MN 1790 2 - 1

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Coverage Planning: Contents

Coverage Planning: Contents
Definition of Terms
Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation
Radio Wave Propagation Models
Suitable prediction models for Macro-, Micro- and Pico-cells
Location Probability
Link Budgets
Fading
Fast Fading
Rice Fading
Rayleigh Fading
Slow Fading
Jake's Formula
Interference Margin
Noise Figure calculations
Amplifier Noise
MN 1790 2 - 2

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Coverage Planning: Contents

Coverage Planning: Contents
Path Loss Balance
Cell Coverage Calculation
Basics about Digital Map Data
Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Measurement Tools supporting Cell Planning
Cell Types
Omni versus Sector Cells
Exercises
MN 1790 2 - 3

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Definition of Terms
Definition of Terms
To achieve coverage in an area, the received signal strength in UL and DL must be above the so
called receiver sensitivity level:
Coverage: RX_LEV > (actual) receiver sensitivity level
No Coverage: RX_LEV < (actual) receiver sensitivity level
The minimum receiver sensitivity levels in UL and DL are defined in GSM 05.05:
- for normal BTS : -104 dBm
- for GSM 900 micro BTS M1 : -97 dBm
- for GSM 900 micro BTS M2 : -92 dBm
- for GSM 900 micro BTS M3 : -87 dBm
- for DCS 1800 micro BTS M1 : -102 dBm
- for DCS 1800 micro BTS M2 : -97 dBm
- for DCS 1800 micro BTS M3 : -92 dBm
- for GSM 900 small MS (class 4, 5): -102 dBm
- for other GSM 900 MS: -104 dBm
- for DCS 1800 class 1 or class 2 MS : -100 dBm
- for DCS 1800 class 3 MS : -102 dBm
MN 1790 2 - 4

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Definition of Terms
Definition of Terms
Maximum output power for MS of different power classes:
+/- 2 dB 29 dBm 5
+/- 2 dB 33 dBm 4
+/- 2 dB 36 dBm 37 dBm 3
+/- 2 dB 24 dBm 39 dBm 2
+/- 2 dB 30 dBm - 1
Tolerance GSM 1800 MS GSM 900 MS Power Class
MN 1790 2 - 5

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Definition of Terms
Definition of Terms
Maximum output power (before combiner input) for normal BTS / TRX of different power classes:
2.5 (<5) W 8
5 (<10) W 7
10 (<20) W 6
20 (<40) W 5
2.5 (<5) W 40 (<80) W 4
5 (<10) W 80 (<160) W 3
10- (<20) W 160 (<320) W 2
20 (<40) W 320 (<640) W 1
GSM 1800 BTS GSM 900 BTS TRX Power Class
MN 1790 2 - 6

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Definition of Terms
Definition of Terms
Maximum output power (per carrier, at antenna connector, after all stages of combining) for micro
BTS / TRX of different power classes:
>0.05 0.16 W >0.01 0.03 W M3
>0.16 0.5 W >0.03 0.08 W M2
>0.5 1.6 W >0.08 0.25 W M1
GSM 1800
micro-BTS
GSM 900
micro-BTS
TRX power class
MN 1790 2 - 7

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Definition of Terms
Definition of Terms
The reference sensitivity performance as defined in GSM 05.05 for the GSM 900 system for
different channel types and different propagation conditions:
MN 1790 2 - 8

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Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation

Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation
Physical Reasons
Diffraction
Reflection
Scattering
Absorption
Doppler shift
Technical Problems
Distance attenuation
(Path Loss)
Fading
Inter-symbol Interference
Ducting
Frequency shift /
broadening
MN 1790 2 - 9

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Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation

Characteristics of Radio Wave Propagation
Exercise:
Which physical phenomena is sketched in the following pictures?
MN 1790 2 - 10

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Radio wave propagation:

The radio wave propagation is described by solutions of the Maxwell equations.
Exact solutions of the Maxwell equations are not accessible for real space environment with
obstacles which give rise to reflections and diffractions.
However, the full information provided by an exact solution (e.g. exact polarization and phase of
the field strength) is mostly not needed.
What is needed is the the received power level.
What a propagation model should provide is the attenuation of the power level due to the fact that
the signal propagates from the transmitter to the receiver.
Radio Wave Propagation Models
MN 1790 2 - 11

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Empirical models and deterministic models:

Empirical models are based on measurements. Some empirical models (like the ITU model) are
curves derived from measurements. Others summarize the measurements in formulas (like the
Okumura Hata model) which fit the measured data.
Such models are very simple to handle but also usually rather imprecise. They are limited to
environments similar to the one where the measurements were performed.
Deterministic models are based on simplifying assumption for the general problem. This can be a
mathematical approximation of the original problem (like the finite difference model). Or it can be a
simple model for a special situation of the general problem (like the knife edge model).
Deterministic model can reach a very high precision, but they suffer from a very high complexity.
Semi empirical models are a combination of empirical models with deterministic models for
special situations (like knife edge models).
Radio Wave Propagation Models
MN 1790 2 - 12

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Empirical models
Log distance path loss
ITU
Okumura Hata
COST Hata
Diffraction models
Epstein Peterson
Deygout
Giovanelli
Semi empirical models
Okumura Hata & knife edge
COST Hata & knife edge
COST Walfisch Ikegami
Deterministic models
Ray launching, ray tracing
Finite difference
MN 1790 2 - 13

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Received power:
P
T
: Transmitted power
P
R
: Reveived power
n
T R
d
c
P P
) lg( ) lg( ) lg( lg d A d n c L
P
P
T
R
+

,
_

10 10 10 Path loss:
d: distance
Radio Wave Propagation Models
n
T
R
d c
P
P


0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0
MN 1790 2 - 14

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0 . 0 0 0 1
0 . 0 0 1
0 . 0 1
0 . 1
1
1 2 5 1 0
n = 4
n = 3
n = 2
0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
0 . 8
1 . 0
2 . 5 5 . 0 7 . 5 1 0 . 0
n = 4
n = 3
n = 2
Received power level
as function of distance d
on linear scale.
n
R
d
P
1

