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Contents
Articles
Saturation (magnetic) Intermodulation Volterra series 1 2 7

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 11 12

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Saturation (magnetic)

Saturation (magnetic)
Seen in some magnetic materials, saturation is the state reached when an increase in applied external magnetic field H cannot increase the magnetization of the material further, so the total magnetic flux density B levels off. It is a characteristic particularly of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.

Description
Saturation is most clearly seen in the magnetization curve (also called BH curve or hysteresis curve) of a substance, as a bending to the right of the curve (see graph at right). As the H field increases, the B field approaches a maximum value asymptotically, the saturation level for the substance. Technically, above saturation, the B field continues increasing, but at the paramagnetic rate, which is 3 orders of magnitude smaller than the ferromagnetic rate seen below saturation. The relation between the magnetizing field H and the magnetic field B can also be expressed as the magnetic permeability: or the relative permeability , where is the vacuum

Magnetization curves of 9 ferromagnetic materials, showing saturation. 1.Sheet steel, 2.Silicon steel, 3.Cast steel, 4.Tungsten steel, 5.Magnet steel, 6.Cast iron, 7.Nickel, 8.Cobalt, 9.Magnetite

permeability. The permeability of ferromagnetic materials is not constant, but depends on H. In saturable materials the relative permeability increases with H to a maximum, then as it approaches saturation inverts and decreases toward one. Different materials have different saturation levels. For example, high permeability iron alloys used in transformers reach magnetic saturation at 1.6 - 2.2 teslas (T), whereas ferrites saturate at 0.2 - 0.5 T. Some amorphous alloys saturate at 1.2-1.3 T. Mu metal saturates at around 0.8 T.

Explanation
Ferromagnetic materials (like iron) are composed of microscopic regions called magnetic domains, that act like tiny permanent magnets that can change their direction of magnetization. Before an external magnetic field is applied to the material, the domains are oriented in random directions. Their tiny magnetic fields are oriented in random directions and cancel each other out, so the material has no significant magnetic field. When an external magnetizing field H is applied to the material, it penetrates the material and aligns the domains, causing Due to saturation, the magnetic permeability f of a ferromagnetic substance reaches a maximum their tiny magnetic fields to turn and align parallel to the external field, and then declines adding together to create a large magnetic field B which extends out from the material. This is called magnetization. The stronger the external magnetic field H, the more the domains align yielding a higher magnetic flux density B. Saturation occurs when practically all the domains are lined up, so further increases in H can't increase B beyond the increment that would be caused in a nonmagnetic material, in other words, cannot cause further alignment of the domains.

Saturation (magnetic)

Effects and uses

Saturation limits the maximum magnetic fields achievable in ferromagnetic-core electromagnets and transformers to around 2 T, which puts a limit on the minimum size of their cores. This is one reason why high power motors, generators, and utility transformers are physically large; because they must have large magnetic cores. In electronic circuits, transformers and inductors with ferromagnetic cores operate nonlinearly when the current through them is large enough to drive their core materials into saturation. This means that their inductance and other properties vary with changes in drive current. In linear circuits this is usually considered an unwanted departure from ideal behavior. When AC signals are applied, this nonlinearity can cause the generation of harmonics and intermodulation distortion. To prevent this, the level of signals applied to iron core inductors must be limited so they don't saturate. To lower its effects, an air gap is created in some kinds of transformer cores. The saturation current, the current through the winding required to saturate the magnetic core, is given by manufacturers in the specifications for many inductors and transformers. On the other hand, saturation is exploited in some electronic devices. Saturation is employed to limit current in saturable-core transformers, used in arc welding, and ferroresonant transformers which serve as voltage regulators. When the primary current exceeds a certain value, the core is pushed into its saturation region, limiting further increases in secondary current. In a more sophisticated application, saturable core inductors and magnetic amplifiers use a DC current through a separate winding to control an inductor's impedance. Varying the current in the control winding moves the operating point up and down in the saturation curve, controlling the AC current through the inductor. These are used in variable fluorescent light ballasts, and power control systems.

References

Intermodulation
Intermodulation or intermodulation distortion (IMD) is the amplitude modulation of signals containing two or more different frequencies in a system with nonlinearities. The intermodulation between each frequency component will form additional signals at frequencies that are not just at harmonic frequencies (integer multiples) of either, but also at the sum and difference frequencies of the original frequencies and at multiples of those sum and difference frequencies. Intermodulation is caused by non-linear behaviour of the signal processing being used. The theoretical outcome of these non-linearities can be calculated by generating a Volterra series of the characteristic, while the usual approximation of those non-linearities is obtained by generating a Taylor series.

