Cell Structure and Function

Cell Size

Characteristics of All Cells

A surrounding membrane Protoplasm cell contents in thick fluid Organelles structures for cell function Control center with DNA

Cell Structure Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic Cells

Plasma Membrane
Contains cell contents Double layer of phospholipids & proteins

Phospholipids
Polar
Hydrophylic head Hydrophobic tail

Interacts with water

 Lipids Areas of the molecule enriched for "C" and "H" are hydrophobic. Fatty acids tails are composed of carbon and hydrogen and are hydrophobic.

Phospholipids are amphipathic, and have hydrophilic and hydrophobic character in the same molecule. Interactions with water cause the phospholipids to form a bilayer, with hydrophobic fatty acid tails inside the bilayer and hydrophilic groups exposed to water. This basic structure makes the membrane a barrier to hydrophilic molecules. The interior of the membrane is fluid, with a viscosity about equal to olive oil. Cholesterol in membranes alters fluidity.

Proteins
Proteins of membranes are divided into two general classes:
Integral membrane proteins Peripheral membrane proteins

Integral membrane proteins

Membrane ion channels, enzyme linked membrane receptors, and G-protein linked receptors are integral membrane proteins that bind their ligand (signal) and then cause second messengers to be produced inside the cell.

Movement Across the Plasma Membrane

A few molecules move freely
Water, Carbon dioxide, Ammonia, Oxygen

Carrier proteins transport some molecules

Proteins embedded in lipid bilayer Fluid mosaic model describes fluid nature of a lipid bilayer with proteins

Membrane Proteins
1. Channels or transporters
Move molecules in one direction

2. Receptors
Recognize certain chemicals

Membrane Proteins
3. Glycoproteins
Identify cell type

4. Enzymes
Catalyze production of substances

Membrane receptors generally function by binding the signal, or ligand and causing the production of a second signal (second messenger) that causes a cellular response. The diagram shows how the receptor for insulin functions.

Activation of protein kinases

Cytoplasm
Viscous fluid containing organelles components of cytoplasm
Interconnected filaments & fibers Fluid = cytosol Organelles (not nucleus) storage substances

Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes -the site of protein synthesis in the cell -composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins -found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm and attached to internal membranes

20

Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system -a series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm -divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur 1. endoplasmic reticulum 2. Golgi apparatus 3. lysosomes
21

Endoplasmic Reticulum
Helps move substances within cells Network of interconnected membranes Two types
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Ribosomes attached to surface
Manufacture protiens Not all ribosomes attached to rough ER

May modify proteins from ribosomes

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

No attached ribosomes Has enzymes that help build molecules
Carbohydrates Lipids

Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) -membranes that create a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm -attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a rough appearance -synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to lysosomes or plasma membrane
25

Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) -relatively few ribosomes attached -functions: -synthesis of membrane lipids -calcium storage -detoxification of foreign substances

26

Endomembrane System

27

Endomembrane System
Golgi apparatus -flattened stacks of interconnected membranes -packaging and distribution of materials to different parts of the cell -synthesis of cell wall components

28

Golgi Apparatus
Involved in synthesis of plant cell wall Packaging & shipping station of cell

Golgi Apparatus Function

1. Molecules come in vesicles
2. Vesicles fuse with Golgi membrane 3. Molecules may be modified by Golgi

Golgi Apparatus Function (Continued)

4. Molecules pinched-off in separate vesicle
5. Vesicle leaves Golgi apparatus 6. Vesicles may combine with plasma membrane to secrete contents

33

Endomembrane System
Lysosomes -membrane bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes to break down macromolecules -destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis

34

Lysosomes
Contain digestive enzymes Functions
Aid in cell renewal Break down old cell parts Digests invaders

36

Endomembrane System
Microbodies -membrane bound vesicles -contain enzymes -not part of the endomembrane system -glyoxysomes in plants contain enzymes for converting fats to carbohydrates -peroxisomes contain oxidative enzymes and catalase
37

Endomembrane System
Vacuoles -membrane-bound structures with various functions depending on the cell type There are different types of vacuoles: -central vacuole in plant cells -contractile vacuole of some protists -vacuoles for storage
38

Mitochondria
Have their own DNA Bound by double membrane

Mitochondria
Break down fuel molecules (cellular respiration)
Glucose Fatty acids

Release energy
ATP

Mitochondria
Mitochondria -organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells -contain oxidative metabolism enzymes for transferring the energy within macromolecules to ATP -found in all types of eukaryotic cells
41

Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes -smooth outer membrane -folded inner membrane with layers called cristae -matrix is within the inner membrane -intermembrane space is located between the two membranes -contain their own DNA
42

Mitochondria

43

Cytoskeleton
Filaments & fibers Made of 3 fiber types
Microfilaments Microtubules Intermediate filaments

3 functions:
mechanical support anchor organelles help move substances

Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton -network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells -supports the shape of the cell -keeps organelles in fixed locations -helps move materials within the cell

45

Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton fibers include -actin filaments responsible for cellular contractions, crawling, pinching -microtubules provide organization to the cell and move materials within the cell -intermediate filaments provide structural stability
46

Cytoskeleton

47

Examples of the cytoskeleton in epithelial cells

In the epithelial (skin) cells of the intestine, all three types of fibers are present. Microfilaments project into the villi, giving shape to the cell surface. Microtubules grow out of the centrosome to the cell periphery. Intermediate filaments connect adjacent cells through desmosomes.

