Final Report10

( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )
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( ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH & SAFETY PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT )
Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry
Substudy 10: Environment, Health & Safety Performance Improvement

December 2002
by
Ian Marlowe and David Mansfield

with contributions from Neil Hurford, Alistair Bird, and Sue Wood
An Independent Study Commissioned by:
World Business Council for Sustainable Development This substudy is one of 13 research investigations conducted as part of a larger project entitled, "Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry". The project was commissioned by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development as one of a series of member-sponsored projects aimed at converting sustainable development concepts into action. The report represents the independent research efforts of AEA Technology to identify critical issues for the cement industry today, and pathways forward toward a more sustainable future. While there has been considerable interactive effort and exchange of ideas with many organizations within and outside the cement industry during this project, the opinions and views expressed here are those of AEA Technology. AEA Technology plc AEA Technology endeavors to produce work of the highest quality, consistent with our contract commitments. However, because of the research nature of this work, the recipients of this report shall undertake the sole responsibility for the consequence of their use or misuse of, or inability to use, any information, data or recommendation contained in this report and understand that AEA Technology makes no warranty or guarantee, express or implied, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose or merchantability, for the contents of this report. The recommendations and actions toward sustainable development contained herein are based on the results of research regarding the status and future opportunities for the cement industry as a whole. AEA Technology has consulted with a number of organizations and individuals within the cement industry to enhance the applicability of the results. Nothing in the recommendations or their potential supportive actions is intended to promote or lead to reduced competition within the industry.
Foreword
Many companies around the globe are re-examining their business operations and relationships in a fundamental way. They are exploring the concept of Sustainable Development, seeking to integrate their pursuit of profitable growth with the assurance of environmental protection and quality of life for present and future generations. Based on this new perspective, some companies are beginning to make significant changes in their policies, commitments and business strategies. The study, of which this substudy is a part, represents an effort by ten major cement companies to explore how the cement industry as a whole can evolve over time to better meet the need for global sustainable development while enhancing shareholder value. The study findings include a variety of recommendations for the industry and its stakeholders to improve the sustainability of cement production. Undertaking this type of open, self-critical effort carries risks. The participating companies believe that an independent assessment of the cement industrys current status and future opportunities will yield long-term benefits that justify the risks. The intent of the study is to share information that will help any cement company regardless of its size, location, or current state of progress to work constructively toward a sustainable future. The pursuit of a more sustainable cement industry requires that a number of technical, managerial, and operational issues be examined in depth. This substudy, one of 13 conducted as a part of the project, provides the basis for assessing the current status or performance and identifies areas for progress toward sustainability on a specific topic. The project report entitled Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry may be found on the project website: http://www.wbcsdcement.org/.
Study Groundrules This report was developed as part of a study managed by Battelle, and funded primarily by a group of ten cement companies designated for this collaboration as the Working Group Cement (WGC). By choice, the study boundaries were limited to activities primarily associated with cement production. Downstream activities, such as cement distribution, concrete production, and concrete products, were addressed only in a limited way. Battelle conducted this study as an independent research effort, drawing upon the knowledge and expertise of a large number of organizations and individuals both inside and outside the cement industry. The cement industry provided a large number of case studies to share practical experience. Battelle accepted the information in these case studies and in public information sources used. The WGC companies provided supporting information and advice to assure that the report would be credible with industry audiences. To assure objectivity, a number of additional steps were taken to obtain external input and feedback. A series of six dialogues was held with stakeholder groups around the world. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development participated in all meetings and monitored all communications between Battelle and the WGC. An Assurance Group, consisting of distinguished independent experts, reviewed both the quality and objectivity of the study findings. External experts reviewed advanced drafts of technical substudy reports. The geographic scope of the study was global, and the future time horizon considered was 20 years. Much of the data for this particular substudy was drawn from US and UK sources because of their ease of access and the relatively long-term collection time frame. Regional and local implementation of the study recommendations will need to be tailored to the differing states of socioeconomic and technological development.
