
birth
of
all
sinful
and depraved conditions, seeks the Bodhi in the ten virtues of perfection (pdramita) and 84.000 Buddhadharmas and
disciplines itself in all meritorious deeds,
3O2
is
CHAPTER
to
XI.
said
"(3)
be the
state in
[spiritual]
state of a Bodhisattva.
is
The
emancipated
from the
all
obscuration has
sufferings,
eternally
is
effaced
the stain of
all
sins
and
in
corruptions,
pure,
purer,
and purest,
abides
the
essence
surveyed,
has
attained
the
consummation of
knowledges, has realised the highest type of manhood, has gained the power of spiritual spontaneity which
frees
one
from
is
attachment
that of the
and
fully,
hesitation,
this
spiritual
state
perfectly, enlight-
ened Tathagata".
The Awakening of the Bodhicitta.
The
and
Bodhicitta
is
present
in
in
the
it
hearts
fully
of
all
sentient beings.
active
Only
its
it
Buddhas
is
awakened
while
in
with
immaculate
virility,
ordinary
mortals
is
unenlightened intercourse with the world of sensuality. One of the most favorite parables told by the Mahayanists to illustrate this point is to compare
by
its
the Bodhicitta to the moonlight in the heavens. When the moon shines with her silvery light in the clear,
cloudless
in
skies,
she
of
is
and
every
mass
water
on the
earth.
The
crystal
many
water-pool;
probably formed temporarily by heavy showers in the daytime, reflects her like so many stars descended
CHAPTER
XI.
3O3
on
earth.
others even
to reflect
is
Perhaps some of the pools are muddy and filthy, but the moonlight does not refuse her immaculate image in them. The image
perfect
just
as
there
as in a clear, undisturbed,
swans bathe
is
Wherever there
seen a heavenly
image
of the
Bodhicitta:
heart,
goddess night. Even so with the where there exists a little warmth of the
of
it
there
unfailingly
'
as circumstances permit.
Now,
sense?
the
in
question
is
How
be
Bodhicitta
our
is
hearts
awakened to
less
full
This
all
answered more or
definitely in
almost
recite
Mahayana writings, and we may here the words of Vasubandhu from his Discourse
the
*
for
they give
somewhat systematic statement of those conditions which tend to awaken the Bodhicitta from its
lethargic inactivity. (Chap.
II.)
The
us
(i)
Bodhicitta or Intelligence-heart
is
awakened
in
(2) (3)
on the
and
are
by reflecting by observing M
which
by aspiring
acquired
enment.
This work was translated by Kumarajiva into Chinese at fifth century A. D. It is divided into two fascicles, each consisting of about one score of Chinese pages.
1
3O4
CHAPTER
XI.
To
(1)
more
definitely
By thinking of
ten
the
in
the
the present,
when
first
started
free
their
way
to enlight-
enment,
(kle$ a)
finally
any more than we are at present but they succeeded in attaining the highest enlightenment
the
enlightenment.
why
should
we
is
attainable at
all,
"All
dom
the Buddhas, erecting high the torch of wisthrough the darkness of ignorance and keeping
heart,
awake an excellent
submitted themselves to
penance and mortification, and finally emancipated themselves from the bondage of the triple world. Following their steps, we, too, could emancipate ourselves, "All the Buddhas, the noblest type of mankind, successfully crossed the great ocean of birth and death
sins
migration.
"All the Buddhas manifesting great spiritual power sacrificed the possessions, body, and life, for the attain-
too, could
The faults of the material existence. "This our bodily existence consisting of the five skandhas and
the four mahats (elements)
is
a perpetuator of innu-
CHAPTER
merable
aside.
evil
XI.
3O5
it
deeds
and therefore
should be cast
This
its
from
nine orifices
;
truly loathsome
This our bodily existence, harboring within itself anger, avarice, and infatuation, and other innumerable evil
passions,
and therefore
it
should be destroyed. This our bodily existence is like a bubble, like a spatter, and is decaying every minute. It is an undesirable possession and should be aban-
creating evil
karma
all
into
gatis."
(3) The miserable conditions of sentient beings which arouse the sympathy of the Bodhisattvas. "All sentient
beings are under the bondage of ignorance. Spell-bound by folly and infatuation, they are suffering the severest
pain
Not believing
evils;
in
accumulating
going
righteousness, they
ing
sink-
deeper
in
the
whirlpool
of
being drowned in the four waters of sin. "They are being tortured with all sorts of pain. They are needlessly haunted by the fear of birth and
death
and
do
not
they do not refrain from committing further foul deeds. Clinging to their beloved ones and being always
afraid of separation, they
3O6
is
CHAPTER
XI.
no individual
reality,
to.
more hatred."
the Tathdgata. "All the Tatha-
The virtues of
gatas,
by
dignified mien which aspires every beholder with the thought that dispels pain and woe. The Dharmakaya of all the Tathagatas is immortal and pure
noble,
and
free
from
evil
gence, and emancipation. They are not hampered by intellectual prejudices and have become the sanctuary
/
of immaculate virtues.
They have
four abhayas (fearlessness), great compassion, and the three smrtyupasthanas (contemplations). They are omniscient,
and
knows no
astray on account of
ignorance."
* *
is
awa-
kened
(which
in us either
is
when
innate in us)
called forth, or
when our
intellect
when some
aspires after the highest enlightenment, or these two psychical activities are set astir under
favorable circumstances.
As
the Bodhicitta
in
is
manifestation of the
scious mind,
it
Dharmakaya
CHAPTER
its
XI.
ily
archetype, in spite of the curse of ignorance heavweighing upon it. When this unification is not efits dis-
some way or
other.
The
dissatisfaction
may
or
may
result
in pessimism, or
pro-
perly guided and naturally developed, the more intense the dissatisfaction, the more energetic will be the
spiritual activity of a Bodhisattva.
Having awakened
his
his Bodhicitta
will
from
its
unconscito
now proceed
make
is
vows.
Let
a
me remark
"vow"
not
a strong wish,
prayer,
or an inflexible determination to
even through an infinite series of rebirths. Buddhists have such a supreme belief in
carry
out
one's
will
the
power of
will
them and
gain its final aim. So, every Bodhisattva is considered to have his own particular pranidhanas in order to
perform his share in the work of universal salvation. His corporeal shadow may vanish as its karma is exhausted, but his pranidhana survives and takes on a new garment, which procedure being necessary to
3O8
CHAPTER
it
XI.
keep
is
needed
for a
Bo-
dhisattva to do this
to
make
carnation
external
of his
own
power Buddhists are so thoroughly idealistic and their faith in ideas and ideals is so unshakable that they
firmly believe that whatever they aspire to will
and permanent and born of the inmost needs of humanity, the more certain are our yearnings to
satisfied.
be
plain
the
popular
among
man will survive any strong passion possessed by him and take a form, animate or inanimate, which
will best
achieve
to
its
end.)
According
to
make
them:
"
(1)
rally spring
in
Would
all
the merits
have accumulated
in
among
after
make them
all
aspire
supreme knowledge, and also that this my pranidhana be constantly growing in strength and sustain
me
throughout
my
that,
rebirths.
(2)
"Would
my
work,
The above
III,
is
Chapter
in
Vasubandhu's Bodhicitta.
CHAPTER
I
XI.
3O9
all
may, wherever I am born, come in the presence of Buddhas and pay them homage. (3) "Would that I be allowed all the time to be
near Buddhas like shadow following object, and never to be away from them.
(4)
"Would
as
that
all
Buddhas
instruct
me
in religious
truths
finally
best suited to
my
intelligence
and
let
me
sattva.
(5)
"Would
that
scientific
religion
knowledge as well as the first principle of and gain an insight into the truth of the Good
that
I
Law.
(6)
"Would
all
truth to
"Would
I
Buddha,
ters
through the divine power of the be allowed to travel all over the ten quarthat,
of
the
world,
pay respect to
all
the Buddhas,
and univer-
sally benefit
(8)
all
sentient beings.
"Would that, by causing the wheel of immacuDharma to revolve, all sentient beings in the ten quarters of the universe who may listen to my teachlate
ings or hear
my
all
passions and
awaken
(9)
in
them the
that
I
"Would
all
the time
tect
which are not beneficial to them and give them innumerable blessings, and also that through the sacrifice
3IO
of
CHAPTER
body,
XI.
my
(10)
life,
and possessions
embrace
all
crea-
"Would
in
person,
my
way
;
for they
all
have
made
their
pranidhanas
sentient
beings."
CHAPTER
XII.
'THEORETICALLY
being, and
in this
speaking,
as
is
we have
in
seen
every sentient
a Bodhisattva. In profane
hearts
egoism, but
the
be found enveloped in ignorance and can never be altogether annulled. For the Bodhi, when viewed from its absolute aspect, transcends
it
may
it
realm
the
world
of birth and death (samsdra), is beyond of toil and trouble and is not subject to
any form of defilement. But when it assumes a relative existence and is only partially manifested under the
cover
of
ignorance,
there
actualisation or of perfection. In
attain
some beings
apparently
it
may
on
in others,
fail
while there
may
be even those
who
is
tika," that
is, people who are completely overwhelmed passions. They are morally and religiously a
almost impossible to resuscitate. But, philosophically considered, the glory of the Bodhi must be admitted
312
.
CHAPTER
XII.
to be shining even in these dark, ignorant souls. Such souls, perhaps, will have to go round many a cycle
of transmigration, before their karma loses its poignancy and becomes susceptible to a moral influence
may come
force of
in contact.
is
This
all
accursed
it
karma
admits of all possible degrees of strength, beings, and causes some to suffer more intensely than others.
But there
free
this
is
is
absolutely
from the shackle of karma and ignorance, because very existence of a phenomenal world is a product
though
this
of ignorance,
does not prove that this life is evil. The only heart that transcends the influence of karma and ignorance and is all-purity,
fact
all-love,
and
all-intelligence, is the
itself.
Dharmakaya
or the
absolute
Bodhi
The
life
of a Bodhisattva and
indeed the end of our religious aspiration is to unfold, realise, and identify ourselves with the love and intelligence of that ideal
and yet
real
Dharmakaya.
The awakening
heart)
marks the
life.
of
human
eral
stages
of
before
it
attains
perfection.
Mahayanists
ten.
They
modern
sceptical
minds to be of no
we
We
to
CHAPTER
important
life.
XII.
313
stages
one
after
can see, however, that the first awakening of the Bodhicitta does not transform us all at once
to
We
to
overcome with
strenig-
uous
efforts
karma and
tion of the
in the gradaour Dagabhumi spiritual progress seems to be altogether too artificial. Nevertheless I here take
in
pains
as
an
historical
some
most
in
eachBhumi
expounded
the
Avatamsaka
to
us
Sutra. ProDably they will help understand what moral conceptions and what
religious aspirations
were working
in the
it
establishment
elaborately de-
what was considered by the Mahayanists to be the essential constituents of Bodhisattvahood, and also shows what
to pursue. r
(
spiritual routine a
.,..
-.
The
Durangama,
(8)
mamegha.
(i)
The Pramudita.
first
Pramudita means "delight" or "joy" and marks the stage of Bodhisattvahood, at which the Buddhists
cold, self-sufficing,
emerge from a
and almost
nihilistic
314
and
CHAPTER
Pratyekabuddhas.
is
XII.
This
spiritual
emergence and
emancipation
intense
psychologically
feeling
of joy,
by most
For
Even
in
in the
all
which
midst of perfect tranquillity of Nirvana passions are alleged to have died away
ascetics or solitary philosophers, the
as
declared
by
inmost
moans
though
undefined and seemingly of no significance, yet refuses to be eternally buried in the silent grave of annihilation.
He
vainly
gropes
in
the darkness
he vainly seeks
he vainly finds eternal peace in the gospel of self-negation his soul is still troubled, not exactly knowing the reason why. But as soon as the Bodhicitta
; ;
(intelligence-heart)
as soon as the
trates
soon as
the light of supreme enlightenment (mahdprajna) dawns upon the darkest recesses of ignorance, the Bodhisattva
sees
at
once
that
the
world
is
not
made
for self-
seclusion
is
if
the source of "universal effulgence," that Nirvana relatively viewed in contrast to birth-and-death is
nothing
CHAPTER
XII.
315
snarl of ignorance
and elevated
himself.
same position
(2)
as
now occupied by
The Vimald.
or, affir-
When
the
Bodhisattva
attains,
rectitude
stage.
and
puntyof
heart,
he
reaches
the
second
it
is
filled
He is free from all the thoughts of killing animate any beings. Being contented with what belongs to himself, he casts no covetous eyes on things not
malice.
his
own. Faithful to
his
own
harbor always
any
evil
thoughts on others.
and considerate.
flatters.
He
likes
truth, honesty,
and never
(3)
The Prabhdkari.
Prabhakart means "brightness," that is, of the intellect. This predominantly characterises the spiritual
condition of
the Bodhisattva at this stage.
Here he
He
recognises that
all
no
recognises also that the real nature of things, however, is neither created nor
subject
final
to
decay.
