LECTURE 15 PHASORS & GRATINGS

Instructor: Shih-Chieh Hsu

Lecture 14
2

!!

Reading chapter 33-5 & 33-8

!! Phasors
"! Addition

of two harmonic waves "! Interference pattern from multiple sources "! Single slit diffraction pattern "! Interference-diffraction pattern
!! Gratings
"! Diffraction

gratings "! Spectroscope "! Interferometer

Analyzing 2-slit interference

3

!!

Distance ym measured along the screen from the central point to the mth fringe to the distance L from the slits to the screen:
y for the mth bright fringe: d sin ! m = m! , m = 0, 1, 2,... m! , m = 0, 1, 2,... d y for the mth dark fringe: 1 d sin ! m = (m ! )! , m = 1, 2,.. 2 m " 1/ 2 ! ym , D = L tan ! m ! L , m = 1, 2, 3,... d !L !y = ym+1 ! ym = d ym , C = L tan ! m ! L

Single slit diffraction

4

!!

The distance ym from the central maximum to the mth diffraction minimum is related to the angle !m and the distance L from the slit to the screen by

a sin ! m = m" ym = L tan ! m ; m = 1, 2, 3, ! ym = L tan ! m ! L sin ! m = L m" a

Fresnel diffraction patterns

6

The diffraction pattern observed at any distance from an aperture or an obstacle is called a Fresnel diffraction pattern. !! Frauenhoffer diffraction pattern is a limiting case of Fresnel diffraction pattern.
!!

Fresnel diffraction patterns

7

!!

Fresnel Diffraction Patters of a rectangular aperture (left) and a straightedge (right).

Straightedge Rectangular aperture

Fraunhofer diffraction of a circular aperture

8

!!

The angle ! subtended by the first diffraction minimum is related to the wavelength and the diameter of the opening D by
" sin ! = 1.22 # ! D
!! the

factor 1.22 arises because of the circular geometry.

Circular aperture of diameter D

Rayleighs criterion for resolution

9

!!

!!

When the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of one source falls on the central maximum of the other source, these objects are just resolved by Rayleighs criterion for resolution. The critical angle subtended by the sources just resolved by Rayleighs criterion for resolution is " ! c = 1.22 D
"c

2"c

Example 3
10

!!

How far from the grains of red sand must you be to position yourself just at the limit of resolving the grains if your pupil diameter is 1.5!mm, the grains are spherical with radius 50.0 m, and the light from the grains has wavelength 650!nm? If the grains were blue, and the light from them had wavelength 400!nm, would the answer be larger or smaller?
! c = 1.22 ! D
2 ! 50 m 650nm = 1.22 L 1.5mm

! L = 18.9cm
400!nm distance is larger

Combined diffraction and interference

11

!!

!!

So far, we have treated diffraction and interference independently. However, in a two-slit system both phenomena should be present together.

d a Interference Only a

! (degrees)

Diffraction Only

! (degrees)

Both

! (degrees)

Clicker 15-1
12

Clicker 15-2
13

Addition of two harmonic waves and phosors

14

Addition of two waves with different phases can be graphically expressed with phasors. !! Each wave function is represented by the y component of a phasor.
!!

E1 = A1 sin ! E2 = A2 sin ! + " , where ! = # t E1 + E2 = A1 sin ! + A2 sin ! + " = A sin ! + " $

Three slit interference

15

Consider the interference pattern of three slits that are equally spaced. !! Assume the rays hitting the screen are parallel. !! Interference patters appear due to the path length differences of the rays.
!!

Analyzing the three slit interference

16

!!

!!

The wave at a point on the screen, P, is the sum of the three waves. The wave functions at P: 1
E1 = A0 sin ! E2 = A0 sin ! + " E3
0

( ) = A sin (! + 2" )
d sin $ %

" = 2#

Three slit interference intensities

17

!!

The interference intensities are represented by the y-component of the resultant phasor A.
A0 A0 A0 A A0

"

"

maximum intensity at #!=!0 (!!=!0)

First minimum intensity at # = 120

Secondary maximum at # = 180

Multi-slit interference patterns

18 !! !! !!

The principal maxima occur at the same ! as for two slit interference. The more slits there are, the brighter and narrower the principal maxima. The first minimum occurs at # = 360/N (N phasors form a closed polygon of N sides). There are N - 2 secondary maxima between each pair of principal maxima. There are N - 1 zeros between each pair of principal maxima.
25 20

!!

!!

5 4 3 2

IN/I1

15 10 5 0

- 15

- 10

-5

! (radians)

10

15

Diffraction patterns
19

!! !! !!

The slit of width a is divided into N (N >> 1) equal intervals. The rays from the sources to a point P on the far screen are parallel. The diffraction pattern arises from the path length difference between any two adjacent sources resulting in the phase difference given by

d sin # ! = 2" $
!!

To screen at point P

Let A0 denote the amplitude due to a single source, then

En = A0 sin ! + n"

Diffraction pattern and phasors

20

Intensity

I0

Diffraction pattern intensity

21

!!

The ratio of the intensity at any point (I) to that at the center of the central maximum (I0) is

" sin ! 2 I A = 2 =$ I 0 Amax $ # ! 2

2

( )% '
' &

To screen at point P

!!

$ is related to the path-length difference, a sin!, between the top and bottom of the opening by
!=
a sin " 2$ #

Interference-diffraction pattern
22

!!

