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VOLUME 3, ISSUE 1

ISSN: 2162-2817

Transformational Development: Part 2

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A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR

YALIN XIN, WCIDJ SENIOR EDITOR


TRANSFORMING WORLDVIEWS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

ARNELL MOTZ
HIDDEN THEMES IN TRANSFORMATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTION INTO AFRICA AND THE MAJORITY WORLD

JIM HARRIES
A TRANS-NATIONAL ISLAMIC MOVEMENT: A MODEL FOR TRANSFORMATIONAL DEVELOPMENT?

FRANCIS SMITH
TRANSFORMATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

RODGER SUKH
INTEGRATING CHRISTIAN WORLDVIEWS INTO HIGHER EDUCATION IN AFRICA

JOSEPH A. ILORI
FEMMES, PAUVRET ET INCLUSION DANS LA TRANSFORMATION SOCIOCONOMIQUE AU NORDCAMEROUN DEPUIS 1990

GUSTAVE GAYE
CHRISTIANITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

ZHONGXIN WANG

WINTER 2014
William Carey International Development Journal Published by William Carey International University www.wciujournal.org editor@wciujournal.org

Senior Editor Yalin Xin


Managing Editor

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William Carey International Development Journal Vol 3, Issue 1: Winter 2014

Hidden Themes in Transformational Development Intervention into Africa and the Majority World
Jim harries

Abstract
Sustainable transformative development is that which changes peoples hearts from the inside. Religion determines peoples heartfelt orientations, so is the catalyst for transformative change. Religion is the basis for morality. Means of conversion to Christianity and to Islam are considered and some of these, such as the use of force or financial inducements, are critiqued. As contextual factors can nullify discussion, so prohibitions aimed at undermining racial discrimination can conceal the need for conversion. The effect of these prohibitions can best be overcome through mission practice being engaged using local languages and resources. is that which can change communities for the better that arises from changes coming from the inside. This article considers types of development intervention that can genuinely be said to be transformative in their impact. It considers that such development intervention should seek to bring change that originates from the heart of the people being developed. Because heart change is to do with religion, change to the good implies religious transformation. The enabling of transformative development is therefore here linked to religious conversion and in turn implicitly to discipleship. Evidence from around the world demonstrating how ways of life arise from religious traditions is cited to show ways in which this happens in practice. This article looks at the means used by Muslims and Christians to make converts. Various barriers to conversion are identified. Certain dominant secular agendas in the development scene are examined.

Introduction
The use of economic indices to measure development seems to be inadequate. The need for development to be transformative of peoples ways of life has recently been recognised. I suggest that the most helpful means towards true development

Jim Harries (b. 1964) has a PhD in Theology (University of Birmingham, UK) as well as MAs in biblical interpretation and rural development. Jim lives in rented accomodation in a village in western Kenya, where twelve local orphan children stay with Jim in his home. He relates closely to many local churches, visiting them and sharing with them in the teaching and preaching of Gods word. He does this mostly using the Luo language and sometimes Swahili. He teaches p/t at a local Anglican seminary, is on the adjunct faculty of William Carey International University, and is a Professor of Religion with Global University. He has published three books and over 30 articles in professional journals. Jim chairs the Alliance for Vulnerable Mission (vulnerablemission.org). See also jim-mission.org.uk

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Secular approaches to development seek to ignore the presence or absence of particular religions in a community. Some secular approaches to development ignore racial differences, i.e. differences in peoples behaviour that have arisen from particular cultural upbringings. A thesis here explored is that this kind of a-priori ignoring of the deep and usually heartfelt contents of peoples lives is concealing and hindering potentially important content of transformative development. The article concludes by suggesting that development intervention can bring about transformation instead of dependency if it is practiced according to the principles of vulnerable mission: using local languages and local resources.

development. Indeed it is important to consider sustainability when seeking for transformation. Unless that is there is no requirement for the transformation to last for more than one season or one generation. I assume that we do want the transformation we are looking for to be ongoing.