Received power level

as function of distance d
on log scale.
n R
d
P
1

Radio Wave Propagation Models

MN 1790 2 - 15

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

2
4

,
_

d
P
R

Example: Free space propagation

?: wavelength in vacuum; , speed of light in vacuum
f: frequency in MHz
d: distance in km
The influence of the surface is neglected completely
f
c

s
m
c
8
10 9979 2 .
( ) ( ) d f L lg lg . 20 20 44 32 + +
MN 1790 2 - 16

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Example: 2 ray model
d
1
d
2a
d
2b
d
h
BS
h
MS
( )
( )
( )
( )
d
h h
d d
d
h h
d h h d d
d d d
d
h h
d h h d d
MS BS
MS BS
MS BS
b a
MS BS
MS BS
2
2
2
1 2
2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
1

+
+ + +
+

+ +
MN 1790 2 - 17

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Example: 2 ray model
,
_

,
_

,
_

d
h h k
d d
e
d
e
P
MS BS
ikd ikd
R
2
2 2
2 1
2
4
4 4
2 1
sin

( ) ( )

,
_

,
_

+ +
d
h h k
d f L
MS BS
sin lg . lg lg . 20 02 6 20 20 44 32
( ) d h h L
MS BS
lg ) lg( ) lg( 40 20 20 120 +
d c
h h f
d
h h k
d
h h k
h h k d
c
f
k
MS BS MS BS MS BS
MS BS

2
2

,
_

>>

sin for large

f: frequency in MHz
d: distance in km
h
BS
: height base station in m
h
MS
: height mobile station in m
The ground is assumed to be flat and perfectly reflecting.
The model is valid for h
BS
>50m and d in the range of km or for LOS microcell channels
in urban areas.
MN 1790 2 - 18

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80
100
120
140
160
1 10 100
900MHz
1800 MHz
path loss in dB
distance in km
Example: 2 ray model
h
BS
=50 m
h
MS
=1.5m
Radio Wave Propagation Models
MN 1790 2 - 19

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Log-distance path loss model:
n
R
d
d
P

,
_

,
_

+
0
10
0
d
d
n L L
d
lg
d
0
: reference distance ca. 1km for macro cells or in the range of 1m -100mfor micro cells;
should be always in the far field of the antenna
L
d0
: reference path loss; to be measured at the reference distance.
2-3 Obstructed in factories
4-6 Obstructed in building
1.6-1.8 In building LOS
3-5 Shadowed urban area
2.7-3.5 Urban area
2 Free space
Exponent n Environment
MN 1790 2 - 20

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Okumura Hata model:
Based on empirical data measured by Okumura in 60s Hata developed a formula with
correction terms for different environments.
The Okumura Hata model assumes a quasi flat surface, i.e. obstacles like buildings are not
explicitly taken into account. Thus the Okumura Hata model is isotropic. The different types of
surfaces (big cities, small cities, suburban and rural) are distinguished by different correction
factors in this model.
Parameter range for this model:
Frequency f=150 1500MHz
Height base station h
BS
=30 200m
Height Mobile station h
MS
=1 10m
Distance d=1 20km
MN 1790 2 - 21

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[ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]

'

+ +
97 4 75 11 2 3
8 0 56 1 7 0 1 1
55 6 9 44 82 13 16 26 55 69
2
. ) . lg( .
. ) lg( . . ) lg( .
) (
) lg( ) lg( . . ) ( ) lg( . ) lg( . .
MS
MS
MS
BS MS BS urban
h
f h f
h d
d h c h d h f L
small cities
big cities (f>400MHz)
Radio Wave Propagation Models
Okumura Hata model:
f: frequency in MHz
d: distance in km
h
BS
: height base station in m
h
MS
: height mobile station in m
( ) [ ] 94 40 33 18 78 4
4 5
28
2
2
2
. ) lg( . lg .
. lg
+
+
1
]
1

,
_

f f c
f
c suburban areas
rural areas
MN 1790 2 - 22

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'

+
0 001 0
0 02 0
22 35 42 126
.
.
) (
) lg( . ) ( .
MS
MS urban
h d
d c h d L
small cities
big cities
Radio Wave Propagation Models
Okumura Hata model:
For f=900MHz, h
BS
=30m, h
MS
=1,5mthe formula reads:
d: distance in km
51 28
94 9
.
.

c
c suburban areas
rural areas
MN 1790 2 - 23

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

COST Hata model:
The Okumura Hata model cannot be applied directly to systems like GSM 1800/1900 or DECT.
Therefore it was extended to higher frequencies in the framework of the European research
cooperation COST (European Cooperation in the field of scientific and technical research).
Parameter range for this model:
Frequency f=1500 2000MHz
Height base station h
BS
=30 200m
Height Mobile station h
MS
=1 10m
Distance d=1 20km
[ ]
[ ] [ ] 8 0 56 1 7 0 1 1
55 6 9 44 82 13 9 33 3 46
. ) lg( . . ) lg( . ) (
) lg( ) lg( . . ) ( ) lg( . ) lg( . .

+ +
f h f h d
d h c h d h f L
MS MS
BS MS BS urban
MN 1790 2 - 24

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

COST Hata model:
suburban areas
rural areas
city center
The major difference between the Okumura Hata model is a modified dependence on
frequency and additional correction factor for inner city areas
For f=1800MHz, h
BS
=30m, h
MS
=1,5mthe correction term for the dependence on h
MS
can again be neglected. For the other terms of COST Hata model the insertion of the values
serves:
) lg( . . d c L
urban
+ 22 35 24 136
( ) [ ] 94 40 33 18 78 4
4 5
28
2
3
2
2
. ) lg( . lg .
. lg
+
+
1
]
1

,
_

f f c
f
c
c
MN 1790 2 - 25

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Both models, the Okumura Hata model and the COST Hata model can lead locally
to substantial deviation from the measured attenuation since these models are
isotropic. Local properties of the surface (big buildings, hills etc.) are not taken into
account.
92 31
14 1
3
.
.