List of Acronyms
B BAT BCA BREF CH CIF CKD CSI D EBRD EIC EIPPC EMAS HSE NAEI OSHA PEL RoW S SIC TSP UK US US EPA USGS VDZ WGC Belgium Best Available Techniques British Cement Association Best Available Techniques Reference Document Switzerland Cement Industry Federation (Australia) Cement kiln dust Cement Sustainability Initiative Germany European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, London Environmental Information Centre (India) European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau, Seville Eco-Management and Audit Scheme Health and Safety Executive (United Kingdom) National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (United Kingdom) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (United States) Permissible Exposure Limit Rest of the World Sweden Standard Industrial Classification Total suspended particulates United Kingdom United States United States Environmental Protection Agency United States Geological Survey German Cement Association Working Group Cement (ten core cement company sponsors)
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Glossary
By-Product Cement Secondary product of an industrial process. A powdery product made from limestone and small amounts of other raw materials, heated to form clinker, which is then ground to a powder with small amounts of gypsum and other additives. A hard substance produced in cement kilns which is ground with gypsum and other additives to make cement. A building material made from a mixture of sand and rocks bound together with cement. Informal term for the family of polychlorinated dibenzo dioxins and related polychlorinated dibenzo furans. A naturally occurring mineral, hydrated calcium sulfate. A naturally occurring rock, primarily composed of calcium carbonate, often containing trace amounts of other minerals. Oxides of nitrogen: the sum of nitric oxide (NO) plus nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Although other oxides of nitrogen occur, such as nitrous oxide (N2O), they are normally excluded from the definition of NOx. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Polychlorinated biphenyls. Oxides of sulfur: the sum of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3). The former substance predominates, and emissions of SOx are often reported as SO2 equivalent.
Clinker Concrete Dioxins Gypsum Limestone NOx
PAHs PCBs SOx
Note that throughout this report, the unit t signifies metric tonnes; 1 tonne = 1000 kilograms.
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Executive Summary
This report assesses the past and current environment, health and safety performance of the cement industry, and identifies key actions that will help drive the cement industry to contribute to a more sustainable society. Cement production is a key supplier to the concrete industry. The most important environment, health and safety performance issues facing the cement industry are: Greenhouse gas emissions (dealt with in other reports in this study); Atmospheric releases, primarily of NOx, SO2 and particulates; Stakeholder concerns over the potential for dioxin releases, particularly the perceived association with use of alternative fuels; Health and safety performance, in particular associated with accidents and worker exposure to dusts. Recommendations to improve health and safety performance are: 1. In the short term, engagement of operators in industry safety initiatives and forums in order to share knowledge and good practices so that these become the industry norm. The Cement Health & Safety Taskforce should be encouraged to develop and publish information on key hazards and their control and safe working practices. 2. Publish safety data using common metrics to encourage comparison and benchmarking among companies. 3. In the medium to long term, the industry should encourage the wider use of risk assessment in plant design, plant modification and for key operational activities. To improve environmental performance the key steps are: 4. Improve emission measurement and estimation by the development of industry wide protocols for NOX, SO2, particulates and dioxins. 5. An open approach to public reporting of performance by the industry as a whole and by companies. 6. Adopt best practice in emission control measures and promulgate their use in all countries of operation. Best practice can be broadly defined as a technique or methodology that, through experience and research in an industrial sector, has proven to reliably lead to a desired result.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 2. Overview of Health, Safety and Environmental Challenges 2.1 Health and Safety 2.2 Environment 3. Health and Safety Performance 3.1 Introduction 3.2 How the Cement Industry Compares 3.3 Key Risks and Control Measures 3.4 Improving Performance 3.5 Current Cement Industry Initiatives 3.6 Focus for the Future 3.7 Summary 4. Environmental Performance 4.1 Air Emissions 4.1.1 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 4.1.2 Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) 4.1.3 Dust/Particulates 4.1.4 Oxides of Carbon: CO and CO2 4.1.5 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 4.1.6 Acid Gases 4.1.7 Metals 4.1.8 Organic Micropollutants 4.2 Alternative Fuels 4.3 Local Nuisance 4.3.1 Noise 4.3.2 Visual Impact 4.3.3 Dust/Haze 4.3.4 Odor 4.4 Monitoring, Managing and Reporting Releases 4.4.1 Monitoring 4.4.2 Environmental Management 4.4.3 Sectoral Guidelines 4.5 Summary Appendices Appendix A: Further Reading Appendix B: References 1 2 2 2 6 6 6 10 14 15 16 17 19 19 20 22 24 29 29 30 30 31 35 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 42 43 43 43
List of Tables
Table 2-1. Table 3-1. Table 3-2. Table 3-3. Table 3-4. Table 4-1. Table 4-2. Table 4-3. Table 4-4. Key environmental aspects of cement production Comparison of incidence rates UK Fatal injury rate comparison for industries with the highest rates UK Non-fatal major injury rate comparison for industries with the highest rates Breakdown of accident events by type Major constituents of cement kiln exhaust gas Emission ranges from European cement kilns Emission Limit Values for particulate releases in different regions of the world Dioxin emission estimates for Australian sources 4 7 8 9 10 19 19 28 33
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Table 4-5. Table 4-6. Table 4-7. Table 4-8.