Change for the Better

Development implies change. The change sought for in development, is a change to the better. This raises questions as to what is better. Unfortunately (or fortunately) this is a more subjective question than some might suppose or wish. For many people, better is my way. Or, better is more money or better is my religion ... and so Transforming Forests on. This question, implicitly a part of many discussions on development, seems in recent years to I would like to begin considering this theme of transformational development by drawing an have been inadequately considered. The world has been surprised by recent developments in North analogy with a forest. I perceive two main options Africa. The Arab Spring was the optimistic title for transforming a forest. One is to approach the forest with a machete, axe, or saw. A careful cutting given by some in the West to a spate of revolutions that kicked off in the Arab world in 2011. Westof trees and their branches could radically change ern observers assumed that Arab people wanted the appearance and layout of a forest. However, there is something about forests that tends to have to be more West-like. Some assumed that changes them revert to their original natural state even if resulting from the revolutions would be for what such be after many years. This kind of transforma- is better in the eyes of the West. Actuality seems to have proved to be a little different. Instead of tion therefore tends to be transitory. becoming more westernised, one country after An alternative means to seek to transform a another in the Middle East has displayed deep forest is to look at its origins in seeds. Even the largest of forest trees originate in seeds. Some of the Islamic roots that have coloured, or should one say determined, its particular approach to developseeds of very large trees may be very small indeed ment. Their notion of what is appropriate devel(Mark 4:30-32). One could for purposes of forestopment for their countries and peoples seems to transformation engage in seed manipulation. Such seed manipulation could, I suggest, be of at least two clash with that held by the West. The source of the answers to the question sorts. One would be to introduce different species 1 of seeds or seedlings into the forest. An alternative of what is a better way of life is much discussed. Some see secularism as the way forward. Counterwould be to genetically manipulate the seed of the primary forest trees themselves. Unlike the hacking ing such a view, Lewis critiques those who would away of foliage mentioned above, a change to the deign to use reason to debunk myths that underlie genetic makeup of trees could be passed on from world religions, on the basis that such myths are generation to generation. Thus a forest could be foundational to the perception of values (1955). permanently transformed. He likens the tendency to seek for value without The above discussion may seem to pertain more myth to men without chests (Lewis 1955:34). to sustainable development than to transformational That is to say, men with intellect (heads) and needs
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Harries: Hidden Themes in Transformational Development Intervention into Africa and the Majority World 17

(stomach) but no heart that links these two together. According to Lewis, the rebellion of new ideologies against the traditions that people have acquired from religious Scriptures, is a rebellion of the branches against the tree (Lewis 1955:56). Treating the world as only scientific results in something of its reality being lost, he adds (82). If we keep explaining things away, says Lewis, then well end up explaining explanation itself away (1955:91). I agree with Lewis and other writers that so called religion is a necessary foundation to human living. By implication, those who say that they do not believe are either denying what they implicitly believe, or running on the momentum of the beliefs of others. The worlds traditions look for the answers in life in something handed down from heaven; the ancestors, or the gods (God). (For Christians more specifically the Kingdom of God [Bryers 1999: 14].) Actually there is no other way. (Divine command theory considers ways in which Gods words are the foundation for ethics.2 My point here is a little different. It is that ethics arise from traditions, which in turn presuppose understandings about God.) Aside from such, life is rather arbitrary. We could almost say that the term divine is interchangeable with the phrase the provider of the vision for development. Any suggestion to the contrary appears to be a selfdeception. There is a lot of self-deception going on in parts of the world that claim to be secular and that avoid overt acknowledgement of their Christian roots. It is as if the principles of secularism are taken as having been handed down complete from heaven, when in actuality they clearly arose from a tradition that was itself formatively influenced by religious beliefs. What is good is too open a question to be answered aside from the questions; who is God, what is he like, and what does he want? Certainly philosophers are beating their heads on this question; argument and disagreement easily become the order of the day in philosophical debate. To get the kind of agreement that moves the masses I suggest that one has to progress to seeing philosophys backing in religion. Within the realm of