c
c
c
COST Hata model:
suburban areas
rural areas
city center
Radio Wave Propagation Models
MN 1790 2 - 26

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ITU model:
The ITU (or CCIR) model was originally developed for radio broadcasting. It is based on
measurements in the UHF and VHF range which are summarized in graphs
(ITU-R 370-7, ) for the field strength.
The different topographic situations are described by the parameters h
BSeff
and h.
The ITU model describes the radio wave propagation for the ranges
f= 30... 250 MHz and 450... 1000MHz
d=10... 1000km
Definition:
h
BSeff
is the antenna height above the mean elevation of the terrain measured in a range from 3km
to 15 km along the propagation path.
h is the mean irregularity of the terrain in the range from 10km to 50 km along the propagation
path, i.e. 90% of the terrain exceed the lower limit and 10% of the terrain exceed the upper limit of
the band defined by h.
The curves for the field strength are given for different h
BSeff
and h = 50m. The correction for
other values of h is given in an additional graph.
Since local effects of the terrain are not taken into account the deviation between predicted and
actual median field strength may reach 20dB for rural areas. In urban areas this value may be well
exceeded.
Radio Wave Propagation Models
MN 1790 2 - 27

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ITU model:
Radio Wave Propagation Models
h
BSeff
h
3km 10km 15km 50km
90%
10%
0km
MN 1790 2 - 28

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Correction to the ITU model: clearance angle method

An improvement of the ITU model is obtained by considering the maximum of the angle (clearance
angle) between the horizontal line and the elevations in the range of 0 to 16km along the
propagation path. The correction to the field strength ITU model (with h=50m ) is give as graphs
for the clearance angle. The clearance angle correction applies to both the receiving and the
transmitting side.
Radio Wave Propagation Models
16km

MS, BS Position
MN 1790 2 - 29

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

COST Walfisch Ikegami model:
For a better accuracy in urban areas building height and street width have to be taken into
account, at least as statistical parameters. Based on the Walfisch Bertoni propagation model for
BS antennas place above the roof tops, the empirical COST Walfisch Ikegami model is a
generalisation including BS antennas placed below the roof tops.
Parameter range for this model:
Frequency f=800 2000MHz
Height base station h
BS
=4 50m
Height Mobile station h
MS
=1 3m
Distance d=0.02 5km
Further parameter:
Mean building height: h in m
Mean street width: win m
Mean building spacing: b in m
Mean angle between propagation path and street: in
MN 1790 2 - 30

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b w
d
BS
MS
h
h
BS
h
MS
COST Walfisch Ikegami model:
Radio Wave Propagation Models

BS
MS
MN 1790 2 - 31

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COST Walfisch Ikegami model:

With LOS between BS and MS (base station antenna below roof top level):
Radio Wave Propagation Models
) lg( ) lg( . d f L
LOS
26 20 6 42 + +
With non LOS:

'
+ +

,
,
0
0
L
L L L
L
msd rts
NLOS
0
0
+
> +
msd rts
msd rts
L L
L L
free space propagation:
rts
L roof top to street diffraction and scatter loss:

'

+
+
+ + +
, . .
, . .
, .
) lg( ) lg( ) lg( .

114 0 0 4
075 0 5 2
354 0 10
20 10 10 9 16
MS rts
h h f w L
0 0
0 0
0
90 55
55 35
35 0
<
<
<

O
L
) lg( ) lg( . d f L
O
20 20 44 32 + +
MN 1790 2 - 32

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COST Walfisch Ikegami model:

Radio Wave Propagation Models
msd
L multiscreen diffraction loss:
) lg( ) lg( ) lg( b f k d k k L L
f d a msd msd
9
1
+ + +
h h
BS
>
( )

'

,
_

,
_

'

'

'
+

, .
, .
,
,
,
.
) ( .
), ( .
,
,
), lg(
1
925
7 0 4
1
925
7 0 4
15 18
18
5 0
8 0 54
8 0 54
54
0
1 18
1
f
f
k
h
h h
k
d
h h
h h k
h h
L
f
BS
d
BS
BS a
BS
msd
h h
BS

h h
BS
>
h h
BS
>
h h
BS

h h
BS

h h
BS

5 0. > d
and
and
5 0. d
Medium sized cities and suburban centres
with moderate tree density
Metropolitan centres
MN 1790 2 - 33

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COST Walfisch Ikegami model:

Radio Wave Propagation Models
Although designed for BS antennas placed below the mean building height the COST Walfisch
Ikegami model show often considerable inaccuracies.
This is especially true in cities with an irregular building pattern like in historical grown cities. Also
the model was designed for cities on a flat ground. Thus for a hilly surface the model is not
applicable.
MN 1790 2 - 34

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Lee micro cell model:

Radio Wave Propagation Models
This model is based on the assumption that the path loss is correlated with the total depth B of
the building blocks along the propagation path. This results in an extra contribution to the LOS
attenuation
) ( ) ( B d L L
LOS
+
) (d L
LOS
) (B For both and can be read off graphs based on extensive measurements.
This model is not very precise and large errors occur in the following situation:
When the prediction point is on the main street but there is no LOS path
When the prediction point is in a side street on the same side of the main street as the BS.
MN 1790 2 - 35

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction knife edge model:
Diffraction models apply for configurations were a large obstacle is in the propagation path and the
obstacle is far away from the transmitter and the receiver, i.e.: and
2 1
d d h , << >> h
The obstacle is represented as an ideal conducting half plane (knife edge)
h
MS
h
BS
d
1
h
d
2
Huygens secondary source
MN 1790 2 - 36

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction knife edge model:
Huygens principle: all points of a wavefront can be considered as a source for a secondary wavelet
sum up the contributions of all wavelets starting in the half plane above the obstacle
Phase differences have to be taken into account (constructive and destructive interferences)
Difference between the direct path and the diffracted path,
the excess path length
Phase difference: with Fresnel Kirchoff diffraction parameter.
Note: this derivation is also valid for
( )
2 1
2 1
2
2 d d
d d h +