The types of by-product most frequently used in Europe International emissions data for cement production emissions of dioxins Emissions of micropollutants and VOCs from UK cement kilns in 2000, normalized to CO2 emissions World Bank guidelines on noise levels for cement plants
35 36 37 38
List of Figures
Figure 2-1. Figure 3-1. Figure 4-1. Figure 4-2. Figure 4-3. Figure 4-4. Figure 4-5. Figure 4-6. Figure 4-7. Figure 4-8. Figure 4-9. Figure 4-10. Figure 4-11. Global cement production in the year 2001 Accident statistics for the workforce employed at the VDZ member works in the years 1969 and 1998-2000 Trends in emissions of NOx Relative contributions of the cement, iron & steel and refineries sectors to total UK NOx emissions in the years 1970 and 2000. Trends in emissions of SO2 SO2 emissions from cement production as a proportion of total SO2 emissions Trends in emissions of PM10 Relative contributions of the cement, iron & steel, refineries and quarrying sectors to total UK PM10 emissions in the years 1970 and 2000. The composition of metals released from cement production in the UK in 2000 and the total emissions of heavy metals from cement production since 1970 Dioxin emission factors for cement production from national dioxin inventories Emissions of dioxins in the UK Cement kiln co-incineration market share in hazardous waste incineration in France Cumulative registrations to the EMAS scheme by cement manufacturers in the European Union and Norway 5 14 21 21 23 23 27 27 30 32 34 36 40
List of Boxes
Box 3-1. Box 4-1. Box 4-2. Box 4-3. Box 4-4. Contractor passport systems General primary measures for the manufacturing of cement Dust and particulates some definitions Measurement and monitoring priorities for cement plants Sectoral reporting guidelines for cement production 11 20 26 41 42
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1. Introduction
This substudy is one of 13 research investigations conducted as part of a larger project entitled Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry. The project was commissioned from Battelle Memorial Institute by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development as one of a series of member-sponsored projects aimed at converting sustainable development concepts into action. This report contains data and information collected by AEA Technology and draws on earlier unpublished work by TNO1 and PricewaterhouseCoopers completed for Battelle. The report aims to assess the environment, health and safety performance of the cement industry. More specifically, the report aims to provide answers to the following questions: What are the key health, safety and environmental aspects of cement production? How does the performance of the cement industry compare with other sectors? How has performance changed historically, and what does a sustainable cement industry look like? What are the priorities for action? The report is structured in 4 chapters. Following this introduction: Chapter 2 overviews the challenges facing the cement industry Chapter 3 considers the health and safety performance of the sector Chapter 4 looks in detail at the environmental performance.
A Dutch consultancy company.
2. Overview of health, safety and environmental challenges

2.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY
The cement industry provides direct employment for an estimated 850,000 workers worldwide (ERM, 2002). The cement manufacturing industry is labor intensive and uses large scale and potentially hazardous manufacturing processes. The industry experiences accident rates that are high compared with some other manufacturing industries. There are a number of hazards inherent to the cement production process. Some examples for health are: exposure to dust and high temperatures; contact with allergic substances; and noise exposure.
And some examples for safety: falling / impact with objects; hot surface burns; and transportation.
These mainly impact on those working within the industry, although health hazards can also impact on local communities. For quarrying operations there are also hazards associated with blasting and rock handling. Workers are also at risk from hazards common to many industrial working environments: general slips, trips and falls, machinery hazards and electrical hazards.