The intensity of the two-slit interference-diffraction pattern:

d a a

Intensity from one slit

Interference only

! (degrees)

Diffraction only
! (degrees)

! 2" d sin # , where ! = 2 $ Intensity at the center 2 " sin ! 2 % 2( a sin ) I = I0 $ ' , where ! = * $ # ! 2 ' &
I = 4 I 0 cos 2

( )

Both
! (degrees)

Intensity at the center from one slit 2 " sin ! 2 % ( I = 4 I0 $ ' cos 2 2 $ # ! 2 ' &

( )

Demo 1
23

!!

Multiple Slit Interference/Diffraction

Example 1
24

!!

Light that has a wavelength equal to 550 nm illuminates two slits that both have widths equal to 0.030 mm and separations equal to 0.18 mm. This creates 11 fringes in the central diffraction maximum. What is the ratio of the intensity of the third interference maximum to the intensity of the center interference maximum?

Imax

I3

Diffraction gratings
25

!!

A diffraction grating consists of a large number (thousands per mm) of equally spaced lines or slits on a flat surface.
!! !!

Reflection grating: light is reflected from the ridges between the lines or grooves. Transmission grating: the light passes through the gaps between the rulings.

!!

Diffraction gratings are used to disperse light into separate colors.

Transmission grating positions of maxima

26

The light from the slits interfere with each other. !! The interference maxima are given by
!!

d sin ! m = m"; m = 0, 1, 2, !
!!

The positions of the interference maxima depend on the spacing between the slits, but not on the total number of slits.

Transmission grating positions of maxima 2

27

!!

The positions along the screen for the interference maxima are given by
ym = L tan ! m ; m = 0, 1, 2,...

Transmission grating maxima

28

!!

The more slits a grating has, the sharper the the interference maxima are.
!! !! !!

Consider the case of N >> 1 slits. When the path-length difference for the light from the first slit and that from the Nth slit (~Nd) is %, the resulting intensity will be zero. The intensity will be zero at
Nd sin ! min = "

! min # sin ! min =

!!

The maximum occur at ! = 0 where the rays from all the slits are in phase. The intensity is N2I0, where I0 is the intensity due to a single slit.

" Nd

Fringes
29

!!

!!

Monochromatic light produces one fringe for each value of m. Light containing more than one wavelength produces one fringe for each value of m!>!0 for each wavelength.
d sin ! m = m"; m = 0, 1, 2, !

ym = L tan ! m ; m = 0, 1, 2,...

Dispersion of white light

Example 2
30

!!

Light from a sodium lamp passes through a diffraction grating having 1000 slits per millimeter. The interference pattern is viewed on a screen 1.000 m behind the grating. Two bright yellow fringes are visible at distances of 72.88 cm and 73.00 cm from the central maximum. Assuming that m!=!1, what are the wavelengths of these two fringes?

Demo 2
31

!!

Transmission Gratings
!! White

light and two lasers (one red, one green) are passed through four diffraction gratings of various line densities.

Clicker question 15-3

32

Grating spectroscope
33

Atoms in a low pressure electrical discharge produce light with characteristic wavelengths. !! A grating spectroscope provides a way of making precise measurements of wavelength by noting the angular positions at which interference maxima occur.
!!

Grating spectroscope 2
34

!!

!! !!

!!

Light from the source passes through a narrow collimating slit and is made parallel by a lens. Parallel light from the lens is incident on the grating. The parallel light from the grating is focused by a telescope and viewed by the eye. By measuring the angle of the interference maximum, !, you can measure the wavelength.
d sin ! m = m"; m = 0, 1, 2, !

Clicker question 15-4

35

Spectral lines
36

!!

!!

!!

Each wavelength emitted by the source produces a separate spectral line (the image of the collimating slit). The set of lines corresponding to m = 1 is called the first-order spectrum. The set of lines corresponding to m = 2 is called the second-order spectrum.

d sin ! m = m"; m = 0, 1, 2, !

Light with l1!=!400 nm and l2!=!700 nm.

Resolving power
37

If two lines from two wavelengths do not overlap, these wavelengths are resolved. !! Let &% denote the smallest observable difference between two nearby wavelengths. !! The resolving power of a diffraction grating, R, is defined to be %/&%.
!!

" R! = mN #"

m = order of spectrum N = number of slits illuminated

Example 3
38

!!

Mercury has several stable isotopes, among them 198Hg and 202Hg. The strong spectral line of mercury, at about 546.07!nm, is a composite of spectral lines from the various mercury isotopes. The wavelengths of the line for 198Hg and 202Hg are 546.07532 nm and 546.07355!nm, respectively.
a)!

b)!

What must be the resolving power of a grating capable of resolving the two isotopic lines? If the grating is illuminated over a 2.00-cm-wide region, what must be the number of lines per centimeter of the grating to resolve the isotopic lines in the third-order spectrum?

Reflection gratings
39

!!

!!

!!

Ruling parallel grooves in a mirrorlike metal surface produces a reflection grating. The angles of the grooves can be chosen so that light of particular order is reflected in a particular direction, enhancing the intensity of that order. This is called blazing. Some of the most colorful bird feathers, butterfly wings, insect shells, etc are, in effect, blazed reflection gratings.

Radio telescope arrays

40

!!

!!

A line of parabolic dish radio receivers behaves like a diffraction grating in reverse, giving high-precision locations of radio sources in the sky. Radio signals from distant galaxies add constructively when the distance between two adjacent telescopes, d, satisfies
d sin ! m = m"; m = 0, 1, 2, !
Sun

Saturn

Mars

Michelson interferometer
41

!!

An interferometer is used to measure change in lengths with great accuracy. Change in the path length difference between A and B can be determined by the change in the interference pattern.

!!

Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO)

42

!!

Interferometer is used in search for gravitationalwave induced motion, predicted by Einstein as part of the theory of general relativity.

Each arm is 4!km.

Hanford, WA