He
subject
to
destruction,
it
is
selfsame
essence,
time
3l6
CHAPTER
XII.
always worrying over things transient and worthless, and constantly consuming their spiritual energy with
the
fire
of
avarice, anger,
and
infatuation,
which
in
the
beings further stimulates the loving heart of Bodhisattva to seek the highest intelligence of
which, giving him great spiritual energy, enahim to prosecute the gigantic task of universal
Buddha,
bles
His desire for the Buddha-intelligence and his faith in it are of such immense strength that
emancipation.
he would not
assured
of
falter
the
of a volcano.
The Arcismati.
"inflammation,"
is
Arcismati,
meaning
the
name
given
to
consumes
the fourth stage, at which the Bodhisattva all the sediments of ignorance and evil
passions in the fiery crucible of the purifying Bodhi. He practises here most strenuously the thirty-seven
virtues
called Bodhipaksikas
seven categories
(I) Four Contemplations (smrtyusthdna): I. On the impurity of the body; 2 On the evils of sensuality; 3. On the evanescence of the wordly interests 4. On
;
in things
composite.
:
To
CHAPTER
prevent evils from arising
existing;
4.
3.
XII.
317
To
(III)
i.
determination
accomplish what
is
willed;
2.
The The
;
in
view
;
memory
4.
way
3.
to Nirvana.
all
moral good
4.
Faith; Circumspection; Energy Equilibrium, or tranquillity of mind 5 Intelligence. * (V) Five Functions (bala) Same as the above.
produced:
I.
2.
The
retentive
power;
5.
2.
Discrimination;
6.
3.
Energy
4.
7.
Contentment;
Modesty;
Noble
Large-heartedness.
(VII)
The
view;
Eightfold
2.
Right
tion
Right
resolve;
J The distinction between the five indriyas and the five balas seems to be rather redundant. But the Hindu philosophers
usually distinguish actor from action, agent from function or operation. Thus the sense-organs are distinguished from sensations or sense-consciousnesses, and the manovijnana (mind)
from
its
functions
thus
such as thinking, attention, memory, etc. come to be considered the central agent
the
all the sensuous and intellectual activities. Though Buddhists do not recognise this differentiation of actor and action in reality, they sometimes loosely follow the
popular usage.
3l8
(5)
CHAPTER
XII.
The Sudurjaya.
Sudurjaya means "very difficult to conquer." The Bodhisattva reaches this stage when he, completely armed with the thirty-seven Bodhipaksikas and guided
by
the
beacon-light
of
Bodhi,
undauntedly breaks
through the column of evil passions. Provided with the two spiritual provisions, love and wisdom, and being
benefitted
by the
Buddhas of the
into the
past,
system of
existence.
its
He
he also perceives that the highest reality, though absolutely one in its essence, manifests itself in a world of particulars, that relative knowledge Tathagata
(samvrtti)
two and
and absolute knowledge (paramarthd) are aspects of one and the same truth, that when
is
subjectivity
disturbed
it
that
when
is
The Abhimukhi.
face," that
is,
Bodhisattva at this stage. The Bodhisattva enters upon this stage by reflecting on the essence of all dharmas which are throughout of
one
is
nature.
filled
he perceives the truth, his heart with great love, he serenely contemplates on
When
CHAPTER
the
life
XII.
319
who are constantly going evil temptations, clinging themselves to astray yielding to the false conception of egoism, and thus making
of ignorant beings
themselves
the
He
then
proceeds
generally.
to
contemplate
is
development
is
of evils
;
There
ignorance, there
karma and
in
for
all
forms of particularity
namarupas (name-
and-form) most vigorously thrive here. From these we have the flowers of sense-organs, and which come in
contact with other existences and produce impressions,
feel
From
agreeable sensations, and tenaciously cling to them. this clinging or the will to live as the principle
or
as
of individuation
called in the
is
of the five
Twelve Nidanas, another body consisting skandhas comes into existence, and, passing
the phases of transformation, dissolves and
through
all
disappears. All sentient beings are thus kept in a perpetual oscillation of combination and separation, of
pleasure of
and
pain,
birth
in
gone deeply into the inmost which forever remains the same and
The Durangamd.
Durangama means "going far away." The Bodhisattva enters upon this stage by attaining the so-called
32O
Upayajna,
i
CHAPTER
e.
XII.
the
produce
any means or
salvation.
work of
He
of gunyata (transcendentality), animitta (non-individuality), and apranihita (desirelessness), but his loving-
kindness
beings.
radically
him busily engaged among sentient He knows that Buddhas are not creatures
keeps
and essentially different from himself, but he does not stop tendering them due homage. He is al-
ways contemplating on the nature of the Absolute,but he does not abandon the practice of accumulating
merits.
He
is
yet he does not disdain managing secular affairs. keeps himself perfectly aloof from the consuming
of passsion, but he plans
all
He
fire
possible
means
for the
mirage,
or
moon
in the water,
but
he
works and
in the
world of particulars
He
well
Land
that
(sukhdvati),
with material
He knows
is
the
Dharmakaya of
with
all
the Buddhas
not a
himself
man
or
all
He knows
not
fall
CHAPTER
he endeavors with
it
XII.
321
all
contrivances (upaya) to
make
intelligible
enough
all
He knows
sent,
that
the
past, pre-
and future
in the twinkling of
adapts himself to world and endeavors to help sentient beings to understand the significance of the Bodhi according to their
destinies
and
dispositions.
ed
but he does
in the
world of particu-
and senses; and, placing himself on the level of ignorant beings, he works like them, he toils like
them,
these
and
to
suffers
like
them
and he never
fails
all
and
the
ses,
times to practise the gospel of loyingkindness turn over (parivarta) all his merits towards
emancipation and spiritual edification of the masthat is, he never gets tired of practising the ten
^^
away
to
all
That
is
to
say,
(i)
by
freely giving
sentient creatures
all
by following
the
virtue
the
path of Buddhas.
He
practises
of good conduct (fila) by destroying all the evil passions that disturb serenity of mind. (3) He practises the virtue of patience (ksdnti), for he
is
done to
him
by ignorant beings.
(vriya),
(4)
He
of strenuousuess
for
322
CHAPTER
XII.
fellow-creatures.
(5)
He
way
practises
the virtue of
calmness
in
(6)
(dhyana),
for his
mind
to
is
never distracted
supreme knowledge.
He
for
He
practises
mine of expediencies ready at his command the work of universal salvation. (8) He practises
by determinedly
following the dictates of the highest intelligence. (9) He practises the virtue of strength (bala), for no evil
influences,
no
heretical
(8)
The Acald.
is
Acala,
''immovable,"
the
name
stage of Bodhisattvahood.
all
When
a Bodhisattva, tran-
forms of discursive or deliberate knowledge, scending acquires the highest, perfect knowledge called anutpattikadharmaksanti, he is said to have gone beyond the seventh stage. Anutpattikadharmaksanti literally means
"not-created-being-forbearance"; and the Buddhists use the term in the sense of keeping one's thoughts in
conformity
to
the views
CHAPTER
has
XII.
323
ever been created, that things are such as they are, i e. they are Suchness itself. This knowledge is
also called non-conscious or non-deliberate
in contradistinction to relative
tutes
all
our
logical
Strictly
speaking,
in its
this
not
knowledge
is
a sort of
knowledge as some call it, in which not only willing and acting, but also knowing and willing are one
single,
undivided
exhibition
of activity,
all
logical
or
natural
transition
from
one to
altogether
and
is
will
light,
Here indeed knowledge is will action; "Let there be light," and there and the light is good; it is the state of a
absent.
is
divine mind.
At
tual condition
compared
to that of a person
who,
attempting when in a dreamy state to cross deep waters, musters all his energy, plans all schemes, and, while
at last at the point of starting
ly wakes up and finds all his elaborate preparations to no purpose. The Bodhisattva hitherto showed untir-
evil passions,
and
at the culmination of
all
all
these
exercises,
he enters
of
and finds the previous elaboration mysteriously vanished from his conscious mind. He cherishes
Acala
324
CHAPTER
XII.
now no desire for Buddhahood, Nirvana, or Bodhicitta, much less after worldliness, egoism, or the satisfaction of evil passions. The conscious striving that distinguished all his former course has now given way to a
state
of spontaneous
activity,
nature herself,
no trace
any
traint.
This state
esthetical,
of perfect
ideal
freedom may be
the
called
which
characterises
work of a
genius. There is here no trace of consciously following some prescribed laws, no pains of elaborately
To
life
like
the
of the
whose glory
is
Solomon
Kant's
in all his
human
magnificence.
remarks on
quote
very suggestive,
and
will
"Also muss die Zweckmassigkeit im Produkte der schonen Kunst, ob sie zwar absichtlich ist, doch nicht
absichtlich scheinen
:
d.
als
Natur
anzusehen bewusst
der
sein
ist.
als
Kunst
Als
Kunst
dadurch,
der Uebereinkunst mit Regeln, nach denen allein das Produkt das werden kann, was es soil sein, angetroffen wird, aber ohne Peinlichkeit, d. i., ohne eine Spur
zu
zeigen,
dem
Kiinstler vor
Augen
CHAPTER
XII.
325
haben,"
(9)
The Sadhumati.
Sadhumati, meaning "good intelligence," is the name given to the ninth stage of Bodhisattvahood. All the
Bodhisattvas
are
said
to
have
sentient beings are benefitted by the Bodhisattva's attainment of the highest perfect knowledge, which
is
The knowledge
them
to
the
Dharma
of the
deepest mystery, to the Samadhi of perfect spirituality, to the Dharani of divine spontaneity, to Love of
absolute purity, to the Will of utmost freedom.
The Bodhisattva
Pratisamvids
(i)
Dharmapratisamvid,
(4)
uktipratisamvid,
Dharmapratisamvid,
1
In this connection
is
Shakespeare
is
in his
same sentiment about the greatness of Hero Worship. "If I say that Shakspeare
greatest of Intellects, I have said all concerning him. But there is more in Shakspeare's intellect than we have yet seen It is what I call an unconscious intellect there is more
the
virtue
aware of. Novalis beautifully remarks of him, that those dramas of his are Products ol Nature too, as deep as Nature herself. I find a great truth in this saying, Shakspeare's Art is not Artifice the noblest worth of it is not there by plan or precontrivance. It grows from
in
it
that
he himself
is
the deeps of Nature, through this noble sincere soul, voice of Nature."
who
is
326
self- essence
CHAPTER
(sv.abhava)
XII.
of
all
by the Nirukti-
pratisamvid, their indestructibility by the Pratibhanapratisamvid, their eternal order. Again, by the first
intelligence they understand that
all
individual
dharmas
have
are
no absolute
reality
by the second,
that they
all
by
;
the
they are no more than mere names that even mere names as such are of the fourth, by
third, that
some
value. Again,
all
by the
first intelligence,
they comis
prehend that
indestructible
differentiating
itself
by the second, that this one reality becomes subject to the law of
understanding all Buddhas become the object of admiration and the haven of all sentient beings by the fourth, that in the one body of truth all Buddhas
;
preach
infinite lights
of the
Dharma
(10)
The Dharmameghd.
and
final
stage
of
the
Bodhisattvas have
now
practised
all
virtues of purity,
accumulated
all
with great power and intelligence, universally practise the principle of great love and sympathy, have deeply penetrated into the mystery of individual existences,
fathomed
inmost depths of sentiency, followed step by step the walk of all the Tathagatas. Every thought cherished by the Bodhisattva now dwells in
the
CHAPTER
all
XII.
327
the Tathagatas' abode of eternal tranquillity, and every deed practised by him is directed towards the
balas
l
ten
(power),
four
vaigaradyas (conviction),
3
and eighteen avenikas (unique characteristics), of the Buddha. By these virtues the Bodhisattva has now
acquired
dwelling
the
in
the
and
samadhis,
the
summit of
all
activities.
'The ten powers of the Buddha are: (i) The mental power which discriminates between right and wrong, (2) The knowledge of the retribution of karma, (3) The knowledge of all the different stages of creation, (4) The knowledge of all the different forms of deliverance, (5) The knowledge of all the different dispositions of sentient beings, (6) The knowledge of the final destination of all deeds, (7) The knowledge of all the different practices of meditation, deliverance, and tranquilisation, (8) The knowledge of former existences, (9)
divination, (10)
The knowledge
Buddha
of the
The
are: (i)
That he has attained the highest enlightenment, (2) That he has destroyed all evil desires, (3) That he has rightly described
the
(4)
obstacles
that
lie
in the
way
to a
life
That he has
way
of righteousness, of salvation.
3 The eighteen unique characteristics which distinguish the Buddha from the rest of mankind are: (i) He commits no
he has disciplined himself in morality, meditation, intelligence, and lovingkindness, and as the result his present life is without faults and free from all
errors. Since time out of mind,
evil thoughts. (2)
He
is
Whatever he
speaks comes from his transcendental, eloquence and leads the audience to a higher conception of life. (3) His mind is faultless. As he has trained himself in samadhi, he is always
calm, serene, and contented. heart (samahztacitta), that is,
(4)
He
328
CHAPTER
XII.