2.2 ENVIRONMENT
Concrete is second only to water as the most consumed substance on earth, with nearly three tonnes of the material used annually for each person on the planet. Cement is the critical ingredient in concrete, locking together the sand and gravel constituents in an inert matrix; it is the glue which holds together much of modern societys infrastructure. To produce a tonne of cement2 uses approximately 1.5 tonnes of raw materials, 0.3 tonnes of air and 6 gigajoules of fuel3; and releases 0.94 tonnes of carbon dioxide (Battelle, 2002a). The raw materials are primarily limestone together with clay, gypsum
Approximate material and energy flows in Ordinary Portland Cement production (dry process average U.S. figures blended cements differ greatly) 3 Includes energy to acquire and transport fuel
2
and other materials which may include blast furnace slag and fly ash according to the desired properties of the finished product. Cement plants are often situated close to quarrying operations (the source of the raw materials) and to transportation outlets. Because of its weight, cement supply via land transportation is expensive and generally limited to an area within 300 km of any one plant site. Bulk export plants are normally situated on sea coasts or major inland waterways. The main environmental issues associated with cement production are emissions to air and energy use. Waste water discharge is usually limited to surface run off and cooling water only and causes no substantial contribution to water pollution (EIPPC, 2001). Quarrying activities associated with the cement industry impact land use and biodiversity. Land and landscape management issues are dealt with in the Substudy 11 Report (Battelle, 2002b). The energy consumed by the cement industry is estimated at about 2% of the global primary energy consumption; 5% of global man-made carbon dioxide emissions originate from cement production (Hendriks et al., 1998). Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas releases and related issues are dealt with extensively in the Substudy 8 Report Climate Change (Battelle, 2002c) and are not discussed further in this report. The Substudy 8 Report Climate Change (Battelle, 2002c) notes the use of alternative raw materials such as fly ash, dust and gypsum from power generation as a cost effective way to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. The availability of fly ash from coal-fired power production is estimated to grow until 2020. The fuels used for cement manufacture have traditionally been fossil fuels (principally coal and heavy fuel oils). Using waste from other industries as fuel (for example waste solvents, end of life tires or waste plastics) is a huge opportunity to reduce environmental impacts across a whole range of industries as well as from cement production. Wastes can be turned into valuable product; fossil fuel consumption can be reduced; and the environmental impacts of fossil fuel extraction, and raw material quarrying and mining operations can be reduced. Western Europe currently uses the greatest percentage of nontraditional fuels i.e. fuels other than coal, oil, gas and heavy fuel oil, in their process at 42%, compared to China that currently uses almost exclusively fossil fuels (Battelle, 2002c). Introducing alternative fuels into cement production also presents new challenges to the cement industry by potentially changing the nature of environmental releases. Releases are highlighted in Table 2-1; a point to note is the possibility of dioxin formation where chlorine-containing by-products are introduced into the cement kiln. Ever since the Seveso incident4 dioxins have gained an especially emotive reputation amongst the general population and consequently the use of by-products in cement production has attracted considerable attention from many groups. The situation may not be aided by the fact that although data on releases to the environment from the cement industry are
In 1976 a chemical plant at Seveso (Italy) manufacturing pesticides and herbicides released a vapor cloud containing tetrachlorodibenzoparadioxin from a reactor used for the production of trichlorophenol.
widely available in the form of national inventories, it is not always organized in a uniform manner at the individual plant performance level. At a local level the environmental impacts of cement production relate to nuisance issues mainly through emissions of dust, noise and/or vibration as well as visual impact which, though not focused upon in this report, may be compounded by local quarrying operations and traffic movements associated with transport of raw materials, fuel and product. Table 2-1. Key environmental aspects of cement production Air Emissions NOx, SOx, dust/particulates Use of waste as fuel Local nuisance Greenhouse gases Land use and biodiversity Stakeholder concerns over releases of dioxins, other chlorinated hydrocarbons and heavy metals Noise/vibration, dust, visual impact CO2 (dealt with under Substudy 8 Climate Change Battelle, 2002c) Primarily associated with quarrying activities (dealt with under Substudy 11 Management of Land Use, Landscape and Biodiversity Battelle, 2002b)
In 2001 global cement production was approximately 1.65 billion tonnes (USGS, 2002 estimate); as Figure 2-1 below shows, two thirds of global production was located in the top 10 producing countries. China alone produced approximately one third of the global total. Trends, challenges, and opportunities in Chinas cement industry are the subject of a separate report (Battelle, 2002d). Though not explored within this report, the resource depletion associated with the extraction of raw materials this production demands may be an issue for the sustainable management of the industry it should be stressed that this point only applies on a local basis, where limestone and other raw materials and/or energy are in short supply. Two basic variations for cement production are used around the world: a wet process and a dry process, distinguished by the amount of water present in feedstreams to the cement kiln. The dry process offers higher energy efficiency, and has replaced much, but not all, of the wet process plants. There are also two common kiln designs in use today: a vertical shaft kiln, and a horizontal rotary kiln. The rotary kiln generally has higher capacity and better process and environmental controls. It is widely used. Vertical shaft kilns have largely disappeared from western countries, but still dominate the Chinese cement production. Present-day modern cement plants produce upwards of 2-4 million tonnes annually. In contrast, China has only ten plants producing more than one million tonnes annually, and the majority have capacities below 275,000 tonnes per year (as of 1995).

