Singularities

Adrian Down November 08, 2005

1
1.1

Review: Denitions
Relation of the Laurent series to singularities

= Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . Then a unique sequence (an )n n= where an C, such that > 0 such that

z f (z ) =

0 < |z z0 | <

an (z z0 )n
n=

Note.

If is given, by a previous theorem, we have proven uniqueness and existence.

If 0 < 1 < 2 , and if f (z ) =

n=

an (z z0 )n

0 < |z z0 | < 1

and

f (z ) =
n=

bn (z z0 )n

0 < |z z0 | < 2

then an = bn n. The coecients are equal because these Laurent series both converge to f in the smaller punctured disk, { z : 0 < | z z0 | < } Since f is dierentiable in this punctured disk, its Laurent expansion is unique, and thus an = bn n. 1

 If the function f has an isolated singularity, it can be represented in terms of a unique set of coecients. Since these coecients are unique, we can use them to make denitions.

1.2
1.2.1

Poles
Denition

Denition (Pole). Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . Then f has a pole at z0 if m { 1, 2, 3, . . . } st an = 0 n < m AND k < 0 st ak = 0 In some punctured disk { z : 0 < | z z0 | < }, we have

f (z ) =
n=m

an (z z0 )n

Note.

To have a pole at a point z0 , a function f must have isolated singularity at z0 . f must have at least one negative exponent, and a nite number of them.

Heuristically, poles are like singularity of nite order. The pole is said to be of order m if am = 0 and an = 0 n < m 1.2.2 Examples

Example.

f (z ) = z

+
n=0

z 2n1 (1)n (2n)!

f has a pole of order 1 at z = 0, since an = 0 n < 1. Example. f (z ) = z 9 z 2 + 3z 1 f has a pole of order 9 at z = 0 2

Example. f (z ) = z 1 + (z 2)10 f has an isolated singularity at z = 0, since it is not dened at 0 but is dened everywhere in the region around 0. To nd the order of the pole at z = 0, make a Laurent expansion about the point z = 0. We would proceed, z 10 2 However, we do not have to compute the series explicitly if we notice that (z 2)10 is dierentiable in a disk centered at 0, { z : | z | < 2 }. Thus coecients such that f can be expanded in a power series containing only positive powers of z . To solve the problem, we only need the existence of these coecients, not their actual value. Using the series expansion for the second term of f , (z 2)10 = (2 z )10 = 210 1

f (z )z 1 + (z 2)10 = z 1 +
n=0

bn z n

Because this expansion is unique, we know that this must be the expansion of the function around the point 0. The only negative power in z with nonzero coecient is z 1 , so the pole at z = 0 is of order 1. Note. The function (z 2)10 could have been any function that is dierentiable in the neighborhood of 0, and the order of the pole at 0 would still be 1. The function z 1 + (z 2)10 has a pole of order 10 at z = 2. 1.2.3 Essential singularities

Denition (Essential singularity). Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . The singularity is said to be essential if there are innitely many n < 0 for which an = 0. 1.2.4 Removable singularities

Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . If an = 0 n < 0, then f (z ) =

n=0

an (z z0 )n

in some neighborhood of z0 , and the singularity is removable. Note. This is not the denition of a removable singularity, but rather a consequence of our previous denition.

2
2.1
2.1.1

Basic theorems
Condition for poles
Statement

Theorem. Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . Then f has a pole of order m N at z0 lim (z z0 )m f (z ) = 0,
z z0

Proof. 2.1.2

Pole limit

Suppose f has a pole of order m. Then by the denition of a pole, in some punctured disk with center z0 , f (z ) = am (z z0 )m +
n>m

an (z z0 )n

Since z = z0 in the punctured disk, z z0 = 0. Multiplying by a nite complex number does not change the convergence of a series, so in the same punctured disk,

(z z0 ) f (z ) = am +
n=m+1

an (z z0 )n+m

Changing the summation variable,

(z z0 ) f (z ) = am +
k=1

akm (z z0 )k

Let z z0 . The power series has no constant term and tends to 0 as z z0 . Since the limit of a constant is just that constant,
z z0

lim (z z0 )m f (z ) = am + 0 C 4

2.1.3

Pole limit Assume (z z0 )m f (z ) CC

z z0

For comparison with the previous proof, we present a brief attempt at a proof that will not work. Expand f (z ) as

f (z ) =
n=

an (z z0 )n

Then

(z z0 ) f (z ) =
n=

an (z z0 )n+m

We would like to show that f (z ) has a pole at z0 . However, this argument fails because we have no guarantee that the sum of innitely many terms with negative powers in z z0 as z z0 will not sum to a nite constant. It is possible to construct bounded functions with innitely many terms in powers of (z z0 )n . Even though each term tends to innity separately, they all conspire to have a nite limit when the summation is taken. Now for the correct proof. Dene g (z ) = (z z0 )m f (z ) z = z0

for z domain of f . g has an isolated singularity at z0 , and g is bounded in some punctured neighborhood of z0 . From the removable singularity theorem, if a function is dierentiable and bounded in a punctured neighborhood around a singularity, then the singularity is removable. By dening the value of g at z = z0 to remove the singularity, it becomes possible to nd > 0 and a dierentiable function g in the domain { z : | z z0 | < } st G(z ) = (z z0 )f (z ) z

To dene a pole, we need a Laurent expansion, so we try to construct one now. The strategy is to get the expansion for G(z ) and then divide to get f (z ).