religion the $1,000,000 question also continues to be debated: what is the best (godly) way of life? Religion overturns and examines at presuppositional level issues that the harder disciplines including even philosophy must take as givens. I suggest that there are no givens outside of traditions. This applies no matter how hard people try to prove otherwise. They have always failed and will always fail. Nothing comes from nothing. Everything comes from somewhere. The golden rule was discovered in various locations around the world in the period 800 to 400BC, according to Muesse (2007). In each case, it arose from a complex interaction with the traditions of that place. Any un-realising of this truth is fraught and faulty: new developments always arise out of a pre-existing context. Invariably that pre-existing context has been influenced by beliefs and understandings regarding the nature of the divine. Hence the divine always has a part to play in development. I have considered some of the major options in terms of guiding-traditions for human kind elsewhere (Harries 2009). I there considered three main, or actually two main options. The two main options are Christianity and Islam. The third is the demand for human rights. Yet, this third option I consider a part of the first option: Christianity (Harries 2009:152). There are other options. One could mention Confucianism in China, Shinto in Japan, Hinduism in India, etc. I will concentrate on Christianity and Islam the two religions that are in some ways most at loggerheads on the world scene: a scene that is certainly reflected in sub-Saharan Africa which has been my home since 1988.

Christianity, Islam, Conversion, and Development


The implications arising from the choice between Christianity and Islam are not slight. That should be glaringly evident from the way the world is today. Those with a Christian history have formed a community of nations. Those with a strong Islamic tradition have formed alternative groupings. Not that either of the groupings is in-

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ternally uniform; far from it. Both have numerous fissures. Yet despite these numerous if not endless fissures and divisions: the major difference between the Islamic and the Christian is incredibly clear. It seems to extend to every area of life; the economic, the social, the political, the military, gender, childrearing, medical services and of course dare one say it; development. The foundational vision for development varies between these groups. Imposing the view of one group onto another implies, to an extent at least (taking the above analogy of changing a forest), trying to force a tree to grow according to a pattern that is not found in its genetic makeup. It is like trying to wag the dog using its tail. The judge of what is appropriate, in the end, can only be God himself. It would appear that, according to Lewis (1955), denying the above differences anticipates the abolishment of man.3 Transformational development that works through a trees genetic makeup, to continue my analogy, can be said to be equivalent, largely at least, to religious conversion. That is to say to convince a person or a community regarding ones view of development requires the kinds of heart-change that arise through bringing them into the fold of either Christianity or Islam. Over and above these broad categories of course are the details: Sunni or Shia Muslim, Catholic or Protestant Christianity, and so forth. The implications for development continue to be major according to the sub category of a religion. To give a localised example in the case of Islam: the Shia Muslim community in Kisumu represented by Agha Khan appears to be a much wealthier community than does the Sunni community in the same town.4 When it comes to Christianity: Roman Catholic doctrine regarding critical areas of relationship between the divine and the terrestrial differs from the teachings of Orthodox churches (Ware 1979:8-10). Weber argued frequently and effectively that Protestantism had a major impact on the economic development of European communities (Becker and Woessmann 2007:1). Transformational development implies changing people from one state or position to another

state or position. The implicit question that needs to be raised at this stage pertains to the means of effecting that transformation. (In other words, our question relates to how to bring about conversion.) This can be taking someone from one world religion to another, such as from Islam or African tradition (if the latter indeed qualifies to be a world religion, as seems to be in dispute5) to Christianity. Or it can be taking someone from one sect in one of the above to another. Or transformation could be affected genetically by changing the teachings or practices within a given group. The latter could be known as a renewal within a group; such as a revival in Anglicanism. Such renewal typically assumes that the transformation required is a revitalisation of what was already there, rather than a new beginning or new input.6 The means of transformation can be divided into two. First are the methods advocated within the Scriptures or tradition itself. Second is the sense made by living adherents of one tradition or another. (Clearly these two overlap.) For instance in Islam a tradition engrained into holy writ is that of spreading ones belief following military conquest,7 helped by a system of differential taxation.8 While the Christian Scriptures contain much allusion to warfare, Christianity is widely considered not to advocate its own spread through fighting but through testimony, commitment, preaching, and other kinds of persuasion. To the above can be added innovations, typically those that arise as a result of contemporary circumstance and context being different from that which was extant during the time of the production of the holy writings concerned. A change of circumstances and context affect how the text of holy writ is interpreted. For example, Arab intruders into what are now the homelands of Tanzania apparently Islamicised vast numbers of people while engaging in intense slave-trading and other commercial activities rather than through warfare (Pallaver 2012).9 We also find a tradition, extant especially since the l950s, whereby Christians have sought to transform individuals and communities