2
2
2

( )
2 1
2 1
2
d d
d d
h

+

0 < h
MN 1790 2 - 37

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction knife edge model:
Diffraction loss:

,
_

,
_

,
_

du
u i i
E
E
L
D
D
2 2
1
20 20
2
0
exp lg lg ) (
0
E
D
E
field strength obtained by free field propagation without diffraction (and ground effects).
diffracted field strength
Shadow border region:

'

) lg( .
) (

20 5 13
0
D
L
,
,
0
0
>>
<<

LOS region,
shadowed region
0 < h
The following approximations exist:
6 0 0 ) (
D
L
MN 1790 2 - 38

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction knife edge model:
Fresnel Zone:
Condition for the n
th
Fresnel Zone:
d
1
d
2
r
Fn
l
1
l
2
2
2 1 2 1

+ n d d l l
Fn
r d d >>
2 1
,
Fn
Fn
r
h
n
n
d d
d d
r d d l l
2
2
2
1
2 1
2 1
2
2 1 2 1

,
_

+
+

The diffraction parameter can be rewritten with quantities describing the Fresnel zone
geometry.
For obstacles outside the 1
st
Fresnel zone:
For obstacles outside the 5
th
Fresnel zone:
dB L
D
1 1 2 . ) ( t <
dB L
D
6 0 10 . ) ( t <
MN 1790 2 - 39

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Epstein Petersen model:
The attenuation of several obstacles is computed obstacle by obstacle with the single knife edge
method, i.e. first diffraction path: l
1
l
2
, second diffraction path: l
2
l
3
.
The model is valid for .
j i
d h <<
d
1
h
1
d
2
h
2
d
2
d
3
l
1
l
2
l
3
O
1
O
2
MN 1790 2 - 40

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Epstein Petersen model:
.
( )
2 1
2 1
1 1
2
d d
d d
h

+

) ( ) (
2 1

D D Dtotal
L L L +
The Fresnel integral is replaced by an empirical approximation:
( ) [ ]

'

+ + +

1 1 0 1 0 20 9 6
0
2
. . lg .
) (

D
L
. .
, .
78 0
78 0

<

This model is rather unprecise. The error grows with the number of obstacles.
( )
3 2
3 2
2 2
2
d d
d d
h

+

MN 1790 2 - 41

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Deygout model:
This model is recursive. First the attenuation of the main obstacle is computed (in this example O
1
with the path l
1
s
1
). In the second step the possible (main) obstacles along the paths to and from the
main obstacle are computed (here O
2
with l
2
l
3
). This procedure is continued until all obstacles are
taken into account.
d
1
h
1
d
2
h
2
d
2
d
3
l
1
l
2
l
3
s
1
O
1
O
2
H
2
MN 1790 2 - 42

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Deygout model:
.
( )
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
1 1
2
d d d
d d d
h
+
+ +

) , ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1
O O C L L L
D D Dtotal
+
( )
3 2
3 2
2 2
2
d d
d d
h

+

p
q
p
O O C
2
2 1
1
2
20 12

,
_

1
1
]
1

,
_

lg ) , (
,
) (
arctan

,
_

+ +

3 1
3 2 1 2
d d
d d d d

( )
,
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
1
2
d d d
d d d
h p
+
+ +

( )
) (
1 2 3
3 2 1
2
2
d d d
d d d
H q
+
+ +

Correction term:
The correction term is chosen such that the result coincides in a good approximation with
an exact solution. After n steps this models may cover up to 2
n
-1 obstacles.
MN 1790 2 - 43

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Giovanelli model:
Also the Giovanelli model is recursive. The recursion procedure is the same as for the Deygout
model. Instead of taking a correction term in the attenuation the receiver is considered at an
effective position at an height h
eff
. .
d
1
h
1
d
2
h
eff
d
2
d
3
l
1
l
2
l
3
O
2
O
1
H
1
H
2
effective
receiver position
h
2
MN 1790 2 - 44

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Diffraction multiple knife edge Giovanelli model:
.
( )
) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
1 1
2
d d d
d d d
h
+
+ +

) ( ) (
2 1

D D Dtotal
L L L +
( )
3 2
3 2
2 2
2
d d
d d
h

+

The attenuation predicted by this model is between the values obtained from the
Epstein Peterson model and the Deygout model without the correction term.
eff
h
d d d
d
h h
3 2 1
1
1 1
+ +
) (
1 2
2
3
2
H H
d
d
h h
eff
+
MN 1790 2 - 45

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Semi empirical models:
Semi empirical model combine deterministic models like knife edge models with empirical models
like Okumura Hata or COST Hata.
The mentioned empirical models are only valid for a quasi flat surface. In combination with knife
edge models they can be extended to hilly surface or a mountain area.
The combination of empirical and deterministic models requires usually additional correction terms.
For the specific combination of models and their correction terms most user develop their own
solution which they calibrate with their measurements. .
MN 1790 2 - 46

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Deterministic models:
Ray tracing and ray launching:
With the methods of geometrical optics all possible propagation paths from the transmitter to
the receiver are determined and summed up, i.e. there is a free space propagation from the
antenna to the first obstacle or from obstacle to obstacle and at the obstacle the ray is reflected or
diffracted until it reaches the antenna. The algorithm takes only rays with an adjustable maximum
number of reflections and diffractions.
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be obtained.
For this method a digital map with high accuracy is required.
For the reflection and diffraction attenuation factors have to be specified which depend on
the building surface (e.g. glass or brick wall).
The algorithm is very complex and computer power consuming.
However, there are continuous improvements for hardware, software and algorithms.
MN 1790 2 - 47

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Radio Wave Propagation Models

Deterministic models:
Finite difference algorithm:
Since the solution to field equation are inaccessible the partial derivatives for the fields are
replaced by finite differences. This is obtained by introducing a grid and considering the the fields
only at the nodes of the grid. The derivatives become differences along the edges of the grid. The
partial differential equation becomes a linear equation system. However, the linear equation
system involves very large matrices for realistic problems to be treated with a sufficient precision.
With this method a very high precision for the prediction of the path loss can be obtained.
For this method very precise surface data are required.
The surface data have to be parameterised in an appropriate way for the grid.
However, as for the ray launching and ray tracing method, there are continuous improvements
for hardware, software and algorithms.
MN 1790 2 - 48