Extracellular Structures
Extracellular structures include: -cell walls of plants, fungi, some protists -extracellular matrix surrounding animal cells

49

Extracellular Structures
Cell walls -present surrounding the cells of plants, fungi, and some protists -the carbohydrates present in the cell wall vary depending on the cell type: -plant and protist cell walls - cellulose -fungal cell walls - chitin
50

Extracellular Structures
Extracellular matrix (ECM) -surrounds animal cells -composed of glycoproteins and fibrous proteins such as collagen -may be connected to the cytoplasm via integrin proteins present in the plasma membrane
51

Extracellular Structures

52

Centrioles
Pairs of microtubular structures Play a role in cell division

Molecule Movement & Cells

Passive Transport Active Transport Endocytosis (phagocytosis & pinocytosis) Exocytosis

Passive Transport
No energy required Move due to gradient
differences in concentration, pressure, charge

Move to equalize gradient

High moves toward low

Types of Passive Transport

1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis 3. Facilitated diffusion

Diffusion
Molecules move to equalize concentration

Osmosis
Special form of diffusion Fluid flows from lower solute concentration Often involves movement of water
Into cell Out of cell

Solution Differences & Cells

solvent + solute = solution Hypotonic
Solutes in cell more than outside Outside solvent will flow into cell

Isotonic
Solutes equal inside & out of cell

Hypertonic
Solutes greater outside cell Fluid will flow out of cell

Facilitated Diffusion
Differentially permeable membrane
Channels (are specific) help molecule or ions enter or leave the cell Channels usually are transport proteins (aquaporins facilitate the movement of water) No energy is used

Process of Facilitated Transport

Protein binds with molecule Shape of protein changes Molecule moves across membrane

Active Transport
Molecular movement Requires energy (against gradient) Example is sodium-potassium pump

Active transport systems use an energy source (usually ATP) to drive the movement of molecules against a concentration gradient. The best example of active transport is the Na+/K+ATPase. This membrane
protein transporter moves Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell, building up high Na+ outside and high K+ inside the cells. Nearly a third of the energy we use each day drives this transport system. The transmission of signals through our brain and the control of water flow into and out of cells requires the activity of the Na+/K+ATPase. This system is a good example of the coupling of ATP hydrolysis with an unfavorable reaction (ion movement against a concentration gradient).

Endocytosis
Movement of large material
Particles Organisms Large molecules

Movement is into cells Types of endocytosis

bulk-phase (nonspecific) receptor-mediated (specific)

Process of Endocytosis
Plasma membrane surrounds material Edges of membrane meet Membranes fuse to form vesicle

Forms of Endocytosis
Phagocytosis cell eating Pinocytosis cell drinking

Exocytosis
Reverse of endocytosis Cell discharges material

Exocytosis
Vesicle moves to cell surface Membrane of vesicle fuses Materials expelled

Types of signaling
Autocrine signals bind to receptors on cells that secrete them. Paracrine signals bind to receptors and stimulate nearby cells. Exocrine signaling occurs when cells secrete signaling molecules into the blood. For example, the ovaries in females and the testes in males are stimulated by hormones produced by the brain. Synaptic signaling is similar to paracrine signaling but there is a special structure called the synapse between the cell originating and the cell receiving the signal. Synaptic signaling only occurs between cells with the synapse; for example between a neuron and the muscle that is controlled by neural activity. Signaling by cell contact must have cells with adjacent plasma membranes. Later you will learn that cells are altered by their immediate environment and by signaling molecules from other cells.

Chemical Signals
What is the difference between hormones and parcrine factors?

Signal Transduction
What elements are involved in cell signaling?

Importance of signal transduction

Facilitates cell-cell signaling
Coordination of growth and differentiation Inducing metabolic responses to environmental factors

Involves extracellular signaling molecules, their interaction with target cells, and subsequent intracellular events

 1) Synthesis and release of signaling molecules 2) Transport of signal to target cell 3) Detection of signal by a specific receptor protein 4) Intracellular events, often mediated by second messengers, that change metabolism or gene expression 5)Termination of the signal and response

Signal transduction - general steps

Will focus on steps 3 to 5

Step 3 - involves cell-surface receptors Four main types:
Ion-channel receptors (e.g., acetylcholine receptor) G protein-linked receptors Receptors associated with tyrosine kinases Receptors with intrinsic enzymatic activity

B. G protein-linked receptors

G protein-linked receptors
Overview:
Signal molecule binds to recepter Receptor activates a G protein Activated G protein activates an effector enzyme that produces a second messenger Second messenger molecule induces metabolic changes

General structure of G proteinlinked receptors

Seven transmembrane alpha helices Loop between helices 5&6 involved in interactions with G protein Similar in structure to rhodopsin

G Protein-Linked Receptors
What is a G protein? What does this type of receptor look like?

Activation of G Proteins