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Harries: Hidden Themes in Transformational Development Intervention into Africa and the Majority World 19

by encouraging the use of English and offering almost endless financial incentives to those who are ready to follow their directions in so-called development projects. Neither of the above practices were, in detail at least, apparently practiced in ancient times, they have become very popular and acceptable in recent decades or centuries. Both of the above have recently met opposition. Recently travelling in Tanzania, I met people who were vocally opposed to use of the Swahili term ustaarabu (a quality of life fitting an Arab10) to describe what is sophisticated, with-it, advanced, developed, and so on. Nevertheless, it is true that somehow Arab slave traders managed to convince large numbers of people along their trade routes to become Muslims. A show of force, impressing indigenous African people with signs of a superior civilisation, and then giving them a set of religious codes that can empower them, presumably all contributed to the enormous numbers who converted to Islam. Once in Islam it is difficult to get out not least because technically someone who leaves Islam faces the death penalty.11 The model used by many Christians to bring about development is also meeting increasing opposition, although it must be said that opposition is often concealed. The opposition arises from those who suggest that combining evangelism and discipleship with a lot of financial assistance results in people who have a shallow commitment to Christianity but are majorly concerned for the material help on offer. The concealing of the opposition arises from the dependency that has been created; any suggestion that large material donations are unhelpful is not appreciated either by recipients who have become dependent on it or by professionals who make a living out of administering it. The model of development that has been popular since the 1950s is often found, even though motivated by Christian principles, not to focus on heart change. Provision of sometimes massive amounts of outside resources, administered while advocating a foreign (to the non-West) language, has brought a great deal of dependency. Instead of being empowered to do things for themselves

through heart-change; bushes have been pruned but the seeds have remained somewhat unchanged (to use my illustration from in the beginning of this article). In summary we can say that one problem to non-Muslims of the Islamic approach to conversion is that it sometimes operates through force (whether military or economic), giving little room for choice. On their side, methods used by Christians can appear in recent decades to have been rooted more in the success of the Western economic machine than in the teachings of Jesus.12 Frankly, the biblical record of the early spread of Christianity shows little (if any) evidence of people being brought into the faith by force. It also gives little justification for people being brought into faith by military oppression, enslavement or compulsion.

Room for Silence arising from Racial Taboos


I want to contemporise our discussion of transformational development by referring to Marks account of the life of Jesus, Mark 15:5. The surrounding narrative describes events that occurred during Jesus trial. Mark 15:5 tells us that Jesus did not respond even a word .... and Pilate was amazed (translated from the Swahili Bible). I want to ask: why did Jesus not use this opportunity to speak up for himself, and to provide the guidance that would help subsequent generations of Christians to defend their faith? It seems that no answer was appropriate (or it was appropriate to give no answer). Jesus response to his being questioned raises, to me, questions on whether there are other situations in which really nothing can be said, and regarding the consequences of such. An example that immediately comes to mind is the classic question of when did you stop beating your wife? There is no answer to that question (in most cases) except to contradict the thrust of the question. Silence could be a reasonable option for someone presented with such a question. A context can restrict the freedom of discussion. If Jesus was faced with