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Summary of the application areas of the different models:

+ 0 0 Finite difference
+ + + Ray launching ray tracing
- + - COST Walfisch Ikegami
- 0 + COST Hata & knife edge
- 0 + Okumura Hata & knife edge
- + + Giovanelli
- + + Deygout
- + + Epstein Peterson
- 0 + COST Hata
- 0 + Okumura Hata
- - + ITU
+ + + Log-distance path loss
inhouse urban rural Propagation model
Suitable prediction models for
Macro-, Micro-, and Pico- cells
Suitable prediction models for
Macro-, Micro-, and Pico- cells
MN 1790 2 - 49

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Location Probability
Location Probability
The propagation conditions of electromagnetic waves in real environments are not stable, but
location (and time) dependent fluctuations appear.
The radio network planner has to take this into account by working with probabilities, e.g. with the
following two coverage probabilities:
Cell edge probability
Cell area probability
Typical cell edge probabilities for:
Very good coverage: 95%
Good coverage: 90%
Acceptable coverage: 75%
As will be discussed later, these values correspond to the following cell area probabilities:
Very good coverage: 99%
Good coverage: 97%
Acceptable coverage: 91%
MN 1790 2 - 50

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Link Budgets
Link Budgets
Before dimensioning the radio network, the link budget for different environments (indoor, outdoor,
in-car) must be considered.
From the link budget, the maximum allowable path loss can be derived.
Body Loss
Building (indoor)
penetration loss
Path Loss
(Fading) Margins
Diversity Gain,
Antenna Gain
Cable Losses
BTS
MN 1790 2 - 51

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Link Budgets
Link Budgets
MS
Maximum output power [dBm]
Feeder loss [dB]
Antenna gain [dBi]
EIRP [dBm]
Receiver sensitivity [dBm]
BTS
Rx-diversity gain [dB]
Antenna gain [dB]
Head amplifier gain [dB]
Jumper, feeder, connector losses [dB]
Duplexer losses [dB]
Receiver sensitivity [dBm]
Environment
Body loss [dB]
Building (indoor) penetration loss [dB]
Path loss [dB]
Fading margin (lognormal and Rayleigh) [dB]
Interference margin [dB]
Frequency hopping gain [dB]
Terms which enter the link budget:
MN 1790 2 - 52

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Link Budgets
Link Budgets
Example of an UL link budget (GSM 900 MHz MS power class 4, BS with tower mounted amplifier,
frequency hopping on, receive diversity used):
UL
Link Budget
Outdoor MS
(Class 4)
Indoor MS
(Class 4)
Car mounted MS
(Class 2)
Units Remarks
MS Max. Output power 33 33 39 dBm
Feeder Loss 0 0 -2 dB
Antenna Gain 0 0 +2 dBi
Environment Body Loss
(900 / 1800) MHz
-5 / -3 -5 /-3 0 dB
Building (Indoor) penetration Loss 0 -18 0 dB
Path loss dB
Fading Margin: lognormal:
for 1sigma=10 and cell area probability=99%
-12 -12 -12 dB
Fading Margin: Rayleigh -3 -3 -3 dB
Interference Margin -2 -2 -2 dB
Frequency hopping gain +3 +3 +3 dB
BS Rx - diversity gain +3.5 +3.5 +3.5 dB
Antenna gain +17 +17 +17 dBi
Tower mounted amplifier gain +6 +6 +6 dB
Jumper + Feeder + Connector Losses -4 -4 -4 dB
Duplexer Losses -0.5 -0.5 -0.5 dB
Receiver Sensitivity -107 -107 -107 dB
MN 1790 2 - 53

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Fading occurs on different scales due to different causes.

Fading appears statistically but different fading types obey different probability distributions.
Propagation models predict only the average value of the receive level.
An extra margin has to be added due the fading effect.
The common question for all fading effects is: how big to chose the margin such that the receive
level drops not below a given limit with a specified probability?
Fading
MN 1790 2 - 54

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Fast Fading
Fast fading appears due to multi path propagation. The receive level is affected by interferences
due to different path lengths in the multi path propagation.
The field strength at the receiver is the vector sum of the fields corresponding to the different
propagation paths. Usually the fading is described by the probability function for the absolute value
of the field strength.
The generic situations:
Rice fading:
It exists a dominant path (usually the LOS path):
MN 1790 2 - 55

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Rice Fading
Rice fading:

,
_

,
_

N
R R
N
R R
N
R
R
P
V V
P
V V
I
P
V
V f
2
2 2
1 1
0
exp ) (
R
V
1 R
V
0
I
+

N
i
R N
i
V P
1
2
: received signal strength
: received signal from the dominant signal
: modified Bessel-Function of the first kind and zero order.
other noise sources : received power of the non dominant signals including other
noise sources like man made noise.
For the Rice distribution can be approximated by a Gau distribution: 1
2
1
>>
N
R
P
V
( )

,
_

N
R R
N
R
P
V V
P
V f
2 2
1
2
1
exp ) (

MN 1790 2 - 56

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Rice Fading
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 2 4 6 8 10
Absolute value of signal amplitude in V
Probability
Eample: Gauean distributed signal for: V V
R
5
1

MN 1790 2 - 57

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Rayleigh Fading
Rayleigh fading is the other important special case of the Ricean fading. Rayleigh fading
describes the situation were there is no dominant path, i.e. a non LOS situation.
All contribution to the received signal are comparable in strength and arrive statistically distributed.
with : averaged field strength, and :

,
_

2
2
2
2
R
R
R
R
R
V
V
V
V
V f exp ) (
R
V

,
_

0
0
0
0
1
P
P
P
P f exp ) (
2
0
2
1
R
V P averaged receive power:
MN 1790 2 - 58

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0. 001
0. 01
0.1
1
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Power / averaged power in dB
Integrated probability for the power to be below a fading marging for
a Rayleigh distribution
Probability
Rayleigh Fading
MN 1790 2 - 59

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Fast Fading
All described types of fast fading have as characteristic length scale the wavelength of the signals.
To combat Fast Fading:
Use frequency hopping
Use antenna diversity
MN 1790 2 - 60

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Slow Fading

X d L d L + ) ( ) (
Slow fading denote the variation of the local mean signal strength on a longer time scale.
The most important reason for this effect is the shadowing when a mobile moves around (e.g. in a
city).
Measurements have shown that the variation of the the mean receive level is a normal distribution
on a log scale log normal fading.
The fading can be parameterized by adding a zero mean Gaussian distributed random variable .