A frequency spectrum plot showing intermodulation between two injected signals at 270 and 275 MHz (the large spikes). Visible intermodulation products are seen as small spurs at 280 MHz and 265 MHz.

Intermodulation is rarely desirable in radio or audio processing, as it creates unwanted spurious emissions, often in the form of sidebands. For radio transmissions this increases the occupied bandwidth, leading to adjacent channel

Intermodulation interference, which can reduce audio clarity or increase spectrum usage. It should not be confused with harmonic distortion (which has common musical applications), nor with intentional modulation (such as a frequency mixer in superheterodyne receivers) where signals to be modulated are presented to an intentional nonlinear element (multiplied) (see non-linear mixers such as mixer diodes and even single-transistor oscillator-mixer circuits). In audio, the intermodulation products are nonharmonically related to the input frequencies and therefore "off-key" with respect to the common Western musical scale.

Causes of intermodulation
A linear system cannot produce intermodulation. If the input of a linear time-invariant system is a signal of a single frequency, then the output is a signal of the same frequency; only the amplitude and phase can differ from the input signal. However, non-linear systems generate harmonics, meaning that if the input of a non-linear system is a signal of a single frequency, then the output is a signal which includes a number of integer multiples of the input frequency; (i.e. some of ). Intermodulation occurs when the input to a non-linear system is composed of two or more frequencies. Consider an input signal that contains three frequency components at , , and ; which may be expressed as

where the

and

are the amplitudes and phases of the three components, respectively. , by passing our input through a non-linear function:

We obtain our output signal,

will contain the three frequencies of the input signal,

, and

(which are known as the fundamental

frequencies), as well as a number of linear combinations of the fundamental frequencies, each of the form where , , and are arbitrary integers which can assume positive or negative values. These are the

intermodulation products (or IMPs). In general, each of these frequency components will have a different amplitude and phase, which depends on the specific non-linear function being used, and also on the amplitudes and phases of the original input components. More generally, given an input signal containing an arbitrary number of frequency components

, the output signal will contain a number of frequency components, each of which may be described by where the coefficients are arbitrary integer values.

Intermodulation

Intermodulation order
The order of a given intermodulation product is the sum of the absolute values of the coefficients,

For example, in our original example above, third-order intermodulation products (IMPs) occur where :

In many radio and audio applications, odd-order IMPs are of most interest, as they fall within the vicinity of the original frequency components, and may therefore interfere with the desired behaviour.

Distribution of third-order intermodulations: in blue the position of the fundamental carriers, in red the position of dominant IMPs, in green the position of specific IMPs.

Passive Intermodulation (PIM)

As explained in a previous section, intermodulation can only occur in non-linear systems. Non-linear systems are generally composed of active components, meaning that the components must be biased with an external power source which is not the input signal (i.e. the active components must be "turned on"). Passive intermodulation (PIM), however, occurs in passive devices (which may include cables, antennas etc.) that are subjected to two or more high power tones. The PIM product is the result of the two (or more) high power tones mixing at device nonlinearities such as junctions of dissimilar metals, metal-oxide junctions and even loose connectors. The higher the signal amplitudes, the more pronounced the effect of the nonlinearities, and the more prominent the intermodulation that occurs - even though upon initial inspection, the system would appear to be linear and unable to generate intermodulation.

Sources of PIM
Ferromagnetic materials are the most common materials to avoid and include ferrites, nickel, (including nickel plating) and steels (including some stainless steels.) These materials exhibit hysteresis when exposed to reversing magnetic fields resulting in PIM generation. PIM can also be generated in components with manufacturing or workmanship defects, such as cold or cracked solder joints or poorly made mechanical contacts. If these defects are exposed to high RF currents, PIM can be generated. As a result, RF equipment manufacturers perform factory PIM tests on components, to eliminate PIM caused by these design and manufacturing defects. In the field, PIM can be caused by components that were damaged in transit to the cell site, installation workmanship issues and by external PIM sources. Some of these include: Contaminated surfaces or contacts due to dirt, dust, moisture or oxidation. Loose mechanical junctions due to inadequate torque, poor alignment or poorly prepared contact surfaces. Loose mechanical junctions caused during transportation, shock or vibration. Metal flakes or shavings inside RF connections.