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such a predicament at what was perhaps one of the tensest moments in his ministry career could it not also be that such issues have concealed themselves in the debate about transformational development today? Could it be that a-priori conditions put on contemporary debates have pushed Christian mission praxis into its current dependencygenerating position? The question; how then should we go about encouraging transformational development? in contemporary Africa, may have no answer, or may be best answered by silence (as Jesus response to Pilate in Mark 15:5). This might be because the answer to this question is difficult to give in todays world. In response to this question, the best one can often do is to say nothing; because an a-priori something is limiting the options. The a-priori thing or at least an a-priori thing that may be limiting the answer to this question is the dominant approach to issues of race that is adopted in the West. Another somewhat related is the global position of Islam. I will deal briefly with the latter, then concentrate on the former. Islam is an elephant in the room of many discussions on development. It is enormous having 1.6 billion adherents around the world13 yet its fundamental tenets deny a great deal of what the West values (i.e. considers to be appropriate to bring about transformational development). Official voices are often silent on Islam. It is too big to know what to do with. Islam does not like to be the object of critical research.14 It can be frightening Muslims have at times been known to kill those who oppose them.

in the 19th century shares Young (1995:140).15 Near the end of the 19th century, this solution ran out of steam. The idea that some races were inherently inferior became anathema. In order to counter the negative impacts of the previous racist era and supposedly to set the world on a course of global equality, laws instigated in the West intended to prohibit racially-based discrimination. Most of my readers will probably agree that one should not engage in racial discrimination (Stott 1984:208). In terms of the dominant powerful West this means that one should assume non-western races to be essentially equal in inherent ability to Western races (e.g. Anglo-Saxons). It is not so often realised that this means in turn that it is wrong to take measures, or even to allow or encourage measures, that aim to address cultural features of life in the non-West that are not found in the West. Let us take education for example: Because no race is inferior, but all races of people are essentially equal, it follows that the same model of education must work everywhere. To suggest that anything but a Western model of education is appropriate for diverse people around the world can be to be considered racist. Instead and as a result; peculiarities of any non-western peoples particular cultures have to be ignored by their educational systems. Amongst the cultural features that must not be challenged is the state of peoples hearts, as a result of which efforts at changing peoples hearts are seen as superfluous and unhelpful. Whenever a model of transformational development is oriented to changing people on the inside (i.e. in their hearts) so that they come to resemble those who are usually the model for development, e.g. Westerners, it is automatically discredited. As a result, dominant approaches to transformational development are seen as requiring changing of peoples environment. It could be noted that this approach to transforming human society also reflects the ongoing impact of Marxist materialistic teaching.

I want to concentrate on the issue of race, as I have done also elsewhere (Harries 2011). The growing materialistic success of the West has put a prosperity-gap between it and much of the rest of the world. At one time, when Westerners were considered to have achieved materialistic success through extraordinary feats of intelligence, non-Westerners were considered to be less than human: The idea of This latter orientation of development inrace as the determining factor in cultural difference very quickly became a part of a common knowledge tervention has many serious consequences. One of these is the creation of so-called dependency:
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Harries: Hidden Themes in Transformational Development Intervention into Africa and the Majority World 21

People of a certain culture are given a context (as far as possible) in which people of the worlds assumed default culture (Westerners) would thrive. This provision of an artificial context happens essentially through foreign funding. Because these people are not Westerners, they may not know how to engage in that context in the productive way use in the West. As a result, they may not thrive. The world must remain blind to the reason for their not-thriving whenever that reason is linked to peoples hearts and cultural orientation, because to recognise such reason would be to risk being considered racist. Whole realms of what it is to be human are as a result ignored by those promoting development, as well as by academics and experts as a whole. As a result, unless one is going to follow a traditional Marxist model, the only legitimate response when asked how does one go about doing transformational development may well be silence.