X
Let P
m
be a minimal receive level, what is the probability that the receive level is higher
than the minimal receive level, i.e. ? ) ) ( Pr( >
m R
P d P
Pr
The has to be determined by measurements.
( )

,
_

2
2
2 2
1

P P
P X exp ) (
MN 1790 2 - 61

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Slow Fading
To compute the probability that the receive level exceeds a certain margin the Gaussian
distribution has to be integrated. This leads to the Q function:
) ( 1 ) (
2
1
2
1
2
exp
2
1
) (
2
z Q z Q
z
erf dx
x
z Q
z

,
_

,
_

,
_

MN 1790 2 - 62

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Slow Fading
0.00135 3.0 0.02275 2.0 0.15866 1.0 0.50000 0.0
0.00005 3.9 0.00187 2.9 0.02872 1.9 0.18406 0.9
0.00007 3.8 0.00256 2.8 0.03593 1.8 0.21186 0.8
0.00011 3.7 0.00347 2.7 0.04457 1.7 0.24196 0.7
0.00016 3.6 0.00466 2.6 0.05480 1.6 0.27425 0.6
0.00023 3.5 0.00621 2.5 0.06681 1.5 0.30854 0.5
0.00034 3.4 0.00820 2.4 0.08076 1.4 0.34458 0.4
0.00048 3.3 0.01072 2.3 0.09680 1.3 0.38209 0.3
0.00069 3.2 0.01390 2.2 0.11507 1.2 0.42074 0.2
0.00097 3.1 0.01786 2.1 0.13567 1.1 0.46017 0.1
Q(z) z Q(z) z Q(z) z Q(z) z
Tabulation of the Q function
MN 1790 2 - 63

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Jakes Formula
Jakes formula gives a relation for the probability that a certain value P
m
at the cell boundary at
radius R is exceeded and the corresponding probability for the whole cell. It is based on
the log distance path loss model:

,
_

+
0
0
lg 10 ) ( ) (
d
d
n d L P d P
T R

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

,
_

+
2 2
1
1
2 1
exp ) ( 1
2
1
) ( Pr
b
ab
erf
b
ab
a erf P
m cell
) ( Pr
m cell
P
( )
2
) (R P P
a
R m

2
) lg( 10 e n
b
MN 1790 2 - 64

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Log-normal Fading
Log-normal Fading
In a shadowing environment, the probability of a certain level as function of the level value follows
a Gaussian distribution on a logarithmic scale.
In general, a Gaussian distribution is described by a mean value and the standard deviation.
Level [dBm]
Probability
Level [dBm]
Probability
MN 1790 2 - 65

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Log-normal Fading
Log-normal Fading
From measurements the standard deviation 1 sigma (
LNF
) in a certain environment.
Typical measurement values (outdoor, indoor) are given in the following table:
9 dB
9 dB
8 dB

LNF(i)
10 dB
8 dB
6 dB
Dense urban
Urban
Rural

LNF(o)
Environment
MN 1790 2 - 66

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Log-normal Fading
Log-normal Fading
To achieve a certain cell edge probability
LNF
must be multiplied with a factor given in the
following table:
(Cell edge probability means the probability to have coverage at the border of the cell)
0.000
0.126
0.253
0.385
0.524
0.674
0.842
1.036
1.282
1.645
1.751
1.881
2.054
2.326
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
96
97
98
99
Factor for calculation of
lognormal fading margin
Cell edge probability in %
MN 1790 2 - 67

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Log-normal Fading
Log-normal Fading
Integrating the Gaussian distribution function over the whole cell area delivers cell area
probabilities. Some example results are given in the following table:
77
91
97
99
50
75
90
95
Cell area probability in % Cell edge probability in %
MN 1790 2 - 68

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Interference Margin
Interference Margin
An interference margin can be introduced in the link budget in order to achieve accurate coverage
prediction in case that the system is busy.
This margin in principle depends on the traffic load, the cell area probability and the frequency
reuse. The required margin will be small if interference level decreasing concepts like frequency
hopping, power control and DTX are used.
Typically, a margin of 2 dB is recommended.
MN 1790 2 - 69

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Noise Figure calculations

Noise Figure calculations
Thermal Noise:
Every object which is at a temperature T > 0K emits electromagnetic waves
(thermal noise). Therefore, electromagnetic noise can be related to a temperature.
P = s * e* A * T
4
Noise Factor:
The Noise Factor can be calculated from the Noise Temperature as follows:
Noise Factor = Noise Temperature / 290K + 1
Noise Figure:
The noise figure is the value of the Noise Factor given in dB:
Noise Figure = 10 * log (Noise Factor)
MN 1790 2 - 70

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Conversion table:
438 4.0 289 3.0 170 2.0 75 1.0
422 3.9 275 2.9 159 1.9 67 0.9
406 3.8 263 2.8 149 1.8 59 0.8
390 3.7 250 2.7 139 1.7 51 0.7
374 3.6 238 2.6 129 1.6 43 0.6
359 3.5 226 2.5 120 1.5 35 0.5
344 3.4 214 2.4 110 1.4 28 0.4
330 3.3 202 2.3 101 1.3 21 0.3
316 3.2 191 2.2 92 1.2 14 0.2
302 3.1 180 2.1 84 1.1 7 0.1
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise
Temp.
Noise
Figure
Noise figure in dB
Noise Temperature in K
Noise Figure calculations
Noise Figure calculations
MN 1790 2 - 71