The Bodhisattva
of love
fount
virtue
in
and
of his
He
and
wisdom,
figures;
in
manifold
he
Buddhi, Vidyas, and whole world with the thunder of Dharma he crushes
;
all
the
evil
ones
His mind
is
free
from
thoughts of particularity (nanatvasamjna), that is, it is abiding in truth transcendental, his thoughts are not distracted by objects of the senses. (6) Resignation (upeksa). The Buddha
everything, yet he is calmly resigned. (7) His aspiration unfathomable, that is, his desire to save all beings from the sufferings of ignorance knows no bounds. (8) His energy is
is
knows
which he applies with utmost vigor to the salof benighted souls. (9) His mentation (smrti) is inexhaustible, that is, he is ever conscious of all the good docinexhaustible,
vation
taught by all the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. (10) His intelligence (prajna) is inexhaustible, that is, being in possession of all-intelligence which knows no limits,
trines
he preaches for the benefits of all beings, (u) His deliverance (vimuktt) is permanent, that is, he has eternally distanced all evil passions and sinful attachments. (12) His knowledge of
deliverance
insight
into
(vimuktijnand) is perfect, that is, his intellectual all states of deliverance is without a flaw. (13)
He possesses a wisdom which directs all his bodily movements towards the benefit and enlightenment of sentient beings. (14) He possesses a wisdom which directs all his speeches toward the edification and conversion of his fellow-creatures. (15) He possesses a wisdom which reflects in his clear mind all the turbulent states of ignorant souls, from which he removes the dark veil of nescience and folly. (16) He knows all the past.
(17)
He knows
all
He knows
all
the present.
CHAPTER
XII.
3 29
in
which
all
* *
The above
held
presentation
allows
of
the
Dagabhumi
what
of
Bodhisattvahood
out
in
us
to see
ideal life is
by
what
own eyes
and
differs
(Jravakas
of other religious
Mahayanism
is
not con-
tented
to
make
us
mere transmitters
or "hearers"
of the teachings of the Buddha, it wants to inspire with all the religious and ethical motives that stirred
the noblest heart of Qakyamuni to
It
its
inmost depths.
fully recognises
human
noble
soul;
and,
holding
it
up
its
high
ideals
>
and
aspirations,
ties
of
our
soul-life,
and all-defying courage will one day be realised even on this earth of impermanence. We as individual existences are nothing but shadows which will vanish
as soon as the conditions disappear that
make them
possible;
we
1 For an elaborate exposition of the Dacabhumi, see the Avatamsaka (sixty volume edition, fas. 24-2?), the urangama, Vasubandhu's Commentary on Asanga's Comprehensive Treat-
ise
(fas.
on
9),
(fas.
10
n),
for
special
in
consult the sutra bearing the name, which by the way exists a Sanskrit version and whose brief sketch is given by
in his Nepalese
Rajendra Mitra
Buddhist Literature,
p. 81 et seq.
33O
CHAPTER
XII.
thousands of dusty particles that are haphazardly and powerlessly scattered about before the cyclone of karma; but when we are united in the love and
intelligence of the
Dharmakaya
in
Bodhisattvas, and we can immovably being, stand against the tempest of birth and death, against the overwhelming blast of ignorance. Then even an
we
are
apparently insignificant act of lovingkindness will lead finally to the eternal abode of bliss, not the actor
alone, but the whole
community
to which he belongs.
Because
stream
the lake of Intelligence-heart (Bodhicitta) which is fed by the inexhaustible spring of the Dharmakaya, while
ignorance
leads
only
to
egoism,
hatred,
avarice,
CHAPTER
XIII.
NIRVANA.
according to Mahayana Buddhism, is not understood in its nihilistic sense. Even with
,
is
not
nition
the object of their religious as the recoglifg of the Fourfold Noble Truth, or the practise of the Eightfold Path, or emancipation from the yoke
v
much
can see, to non-Buddhist critics that the conception of Nirvana has been selected among others as one of the most
of
egoism.
It
is
mostly due, as
far as
fundamental
the
teachings
to
of
Buddha,
declaring
it
at
same time
passions
consist
human
In
and
aspirations,
noble
as
well
as
worthless.
fact,
Nirvana
literally
means "extinction" or
it
"dissolution"
may
tanta-
mount
and of
the
Buddhism
to
nor
for
how
to attain
eternal
how
gain
an
nature
of
things,
332
in
CHAPTER
accordance
with
the
XIII.
highest
truth.
Therefore,
Buddhism, when
its
it
rightly
understood
in the spirit of
something quite different from what is commonly supposed to be by the general public. I will endeavor in the following pages to point out
founder,
is
that
Nirvana
in
the
by no means the primary and sole object of Buddhists, and then proceed to elucidate in what signification it is understood in the Mahayana Budactivities, is
human
relative position
Nirvana
in its
Nirvana not
In
it
order
Buddha
will
necessary first to observe in what direction himself ploughed the waves in his religious cruise and upon what shore he finally debarked. This
is
show us whether
is
or
not
Nirvana as
nihilistic
nothingness
the
dhism,
tees
If
is
to
which
directed.
sole
the attainment of negativistic Nirvana were the aim of Buddhism, we should naturally expect
farewell address to be chiefly dealing with
In
his
his
Buddha's
that
subject.
did
not
teach
moral efforts on the attainment of Nirvanic quietude disregarding all the forms of activity that exhibit themselves
to
in life.
Far from
it.
He
the
Mahanibbdna sutta
(the
Book
of the Great
CHAPTER
decease,
S.
XIII
333
B.
all
E.
Vol.
XL
p.
!
u4)
that
"Decay
is
inherent in
component things
!"
quite in
words
of
Buddha
as
recorded
translation,
if I lived a kalpa longer, Separation would be an inevitable end. A body composed of various aggregates,
"Even
Its
nature
is
"Having finished benefiting oneself and others, Why live I longer to no purpose ? Of gods and men that should be saved, Each and all had been delivered.
"O
ye,
my
disciples
Without interruption transmit the Good Dharma! Know ye that things are destined to decay Never again abandon yourselves to grief!
!
And
I
arrive at the
diligence,
No-separation!
have lit the Lamp of Intelligence, That shining dispels the darkness of the world.
"Know
As ye should feel happy [when ye see] The parents suffering a mortal disease
Are released by a treatment from pain;
"So with me, I now give up the vessel of misery, Transcend the current of birth and death,
'
Literally, "to
advance against."
334
And am
CHAPTER
eternally released
XIII.
from
blest.
all
"Ye should well guard yourselves! Never give yourselves up to indulgence! All that exists finally comes to an end!
I
now
In this
we
find
to
disciples not to waste time but to work out their salvation with diligence and rigor, but we fail to find the gospel of annihilation, the supposedly funhis
human aspirations
it.
Far from
His
first
and
of
beings
through
from ignorance, misery, and suffering enlightenment, knowledge, and truth. When
evil
Mara the
all
his evil
in the
powers
beginning of his career, the good gods in the heavens exclaimed 2 to the evil one
:
"Take not on
thyself,
throw aside thy malevolence and retire to thy home. This sage cannot be shaken by thee any more than the mighty mountain Meru by the wind.
1
Cf.
Beal's
translation
in
the
S. B. E.
utterly
The Buddhacarita,
p.
ILIX.
145.
CHAPTER
XIII.
335
its fluid-
"Even
ity,
fire
its
might lose
its
earth
he abandon
his resolution,
who has acquired his merit by a long course of actions through unnumbered eons. "Such is the purpose of his, that heroic effort, that
all
beings,
un-
he
not
he attains the highest wisdom [or suchness, tattvd\> will never rise from his seat, just as the sun does
without dispelling the darkness. "Pitying the world lying distressed amidst diseases
rise
and passions,
hindered,
who undergoes
the remedy-knowledge.
them
safely across,
offer
him wrong?
whose roots go deep in and whose fibres are whose flowers firmness, patience, are moral actions and whose branches are memory
tree of knowledge,
"The
and thought,
fruit,
and which gives out the Dharma as its surely when it is growing it should not be cut
in the
down."
heavens truth-
echo the motive that stirred (Jakyamuni to take his up gigantic task of universal salvation, and we are
here
as
unable
nihilistic
speculation which
supposed to characterise
Nirvana.
The Buddha from the very first of his relicourse searched after the light that will illumigious
336
nate
the
CHAPTER
XIII.
nescience.
What
his
first
is
What
truth
was
it
that
he
Bodhi tree
after
penance and deep meditation? As is universally recognised, it was no more than the Fourfold Noble Truth and the Twelve Chains of Dependence, which are acknowledged by the Mahayanists as well as by the Hinayanists as the essentially original
teachings of the Buddha.
then was his subjective state when he discovered these truths ? How did he
feel in his
What
this intellectual
triumph
over egoistic thoughts and passions ? According to the Southern tradition, the famous Hymn of Victory is
said
to
be
his
It
reads
hath been
my
fate,
"Tent-designer,
know
thee now;
art thou;
Quite out are all thy joyful fires, Rafter broken and roof-tree gone; Into the vast my heart goes on,
Gains Eternity
In this
1
dead desires."
Hymn
J.
From
A.
CHAPTER
the ego that
is
XIII.
337
supposed to be a subtle existence behind our mental experiences. As was pointed out else-
phase
of
Buddhism
consists in
the eradication of this ego-substratum or the "designer" of eternal transmigration. The Buddha now finds out
that this ego-soul
is
existence
and with
that troubled
eternally dead
;
he
feels
the breaking
in
up of their limitations
he
is
absorbed i/
the
we
all is
live
and move
and
that
No shadow
of
perceptible here
anything
an absolute
nothingness
proceeding
tradition
further,
let
us
see
what the
Mahayana
tradition
varies
in
According to Beal's Romantic History of Buddha, which is a translation of a Chinese version of the
Buddha
is
reported
"Through ages past have I acquired continual merit, That which my heart desired have I now attained,
How
And landed on
quickly have 1 arrived at the ever-constant condition, the very shore of Nirvana.
[/
The sorrows and opposition of the world, The Lord of the Kamalokas, Mara Pisuna, These are unable now to affect, they are wholly destroyed; By the power of religious merit and of wisdom are they cast away.
1
P.
225.
Beal's
translation
would have
my own if the
22
33^
CHAPTER
XIII.
unflinching resolution,
it;
When
All
will not be hard to acquire once obtained, then farewell to all sorrows, sin and guilt are forever done away."
*
in this light,
is
evident that
the doctrine of Nirvana in the sense of a total abnegation of human aspirations as the abandonment of egoism
and the
ance with
noble
Nirvana
in
which
all
the passions
out like a lamp" was not the most coveted object of Buddhist life. On the contrary, Buddhism advises all
its
followers
to
exercise
to
spiritual
energy
attain perfect
bondage of ignorance and egoism because that is the only way in which we can conquer the vanity of worldliness and enjoy the bliss of eternal life. The
following verse from the
1
Visuddhi
Magga (XXI)
prac-
The gathas supposed to be the first utterance of the Buddha alter his enlightenment, according to Rockhill's Life of the Buddha (p. 33) compiled from Tibetan sources, give
an inkling of nihilism, though I am inclined to think that the original Tibetan will allow a different interpretation when examined by some one who is better acquainted with the
spirit
of
Buddhism than
few cases his insufficient knowledge of the subject he His translation of the gathas is as follows:
"All the pleasures of the worldly joys, AH which are known among the gods,
Compared with
Are not as
its
CHAPTER
tically
its
XIII.
339
far as
:
how empty
is
the world,
Mogharaja! In thoughtfulness Let one remove belief in self, And pass beyond the realm of death. The king of death will never find The man who thus the world beholds."
Nirvana
It is
is Positive.
not
historical
we
problem
of
how
the
followers of
Buddha gradually
developed the positive aspect of Nirvana in connection with the practical application of his moral and religious
he whose burden is heavy, has cast it down; When once he has cast off his burden, He will seek to be burthened no more.
"Sorry
is
"When
all
all
When When
all
Then no more
In the Udana,
craving
come back."
II., 2, we have a stanza corresponding to the gatha here cited, but the Udana does not say "the joy of ending existence," but "the destruction of desire."
first
victory
p.
376.
34O
;
CHAPTER
XIII.
teachings nor are we engaged in tracing the process of evolution through which Buddha's noble resolution
to save
all
sentient beings
was
brought
of
out
I
devotees.
What
most
conception
Nirvana and
development
is
this
the
first religious
teach-
complete
of
that existence
evil,
is
and
evil is
way
to escape misery
is
which
desires
nothing
less
and
activities in Nirvanic
unconsciousness
The
;
Yoga
Samkhya, the absolute Prakrti, which means undisturbed self-contemplation the Vedanta, absorption in the Brahma, which is the
;
total
suppression
of
all
particulars
and thus
all
of
desires
that
is,
Nirvana.
Metaphysically speaking, they might have been correct each in its own way, but, ethically considered, their
views
had
little
life
and
with problems of
of this
flaw
in
doctrines.
He
taught,
therefore,
that Nirvana
complete stoppage of existence, the practise of the Eightfold Path. This moral
in the
CHAPTER
practise
as
XIII.