advocacy for treating non-westerners in the West as if they are Westerners is extended globally, then there is pressure to consider non-Westerners to be equal (i.e. the same as) Westerners even when still living in their communities in the non-West. A critical question with regard to the issue of racism is; which race is going to be taken as giving the standard of normality to which every other race should conform? In America, it is presumably the notional original American; the standard American citizen. On this basis, norms in other countries of the world should be based on the cultures and behaviours of people there, for example the standard citizen of India should provide norms for the people of India. In practice this is not done. Instead, as a result of the spread of American hegemony through their media and so on, the American norm is taken as if it is a universal norm. As a result, people can be rendered strangers in their own back yard; the normal Indian, African etc. can be expected to behave like an American. When peoples behaviour and cultures are not expected to have significantly different impacts on their life-styles or levels of prosperity, then differences in lifestyle including differences in levels of economic prosperity have to be credited to some other factors. Those other factors are the environment. Hence Jeffrey Sachs is famously quoted to have said: the barriers to development in Africa are not in the mind, but in the soils, the mosquitos, the vast distances over difficult terrain, the unsteady rainfall, (2005). Hence development projects tend to orient themselves to changing peoples environments and not to changing peoples hearts! To reiterate; if the same anti-racist measures applied in the West were to be applied to every country in the world, then every country and people would be taking outsiders (people of cultures different from their own) as essentially equal to themselves. Then the norm to which one would need to conform so as not to be anomalous would be that of the particular country concerned. For example, people going to live in Africa who

Christianity Silenced
My reader may by this point have realised that the missing arena of meaning that has been rendered invisible by todays dominant scholarship and medias attention to issues of race, is the very arena that has been the forte of Christian mission. Hence the Western world (usually Christians included) that is grittily determined to stick to its guns in the race issues increasingly fails to see the need for heart-change arising from the spreading of the Christian faith within its shores, never mind beyond its shores. Any effort at bringing about heart-change of people beyond the Western homelands can be considered anomalous if not abominable. Hence transformational development, which in our sense ought to be known as Christianisation, can be reduced to silence. The difficulty with the anti-racist measures in the West has in a sense been their universalisation. Such universalisation has been aided by globalisation. The norms to which non-western visitors (e.g. people of African origin) in the West are assumed to conform to are Western norms. When

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want to conform to African racial norms should be polygynous, practice female circumcision, give great respect to their ancestors, and so on. Instead, in todays globalised community, Western countries norms have become the norms for everybody. As a result one gets the situation in which in non-Western societies, through borrowing educational systems, languages, media and so on from the West, consider that their own people should conform to norms that are foreign to them! The above discussion raises many questions on how this alluded-to global dilemma is to be resolved. My main aim in this short article has been to point to it rather than to show how to resolve it. I can give just a few pointers towards its solution. Because genuine efforts at bringing about heart-change through bringing people to Christ are declared inappropriate (in effect; found to be racist) when engaged in view of the Western world, such efforts should be practiced using non-Western languages.16 Because efforts at bringing about transformation that are funded by foreign money tend to the creation of dependency that in turn restricts the freedom of those being developed to speak out, efforts at bringing about transformational development should be engaged on the back of local resources. Hence I have in this article brought further justification for what we are calling vulnerable mission (vulnerablemission. org). The Alliance for Vulnerable Mission proposes that some Western missionaries (and more than at present) in places like Africa should do at least a part of their ministries using locally available languages and resources. Only in this way can transformational development begin to be of the genetic type, referring back to our example of the transformation of a forest mentioned above.

of sustainable transformative development. Such change is transformative in so far as it begins with peoples hearts. Various practices, often instigated in the name of secularism, such as attempts at ignoring differences between Christianity and Islam and racially related cultural differences, are shown to be curtailing true transformative development. A need for interventionary activity using indigenous languages and resources is given as the way forward in immediately overcoming problems identified above.