700
600
500
Million tonnes
400
300
200
100
0 China India USA Japan Korea, Republic of Brazil Germany Italy Turkey Russia RoW
Figure 2-1. Global cement production in the year 2001 (USGS, 2002)
3.
Health and Safety Performance
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The cement production process can be divided into the two aspects of manufacturing processes and quarrying activities. As outlined in Section 2.1, the two aspects have different profiles with respect to the health and safety performance of the cement industry.
3.2 HOW THE CEMENT INDUSTRY COMPARES

The cement manufacturing industry is labor intensive. This, combined with the large scale and potentially hazardous nature of the manufacturing process, means that the industry experiences accident rates that are high compared with many other manufacturing industries. This is illustrated in Table 3-1, which contains a comparison of incidence rates in the USA in 1999. It is also evident from the table that it is possible to operate high hazard activities more safely as is shown, for example, in the data for the chemical and oil and gas industries (note however that the data presented show only the incidence rate, not the severity, of lost time incidents). In the chemical industry for example, local companies and business units are centrally rewarded for performing with zero accidents per million working hours. The better units could achieve accident rates of 0.5 or 1% (0.5 to 1 accidents per 100 employees per year) or less, performance that is currently only within reach for the front runners in the cement industry (TNO and PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2002). The lost workday case rate of 2.86 per 100 workers for hydraulic cement manufacture may also be compared with the current average annual injury rate for the UK manufacturing industry (includes major and 3 day lost time incidents). In 2000 this was 1.2 per 100 employees for manufacturing and 0.7 per 100 employees averaged across all UK industry sectors (HSE, 2001).
Table 3-1. Comparison of incidence rates5 Industry (SIC Code, US) Incidence Lost Workday rate Cases (a) Cement Hydraulic (324) 69 2.86 Metal Mining (10) 58 2.70 Concrete, gypsum and plaster products (227) 35 1.64 Rubber & Miscellaneous Plastic Products 30 5.19 (30) Paper & Allied Products (26) 26 2.19 General Building Contracts (15) 21 3.49 Lumber & Wood Products (24) 19 2.48 Coal Mining (12) 12 0.73 Textile Mill Products (22) 7 1.49 Chemical & Allied Products (28) 5 0.87 Oil & Gas Extraction (13) 3 0.43 (a) annual cases per 100 workers Lost Workday Case: A case that involves days away from work and/or days of restricted work activity Incidence Rate: 200,000 times the number of injuries and/or illnesses or lost workdays divided by the total hours worked by all employees during the calendar year; (for an incidence calculator and comparison per SIC see: http://www.libertymutual.com/business/safety/risktool.html)
Similar comparisons can be drawn from the latest UK statistics (HSE, 2001), see Table 32 and Table 3-3. These comparisons show that there is room for significant improvement in the cement manufacturing industrys safety record. The fact that other industries viewed as high risk, such as chemical manufacturing, perform better is a reflection of the level of awareness and attention to health and safety in those industries. This shows how focusing the attitudes and behaviors of workforce and management can bring about significant health and safety improvements. For example BOC Group (a speciality chemicals manufacturer) has instigated a five-year strategy to halve the Groups accident rate. The main items underpinning the strategy are implementing, communicating, measuring and reporting best practice as well as training, competence and behavioral management systems. Further information is provided on the BOC Group web site at http://www.boc.com/socialResp/sub4.cfm?subcat_id=79&cat_id=94&sindex=1.
Taken from unpublished research data collected by TNO
Table 3-2. UK Fatal Injury Rate Comparison for Industries with the Highest Rates SIC92 UK Industry Fatal Rate per Classification 100,000 Workers Industry Sector Quarrying of stone, ore and clay 13-14 10.4 Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing 01, 02, 05 9 Extraction of coal, oil and gas 10-12 8.9 Construction 45 4.8 Manufacturing of basic metals and fabricated metal products 27/28 3.4 Manufacturing of wood and wood products 20 3.2 Manufacturing of other non-metallic mineral products (includes cement) 26 2.7 Manufacturing not elsewhere classified 36/37 2.3 Transport, storage and communication (a) 60-64 2.0 Electricity, gas and water supply 40/41 1.6 Manufacturing of rubber and plastic products 25 1.6 Total All Industries (b) 0.9 (a) Injuries arising from shore-based services only. Excludes incidents reported under merchant shipping legislation. (b) Numbers and percentages do not sum to the total.