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Amplifier:
An amplifier amplifies an input signal, as well as the noise of the input signal.
It adds its own noise, which is also amplified.
G T
in
T
noise
G * T
in
+ G * T
noise
MN 1790 2 - 72

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Cascade of amplifiers:
G1 T
in
T
n1
G1* T
in
+ G1 * T
n1
G2
T
n2
G2 * (G1 * T
in
+ G1 * T
n1
) + G2 * T
n2
= G1*G2* (T
in
+ T
n1
+ T
n2
/G1)
= G * (T
in
+ T
noise
)
With T
noise
= T
n1
+ T
n2
/G1 and
G = G1 * G2
G T
in
T
noise
G * T
in
+ G * T
noise
Equivalent to cascade of amplifiers
MN 1790 2 - 73

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Friis formula:
T
noise
= T
n1
+ T
n2
/ G1 + T
n3
/ (G1*G2) + ...
G T
in
T
noise
G * T
in
+ G * T
noise
Equivalent to cascade of amplifiers
T
noise
= T
n1
+ T
n2
/G1
G = G1 * G2
MN 1790 2 - 74

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Example:
G1 T
in
T
n1
G1* T
in
+ G1 * T
n1
G2
T
n2
G1*G2* (T
in
+ T
noise
)
With
T
noise
= T
n1
+ T
n2
/G1
Assumptions:
G1 = 16 T
n1
= 28K
G2 = 20 T
n2
= 200K
Result:
Gain = 320
T
noise
= 40.5K
Assumptions:
G1 = 20 T
n1
= 200K
G2 = 16 T
n2
= 28K
Result:
Gain = 320
T
noise
= 201.4K
Consequence:
Position of amplifier in chain
is very important
MN 1790 2 - 75

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Exercise 1:
Calculate the noise temperature of the following system:
G T
noise
?
Antenna cable
Loss 10 dB
Amplifier in BTS
Gain 25 dB
Noise temperature 240K
MN 1790 2 - 76

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Amplifier Noise
Amplifier Noise
Exercise 2:
Calculate the noise temperature of the following system:
T
noise
?
Cable to antenna mast
Loss 10 dB
G
Amplifier in BTS
Gain 2 dB
Noise temperature 290K
G
Mast Head Amplifier
Gain 28 dB
Noise temperature 260K
MN 1790 2 - 77

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Path Loss Balance

Path Loss Balance
Since the coverage range in UL should be the same as the coverage range in DL, the radio link
must be balanced:
Maximum allowable path loss in UL = Maximum allowable path loss in DL
Considering the link budget, usually the UL is the bottleneck, i.e. the maximum allowable path loss
is determined by the UL and not by the DL, although:
The BS receiver sensitivity is usually better than the MS receiver sensitivity.
Diversity is usually only used in the receive path.
In case of an unbalanced link with weak UL, the UL sensitivity and therefore also the UL coverage
range can be increased by using tower mounted amplifiers.
MN 1790 2 - 78

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Cell Coverage Calculation

Cell Coverage Calculation
From consideration of link budget Maximum allowable path loss
Using radio wave propagation formulas (e.g.Hata) Maximum cell size
Exercise:
Consider a class 4 MS of height = 1.5 m. The BTS height = 30 m. Assume Hata
propagation conditions and a cell area probability of 97%. What is the maximum outdoor,
indoor cell radius and in-car cell radius:
a) In a dense urban environment (
LNF,o
= 10 dB;
LNF,i
= 9 dB )?
b) In a suburban environment (
LNF,o
= 8 dB;
LNF,i
= 9 dB)?
c) In an open area (
LNF,o
= 6 dB;
LNF,i
= 8 dB)?
Assume an in-car penetration loss of 6dB.
MN 1790 2 - 79

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Basics about Digital Map Data

Basics about Digital Map Data
The cell planning tools require as one input digital map data (which are often based on paper
maps, satellite photos,). These digital map data should contain information about, the land
usage ( so called Clutter information), about the height of obstacles and they should also contain
so called vector data (like rivers, streets,).
A digital map is an electronic database containing geographical information.
The smallest unit on such a map is called a pixel. The typical edge-length of such a pixel is
ranging from several meters to several hundred meters. A digital map is often subdivided into
several blocks consisting of many pixels. The different layers of information in one block always
use the same resolution, whereas different blocks can have different resolutions.
Each pixel should contain information about:
Land usage (Clutter information)
Height data
Vector data (like rivers, streets,)

Before working with these digital data, some pre-processing of the data may be required. Some
ideas are sketched on the following pages.
MN 1790 2 - 80

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Basics about Digital Map Data

Basics about Digital Map Data
Definition of terms
Geoid
Spheroid / Ellipsoid
Geodetic Datum / Map Datum / Datum
Projections
Are used to transfer the 3 dimensional earth to a 2 dimensional map
Nobody is perfect
No projection is at the same time exact in area, exact in angle and exact in distance.
MN 1790 2 - 81

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Geodetic datum simplified mathematical representation of the size and shape of the earth
1. Local geodetic datum best approximates the size and the shape of the particular part of
the earth
2. Geocentric datum best approximates the size and shape of the earth as a whole
spheroid
geoid
The GPS uses a geocentric datum to express its position because of its global extent.
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 82

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Two coordinates systems are implicitly associated with a geodetic datum:

a. Cartesian coordinate system
b. Geodetic (geographic) coordinate system
A third coordinate system is provided by a map projection.
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 83

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1. reference surface
2. mapping surface
3. projecton plane
Map projections:
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
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Cylindrical projection true at the equator and distortion increases toward the poles
1. Regular cylindrical projections
a. Equirectangular projection
b. Mercator projection
c. Lamberts cylindrical equal area
d. Galls sterographic cylindrical
e. Miller cylindrical projection
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 85

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2. Transverse cylindrical projections

a. Cassini projection
b. Transverse Mercator
c. Transverse cylindrical equal area projection
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 86