341
leads
to
the
tranquillisation
of
Nirvana
prior
existence
to
Buddha,
to
it
but
it
significance
and made
worthy of attainment
by men
made by Buddhist
arguments are
those
scholars, according to
whom
is
their
solidly
my
conviction
that
who
are
developed
the
positive
significance
spirit
of
Nirvana
more
consistent
with the
of the
In the
another aspect of
life torments not, sorrows not at the approach of death, If such a one is resolute and has seen Nirvana, In the midst of grief, he is griefless. The tranquil-minded Bhikkhu, who has uprooted the
"He whom
Who
births
is
ended,
is
According to the Mahayanistic conception Nirvana not the annihilation of the world and the putting
an
end to
life;
but
it
is
and death and yet to be above it. It is affirmation and fulfilment, and this is done not blindly and egoistically, for Nirvana is enlightenment. Let
birth
us see
1
how
this
is.
General D. M. Strong
"s
translation, p. 64.
342
CHAPTER
XIII.
the
several
tried to
definite
shades
of
to Nirvana
and
give each of
distinctive character.
When
sical
it
is
used
it
sense,
(tattva}
or
's
with
When we
it
speak
used
of of
Buddha
material
e.,
death.
When
is
in contrast to birth
and
sin
(klega),
it
eternal
life
case
state
presence of the Dharmakaya in individual existences. Nirvana has thus become a very
recognition
of
comprehensive term, and this fact adds much to the confusion and misunderstanding with which it has been treated ever since Buddhism became known to
the
is
Occident.
The
so-called
"primitive
all
Buddhism"
not
altogether
to
unfamiliar with
these meanings
given
Nirvana, though in some cases they might have been but faintly foreshadowed. Most of European
missionaries
and scholars have ignored this fact and wanted to see in Nirvana but one definite, stereotyped
sense which will loosen or untie
all
connected
with
its
use,
One
CHAPTER
is
XIII.
343
tolerably
distinct,
all
endeavor to solve
and taking this as the key the rest while another scholar
;
would do the same thing with another passage from the scriptures and refute other fellow-workers. The
majority of them, however, have found for missionary purposes to be advantageous to hold one meaning
prominently above
possibly
that has
all
may be
considered
the
meaning of Nirvana
negati-
vistic interpretation.
According
the
Vijnanamatra
gastra (Chinese
distinguish
Mahayana Buddhists
They
are
Absolute Nirvana, as a
It
is
synonym
of the Dhar-
makaya.
constitutes
its
all
essence and
existences.
Though
and
it
relativity,
it
While
sible
embraces
innumerable incomprehenis
spiritual
;
virtues,
absolutely
simple
and
immortal
space
in
its
perfect tranquillity
may
be likened unto
which every conceivable motion is possible, but which remains in itself the same. It is universally
present
in all
1
beings whether animate or inanimate and makes their existence real. In one respect it can
be identified with them, that is, it can be pantheistibut in the other respect it is transcencally viewed
; 1
The
text
is
but this
the author's
general spirit
does not expressly say "animate or inanimate", own interpretation according to the of Mahayanism.
344
CHAPTER
it
XIII.
is
is
significance
is,
ordinary
only by the highest intelligence of Buddha. (2) Upadhigesa Nirvana, or Nirvana that has some
residue.
This
is
a state of enlightenment
which can
be attained by Buddhists in their lifetime. The Dharmakaya which was dormant in them is now awakened
from the "affective obstacles," 1 but they are yet under the bondage of birth and death; and thus they are not yet absolutely free from the misery
freed
and
of
life
something
still
remains
in
them
that
makes
them
(3)
suffer pain.
residue. This
attained
is
when
the Tathagata-essence
Dharmakaya) and death as well as from the curse of passion and sin. This form of Nirvana seems to be what is gene(the
understood by Occidental missionary-scholars as the Nirvana of Buddhists. While in lifetime, they have
rally
been emancipated from the egoistic conception of the soul, they have practised the Eightfold Path, and they
There are two obstacles to final emancipation: (1) affecand (2) intellectual. The former is our unenlightened affective or emotional or subjective life and the latter our intel1
tive,
lectual prejudice. Buddhists should not only be pure in heart but be perfect in intelligence. Pious men are of course saved from transmigration, but to attain perfect Buddhahood they
must have a
clear, penetrating intellectual insight into the significance of life and existence and the destiny of the universe. This emphasising of the rational element in religion is one of the most characteristic points of Buddhism.
CHAPTER
have
destroyed
their
all
XIII.
345
the
roots
of
karma
that
makes
possible
and death (samsdra), though as the inevitable sequence of their previous karma they have yet to suffer all
the
last
evils
inherent
in
they have had even this mortal coil dissolved away, and have returned to the original Absolute from which
by
through
had come out and gone cycle of births and deaths. This state of
bliss
supramundane
residue.
(4)
in the
is
Anupadigesa Nirvana,
that
In this, the
Buddha-essence has not only been freed from the curse of passion and sin (kle$a}, but from the intellectual
prejudice, which
most tenaciously
or the
The Buddha-essence
here in
its
Dharmakaya
revealed
all-
knowing
attained
said say,
birth
He who
has
is
to
enlightenment
to have
he
is
and death (samsdra), nor does he cling to Nirvana as the abode of complete rest in short, he is
;
above Samsara and Nirvana. His sole object in life is to benefit all sentient beings to the end of time but
;
he proposes to do not by his human conscious elaboration and striving Simply actuated by his allembracing love which is of the Dharmakaya, he wishes
this
to deliver
all
his fellow-creatures
346
not
life.
CHAPTER
seek his
XIII.
the turmoil of
He
is
interests,
aware of the transitoriness of worldly but on this account he desires not to shun
fully
them.
all-knowing intelligence he gains a spiritual insight into the ultimate nature of things and the final course of existence. He is one of those relihis
With
gious
men
he
all
and supreme
of spiritual
bliss.
When
is
man
be
life,
he
said to
has no abode.
is
pos-
is
actual-
perfection or lying dormant in posse and miserably obscured by ignorance that the second
;
human
is
Nirvana as
It
is
Dharmakdya,
above statement that
in
manifest
from
the
several shades of
meaning psychological and ontological. This apparent confusion, however, is due to the purely idealistic
CHAPTER
tendency
of
XIII.
347
Mahayanism, which ignores the distinction usually made between being and thought, object and subject, the perceived and the perceiving. Nirvana
is
not
only
an
objective
state
beatific
power through whose operation this becomes attainable. It does not simply
mean
in
of the
Arhat.
Mahayanists
its
perceive in
Nirvana
not only
this,
but also
universal
presence
in
all
sentient beings.
v
When
that
is
:
Nagarjuna says in his Mddhyamika fdstra "That is called Nirvana which is not wanting,
is
not intermittent,
to
is
not non-inter-
subject
destruction,
and
is
not
synonym
above
comments
2
which
1
This is one of the most important philosophical texts of Mahayanism. Its original Sanskrit with the commentary of Chandra Kirti has been edited by Satis Chandra Acharya and published by the Buddhist Text Society of India. The
original lines run as follows (p. 193)
:
Literally, that
which
is
characterisation.
348
Nirvana
is
CHAPTER
an
absolute,
it
XIII.
is
above the
relativity of
1
Nirvana
attributes
(3)
;
is
(i)
(2)
blissful
(sukka),
self-acting
(dtman), and
pure
(fUft).
from
these
the
highest
reality
It
is
Dharmakaya.
is
eternal because
it
is
immaterial
;
it
blissful
because
is
above
all
sufferings
it it
is is
a
self-acting
because
it
it
knows no compulsion;
pure because
1
is
from the Madhyamika: "Bhaved abbavo bhavac ca nirvanam ubhayam katham: Asamskrtam ca nirvanam bhavabhavai ca samskrtam." " Or, "Tasmanna bhavo nabhavo nirvanamiti yujyate
In the Visuddhi-Magga XXI. (Warren's translation, p. 376 et seq.), we read that there are three starting points of deliverance arising from the consideration of the three predom-
inant
qualities
unconditioned
the
i. The consideof the constituents of being and ends leads the thoughts to the 2. The insight into their miserableness agitates
:
to the desireless
3.
The
consideration
constituents of being as not having an thoughts to the empty. And these three, we
are told, constitute the three aspects of Nirvana as uncondiwe have an instance in
Buddhism of viewing
I
Nirvana
in the
at length.
En passant, let us remark that as Buddha did not leave any document himself embodying his whole system, there sprang up soon after his departure several schools explaining
CHAPTER
XIII.
349
Nirvana
No
cation
further elucidation
needed
of
Nirvana,
for
we have
treated
it
already
when
is
it
Nor
the
phases
of
it.
The Occidental
missionary-
have
almost
points
from the
to
now
is
analyse
Mahayanistic
its
conception of
fourth signifi-
Nirvana, briefly speaking, is a realisation in this life of the all-embracing love and all-knowing intelligence of Dharmakaya. It is the unfolding of the reason of
existence,
which
in the
ordinary
human
life
remains
more or
less eclipsed
It
by
in the mere observance egoism. of the moral precepts laid down by Buddha, nor in the blind following of the Eightfold Path, nor in
meditation
and
is full of energy issues from the which activity all-embracittg love of the Dharmakaya. There is no passivity in it, nor
the Master's view in divers ways, each claiming the legitimate interpretation; that in view of this fact it is illogical to
is
or the Northern
is
a mere degeneration.
35O
CHAPTER
is
XIII.
He who
in
this
in
the annihilation of
human
On
the contrary,
he
plunges
Samsara and
drowned
in
it.
Mahayana Nirvana is realised only Though in the mire of passions and errors, it is never conthus the
taminated
that
is
by the
in the
filth
of ignorance. Therefore, he
abiding
in Nirvana,
even
in the
whirlpool of
egoism and
darkness of
sin,
nature of being.
things.
of the transitoriness of
life
a mere passing
moment in
fully awake to this knowledge, he never gets engrossed in the world of sin. He lives in the world like unto the lotus-flower, the emblem of immaculacy, which grows out of the mire and
its
As he
defilement.
He
is
again be likened unto the clouds that spontaneously gather around the mountain peak, and, soaring high as the wind blows, vanish away
behind
He may
to
the
region
short, he
is
living in,
Nirvana.
We
read in the
"Vimalakirti
asks
Manjucri: 'How
is
it
that
you
CHAPTER
declare
all
XIII.
351
of Buddhahood?'
"Manjugri
replies
Those
who
and
cling
to
in
the
dwell
in
awaken
in the
them supremely perfect knowledge [anuttarasamyak-sambodhi\ Only the Bodhisattvas. who dwell
midst of passions and errors, and who, passing
[ten]
through the
mate nature of
*'
awaken and
attain
intelligence [prajnd].
'Just as the lotus-flowers
do not grow
in the
land,
but
in
dry son
of good family,
even so [with intelligence (prajnd or bodhi)\ In non-activity and eternal annihilation which
is
are cherished
there
is
by the Qravakas and the Pratyekabuddhas, no opportunity for the seeds and sprouts of
to
Buddhahood
grow. Intelligence can grow only in the mire and dirt of passion and sin. It is by virtue of
Just as
filthy,
even
so [with
the
non-activity
and
son of good family, it is Bodhi]. It does not grow out of eternal annihilation. It is only out
of
the
mountainous
masses
is
of
egoistic,
selfish
to
the incomprehensible wisdom of Buddha-seeds. " son of good family Just as we cannot ob-
352
tain
CHAPTER
priceless
XIII.
pearls unless
we
of the four great oceans, O son of good family, it is even so '[with Intelligence] If we do not dive deep
into the
we
Let
that the primordial seeds of Intelligence draw their vitality from the midst of passion" and sin.' In a Pauline epistle we read,
'
therefore
"From
life
the
foulness
of the
soil,
:
the beauty of
new
grows."
And Emerson
sings
"Let me go where'er I will, hear a sky-born music still. 'Tis not in the high stars alone, Nor in the cup of budding flowers, Nor in the redbreast's mellow tone,
Nor
But
in the
in the
in
showers,
"
things.
Do we
"Yas klegas
What
birth
is
Intelligence,
is
what
is
and death
is
Nirvana.
This
in
the
CHAPTER
In
XIII.
353
it
the
Vigesacinta-brahma-pariprccha Sutra*
Nirvana, because there
is
"Samsara
out
is
is,
when viewed
nor
coming
into, existence,
is
[samsara
it
samsara,
when
is
the idea
is
expressed in
all
much
plainer
terms
"The essence of
attributes,
things
is
;
in truth free
from attachment,
and desires
therefore,
know
that
is
they are pure, and, as they are pure, we that what is the essence of birth and death
the essence of Nirvana, and that what
is
the
essence
of Nirvana that
is
(samsara). In other words, Nirvana is not to be sought outside of this world, which, though tran-
death
sient,
is
in
reality
no
itself.
Because
there
is
it is contrary to our reason to imagine that Nirvana and there is birth and death (samsara,)
lies
we have
and death.
annihilated
If
we
this
Nirvana only after escaped the world of birth are not hampered by our confused
or
we can
subjectivity,
our
worldly
life
is
an activity of
in his
Nirvana
itself."