Endnotes
1. Assuming, like Jayakaran, that poverty is to do with an inability to grow (cited in Myers 1999:80). 2. http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/christianethics/divine-command-theory/ 3. In pointing out the consequentiality of the role of religious texts, Lewis is implying that their being ignored equates to ignoring foundational prerequisites for the continuation of healthy human community. 4. Observation made on a field trip with students of Kima International School of Theology, 2002. 5. Hexham, Irving, 1991. African Religions and the Nature of Religious Studies. In: Klaus K. Klostermaier and Larry W. Hurtado, Religious Studies: Issues, Prospects and Proposals, Atlanta, Scholars Press, 1991, pp 361379 http://people.ucalgary.ca/~nurelweb/papers/irving/ manitoba.html 6. Many world religions consider their original manifestation to be the ideal to which they still aspire. 7. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/earlyrise_1.shtml 8. http://www.ias.edu/about/publications/ias-letter/ articles/2011-summer/islam-michalopoulos 9. Pallaver explains that the actual process by which mass conversions into Islam occurred in the then slavetrading regions of Tanzania is not clearly know. 10. My translation. 11. http://www.thereligionofpeace.com/Quran/012apostasy.htm Many Muslims are very much in favour of that death penalty continuing today: http:// www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/ wp/2013/05/01/64-percent-of-muslims-in-egypt-andpakistan-support-the-death-penalty-for-leaving-islam/ 12. Hence we get the problem of rice-Christians, as

Conclusion
Advocates of transformational development make assumptions over what is good for human communities. These assumptions are rooted in religious beliefs. This article finds that advocating for religious conversion is the ideal prototype

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illustrated by Johnson (2008). 13. http://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2013/06/07/worlds-muslim-population-morewidespread-than-you-might-think/ 14. http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_351_400/ does_islam_permit_critical_think.htm 15. See also Losurdo (2011). 16. There are many other advantages in the use of indigenous languages that I am not mentioning here but that are important.

Pallaver, Karin, 2012, Muslim communities, Longdistance Trade and Wage Labour along the central caravan road Tanzania, 19th century, Storicamente, 8 (2012), art. 20, DOI 10.1473/stor426, http://www. storicamente.org/07_dossier/religion_capitalism_africa/pallaver_tanzania.htm (accessed September 5, 2013) Lewis, C.S. 1955, The Abolition of Man: how education develops mans sense of morality. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company. Losurdo, Domenico, 2011. Liberalism: a counter history. London: Verso. Translated by Gregory Elliot. Muesse, Mark W., 2007, Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the Worlds Religions, Part 1 & Part 2 (The Great Courses). Audiobook. Chantilly: The Teaching Company. Myers, Bryant L., 1999, Walking with the Poor: principles and practices of transformational development. New York: Orbis Books. Sachs, Jeffrey, 2005, The End of the World as We Know It: the fight against extreme poverty can be won, but only if Bush recognizes that military might alone wont secure the world. Guardian. Tuesday April 5th 2005, http://WWW.commondreams.org/ views05/0405-26.htm (accessed 16.05.05). Stott, John W., 1984, Decisive Issues Facing Christians Today. Michigan: Fleming H. Revell. Ware, Bishop Kallistos, 1995, The Orthodox Way. (revised edition) New York: St. Vladmirs Seminary Press. Young, Robert, C., 1995, Colonial Desire: hybridity in theory, culture and race. London: Routledge.

Bibliography
Becker, Sascha O., and Woessmann, Ludger, 2007, Was Weber Wrong? A human capital theory of Protestant economic history. IZA (Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit), DP No. 2886 http://ftp.iza. org/dp2886.pdf (accessed November 5, 2013) Geisler, Norman L., 1971, Ethics, Alternatives and Issues. Michigan: Zondervan Co-operation. Harries, Jim, 2009, International Development Without Money? Some Theological Reflections. 175-187 In: Snodderly, Beth, (ed.) The Goal of International Development: Gods Will on Earth as It Is in Heaven. Pasadena: WCIU Press. Harries, Jim, 2011, Racism in Reverse: the impact of the West on racism in Africa. 163-184 In: Harries, Jim, 2011. Vulnerable Mission; insights into Christian Mission to Africa from a position of vulnerability. Pasadena: William Carey Library. Johnson, Rick, 2008, Rice Christians and Rice Missions. Mission Frontiers. November December 2008 http://www.missionfrontiers.org/issue/article/ rice-missions-and-rice-christians (accessed August 5, 2013).

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