It is also interesting to note the relatively high accident rates associated with quarrying. Quarrying is a major activity associated with cement manufacture. If the cement industry as a whole is to improve, considerable effort is needed to tackle safety in its quarry operations as well as in cement production plants. The different hazards and types of activities in quarrying as compared to cement production may mean that different management system priorities and approaches may be needed to improve safety and health performance in these two areas.
Table 3-3. UK Non-Fatal Major Injury Rate Comparison for Industries with the Highest Rates SIC92 UK Industry Injury Rate per Classification 100,000 Workers Industry Sector Quarrying of stone, ore and clay 13-14 449.7 Manufacturing of wood and wood products 20 420.5 Extraction of coal, oil and gas 10-12 392.6 Construction 45 392.1 Manufacturing of food products; beverages and tobacco 15-16 306.9 Manufacturing of other non-metallic mineral products (a) 26 302.8 Manufacturing of basic metals and fabricated metal products 27/28 297.7 Manufacturing of rubber and plastic products 25 274.4 Transport, storage and communication (b) 60-64 258.9 Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing 01, 02, 05 01, 02, 05 212.2 Total All Industries (c) 112.8 (a) Includes cement manufacture and other industries. (b) Injuries arising from shore-based services only. Excludes incidents reported under merchant shipping legislation. (c) Numbers and percentages do not sum to the total.
3.3 KEY RISKS AND CONTROL MEASURES

Further analysis of the accident statistics reveals where the main risks arise. An analysis of recent accidents by a UK company (Table 3-4 is taken from an internal analysis of data from a UK cement manufacturing company) indicates the types of events that present most risk. A recent review of worldwide fatal accident statistics by the Cement Safety Taskforce identified vehicle impacts, falls from heights / falling objects, and contractors working on unfamiliar plant or unfamiliar with safe working practices as key issues. Table 3-4. Breakdown of Accident Events by Type Activity % Manual handling 22 Slips, trips and falls 17 Falls from height 17 Strike against fixed object 11 Struck by vehicle 6 Other 27 Modern plant design, operational procedures and practices, mean that the risks from routine operations can be well controlled. Most handling operations are automated to avoid the need for manual intervention and for contact between workers and process materials. The worker groups most at risk are those involved in plant cleaning and maintenance. Here the risk of contact with machinery, hazardous and hot substances is higher. Plant cleaning and maintenance activities frequently involve working at height or in awkward locations (for example confined spaces) presenting access and egress difficulties and the handling of unusual or unfamiliar equipment, tools or situations. This is reflected in the percentage of incidents associated with manual handling and falls from height. Contractors are frequently used for cleaning and maintenance activities, especially during major planned plant shutdowns, where additional workforce is required to meet tight schedules. As a result, contractors can be exposed to some of the higher risk activities, leading to a higher rate of accidents if the contractors are not fully trained and familiar with the plant and its hazards. Contractor safety awareness is improved through induction training addressing the specific hazards and control measures related to cement manufacturing facilities. Schemes such as the contractor passport system (see Box 3-1) can help ensure contractors remain up to date with safety awareness, standards and good practices.
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Box 3-1: Contractor Passport Systems Contractor safety passport systems are widely used for both offshore and onshore operations in the oil and gas industry worldwide. They provide a simple and practical means to ensure that all contractors working on a companys site are competent, suitably briefed and trained in the sites safety systems and minimum safety requirements. Safety passport systems vary in format and scope, but typically include the following:
Each contractor is issued with a signed and dated passport on satisfactory completion of the site safety induction training program and any competence or specialist training checks The passport typically has a limited validity both in terms of the type of work the contractor can undertake (e.g. hot work) and the time the passport is valid for. The passport system requires that refresher training at specified intervals is needed to keep the passport valid Passport schemes may include different passports and requirements for workers and supervisors The passport provides a simple means for both the contractor and the company personnel to check if that person is trained and suitable to undertake a given task, and when retraining is required. If the passport is not valid, the contractor cannot do the work. This provides an incentive for contractors to ensure they have the right training and accreditation, and to keep their passport up-to-date Safety passport training elements could include o Introduction to Health and Safety Law o Work Permits o Safe Working Practices o Electrical Lock-out Procedures o Safe Access and Egress o Accident and First Aid Procedures o Hot works (welding and cutting) Procedures o Fire Precautions and Procedures o Hazardous substances handling and risks and Personnel Protective Equipment o Manual Handling o Working with Cranes and Heavy Equipment o Excavations o Tool Box Talks o Risk Assessment In some cases a number of companies operating similar facilities have got together and developed a common contractor safety passport system. This avoids the need for unnecessary and repetitive training were the contractor to need a different passport for every site.