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3. Oblique cylindrical projections

Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 87

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Conic projections true along some parallel somewhere between the equator and a pole and
distortion increases away from this standard
1. Lambert conformal conic
2. Bipolar oblique conic conformal
3. Albers equal-area conic
4. Lambert equal-area conic
5. Perspective conic
6. Polyconic
7. Rectangular polyconic

Basics about Digital Map Data

Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 88

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Azimuthal projections true only at their centre point, but generally distortion is worst at the
edge of the map
1. The Gnomonic projection
2. The azimuthal equidistant projection
3. Lambert azimuthal equal-area
4. etc.
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 89

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Compromise projection
1. Galls projection
2. Miller projection
3. Robinson projection
4. Van der Grinten Projection
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 90

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For transformation of parameters (Latitude and Longitude) from the 3 dimensional representation into
a 2 dimensional rectangular system often a combination of WGS-84 ellipsoid & UTM rectangular
coordinate system is used (like e.g. for GPS).
UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) system defines 2 dimensional positions using zone numbers
and zone characters for longitudinal and horizontal scaling:
UTM zone number (1-60):
longitudinal strips: range: 80 south latitude - 84 north latitude, width: 6 degree
UTM zone characters (using 20 characters, also called designators):
horizontal strips: range: 180 east - 180 west longitude, width: 8 degree
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 91

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Hints concerning the usage of maps:

Avoid in any case the referencing of geodetic co-ordinates to a wrong geodetic datum.
Referencing to a wrong datum can result in position errors of several hundred meters! (In
the meantime people agreed to use in the future the World Geodetic System 1984
[WGS-84] for all maps.)
Remember that e.g. different nations may use different geodetic datum.
If a datum conversion is necessary a careful transformation of seven parameters is necessary:
3 for translation, 3 for rotation, 1 for scaling
For daily work, try to use the same geodetic datum: in your planning tool(s), for your
GPS systems, and for your paper maps.
Prefer the following map scales:
1:50000 (for rural areas and 900 MHz cell planning)
1:20000 (for rural areas and 1800/1900 MHz cell planning)
1:10000- 1:5000 (for urban areas and for micro cell planning)
In the maps, height information should be included as contour lines.
Basics about Digital Map Data
Basics about Digital Map Data
MN 1790 2 - 92

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Principles of Planning Tools and their usage

Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Main Task of radio network planning tools:
Coverage planning
Capacity planning
Frequency planning
Link Budget calculations
Propagation predictions
Propagation model fine tuning
Co- and adjacent channel interference analysis
Macro, micro cell planning
Handling of multi-layer structures
Repeater system handling
Microwave planning

MN 1790 2 - 93

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Principles of Planning Tools and their usage

Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Remarks to radio network planning tools and required digital map data:
Tools using empirical propagation models require map data with less resolution compared to tools
working with deterministic propagation models.
In case empirical propagation models are used:
Typical pixel size: 50m x 50m to 200m x 200m
Using statistics, the signal variation around the mean value is taken into account
In case that the BS antenna is higher then the surrounding, the clutter correction term of the
target pixel contain most propagation effects. For the clutter boundaries often several pixels
before the target pixel are taken into account.
In case deterministic propagation models are used:
Digital data with high resolution are required (often very expensive)
Typical pixel size: 2m x 2m to 10m x 10m
Mostly used for big cities only
MN 1790 2 - 94

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Principles of Planning Tools and their usage

Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Remarks to tools and required computational time:
Depending not only on the hardware used but also on the algorithms behind the software,
the computational time required by different tools varies significantly.
MN 1790 2 - 95

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Principles of Planning Tools and their usage

Principles of Planning Tools and their usage
Planning tools do not run fully automatically but always require some input and an
intelligent and creative usage.
Remember:
Garbage in Garbage out
MN 1790 2 - 96

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Measurement Tools supporting Cell Planning

Measurement Tools supporting Cell Planning
Fine tuning (calibration) of propagation models:
Why? When? How?
Since propagation models does not necessarily describe exactly the real situation, a fine tuning
of the models is necessary (e.g. clutter data may vary from country to country).
This tool tuning should be done in the start phase of the network planning (i.e. before a detailed
plan is performed).
A test transmitter is located at typical site locations, a test receiver measures the RX_LEV
along predefined measurement routes. These measured values are taken as input for the tool fine
tuning.
MN 1790 2 - 97

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Cell Types
Cell Types
Omni-Cell
Sector-Cells
Exercise:
Compare the coverage of an omni-cell (antenna gain = 10 dBi) and the coverage of a three sector-
cell configuration (antenna gain 18 dBi).
MN 1790 2 - 98

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Omni versus Sector Cells

Omni versus Sector Cells
Omni sites:
J Advantages of omni sites:
Trunking gain (especially interesting for those networks having only a few frequencies)
Omni antennas are usually less bulky than sector antennas
Suitable in those areas, where the surrounding terrain limits the coverage (before the
maximum omni cell radius is reached)
L Disadvantages of omni sites:
In case of horizontal antenna diversity: Diversity gain depends on direction
Greater reuse distance required
Less flexibility in network optimization (concerning antenna tilt, power control
parameters, handover parameters)
TX/RX antenna separation difficult (usually TX/RX antennas are mounted on different
vertical levels to achieve sufficient separation)
Limited mounting positions: no wall mounting possible
MN 1790 2 - 99

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Exercises
Exercises
1) Consider:
an extended cell with 100 km cell radius covering a sea area (clutter term: 30 dB),
a 900 MHz mobile station of power class 4,
a BS with the GSM minimum receiver sensitivity,
an (BS) antenna gain of 15 dBi.
What should be the height of the BS antenna?
2) Consider:
a mobile station with 2 Watts output power maximum,
a BS receiver sensitivity of 104 dBm,
an (BS) antenna gain of 15 dBi.
For a satellite carrying the BS, what would be the maximum radius for the satellite orbit.
3) How many sites can be saved in principle if TMAs with 6 dB gain are used in the
network? Use typical values and Hatas propagation formula for calculation.