Intermodulation Inconsistent metal-to-metal contact between RF connector surfaces caused by any of the following: Trapped dielectric materials (adhesives, foam, etc.), cracks or distortions at the end of the outer conductor of coaxial cables, often caused by overtightening the back nut during installation, solid inner conductors distorted in the preparation process, hollow inner conductors excessively enlarged or made oval during the preparation process. PIM can also occur in connectors, or when conductors made of two galvanically unmatched metals come in contact with each other. Nearby metallic objects in the direct beam and side lobes of the transmit antenna including rusty bolts, roof flashing, vent pipes, guy wires, etc.

PIM Testing
IEC 62037 is the international standard for PIM testing and gives specific details as to PIM measurement setups. The standard specifies the use of two +43 dBm (20W) tones for the test signals for PIM testing. This power level has been used by RF equipment manufacturers for more than a decade to establish PASS / FAIL specifications for RF components.

Intermodulation in electronic circuits

Intermodulation is caused by nonlinearity or parameter limitations in an amplifier system. This nonlinearity can be characterized in many ways, including the slew rate, crossover distortion, reduced transistor current gain, or saturation of collector-emitter junctions near clipping. Slew-induced distortion (SID) can produce intermodulation distortion (IMD) when the first signal is slewing (changing voltage) at the limit of the amplifier's power bandwidth product. This induces an effective reduction in gain, partially amplitude-modulating the second signal. If SID only occurs for a portion of the signal, it is called "transient" intermodulation distortion.[1] This usually occurs due to soft clipping of the signal peaks.[2]

Intermodulation in audio applications

Any system that produces harmonic distortion also produces intermodulation distortion. The difference between the two types of distortion is the signal used to test it, not the device. Only sine waves produce harmonic distortion; music signals always produce intermodulation. Audio engineers usually strive to avoid intermodulation, as for anything other than extremely simple input waveforms, it introduces frequency components that are not harmonically related, which tends to sound unmusical and unpleasant. However, certain audio effects rely on amplitude modulation; these include tremolo and ring modulation. One way to generate such effects is through deliberate intermodulation in a non-linear device, but may also be achieved without intermodulation by an analog multiplier.Wikipedia:Disputed statement Transient intermodulation distortion, or TIM, occurs in amplifiers that employ negative feedback when signal delays make the amplifier incapable of correcting distortion when exposed to fast, transient signals. Harmonic distortion occurs when non-linearity (in an amplifier or loudspeaker, for instance) only creates new frequencies that are harmonically related to the original sine wave signal. Intermodulation distortion occurs when a different typeWikipedia:Disputed statement of non-linearity can create new frequencies that are not harmonically related to the original signal. All audio devices give rise to distortion to some extent; harmonic distortion and intermodulation distortion tests highlight different aspects of imperfections, and one type of distortion may be inaudibly low while the other is significantly high for some equipment under certain conditions.Wikipedia:Disputed statement[citation needed] In analog recording, wow and flutter are forms of intermodulation distortion caused by speed variations in the medium (usually tape). When the flutter rate is above a certain point, typically about 20Hz, the modulation products impressed into the musical signal no longer present as an audibly obvious flutter, yet continue to interfere with the

Intermodulation signal as extraneous frequency modulation, and the resulting sideband products manifest as distortion. This distortion results in a thicker, grainier texture due to the excess non-musical sum and difference components riding above and below the harmonic content of the material.

Measurement
Intermodulation distortion in audio is usually specified as the Root Mean Square (RMS) value of the various sum-and-difference signals as a percentage of the original signal's RMS voltage, although it may be specified in terms of individual component strengths, in decibels, as is common with RF work. Audio IMD standard tests include SMPTE standard RP120-1994 where two signals (at 60Hz and 7kHz, with 4:1 amplitude ratios) are used for the test; many other standards (such as DIN, CCIF) use other frequencies and amplitude ratios. Opinion varies over the ideal ratio of test frequencies (e.g. 3:4,[3] or almost -but not exactly - 3:1 for example). After feeding the equipment under test with low distortion input sinewaves, the output distortion can be measured by using an electronic filter to remove the original frequencies, or spectral analysis may be made using Fourier Transformations in software or a dedicated spectrum analyser, or when determining intermodulation effects in communications equipment, may be made using the receiver under test itself. Using a modern network analyzer with two internal RF sources and sensitive RF detectors simplifies the measurement setup and also provides a sensitivity level comparable to spectrum analyzers. Furthermore, a calibrated VNA setup also removes mismatch errors from measurements which otherwise would be present in spectrum analyzer measurements. Meanwhile error-corrected IM measurement systems are available. These system support frequency converting vector-measurements of S-parameters.[4] The user can locate IM-sources and perform a vector or time-domain fitting or modelling of the IM-signals and components.