Mddhy-
text,
There are three Chinese translations of this Mahayana by Dharmaraksa, Kumarajiva, and Bodhiruci, between and 517 A. D. 265
23
354
"Samsara
Nirvana
is
CHAPTER
in
XIII.
is in
Or,
"The sphere of Nirvana is the sphere of Samsara: Not the slightest distinction exists between them."
Asanga goes
that
all
step
further
the
Buddha-dharmas,
and
He
says in
Mahaydna-Sangraha fdstra
1
(the Chinese
p. 84)
:
88 1,
wang VIII.,
eternal.
"(i)
All
with
Dharmakaya
power,
is
"(2)
All
an
extinguishing
the
All
power of attainment,
by ignorant
"(5) All
desire
1
by the attainment
evil
[of truth]
passions as cherished
to
humor,
folly,
and
all
the other
Na
2
Vidyadanantaram
kincit
susuksnam vidyate.
CHAPTER
passions of vulgar minds, for
XIII.
355
it is
attachment and
is
Suchness which
made
k
perfect
by these
by any
'(7)
evil
All
them."
Buddha-dharma means any thing, or any virtue, or any faculty, that belongs to Buddhahood. Kon -attach-
ment
is
a Buddha-dharma, love
is
is
a Buddha-dharma,
in fact
wisdom
is
attribute
anything of the
One, not to mention the Dharmakaya or Nirvana which constitutes the very essence of BuddhaPerfect
is
to be
drawn
from those
quoted
errors
is
seven
this
:
propositions
is
of Asanga as above
Not only
as a
this
world of constant
its
transformation
apparent
phases
and
sins
and
the
of Nirvana,
is
the
is
Concerning the similarity in meaning of this statement to one just preceding, a commentator says that the sixth the statical view of Suchness (or Dharmakaya) and the
its
seventh
reality of
Buddhism
dynamical view. One explains what the highest is and the other what it does or works.
356
CHAPTER
XIII.
and death, joy and sorrow, love and hate, peace and struggle. Nirvana is not to be sought in the heavens
nor
departure from this earthly life nor in the annihilation of human passions and aspirations. On the contrary, it must be sought in the midst of
after
worldliness,
is
as
life
with
all
its
thrills
itself.
of pain and
Extinguish pleasure your life and seek Nirvana in anchoretism, and your Nirvana is forever lost. Consign your aspirations,
hopes, pleasures, and woes, and everything that makes up a life to the eternal silence of the grave, and you
bury Nirvana never to be recovered. In asceticism, or in meditation, or in ritualism, or even in metaphysics, the
further
serious
more impetuously you pursue Nirvana, the away it flies from you. It was the most
mistake
ever
committed
by any
is
religious
the complete
of
by
laying aside
pains,
human desires, ambitions, hopes, and pleasures. Have your own Bodhi (intellisinful
is
and
the
same
human
egoism,
heart,
formerly
the
now
Nirvana
magnificence.
Suppose a torch light is taken into a dark cell, which people had hitherto imagined to be the abode of hideous, uncanny goblins, and which on that account
they
wanted to have
completely
destroyed to the
CHAPTER
ground.
disperses
therein
is
XIII.
357
in
The
the
bright
light
now ushered
at
once
now
as-
sumes
to
its
proper aspect.
And
be
uncanny
stones,
and
are
precious
one of those
the
cell
stones
the
human
When
warms and
unbearable anguish now turned into a divine aspiration. The heart itself, however, remains the same just as much as the cell, whose identity was never affected
^either
by darkness
illustrates
or
by
nicely
the
Mahayanistic
doctrine
of the
identity of
Nirvana
is,
is
said:
"All sins transformed into the constituents of enlightenment! The vicissitudes of Samsara transformed into the beatitude
of Nirvana!
All
these
come from
the
exercise
of the
the
great
religious
discipline (upaya)\
Beyond
is
mystery of
all
The
The
where the
the Incomprehensible.
358
CHAPTER
XIII.
eclectic,
He
refused
any extreme doctrine which elevates one end too high at the expense of the other and culmito listen to
When the
both exthrough-
Buddha
dhi
left his
tree,
he made
He proved
out his
life
disciplined
acter,
-
person,
and
at
no time
irritable in char-
sage of Nazareth, who in anger cast out all the tradesmen in the temple and overthrew the tables of
the
the money-changers, and
who cursed
any
it
the
fig
tree
on
find
frjuit
The
(Madhyamdrga),
intellectually,
whatever
may mean
life
morally and
and doctrine
of
Buddha
as
teachings.
His
followers,
the
Even
of Eight No's which seems to superficial critics nothing but an absolute nihilism, he said that the Middle
This
is
expressed
in
the
first
CHAPTER
XIII.
359
this
certainly
to
its
applied
synthetic
theory
its
of Nirvana
and
by
the
fully
In
immanent
bandhu quotes the following passage from the frimala Sutra, which plainly shows the path along which the
Mahayanists
conclusion
of
:
traveled
"Those, who
are
existence the
called nihilists,
only
free
from
distinction
reality
between
realm of non-duality." And this realm of non-duality is the Middle Path of Nirvana, not in its nihilistic,
but in
its
Mahayanistic, significance.
How
to
Realise Nirvana.
How can we attain the Middle Path of Nirvana? How can we realise a life that is neither pessimistic asceticism nor materialistic hedonism ? How can we
steer through the whirlpools of
"No
annihilation,
unity,
No
no
plurality,
360
swallowed
tion
?
CHAPTER
XIII.
up and yet braving their turbulent gyraThe answer to this can readily be given, when
the manifestation of the Dharmakaya, and that
we
life
the ideal of
possibilities
human
of
his
existence
is
that he can
And
this
we have found
be
all-embracing
Destroy then your ignorance at one blow and be done with your egoism, and there springs forth an eternal stream of love and wisdom.
Says Vasubandhu "By virtue of Prajna [intelligence or wisdom], our egoistic thoughts are destroyed by
:
:
virtue of
ed.
Karuna
virtue
in
[love], altruistic
By
inherent
of
Karuna,
the
[intellectual]
attachment
as
is
possessed
abolished.
By
virtue
is
of
Prajna,
Nirvana
[in its
transcendental
sense]
[with
its
not rejected; by virtue of Karuna, Samsara changes and transmigrations] is not rejected.
By
by
Buddhism
is
attained
matured
[for salvation]."
The
practical
life
though not antagonistic, directions, one upward and the other downward, and the two are synthesised in
the
Middle
Path
of Nirvana.
The upward
direction
while the
downward one
to a realisation of all-embra-
CHAPTER
cing love
XIII.
36l
among
his fellow-creatures.
One
is
compleis
mented by the
other.
When
too
the emotional,
thinker,
whose
of tears of
is
is
his
fellow-beings.
When
the emotional
side
alone
the
egoistic
that
colors
it
contact with
takes
Because
sensuality
for spirituality.
it
out sentimentalism,
will
How many
deeds
superstitious,
religion, or love of
and mankind
think
It
God when we
how
religious fanatics
brought desolation and and all ruin throughout the land of their enemies, these works of the Devil executed for sheer love of
lives within a day,
human
God
Therefore,
says
Devala,
the
author
:
of
the
Discourse on the Makdpurusa (Great Man) "The wise do not approve lovingkindness without intelligence, nor do they approve intelligence without lovingkindness
;
the eye,
knows
how
attain
to
move; furnished with the limb, the eye can what it perceives. Love alone is blind, knowlis
edge alone
lame.
It is
only
when one
is
supplement-
362
CHAPTER
XIII.
Buddha
as the ideal
human being we
recognise
it
was
in
him that the Dharmakaya found its perfect realisation in the flesh. But as far as the Bodhisattvas are concerned,
their
natural
endowments are so
is
diversified
and
their
temperament
so uneven that in
some the
intellectual
others
the
elements are more predominant while in emotional side is more pronounced, that
to
practicality others
while
preferably look
intellectuaiism.
Thus,
as a
matter of course, some Bodhisattvas will be more of philosophers than of religious seers. They may tend in some cases to emphasise the intellectual side of
religion
more than
of
lies in
and
upaya,
feeling.
Love Awakens Intelligence But if we have to choose between the two, let us first have all-embracing love, the Buddhists would say
;
for
it
is
to
find
the
way
of
perpetual
intellect
sufferings
will
;
possibilities
strength.
When
of
the
it
is
this life is
is
an expression
eternal, that
Dharmakaya which
one and
CHAPTER
individual
XIII.
363
existences
as
far as
have
no
selfhood
(atman or
svabhdva)
isation
of
subjective
we
love
are
true
and
caused
real
only
when we
are conceived
which
him to search
truth will
now
is
unfold
fullest significance.
it is
some-
first
awake-
mind of the
engrossed
desire.
in
ning of the religious consciousness, and agitates the aspirant, whose life has hitherto been
He no more
(Jravakas
as
the
individual
However
emancipation from the curse of Samsara. sweet the taste of release from the bond
it
of ignoranee,
is
makes the
freedom perfectly
thinks
who
as well as acceptable,
lovingkindness
as his
his fellow-beings
of the (Jravaka
own
the
is
children.
The emancipation
is
or
of
Prayekabuddha
wanting
in
like
delicious food
it
which
than
is
is
no more
man
all
to
interests. It is the
mother of
motive
sattvas.
The
life
sacred
that
renounce a
of Nirvanic self-complacency, is nothbut their love for all beings. They do boundless ing
364
not wish to rest
CHAPTER
XIII.
in their individual
emancipation, they
want to have
all
exception emancipated and blest in paradisiacal happiness. Love, therefore, bestows on us two spiritual
benefits: (i)
It
saves
all
awakens
in us the
Buddha- intelligence
passages
will
The
Devala's
following
Mahdpurusa
stand the true signification of Nirvana and the value of love (karund) as estimated by the Mahayanists.
afraid of transmigration
and seek
own
benefits
all
and happiness
in final
emancipation,
comparable to those Bodhisattvas, who when rejoice they come to assume a material existence once again, for it affords them another opportunity to
are not at
benefit others.
their
own
selfish sufferings
may
;
themselves] but the Bodhisattva who feels in himself all the sufferings of his fellow-beings as his own, how can he bear the thought of leaving
others behind while he
pation,
is
on
his
is
way
to final emanci-
resting in Nirvanic
quietude
Nirvana
at other's
feeling.
being made happy, and Samsara in not so He who feels a universal love for his fellow-
among
them and
1
Compare
Buddhist
we
CHAPTER
XIII.
365
happiness^while Nirvana
that
is
found
in sacrificing one's
is
an
from
finds
their
it
own
emancipation when they are released pain, but a man with loving heart
in rescuing others
from misery.
no
"With people who are not kindhearted, there is sin that will not be committed by them. They
called
are
the
at
softened
suffering.
the
of
others,
misfortune
and
"When
ill
all
by
avarice, passion,
and are constantly threatened by the misery of birth and death, disease and decay how can the Bodhisattva live among
humor,
infatuation,
folly,
and
them?
the
"Of
most.
.
all
good
It
is
virtues,
the source of
merit.
It
is
all religions are one at the bottom. We read in Thomas a Kempis's Imitation of Christ (ch. XIII): "My son, I descended from heaven for thy salvation I took upon me thy sorrows, not necessity but love drawing me thereto; that thou thyself mightest learn patience and bear temporal sufferings without repining For from the hour of my birth, even until my death on the cross, I was not without suffering of grief." This is exactly the sentiment that stimulates the Bodhisattvas
;
to
free
their
from sectarian biases will admit without hesitation that there is but one true religion which may assume various forms according to circumstances. "Many are the roads to the summit, but when reached there we have but one universal
moonlight."
366
CHAPTER
all
XIII.
mother of
Buddhas.
It
refuge in the
incomparable Bodhi.
is
"The
one
annoyed by
thing, that
threatened by
all
Let us
quote
sutra.
Mahayana
When
well,
why he
he
made
that
the
full
of
religious
significance
is
"From ignorance
cause
of
so
there arises
desire
and
the"
ill,
am
I ill.
my When
I
illness.
all
As
all
'sentient
beings
are
healed
too.
of their
illness,
shall
be 'healed
of
my
illness,
Why? The
Bodhisattva suffers
birth
is
and death because of sentient beings. As there birth and death, so there is illness. When sentient
are
beings
will
delivered
from
illness.
illness,
the Bodhisattvas
suffer
no more
is
When
parents
are
an only son
in
good family
is
sick,
the
when he
is
recovered
they
well
again.
all
So
it
with
the
Bodhisattva.
He
are
loves
sentient
beings
is
as his
own
children.
When
sick
again.
they
to
recovered,
he
is
well
know whence
this [sympathetic]
illness is?
The
illness
(makakarund").
This gospel of universal love is the consummation of all religious emotions whatever their origin. Without
this,
is
there
is
no
religion
life
that
spirit.
is,
no
it
religion that
is
animated with
and
For
in the fact
CHAPTER
XIII.
367
and
nature
of things
or
its
that
mere
own way
fact, but the practical result remains terpreting the same everywhere, viz. that it cannot survive without the animating energy of love. Whatever sound
and
the
is
fine
reasoning there may be in the doctrine of r&vaka and the Pratyekabuddha, the force that
to
is
destined
from misery
e.
the
is
the
Mahayana Nirvana
its
is
life
but
of
enlightenment, that
passions and
is
not
the
nullification
human
aspirations
but
their
purification
and ennoblement.
world of eternal transmigration is not a place which should be shunned as the playground of evils,
This
should be regarded as the place of ever-present opportunities given to us for the purpose of unfoldbut
ing
all
our
spiritual
possibilities
the
the
life.