Since g (z ) is dierentiable in the disk, it can be expanded in a Taylor series. Thus

g (z ) =
k=0

bk (z z0 )k bk (z z0 )km
k=0

in { z : | z z0 | < } 0 < |z z0 | <

f (z ) =

The lowest possible exponent of (z z0 ) occurs at k = 0, and corresponds to k m 0 m = m Thus the series has a nite number of negative powers, which is one of the conditions for the existence of a pole. We have to show that the leading coecient of the series expansion is not 0 to unsure the existence of the pole. However, the coecient is easily obtained from a limit, b0 = g (0) = lim g (z )
z z0

= lim f (z )(z z0 )m = 0
z z0

2.2

Behavior at poles

Corollary. If f has a pole at z0 , then |f (z )| Proof. Factor |f (z )| as follows, |f (z )| = |z z0 |m (|f (z )||z z0 |m ) |z z0 |m +, whereas the second term approaches some C = 0. Thus the product approaches + as z z0 . as z z0

2.3
2.3.1

f takes all values near an essential singularity

Statement

Theorem. If f has an essential singularity at z0 , then far any w C, > 0, and > 0, z st 0 < |z z0 | < st |f (w) w| < Note. This theorem says that if z is close to z0 , then f (z ) is close to w for any w. Corollary. If f has an essential singularity at z0 , then
z z0

lim |f (z )| = +

In fact, this limit does not exist. At an essential singularity, even though there are innitely many terms that are getting higher and higher negative powers, their sum conspires to be nite. 2.3.2 Corollaries

Corollary. Let f have an isolated singularity at z0 . If |f (z )| as z z0 , then f has a pole at z0 . Example. f (z ) = To nd the domain, 1 = n z 1 z= n nZ nZ 1 1 sin z

The singularity at z = 0 is not an isolated singularity, hence not an essential singularity. The point of this example is that there are nasty singularities that are not essential. Essential singularities are the most complicated kind of isolated singularity. 7

2.3.3

Proof

Proof. The proof is by contradiction. Assume for the sake of contradiction w C, > 0, and > 0 such that 0 < |z z0 | < |f (z ) w| Thus f (z ) / N (w). As before, dene g (z ) = 1 f (z ) w

Since f (z ) = w by assumption, we are never dividing by 0. g is dierentiable in the domain where f is dierentiable, { z : 0 | z z0 | < } Taking absolute values, |g (z )| = 1 1 < |f (z ) w|

As always, since the function has a singularity and the function is bounded in the neighborhood of that singularity, the singularity is removable. Thus by dening the value of g at the removable singularity, a dierentiable function h in D = { z : | z z0 | < } such that 1 = h(z ) f (z ) w Factor h(z ) as h(z ) = (z z0 )m H (z ) H (0) = 0, and since H (z ) is dierentiable, and thus continuos, a neighbor1 is dierentiable in this region, and so hood N (0). Therefore G = H f (z ) w = (z z0 )m G(z ) There are two possible cases: 8 where G = 1 H z D

1. If m = 0, then w + H is dierentiable in a disk centered at 0. w + H = f except at the puncture z0 , so f has a removable singularity. The basic assumption was that f had an essential singularity at z0 , so we have a contradiction. 2. If m > 0, then |f (z )| as z z0 , so f has a pole at at z0 , again a contradiction.

Introduction to residues

Our next task will be to apply our theory to calculate particular integrals. The method will all be based on the following observation. Suppose f has an isolated singularity at z0 . Let (an ) be the coecients of the Laurent series expansions. We would like to compute f
Cr

where Cr is the circle of radius r about some point z0 . We could plug in the series expansion of f , but the resulting integrals would be dicult. Instead, dene g (z ) = (z z0 )f (z ) g (z ) also an an isolated singularity at z0 . With this denition, f=
Cr Cr

g (w) dw w z0

Since g has an isolated singularity at z0 , it has a Laurent expansion in some neighborhood about z0 . Since this Taylor expansion exists, we have proven previously that
Cr

g (w) dw = 2 bn (w z0 )n+1

where bn is the coecient of (z z0 )n in the Laurent expansion of g . In this case, we get that the integral is
Cr

g (w) dw = 2a1 w z0

This fact motivates the denition, 9

Denition (Residue). The residue of a function f at a point z0 is a1 , where (an ) are the coecients in the expansion of f about the point z0 .

10