External links
Lloyd Butler (1997). "Intermodulation Performance and Measurement of Intermodulation Components" [5]. VK5BR. "Amateur Radio," August 1997. Retrieved 30 January 2012.

References
[1] Rane Pro Audio Reference for IM (http:/ / www. rane. com/ par-i. html#IM) [2] http:/ / waltjung. org/ PDFs/ SID_TIM_TAA77_P1. pdf Slewing Induced Distortion in Audio Amplifiers, Part 1 by Walter Jung in The Audio Amateur Issue 1/1977 [3] http:/ / www. leonaudio. com. au/ 3-4. ratio. distortion. measurement. pdf Graeme John Cohen: 3-4 Ratio; A method of measuring distortion products [4] Thalayasingam, K. and Heuermann, H., Novel Vector Non-Linear Measurement System for Intermodulation Measurements, European Microwave Conference, Rom, Italy, IEEE, 2009, Available online (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ search/ searchresult. jsp?newsearch=true& queryText=thalayasingam& x=32& y=12=no) [5] http:/ / users. tpg. com. au/ ldbutler/ Intermodulation. htm

This article incorporatespublic domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C" (http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm) (in support of MIL-STD-188).

Volterra series

Volterra series
The Volterra series is a model for non-linear behavior similar to the Taylor series. It differs from the Taylor series in its ability to capture 'memory' effects. The Taylor series can be used to approximate the response of a nonlinear system to a given input if the output of this system depends strictly on the input at that particular time. In the Volterra series the output of the nonlinear system depends on the input to the system at all other times. This provides the ability to capture the 'memory' effect of devices such as capacitors and inductors. It has been applied in the fields of medicine (biomedical engineering) and biology, especially neuroscience. It is also used in electrical engineering to model intermodulation distortion in many devices including power amplifiers and frequency mixers. Its main advantage lies in its generality: it can represent a wide range of systems. It is therefore sometimes referred to as a non-parametric model. In mathematics, a Volterra series denotes a functional expansion of a dynamic, nonlinear, time-invariant functional. Volterra series are frequently used in system identification. The Volterra series, which is used to prove the Volterra theorem, is a series of infinite sum of multidimensional convolutional integrals.

History
Volterra series is a modernized version of the theory of analytic functionals due to the Italian mathematician Vito Volterra in work dating from 1887.[1] Norbert Wiener became interested in this theory in the 1920s from contact with Volterra's student Paul Lvy. He applied his theory of the Brownian motion to the integration of Volterra analytic functionals. The use of Volterra series for system analysis originated from a restricted 1942 wartime report[2] of Wiener, then professor of mathematics at MIT. It used the series to make an approximate analysis of the effect of radar noise in a nonlinear receiver circuit. The report became public after the war.[3] As a general method of analysis of nonlinear systems, Volterra series came into use after about 1957 as the result of a series of reports, at first privately circulated, from MIT and elsewhere.[4] The name Volterra series came into use a few years later.

Mathematical theory
The theory of Volterra series can be viewed from two different perspectives: either one considers an operator mapping between two real (or complex) function spaces or a functional mapping from a real (or complex) function space into the real (or complex) numbers. The latter, functional perspective is in more frequent use, due to the assumed time-invariance of the system.

Continuous time
A continuous time-invariant system with x(t) as input and y(t) as output can be expanded in Volterra series as:

where ,

and

are called n-th order Volterra kernel which can be regarded as a higher-order impulse

response of the system. If N is finite, the series operator is said truncated. If a,b and N are finite, the series operator is called doubly-finite Volterra series.

Volterra series Sometimes the n-th order term is divided by n!, a convention which is convenient when considering the combination of Volterra systems by placing one after the other ('cascading'). The causality condition: Since in any physically realizable system the output can only depend on previous values of the input, the kernels will be zero if any of the variables are negative. The integrals may then be written over the half range from zero to infinity. So if the operator is causal, . Frchet's approximation theorem: The use of the Volterra series to represent a time-invariant functional relation is often justified by appealing to a theorem due to Frchet. This theorem states that such a system can be approximated uniformly and to an arbitrary degree of precision by a sufficiently high finite order Volterra series. The input set over which this approximation holds must be compact. This is usually taken to be the set of equicontinuous, uniformly bounded functions which is compact by the ArzelAscoli theorem. In many physical situations this assumption about the input set is a reasonable one. The theorem however gives no indication as to how many terms are needed for a good approximation which is the important question in applications.