The
a
contrary,
finds
Nirvana
in
concatenation of
the
births
and
deaths
solves
and
it
boldly
faces
problem
of
evil
and
by
subjective ignorance.
368
CHAPTER
is:
XIII.
His aspirations are solemnly expressed in this, which we hear daily recited in the Mahayana Buddhist temples and monasteries and seminaries
:
The avenues of truth, The way of the Enlightened, however unsurpassable, I take
take
take
vow
to attain."
And an
will
which
not
state
of eternal
all
misconcepis
me
repeat once
more
it
that Nirvana
idle
life
thus
an
contemplation
of a Buddhist
repetition
The
by no means
in the
monotonous
of reciting the sutras and going his rounds for meals. Far from that. He enters into all the forms of lifeactivity, for
1
Mr. A.
J.
Edmunds's
translation
is,
CHAPTER
is
XIII.
369
in
ipation
cloister.
achieved
by imprisoning himself
is
the
the dispersion of
the suppression of egoism and the awakening of love (karuna). Religiously, it is the absolute surrender of the self to the will of the
Bodhi.
Morally,
it
is
Dharmakaya.
persing,
When
our
intellectual
wider
like
perceive that our individual existences are bubbles and lightnings, but that thay obtain
;
we
in
oneness with the Body of Dharma. This conviction compels us to eternally abandon our
reality
their
old
egoistic
conception
of
life.
The ego
;
finds its
significance only when it is conceived in relation to the not-ego, that is, to the alter in other words, selflove has no meaning whatever unless it is purified
by love
for others.
But
must not
the
must be
in
Dharmakaya which
is
harmony norm
of existence and the reason of being. The mission of love is ennobled and fulfilled in its true sense when
ordinance
merely another form of egoism the root is already rotten, how can its trunk, stems, leaves, and flowers
make
of the
which
we read
the
whole
signification of
Buddhism.
24
37O
CHAPTER
XIII.
"Having practised all the six virtues of perfection (pdramita) and innumerable other meritorious deeds,
the Bodhisattva reflects in this wise:
u 'All the
benefit of
for the
all
By
pray that
all
innumerable
various
sufferings
of
by them
the
in
their
abodes
of
existence.
By
turning over
for
(parivarta)
all
these
deeds
would be a haven
their
beings
and
I
deliver
them from
miserable
existences;
beings and
would be a great beacon-light to all dispel the darkness of ignorance and make
"He
"
'All
sentient
beings
are
creating evil
karma
in
suffer
innumerable ways, and by reason of this karma they innumerable sufferings. They do not recognise
Tathagata,
the
do not
listen to the
Good Law, do
men.
not
All
pay homage
these
beings
carry
an
innumerable
amount of
great evil
karma and are destined to suffer in innumerable ways. For their sake I will in the midst of
the three evil creations surfer
deliver every
are,
I
all
their sufferings
and
will
one of them. Painful as these sufferings not retreat, I will not be frightened, I will
I it
not be negligent,
will
is
not forsake
will
my fellow-beings.
Dharmakaya] eman-
Why?
that
Because
the
[of the
all
cipated.'
CHAPTER
XIII.
371
"He
"
'My
conduct
will
be
like the
make
the
who
of
all
all
beings.
(parivarta) of
of
my
merits
my
fellow-creatures
fas
happy and
XIV).
joyous.'
(The
Avatamsaka Sutra,
APPENDIX
HYMNS OF MAHAYANA
FAITH.
1
DHARMAKAYA (TATHAGATA).
In
all
With
It
beings there abideth the Dharmakaya; all virtues dissolved in it, it liveth in
eternal
calmness.
knoweth nor birth nor death, coming nor going; Not one, not two not being, not becoming Yet present everywhere in worlds of beings: This is what is perceived by all Tathagatas. All virtues, material and immaterial,
;
eternally pure in
it.
sky
is
makaya
it
is
defilement-free.
is
all
attributes
the Dhar-
The
Dharmakaya
of
all
Buddhas,
thus
beyond
com-
prehension, Quells all the struggles of sophistry and dialectics, Distances all the efforts of intellection,
Thoughts
all
are dead in
it,
376
APPENDIX.
Whose
spiritual
Dharma-body
is
of one mind,
host of thoughts
is
evolved
Nor is any thought of self present: The Dharma-body, undenled and non-dual,
In its full splendor manifesteth itself everywhere.
Its Its
Its
is like unto the vastness of space manifested forms are like unto magic shows; virtues excellent are inexhaustible,
ultimate reality
Buddhas
only.
Each
Buddhas of the present, past, and future, one of them is an issue of the Dharma-body immaculate and pure Responding to the needs of sentient creatures, They manifest themselves everywhere, assuming corporeality which is beautiful.
All the
;
the premeditation
That they would manifest in such and such forms. Separated are they from all desire and anxiety.
And
free
APPENDIX.
377
They do not negate the phenomenality of dharmas, Nor do they affirm the world of individuals
:
But manifesting themselves in all forms, They teach and convert all sentient creatures.
The Dharma-body
Neither
All
is
it
is
not changeable,
unchangeable;
[in
dharmas
Dharmaloka
;
itself;
extent limitless
it.
Of all the ways that lead to Enlightenment The Tathagata knoweth the true significance;
Wandering
freely
all
THE TATHAGATA.
The Tathagata appeared not on Nor did he enter into Nirvana;
By
(i)
earth,
He
will,
4
This fact is beyond comprehension, Belongs not to the sphere of a limited consciousness, Only an intelligence perfect and gone beyond
Is
378
APPENDIX
material
The Nor
is not the Tathagata, the sound nor is the voice, not is Yet he beyond the visible and the audible: The Buddha has indeed a power miraculous.
body
People of little faith are unable to know The inmost adytum of Buddhahood.
It is by the perfecting of primordial karma-intelligence That the realm of all Buddhas is revealed.
All
Dharma
that
is
pure,
immaculate,
and
In infinity of worlds,
Revealing
It
itself in
the
body of Tathagata,
universally preaches the Law supremely excellent, And in its heart no attachment lingers.
An
intellect that
knows no
limits or
bounds
Perceives no obstacles in
dharmas, And penetrates into the depths of the Dharmaloka, Revealing itself with a power miraculously divine.
All sentient beings
It
all
and
all
creatures,
:
And
universally revealed in
all
the worlds.
after All-knowledge course of time attain perfect enlightenment; May Let them above all purify the heart
in
And complete
APPENDIX.
379
And
then they
will
Immeasurable power that comes from his free will; Devoid of all doubts they are, and accompanied
virtue
is
unsurpassable.
THE TATHAGATA
The Tathagata, in pure golden And in person resplendent and
innumerable ages past, All merits hath accumulated.
In
5 (2).
color,
majestic,
With
bliss
and wisdom
all
in perfection,
And the highest enlightenment attaining. And with great loving heart animated, He now appeareth in this world of endurance.
Men and
All
devas and the eight hosts of demons, pay him homage most reverent, Who, from his inmost self-being, Preacheth the deepest spiritual Dharma.
it:
Multitudes of beings, ignorant and blind, Listening to it, are unable to comprehend.
The Tathagata
With
skill
all
is is
that
Guiding
380
APPENDIX.
The And
It
beings is miraculously bright, in its being. calm eternally Pure and immaculate and defilement-free,
all
heart of
is
replenished with
all
merits.
Its
essence
is
like
Devoid of
all
liminations,
Knoweth
And
there
The oneness
Is
in
it
of
all
beings
indeed beyond
finite
knowledge.
passions,
into the
ocean of pain,
And know
not
how
to escape.
doctrine of Tathagata,
and transcendental,
Covering all the ten quarters, Grasses and trees, woods and forests, Roots and trunks, large and small,
Of all growing on this vast earth, Nothing is there that thereby itself benefiteth
not.
The Law
May
APPENDIX.
381
is
wondrous,
giveth utterance to thoughts innumerable, That are received by audience of all sort,
He
in his
own way.
among
the assemblage,
None
Such
is is
Buddha-knowledge
REPENTANCE.
Those who repent as prescribed by the Dharma, Altogether their earthly sins uproot; As fire on doomsday the world will consume,
With
its
infinite seas.
fuel;
;
is
leading
a holy life renders firm as a diamond; transports to the palace of bliss everlasting; from the triple world's prison releases ;
of the Bodhi.
382
APPENDIX.
Ye should then regard all beings as fathers and mothers; Though this truth is too hidden to be recognised without
the aid of
All
Holy Knowledge,
All
your prior
lives,
Why
Ever thinking of love, endeavor ye to benefit one another And provoke ye not hostility, quarreling and insulting.
Buddha,
in
the Holy
Way
trained,
And
living in seclusion at
At
And
daily meal think ye first of almsgiving, also distribute among beings the Treasure of
Law;
;
When
Through
are pure, it is called true charity this practice perfected are the merits of discipline.
APPENDIX.
383
Would ye understand
Know
ye that it comes from the heart pure, and not from the wealth given
;
A
Is
precious treasure with a heart unclean, surpassed by a mite with a heart clean.
a dana-paramita, other dana-paramitas one's life, wife, or children,
is
:
Wealth giving
called blood-giving.
Should a man of good family come and ask for the Let him have all the Mahayana sutras explained,
Law
And awaken
This
is
in
With sympathy and pure faith and conscience, Embrace ye all beings and befree them from greed, That they might attain to the highest intelligence of the
Tathagata
:
The
Firmly observing the three sets of the Bodhisattva-gilas, O ye, evolve the Bodhi, distance birth-and-death,
Guard the
Repent
it
the
of the
c,ilas,
,
Subdue ye anger and hate and cultivate in your heart love and sympathy; Mindful of the karma past, harbor ye not evil thoughts
against offenders
;
Be not reluctant
This
is
all
beings to sacrifice
life
what is hard to practice, hesitate ye not awhile With ever-increasing energy through three asankheya kalpas,
In practicing
Defile not yourselves, but always discipline the heart; And for the sake of all creatures seek ye salvation.
384
APPENDIX.
Entering into and rising from the Samadhi, spiritual freedom is obtained
:
Transforming yourselves and travelling in all the ten quarters, Have for all beings the cause of evil desire removed, And let them seek deliverance in the doctrine of Samadhi.
Would ye desire to attain to True Intelligence? Friendly approach Bodhisattvas and Tathagatas Gladly listening to the doctrine transcendental and sublime, Attain ye the three disciplines 9 and remove the two obstacles 10
; .
Recognising difference in the disposition of beings, Apply the medicine proper for each disease
:
Love and sympathy, skill and expediency, each fitting the case, Try the proper means for the benefit of the multitudes.
Would ye know the true meaning of existence? The middle path lies in non-attachment, neither "yea"
nor "nay"
Intelligence
;
pure is unfathomable and unites in Suchness mine with thine, embracing the whole. Identify
By the force of intellect, grasping the nature of beings, Teach the masses each in accord with his capacity;
The
all
and let each rest in its place Samsara and Nirvana are but one
Fulfilling the
in their
essence
And
is
APPENDIX.
Eighty-four thousand samadhis Becalm the disturbant mind of
385
all beings; Eighty-four thousand dharanis Keep away all the prejudices and evil influences.
skill,
Law
in three
all
beings
Casting the net of the Doctrine in the ocean of birth and death, He draweth out men and gods to the abode of bliss.
THE
BODHI. "
The Bodhi is in all things The Bodhi and all things are one:
;
Who
knoweth
World- honored.
Who
xV
severalises, thinking,
'*
folly,
He
as far
from Buddha,
earth.
As heaven from
greed,
:
They're one, not two Out of one Dharma-gate cometh Here's sameness, no diversity.
all;
25
386
APPENDIX.
The
Is
heart,
when innocent
of greed,
ia
never troubled.
In
whose mind
is is
self is lurking
still,
And who
Greedy
man
called,
And he
bound
for hell.
What
That
is is
What
That
is
is
These two are of one nature That is, of no-nature; Who knoweth this truth,
Would be
the world-leader.
14
is
the world,
Alarmed are they at heart; And wrongly imagine that if empty were the nature of Atman Nothingness would be the end of all work.
APPENDIX.
387
NON-ACTION.
As
the vacuity of sky,
bpon
And we,
Can
Law.
16
SELF-E>ELUSION.
There
lived once a painter,
Who
And
'Tis
ALL
As
all
IN ONE.
Are emptied
Which
Whatever
Good and
Turn over
beneficial,
to the
Bodhi
And
In
to that Reality
all
which
things
become
of
taste.
388
APPENDIX.
NIHILISM.
The
How
But
'Tis
in
How
The The And
gone forever,
present no Buddha-seeds have they.
THE
A man who
However
NIHILIST.
suffers from a disease incurable, excellent his treatment be, Impossible he will find his health to gain,
For
'Tis
No
means of remedy. even so with them who walk in the way of emptiness matter whereso'er they be,
his defies all
How
Such
it!