Slips, Trips and Falls Slips, trips and falls are another common cause of accidents in the industry. These can arise from the uneven surfaces in the quarries and roads and from lapses in good housekeeping within the manufacturing plants.
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Vehicles Common hazards associated with the heavy plant (e.g. dumper trucks, front loading shovels, fork lift trucks) used in quarrying and bulk material transport include vehicle impact and twisted ankles during embarking and disembarking. Vehicle impact has the potential for particularly high severity incidents, both in quarries and on the manufacturing sites. When reporting and analyzing incidents, it is helpful to distinguish between production, quarrying and general off-site transport activities. Incidents can be reduced by improved driver training, increasing awareness of the people working alongside these vehicles, and by using dedicated routes and crossings to help keep vehicles and pedestrians apart. Modern vehicles also offer improved visibility, helping further reduce the risks as the older equipment is replaced. Working at Height Controls relating to working at height or in confined areas (e.g. Permit-to-work, task risk assessment) are effective in reducing accidents by raising awareness of the hazards and ensuring the correct work methods are followed and that the proper precautions are taken. Mandatory use of safety equipment to properly tie off workers, posting permits, and regular inspections of the job site are commonly employed techniques. Burns Incidents and accidents resulting in burns arise from contact with hot clinker or cement powder. Hazards are particularly associated with hot cement kiln dust (CKD), and dust on preheater systems. Chemical (alkali) burns may also result from contact with CKD. A study in the cement industry in Egypt over the period 1991-1995 showed that 155 burns accidents occurred in a population of 3200 workers (El-Megeed et al., 1999). The total number of working days lost was 4776 with a mean of 31 days per case. This study emphasizes the need to ensure effective controls are put in place. Dust Cement production carries with it an inherent capacity to produce high levels of dust, which without effective controls can lead to respiratory disease. Hospitalization and morbidity due to cement dust is not higher than in comparable industries (TNO and PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2002). A study in 1998 in the US reported that dust levels ranging from 26-114 mg/m have been recorded in quarries and cement works. This is an order of magnitude higher than the U.S. Federal respirable dust standard exposure limit of 2.0 mg/m3 for an 8-hour working shift. In an individual case at a sieving operation, 384 mg/m was reported. In cement factories using the wet process the upper short time values are occasionally 1520 mg/m (Prodan & Bachofen, 1998). When the dust contains silica components (not typical in most cement plants), regulations are stricter due to the known carcinogenic properties of (crystalline) silica. In the USA a study showed that in the industries of cement, concrete, gypsum and plaster products, 17.9% of the 252 samples exceed the PEL (Permissible Exposure Limit) of silica. Data for this group of industries suggest caution on the subject of dust, especially dust containing (crystalline) silica. In recent years, considerable attention has been directed at eliminating and controlling sources of dust, including extract systems and filters, and maintenance programs aimed at
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eliminating leak sources. As a result dust exposure during normal operations has been greatly reduced see for example Figure 4-5 below which shows how releases of particulates to the atmosphere have been reduced. More reliable equipment, improved accessibility, improved personal protective equipment and the use of vacuum systems for plant cleaning have also reduced exposure to the more vulnerable maintenance and cleaning worker groups. Noise and Vibration The main sources of noise are the milling plants used to grind the cement product. Noise deflectors and improved sound insulation are now being used to reduce noise levels: again it is the maintenance and cleaning personnel who are most at risk. Improved noise personal protective equipment is also helping reduce the effects of exposure. Whole body vibration is another issue that is creeping up the safety agenda. Workers driving older heavy mobile equipment can be exposed to vibration, but the risks are small compared to that in other industries such as mining or construction, where vibrating equipment (jack-hammers for example) are commonplace. Modern mobile equipment combine lower inherent vibration with damped seating and insulated cabins, reducing the hazard to insignificant levels. Exposure to Hazardous Substances Many substances in industry are considered to be allergy-inducing. In the cement industry, chromate components are raising concern because of their toxicity and known carcinogenic effect when the cement is used wet in downstream construction activities. When the chromate concentration of the product warrants it, ensuring that the chromium VI component is