Discrete time

where ,

and are called Volterra kernels.

If P is finite, the series operator is said truncated. If a,b and P are finite the series operator is called doubly-finite Volterra series. If the operator is causal. as symmetrical. In fact, for the . can write

We can always consider, without loss of the generality, the kernel

commutativity of the multiplication it is always possible to symmetrize it without changing So for a causal system with symmetrical kernels we

Methods to estimate the kernel coefficients

Estimating the Volterra coefficients individually is complicated since the basis functionals of the Volterra series are correlated. This leads to the problem of simultaneously solving a set of integral-equations for the coefficients. Hence, estimation of Volterra coefficients is generally performed by estimating the coefficients of an orthogonalized series, e.g. the Wiener series, and then recomputing the coefficients of the original Volterra series. The Volterra series main appeal over the orthogonalized series lies in its intuitive, canonical structure, i.e. all interactions of the input have one fixed degree. The orthogonalized basis functionals will generally be quite complicated. An important aspect, with respect to which the following methods differ is whether the orthogonalization of the basis functionals is to be performed over the idealized specification of the input signal (e.g. gaussian, white noise) or over the actual realization of the input (i.e. the pseudo-random, bounded, almost-white version of gaussian white noise, or any other stimulus). The latter methods, despite their lack of mathematical elegance, have been shown to be more flexible (as arbitrary inputs can be easily accommodated) and precise (due to the effect that the idealized version of the input signal is not always realizable).

Volterra series

Crosscorrelation method
This method, developed by Lee & Schetzen, orthogonalizes with respect to the actual mathematical description of the signal, i.e. the projection onto the new basis functionals is based on the knowledge of the moments of the random signal. To allow identification orthogonalization, Volterra series must be rearranged in terms of orthogonal non-homogeneous G operators (Wiener series):

The G operators can be defined by the following

whenever

is arbitrary omogeneous Volterra, x(n) is a Stationary white noise with zero mean and variance

A. Recalling that every Volterra functional is orthogonal to all Wiener functional of greater order, and considering the following Volterra functional

we can write

If x is SWN,

and by letting

, we have:

So if we exclude the diagonal elements,

, it is

If we want to consider the diagonal points, the solution proposed by Lee and Schetzen is:

Efficient formulas and references for diagonal kernel point estimation can be found in [5] and .[6]

Exact orthogonal algorithm

This method and its more efficient version (Fast Orthogonal Algorithm) were invented by Korenberg. In this method the orthogonalization is performed empirically over the actual input. It has been shown to perform more precisely than the Crosscorrelation method. Another advantage is that arbitrary inputs can be used for the orthogonalization and that fewer data-points suffice to reach a desired level of accuracy. Also, estimation can be performed incrementally until some criterion is fulfilled.

Volterra series

10

Linear regression
Linear regression is a standard tool from linear analysis. Hence, one of its main advantages is the widespread existence of standard tools for solving linear regressions efficiently. It has some educational value, since it highlights the basic property of Volterra series: linear combination of non-linear basis-functionals. For estimation the order of the original should be known, since the volterra basis-functionals are not orthogonal and estimation can thus not be performed incrementally.

Kernel method
This method was invented by Franz & Schlkopf and is based on statistical learning theory. Consequently, this approach is also based on minimizing the empirical error (often called empirical risk minimization). Franz and Schlkopf proposed that the kernel method could essentially replace the Volterra series representation, although noting that the latter is more intuitive.

Differential sampling
This method was developed by van Hemmen and coworkers and utilizes Dirac delta functions to sample the Volterra coefficients.

References
[1] Vito Volterra. Theory of Functionals and of Integrals and Integro-Differential Equations. New York: Dover Publications, 1959. [2] Wiener N: Response of a nonlinear device to noise. Radiation Lab MIT 1942, restricted. report V-16, no 129 (112 pp). Declassified Jul 1946, Published as rep. no. PB-1-58087, U.S. Dept. Commerce. URL: http:/ / www. dtic. mil/ dtic/ tr/ fulltext/ u2/ a800212. pdf [3] Ikehara S: A method of Wiener in a nonlinear circuit. MIT Dec 10 1951, tech. rep. no 217, Res. Lab. Electron. [4] Early MIT reports by Brilliant, Zames, George, Hause, Chesler can be found on dspace.mit.edu. [5] M. Pirani, S. Orcioni, and C. Turchetti, ``Diagonal kernel point estimation of n-th order discrete Volterra-Wiener systems,EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing, vol. 2004, no. 12, pp. 1807--1816, Sept. 2004. [6] S. Orcioni, M. Pirani, and C. Turchetti, ``Advances in Lee-Schetzen method for Volterra filter identification,Multidimensional Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 265--284, 2005.