(i)
And
Even
As
And
discriminates not in
is
it
its
nature
Even so
with
all
APPENDIX.
389
As waters
in the vast
ocean,
Even so
As
is
it
with
all
the dragon-god with thunder and lightning Brings showers on the earth all over, And the rain-drops discriminate not; so
is
it
Even
with
all
(2)
And
in
E'en so
As
in the cloudless sky the sun O'er the ten quarters all illuminates,
And
in its brightness
is
it
shows no difference;
the Buddha's Dharma.
E'en so
with
in the
all
As high up
Beheld by
all
And
there's
is
it
E'en so
nowhere her glory reaches not; with all the Buddha's Dharma.
great
all
The Brahma-raja
In
manifests
And knows
E'en so
is
39O
APPENDIX.
Even
to,
There
will
of Buddha-dharma.
Even so in a heart defiled with evil karma The seeds of Buddha-dharma are growing.
(i)
Departed instantly without a word. The inky darkness that the mansion
filled
Resisted not, "I've lived here for ages, And I'll never be removed from here."
of passions
The analogy holds true. Though there abiding many hundred thousand
Their ultimate nature
is
kalpas,
When
full
splendor;
And
moment.
APPENDIX.
391
(2)
Bright shines the lamp, the inky night is gone. But with the darkness
quarters vanish not;
this illuminating lamp,
:
For
No
In
comes enlightenment,
And
out goes ignorance of its own accord But both are like unto the flowers in the air,
Impossible
to
keep or to forego.
17
is
Since his awakening of the Heart, Until he gains the depths of the Law
And
knowledge,
He
save
all
creatures,
He
all
for Bodhi.
*
392
APPENDIX
permeating
trees
Yet any favor special it nor shows nor seeks; So is the Bodhisattva;
With
All sentient beings equally embraces he; All permeating gradually, universally,
nourishes,
Which, breaking down all evils powerful, Obtain the fruit of Buddha-knowledge.
*
all
of the cereals;
fire
From
those young plants No favor seeks, nor any shows to them; So is the Bodhisattva
:
With knowledge-fire
Matures he
all
The tender
shoots of creatures
No
The element
By reason
Pervades
of
all
Air,
its
virtue,
even
so,
skill
Who
with consummate
APPENDIX.
393
THE BODHISATTVA.
*
His FIRMNESS.
As Mara, the evil one, Commanding his four armies, Even by the devas in the Kamaloka,
Cannot be overwhelmed; So is the Bodhisattva, Whose heart, pure and clean,
Becomes perfect and full in the end; Even so the Bodhisattva, With a heart defilement-free,
All the
And
finally obtains
Law
full.
His ENLIGHTENMENT.
The
rising sun, All illumining, All forms and images in the world
So
is
the Bodhisattva
light of
The And
knowledge emitting,
Bringeth he
394
APPENDIX.
His FEARLESSNESS.
Lion, the king of beasts,
Majestic, overpowering, And in the forest wandering,
Knows he no
So
is
fear,
no terror;
:
the Bodhisattva
His ENERGY.
The
giant elephant,
With energy wondrous, A burden heavy carrying, Shows not the least fatigue; So is the Bodhisattva:
Bearing, for the sake of the masses, The misery of the flesh,
He shows
His PURITY.
The
lotus-flower,
in the
marshy
land,
or
filth
So
Though
No form
APPENDIX.
395
His SELF-SACRIFICE.
There
lived
craftily
Who
That
'Tis
after
due time
excellent,
Desires and passions down he fells, But leaves their seed unscathed
By reason of
And thereby
I8
LIFE.
[or the
19
the
home
life
world
As a hurricane that abates not awhile, Or as the moon's illusive image in water Which the imagination takes deliberately
cast,
The water in itself contains no lunar image [real] The real moon, dependent on water clear, a shadow
;
casts
So are all beings unreal only conditionally they exist Yet 'tis imagined by the vulgar that an Atman they have.
The Atman
But for a
it is
not
Have the two prejudices ao removed, And we perceive Intelligence most high and
peerless.
396
APPENDIX.
Our confused imagination is like unto a black storm, Blowing over the woods of birth and death, stirs up the
leaves of consciousness
:
By
'tis
haunted
all
the time,
And
damnation-causes it produces, Entwining are indeed the roots of evil, which are three, Through birth and death doth transmigration ever
onward move.
Who
The
and in them devoutly believe, view acquire, right they removing all the thoughts which are fallacious, And every instant growing are Seeds of Intelligence, And the Samadhi of knowledge great and of spirituality is awakened.
to the Sutras listen
When
In the
deep and
subtle,
dark no more
we
grope, nor do
we
of pain;
Perceiving Suchness in the ultimate nature of things, Subject and object both gone, and vanished are all sins.
attributes,
The
ignorant
imagine
and
create
relatively exist.
cause of
And
The
The
male or female.
excellent fruit of wisdom,
the
if
same
for aye;
nathless imagine wrongly and see therein a concrete and definite. thing The Buddha's features thirty-two are after all no-features Who sees no-features in the features, the feature true he
vulgar
understands.
APPENDIX.
397
To wander
This
is
the rightful
way
he attain the
of enlightenment.
THE BUDDHIST.
21
Encourage not, for your self-interests, Heterodoxy and false doctrines; A merciful heart for all have ye Remove stupidity and untruth from your minds; Be ye Tathagata's most faithful servants; And teach the masses who are ignorant, To them the Bodhi impart, on yourselves it practising; And thereby make the Buddha's name resound on earth Deliver the multitudes from sin and initiate them To the perfect enlightenment of the Buddha:
;
fail.
His
life
he
sacrifices,
bliss
unspeakable.
Surely he will attain the height of truth and beauty, Forever be freed from the entanglement of birth and death.
And
fruit of
enlightenment obtain,
in
398
APPENDIX.
firm,
Even my
life
will sacrifice,
dear as
it
is.
men who
are wise.
All
sentient
triple world,
I'll
release,
I'll
lead.
Whose
free
of
showy ornaments,
Who
And
all
entanglements,
whose heart
He
is
Though not
by the Rules,
all
clean of
evil thoughts,
to tranquillity, intelligence,
and virtuous
He
Though not
Law,
ultimate,
Whose insight goes deep into the And is no more deluded by sham
appearances,
He
is
APPENDIX.
399
The mind that takes no thought of the ego, That goes beyond the illusory phenomena, Yet sinks not into stupidity Truly awakened to Intelligence it is.
Whose
mind, awakened to Intelligence, Sees no substantiality in the ego, And, not seeing, yet remains firm, This man cannot be injured.
LIFE.
Again, like unto the vast ocean that absorbs All the streams, and yet shows no increase; Even so is the Bodhisattva,
Who,
'
Again, like unto the vast ocean that refuses to take filth, And wherein when absorbed doth foulness change to purity;
Even
so
is
Whom
all
the
unfath-
omable
Even so
is
the Bodhisattva,
Whose
virtues and
4OO
APPENDIX
Again, like unto the vast ocean in which there's no diversity, and streams pouring thereinto become of
Even
so
is
Who
listeneth to
Again, like unto the vast ocean that existeth not interests of one individual
;
Whose
all.
embosoms
the jewel
Of which all jewels are produced Even so is the jewel-treasure of the Bodhisattva, For it is through this that all the other jewels shine.
;
Again, like unto the vast ocean that produces the three kinds of jewel,
them
the teaching of the Bodhisattva, equally delivering the three yanas, maketh not any
distinction.
deeper
Even
so
Who,
all,
Forever aspireth
after the
deepest omniscience.
Again, like unto the vast ocean that harbors not a corpse
Even so is the Bodhisattva, Who. with the heart of purity and the vow
of Bodhi,
APPENDIX.
4OI
THE BODHISATTVA'S
Perceiving
all
FAITH,
(i)
27
in one,
diligent in his
work
As he
Pain he shunneth not, to pleasure he clingeth not, is ever bent on the deliverance of all beings;
all
To him And of
Buddhas
will
their presence
he
He
is
in the
is
Where
He
All sentient beings in the fivefold path of existence, loveth as his own child;
Removing
filthy,
THE BODHISATTVA'S
The Light
FAITH.
28
(2)
While to the doctrine most high listening, of Pure Intelligence within me glows, That shining over all the universe
me
reveals.
Who
They put themselves in the position most difficult; Dharmas have no ego-master which is real, For they are merely names and expressions.
The
vulgar and ignorant know not That within themselves they have a reality true and That the Tathagata is not of any particular form;
real,
4O2
APPENDIX.
Dirt and dust obscuring their intelligence-eye, Enlightenment perfect and true they see not;
And throughout
Wandering and
rolling
is
Samsara,
No-more-arolling
Nirvana;
To
Samsara
Nor understand
Clearly they grasp not the Dharma of ancient sages, the Path Incomparable.
Those who thus cling to forms individual, Of Buddha's universal enlightenment, though they hear, Themselves negate, and away they wander from th(
right course of thought; Therefore, they cannot see the Buddha.
Who
the
Dharma
of Truth perceive,
;
in Suchness Enlightenment most truthful they understand, Transcending words and all the modes of speech.
Illusory are
all
forms individual;
No No
Seek Truth
Whose insight to the past extends, To the future and over the present, And who fore'er abides in serenity of
He's said to be a Tathagata.
Suchness,
APPENDIX.
4O3
THE BODHISATTVA'S
FAITH.
29
(3)
I would rather suffer sufferings innumerable That I might listen to the voices of Buddhas,
Than enjoy
And
mind
We
And
Is
that
transmigrate through birth and death, we have not heard Buddhas' names
A A
And
perfect Intellect synthetising truth and falsehood, that which transcends all the modes of relativity,
is
This
Nor
That
is
Who
thus perceives
The Dharma-body knows truth as true, And falsehood as false, And well understands the realm of reality;
Therefore,
it
is
The enlightened has nothing enlightened, Which is the true spirituality of all Buddhas: And in this wise they behave,
Neither to be one nor to be two.
4O4
APPENDIX.
They see the one in the many, They see the many in the one The Dharma has nothing to depend upon;
How
The
could
it
be a product of combination?
Who
And
The And
can understand
this,
Seeks not
reality in either of
them.
is
unseekable,
Buddhas
find there the resting abode Dharma has nothing to depend upon
NOTES
TO THE APPENDIX
This and the following are translations from some Mahayana texts in the Buddhist Tripitaka, which were rendered into the Chinese language at various times from Sanskrit
1
mostly through the co-operation of the Hindu missionaries and Chinese scholars. A detailed analysis of these texts is
most urgently needed, as they contain many informations of great importance not only concerning the history of Buddhism in India but also concerning early Hindu culture generally.
rather incomplete idea as to their contents and material and character will be attained by the perusal of Rev. Nanjo's Catalogue of the Chinese Tripitaka, Oxford, 1883.
general
Mahayana-mulajata-hrdayabhumi-dhyana
955,) fas.
8
3
Sutra,
(Nanjo,
no.
iii.
The Avatamsaka,
fas. xiv., p.
73.
fas. xiv, p. 72.
To conceive
is
who
appeardis-
ed on earth
not Mahayanistic.
He
fas. iii,
7
rings are: i. the giver, 2. the receiver, and the thing given, material or immaterial.
8
2.
The three
Precepts.
The
all
beings.
406
9
NOTES.
The mental
and
oral.
10
The
intellectual
and the
affective.
11
Sarvadharma-pravrtti-nirde^a Sutra.
This Literally, "when greed is neither born nor dead." means, to live in the world as not living in it. This subjective divine innocence is thought by Buddhists the essence of the religious life. The consciousness of one's worth, or self12
conceit,
is
great
As
in the case of
when
the
work
is
involuntarily
done,
without any conscious effort on the part of the performer; so in our moral and spiritual life we attain the height of virtuousness or saintliness when we identify ouri.e.,
selves with the reason of our being. This is Laotze's doctrine of non-action or non-resistance, and also the teaching of
Bhagavadgita. As remarked elsewhere, when a man reaches this stage of religious life, he ceases to be human, but divine, in the sense that he transcends the world of good and evil and eternally abides in the realm of the beautiful.
the
is enough to frighten and "God-fearing" pietists. Therefore, it is said that "Give not that which is holy to the dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before swine." But think not that this is expounding antinomianism. is
19
This
timid
moralists
"This and
15
all
Parivarta (Nonjo,
This gatha may not be very intelligible to our readers. The sense is: Whatever is done by a Buddha or Bodhisattva
does not come from logical calculation or deliberate premeditation, but immediately from his inmost heart, which, in
freest manner, responds to the needs of This response is altogether free from all human
for the
Buddha shows no
painful
and struggling
so doing. Everything he does is like the work of nature herself. His life is above the narrow sphere of human morality which is marked with a desperate struggle between
good and
evil.
