Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels.

Digital circuits are the most common mechanical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. They can also be used to process digital information without being connected up as a computer. Such circuits are referred to as "random logic". (See also logic gate.) To most engineers, the terms "digital circuit", "digital system" and "logic" are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits. In most cases the number of states is two, and these states are represented by two voltage levels: one near to zero volts and one at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use. These two levels are often represented as "Low" and "High."

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Properties of Digital Circuits

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Digital circuits are distinct from analog circuits. In analog circuits, quantities are represented by continuously varying voltages, currents, or frequencies. The usual advantages of digital circuits when compared to analog circuits are:

Digital circuits can be regenerated to achieve lossless data transmission. Digital operations interface well with computers and are easy to control with software. Digital circuits are less affected by noise. More digital circuitry can be fabricated per square millimeter of integrated-circuit material. Information storage is much easier than using analog methods.

The usual disadvantages include:

Digital circuits are more complex, and therefore more likely to include human error. Much of the modern art of designing digital systems consists of analyzing them into smaller parts that can be perfectly solved with some form of automated design system. Digital systems can be fragile, in that if a single piece of digital data is lost or misinterpreted, the meaning of large blocks of related data can completely change. This problem can be mitigated by designing the digital system for robustness. An important issue is to remove unused logic signals to minimize the numbers of states. There are quantization errors as the analog signals from the real world are translated into a storable, regenerable digital form. This problem can usually be mitigated by storing more digital data. Digital systems can use such subtle features to store digital states that digital systems errors can be hard to correctly regenerate. In most digital circuits, these problems show up as "glitches", vanishingly-fast pulses that may trigger some logic but not

others, "runt pulses" that do not reach valid switching (threshold) voltages, or unexpected ("undecoded") combinations of logic states. Digital circuits are slower to perform calculations than analog circuits using similar components. Digital circuits are sometimes more expensive, especially in small quantities.

For example, a digital music playback system, such as a CD player, stores the music as a long string of numbers, each representing speaker-cone positions. An analog music playback system, such as an LP record, stores the music as a continuously varying quantity. In LP records, this is the position of the sides of a V-shaped groove.

Levels

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The two states of a wire are usually represented by some measurement of electric current: Voltage is the most common, but current is used in some logic families. A threshold is designed for each logic family. When below that threshold, the wire is "low," when above "high." Digital circuit establish a "no man's area" or "exclusion zone" that is wider than the tolerances of the components. The circuits avoid that area, in order to avoid indeterminate results. It is usual to allow some tolerance in the voltage levels used; for example, 0 to 2 volts might represent logic 0, and 3 to 5 volts logic 1. A voltage of 2 to 3 volts would be invalid and would occur only in a fault condition or during a logic level transition, as most circuits are not purely resistive, and therefore cannot instantly change voltage levels. However, few logic circuits can detect such a fault, and most will just choose to interpret the signal randomly as either a 0 or a 1. The levels represent the binary integers or logic levels of 0 and 1. In active-high logic, "low" represents binary 0 and "high" represents binary 1. Active-low logic uses the reverse representation. Examples of binary logic levels: Technology CMOS TTL ECL L voltage 0V to VCC/2 0V to 0.8V H voltage 2V to VCC Notes VCC is 4.75V to 5.25V VEE is about -5.2V VCC=Ground

VCC/2 to VCC VCC = supply voltage

-1.175V to -VEE .75V to 0V

Construction

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A digital circuit is often constructed from small electronic circuits called logic gates. Each logic gate represents a function of boolean logic. A logic gate is an arrangement of electrically controlled switches. The output is an electrical flow or voltage, that can, in turn, control more logic gates. Logic gates often use the fewest number of transistors in order to reduce their size, power consumption and cost, and increase their reliability. Manufactured as integrated circuits, they are the least expensive implementation when made in large volumes.

They are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation software (See below for more information). Another form of digital circuit is constructed from lookup tables, (many sold as "programmable logic devices", though other kinds of PLDs exist). Lookup tables can perform all the same functions as machines based on logic gates, but lookup tables can be easily reprogrammed without changing the wiring. This means that a designer can often repair errors without changing the arrangement of wires. Therefore, in small volume products, programmable logic devices are often the preferred solution. They are usually designed by engineers using electronic design automation software (See below for more information). When the volumes are medium to large, and the logic can be slow, or involves complex algorithms or sequences, often a small microcontroller is programmed to make an embedded system. These are usually programmed by software engineers. When only one digital circuit is needed, and its design is totally customized, as for a factory production line controller, the conventional solution is a programmable logic controller, or PLC. These are usually programmed by electricians, using ladder logic.