Further reading
Barrett J.F: Bibliography of Volterra series, Hermite functional expansions, and related subjects. Dept. Electr. Engrg, Univ.Tech. Eindhoven, NL 1977, T-H report 77-E-71. (Chronological listing of early papers to 1977) URL: http://alexandria.tue.nl/extra1/erap/publichtml/7704263.pdf Bussgang, J.J.; Ehrman, L.; Graham, J.W: Analysis of nonlinear systems with multiple inputs, Proc. IEEE, vol.62, no.8, pp.10881119, Aug. 1974 Giannakis G.B & Serpendin E: A bibliography on nonlinear system identification. Signal Processing, 81 2001 533580. (Alphabetic listing to 2001) www.elsevier.nl/locate/sigpro Korenberg M.J. Hunter I.W: The Identification of Nonlinear Biological Systems: Volterra Kernel Approaches, Annals Biomedical Engineering (1996), Volume 24, Number 2. Kuo Y L: Frequency-domain analysis of weakly nonlinear networks, IEEE Trans. Circuits & Systems, vol.CS-11(4) Aug 1977; vol.CS-11(5) Oct 1977 26. Rugh W J: Nonlinear System Theory: The VolterraWiener Approach. Baltimore 1981 (Johns Hopkins Univ Press) Many online versions, e.g. www.ece.jhu.edu/~rugh/volterra/book.pdf Schetzen M: The Volterra and Wiener Theories of Nonlinear Systems, New York: Wiley, 1980.

Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Saturation (magnetic) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=593004054 Contributors: A13ean, ARTE, Avoided, BZegarski, BenFrantzDale, Chetvorno, Dcshank, Francisco Quiumento, Gene Nygaard, JPFen, Jim.henderson, KoenDelaere, Mnmngb, Red Act, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, Rtdrury, Shaddack, StAnselm, Steve Quinn, Teaktl17, The Anome, TomyDuby, Tone, UAwiki, Zhangzhe0101, 23 anonymous edits Intermodulation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=596334297 Contributors: A. B., Azathoth101, Bllix, Brownout, Cadmium, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, DexDor, Dlrohrer2003, Eastlaw, Edcolins, Ettrig, Hooperbloob, Howdybob, Jamiehowarth, Jimijames, John of Reading, Keenan Pepper, Kevinpurcell, Kle0012, LCS check, Lampglow, Larrymcp, LittleWink, Lusum, Maitchy, Misza13, Mr. PIM, Nigelj, Nimur, Ninly, Oleg Alexandrov, Oli Filth, Omegatron, Pfeldman, Pjacobi, Plamka, R'n'B, Radagast83, Radiodef, Radiojon, Ronrkey, Salsb, Scanmap, Serrano24, Skapur, Temblast, The Anome, TheParanoidOne, TiQuA, Toffile, Vegaswikian, 59 anonymous edits Volterra series Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=595265387 Contributors: Alsee, Belizefan, Benglitz, Brews ohare, Christaj, DragonflySixtyseven, EffeX2, Foxcob2, Giftlite, GirasoleDE, JFB80, Jitse Niesen, Jlataire, Konstable, Kuru, Mdd, Memming, Michael Hardy, Myasuda, Oleg Alexandrov, Omphaloscope, Orcioni, Rjwilmsi, Squids and Chips, Sawomir Biay, TedPavlic, VK35, 19 anonymous edits

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File:Magnetization curves.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetization_curves.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Charles Proteus Steinmetz File:Permeability of ferromagnet by Zureks.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Permeability_of_ferromagnet_by_Zureks.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zureks Image:RF Intermodulation at 280 MHz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RF_Intermodulation_at_280_MHz.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Alvin-cs, Nimur Image:Imps thirdorder.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Imps_thirdorder.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Cantalamessa File:PD-icon.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PD-icon.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alex.muller, Anomie, Anonymous Dissident, CBM, MBisanz, PBS, Quadell, Rocket000, Strangerer, Timotheus Canens, 1 anonymous edits

License

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License
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