His
is in
NOTES
4O7
16 "Having no selfhood" (svabhavd), means that things have no independent existence, no self-nature which will eternally preserve their thingish identity. This theory has been ex-
plained in the chapter dealing with the doctrine of non-atman. To state summarily, darkness and light are conditioned by
versely, without light darkness has
each other; apart from darkness there is no light, and conno meaning. Even so with one and independent of the other, ignorance: enlightenment they have no existence, they cannot be conceived. They are
imaginary flowers
projected there by a confused but our ideal fabrication. To nothing They only, forgetting that we are living in the world
in the air
like
are
below,
as
to
in
the
world of
in
relativity, is just as
much
one-sided
whirlpool of earthly pleasures without the thought of God. Life, however, is not antithetic, but synthetic. Truth is never one-sided, it is always in the middle. Therefore, seek enlightenment in ignorance and truth
lose
ourselves
the
in
error.
dualistic
life
is
not approved by Buddhists. Compare the sentiment expressed herein with Emerson's poem as elsewhere quoted, in which
these lines occur:
in the mud and scum of things, There always, always, something sings."
"But
The Kasyapaharivarta Sutra (Nonjo, 805.) is: The Bodhisattva never desires a complete absorption in the Absolute, in which no individual existences are distinguishable, fie always leaves the "Will to live"
18
11
The sense
unhurt,
as
it
come
in this
world of
particulars ever and anon. What he has destroyed is the egoistic assertion of the Will, for the aim of Buddhism is
not
it
to
remove the
true
eternal principle of
life,
but to manifest
in
its
it is by rebirth alone that he could mingle himself in the world of sin and save the suffering creatures therein, he never shuns the misery of life. His work of revelation is constant and eternal.
19
fas. IV.
408
20
NOTES
prejudices or obstacles that i that which arises
2.
The two
lie
in
our
way
to
enlightenment are:
shortsightedness;
31
22
23
from
intellectual
Suvarna-Prabha Sutra.
24
Padmapani
Sutra, Fas.
8.
25
28
is
pure and eternal in its essential nature has nothing added externally to it by studying the Dharma; for the Dharma is
nothing else than the expression of his
own
heart.
27 The Avatamsaka^ fas. IX, p. 48. This pantheistic thought of the One-All is generally considered to be Buddhistic; but the truth is that every genuine religious sentiment inevitably
leads us to this
final
conviction.
Even
monotheistic Christianity, we find the pantheistic thought boldly proclaimed and put in contrast to the idea of "our Father which art in Heaven." For instance, read the
cendental
following passage from Thomas a Kempis: "He to whom all things are one, he who reduceth all things to one, and seeth all things in one, may enjoy a quiet mind, and remain at
peace in God." (Chap. III.) The passage in the Gospel of John declaring that "the Father is in me and I in him," when logically carried out, comes to echo the same sentiment
entertained
the
in all beings, animate as well as inanimate. Christianity of to-day is that of Paul as expounded in his letters, but the future one will advance a few steps more
Dharmakaya
The
and
78
will
be that of John.
the Avatamsaka Sutra. the Avatamsaka Sutra.
From
From
29
INDEX.
Abhimuki
(sixth stage of Bodhisattvahood), 318.
Agoka, King,
49.
Agrava
(evil),
explained, 249
ft.
Agvaghosha,
I2Q. 139
ft-
4, 8,
;
61
ft.,
65
ft.,
Awakening of Faith, 7; on Suchness, 99; on Ignorance, 118; and Dionysius, 102 ft. Buddhacarita, quoted, 147; on Mahayanism, 246 on the Sambhogakaya,
;
;
258, 333-
Agnosticism, 25.
Alaya (or Alaya-vijnana), All-conserving Soul, 66 as deposand creator of the universe, 68 itory of "germs", 66 128 and the its the Garbha, 125 et seq evolution,
;
soul,
165
183.
Arada, 146. Arcismati (fourth stage of Bodhisattvahood), 316, Arhatship and Mahayanism, 288.
8, 60. 4, 62, 65, 69, 87, 88,
Aryadeva,
ft.,
153, 231,
41O
INDEX.
Atman, and Samkhyan Lingham, 38 and the Vedantic garira, and unity of consciousness, 39 38 and Vijnana, and and karma, 41 40 impermanency, 43 and egoism,
;
u 44; and the "old man", 165. (See also ego" and "soul".)
reflections,
369
ft.
Avidya
(ignorance), 35 et seq.,
115.
Beal,
Samuel,
refuted,
and Mahayana,
82
and
as
Bodhi (wisdom), 46
Nagarjuna, 297
and Prajna
;
etc.,
defined,
ft.
perfect knowledge, 92
;
its
by
as
reflex of
how
awakened
in
human
heart, 302.
Bodhicitta (Intelligence-heart), 52. (See also "Bodhi.") Bodhi-Dharma, of Dhyana sect, 103, 149, 155.
Bodhipakshikas, the seven, 316 et seq. in the three Bodhisattva, above samsara and nirvana, 72 the in conception of, yanas, 277 primitive Buddhism,
;
;
286
308
we
are,
290
and
love, 292
70, 311
et seq.
ft.
INDEX.
411
Buddha, and
good
karma, 215;
the human,
the
Mahayana
spiritual
texts,
of, historically
and the
Dharmakaya, 255
of greatness, 271
;
major
process
and
80 minor marks
of idealisation,
in the
Mahayanism, 291
in the
beginning of his
religious career,
on, 357
ft.
Buddhism(s), geographically divided, 3,4; two, 4 et seq. and atheism, 31 and the soul problem, 31 et seq. and
;
;
;
agnosticism, 35
56 et seq.
seq.
;
and science,
97.
;
life
and
love, 52
^
ideal,
(Jakyamuni contrasted to Devadatta, 200. Carlyle's Hero- Worship, quoted, 325 ft.
Causation,uni versa! aqH pmpHness. 176.^ Christ and Buddha, compared, 57, 58.
j
the
growth
its
of,
12 et seq.; and
Qikshas (moral
Confucius, 63
rules), ten,
70
ft.
34.
412
Qravaka, 277.
(Jravaka-yana,
9.
INDEX.
gunya),
22,
95;
and
Dagabhumi,
Deussen,
P.,
Bodhisattvahood"), 311,329
quoted, 107.
Dharma,
its
Dharmadhatu, 115
193. 7
;
Dharmakaya, Mahayana,
seq.
;
briefly
;
explained,
20,
45
;
et
and Brahman, 46
Christians,
;
and
and
54, 55
>
God
its
universal incar-
in the
ledge, 92
and
object, 222
in the
its
detailed
characterisation, 224;
love, 232
its
;
as
loving
234;
its
modes
of operation, 235
its
freedom, 236;
239; and
its
Bodhi, 295.
34,
of Bodhisattvahood), 319.
INDEX.
413
;
134.
Ego-soul, and
its
attributes,
147
and the
five
skandhas,
flesh,
;
149;
1
located
66
and
the
conception,
167
et seq.
and
Nagarjuna, 168 and svabhava, 171; and Christians, 212; as conceived by Buddha when he started on his religious
career, 337. (See also "Ego", "atman"
and
"soul").
ft.
of,
248 et seq.
Emerson, quoted, 29
Enlightenment, 55, 119; and manas, 134; two obstacles
to,
344
ft.
Faith,
its
Fatalism, 196.
Gautama and
God, the Buddhist, 219. (See also "Dharmakaya"). Goethe's Faust, quoted, 181.
Golden Rule,
Guyau, French
sociologist, 50
ft.,
84.
142,
148.
41 4
INDEX.
Ignorance, 35 et seq.
ness,
120; no evil, Garbha, 126; and Manas, 133; and Prakrit, 138
fn.
;
and evolution, 115; and conscious122; when evil ? 124; and Tathagataft.
Immortality,
38
and Dharmakaya, 54
and karma, 186
love, 362.
individual, 214.
Injustice, social,
Intelligence,
awakened by
the, quoted,
Jataka Tales,
Jesus, 6.
156.
Jivatman,
145,
Kant, 6; Critique of Pure Reason., quoted, 324. Karma, and the law of causation, 33 briefly explained, deand suchness, 181 33 et seq. and non-atman, 42
; ;
nned, 181
injustice,
the working
of,
183;
irrefragable,
184; and
view, 192
186; and the moral laws, 189; an individualistic and the desire to communicate, 195 ami
;
determinism, 196
tality,
and immor;
and Walt Whitman (quoted), 203 how transand Dharmakaya, 207 and productions of mitted, 205 and invention, 210; and "seeds of activity," ^rt.2o8
203
;
KarmT-seeds, 134.
Karuna
Knowledge (sambodhi),
Kugalamula, 199.
Lalita
ft.
of,
67, 87.
Vistara, quoted,
on Nirvana, 339
fn.
INDEX.
4l5
Laotzean
Wn
wei, 285.
;
Madhyamika, The, on Nirvana, 347. Madhyamika school, 21, 62, 66; and the Yogacarya,
truth, 95.
on
Mahapurusa, Discourse on
Mahasangika,
I
the,
361.
ft.
Mahayana,
tvas, 61
;
et seq
its
original meaning, 7
;
and Bodhisatlife,
and Hinayana, 70
and
spiritual
71
and
Samkhya, 136.
45.
et seq.
is
et seq.;
critics,
as
living
faith,
14 et seq.;
historically treated,
its
60
et seq.
;
>
no
nihilism,
135 ft.;
247;
Manas
(self-consciousness).
106.
132.
Manjugri,
ft,
in
ft,,
221.
47.
199.
INDEX.
of Eight No's, 103.
59,
358
ft.
et seq.
Nagarjuna,
ft,
4,
8,
21, 60,
66,
95, 96,
100, 103,
168,
153.
102.
Nirmanakaya, (Body of Transformation), 73, 257, 268. Nirvana, 19 and its non-Buddhist critics, 49 briefly ex;
plained, 49 et seq.
Dharmakaya, 51; and ethics, 53; and Parinishpanna (knowledge), 94; what
is>
and and the surrender of ego, 50 and love, 51, 58; and pessimism, 52;
;
;
33 ! et seq.
not
nihilistic,
;
332
Mahayanistic, 341
the Mahayanistic
;
conception
;
of,
absolute, 343
four forms
of,
343
upadhic.esa,
;
344
i
and Anupadhic.esa, 344 that has no abode, 345 Cor. 7, 3031, 346; as synonym of Dharmakaya, 846
;
by Chandra
ous phase,
;
Kirti,
347
its
its religi-
352; and samsara are and St. Paul, 352 and the Eight No s of one, 352 as the Middle the realisation of, 360 Nagarjuna, 358
349;
;
;
; ;
and Emerson,
Path, 362
Non-atman,
things,
41 et seq,
170;
and
impermanence of
"soul", "ego").
things,
Non-duality, the
Dharma
of,
106.
;
INDEX.
417
No's,
The
Paramatman,
Paramita,
3
145.
ft.
;
six,
68
ten, 321.
;
explained, 89,
explained, 88.
;
explained, 91.
of,
doctrine
283.
Prabhakari (third stage of Bodhisattvahood), 315. Prajna (and Bodhi), defined, 62 ft.; 82, 97, 119, 238, 360.
Prakrti
(Samkyan primordial
(first
matter), 67
ft.
Pramudita
Pratyekabuddha, 278.
Pratyekabuddha-yana,
9.
ft.
ft.
Purusha (Samkyan
soul),
67
ft.
Purvanidhanabala, 237.
Religion,
significance, 22 et seq.; not revealed, 23; and its intellectual and emotional sides, 25 et 24 mystery, and intellect and feeling in, 77 and science, 26 seq.
its
;
;
41 8
philosophy,
INDEX.
81 et seq.
78
subjective,
not
a philoso-
of
the
fn.
ft.,
(see "Bodhi'').
Sambhogakaya (Body
ghosha,
of Bliss),
65
ft.,
;
73,
257
in
Agva-
258
its
six features,
264
mere subjective
ft
existence, 266.
school, 67
referred
146
ft.
on Nirvana, 340.
156, 185.
32
ft.,
149.
ft.
Sthiramati, on Mahayanism, 61
et seq.;
;
on Bodhicitta, 299.
first
;
the
principle of
Buddhism,
99
et
seq.
indefinable,
101
;
conditioned,
109; in history,
no;
in the
world, 113
in its
181.
280.
INDEX.
419
"Tat tvam
asi," 47,
136
ft.
Tennyson, quoted,
Tirthakas,
8.
ft.
Trikaya,
(trinity),
Truth
(satya), conditional
and transcendental,
95.
Udana, quoted,
52,
339
ft,
341.
Upaya (expediency),
298
ft
64,
261
ft.;
its
meaning explained,
Upayajna, 320.
ft.
Vasubandhu, 87, 153; his Abhidharmakofa referred to, On the Completion of Karma, on Mahayana, 66 37 The quoted, 194 Distinguishing of the Mean, quoted, on Nirvana, 357, 359, 360. on 195 llodhicitta, 303
,
Vasumitra, on Various Schools of Buddhism, I Vedanta philosophy, and the Mahayanism, 108
vana, 340-; on Atman, 144.
ft.
ft.;
on Nir-
hymn
of,
336.
Vijnanamatra fastra, 265 ft., 343. Vimala (second stage of Bodhisattvahood), 315.
Vimalakirti, 106, 350, 366.
ft.
42O
INDEX.
ft.,
197.
Yoga
Yogacarya school,
Yogavasistka
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