chemically reduced and kept in the chromium III state is suggested as a good measure, as are improved awareness and safer handling campaigns aimed at users in the construction industry. A minimum level of product stewardship is necessary to educate users about proper handling precautions and necessary protective equipment. Crystalline silica exposure is another well recognized issue, presenting an inhalation risk of silicosis. Silica can be present in some of the raw materials used in the cement manufacturing process. The risks can be managed effectively by a combination of raw material sampling and analysis to identify silica containing materials combined with air monitoring and the use of suitable personal protective equipment where appropriate. Silica is more of a problem in the construction industry, where crystalline silica containing materials are handled routinely, with dust generating activities such as grinding and cutting being commonplace. Thallium is a highly toxic substance, which can be present in pyrite or iron oxide. Both materials are used as a source of an iron additive. If thallium were identified in these materials, the cement plant would be advised to change its source of pyrite or iron oxide. Otherwise thallium might become a problem. This can be a particular problem where cement kiln dust (CKD) is recycled, because of the potential to build up levels of thallium in the recycle stream.
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3.4 IMPROVING PERFORMANCE

Many cement manufacturers are actively improving their health and safety performance, to come into line with other manufacturing sectors. There has been some success so far. Figure 3-1 shows accident data for the VDZ (German cement association) member works. The recent data show a marked improvement over 1969 but a tendency to flatten out between 1988 and 2000 - suggesting that a different approach or new initiative is required to achieve further improvements.
A. Cement production in millions of tons
B. Accident rate (accidents per 1 million hours worked) 60 40 20 0
40 30 20 10 0 1969 1998 1999 2000
1969
1998 1999
2000
C. "100-men-rate" (accidents per 100 employees)
D. Working days lost per employee
10 5 0 1969 1998 1999 2000
3 2 1 0 1969 1998 1999 2000

Figures A to E show that although cement production has remained steady since 1969, there has been a general improvement in accident statistics. The only area where there has not been an improvement is in the calendar days lost per accident (Figure E), suggesting that although the number of accidents is decreasing, the lost work days per incident has increased.
40 30 20 10 0
E. Calender days lost per accident
1969 1998 1999 2000
Figure 3-1. Accident statistics for the workforce employed at the VDZ member works in the years 1969 and 1998-2000 (VDZ, undated)
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Health and safety performance depends on a combination of: engineered safeguards, largely those built in to the plant design, management systems and arrangements such as procedures, and the safety culture which is characterized by the levels of safety awareness and safe behaviors and attitudes amongst the workforce. Improvements can be made making changes in any of these areas. However, for many existing plants, the opportunity to improve the engineered safeguards is limited. The main opportunities for improvement lie in the management systems and culture. For example: the Lonza Group (USA) incidents and near misses are recorded in the system. The record contains a description of the incident, the date the event is recorded, and the date (including time of day) the event took place. The type of incident is categorized from one of eleven (11) possible types ranging from "process event" to "task observation" to "injury/illness". The name of the employee or contractor involved in the incident is also recorded. An Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) category is also selected from a drop-down list as well as the part of the body affected if it is an "injury/illness" incident.
3.5 CURRENT CEMENT INDUSTRY INITIATIVES

By bringing together ten of the worlds largest cement producers, the Cement Sustainability Initiative (CSI) under the World Business Council for Sustainable Development has begun to address a number of the health and safety issues noted above. In addition, several of the national cement associations (CIF Australia, BCA United Kingdom) have begun taking a more active role in promoting workplace safety. In general safety initiatives will aim to: improve the effectiveness of the safety management system, and/or raise the level of health and safety awareness amongst staff and contractors, improve compliance with the management system
Effective target setting combined with incident monitoring is a commonly used mechanism to focus management and workforce attention on safety improvements. As an example, CEMEX in 1997 declared a target for their safety performance of 1% (1 accident per 100 employees per 200,000 working hours). Over the period 1997-2000 they reported a 63% decrease in cement plant accidents from 4.4% to 1.6%. This covers 40 cement plants located in 10 countries. During 2000 operations in Costa Rica and Egypt were brought up to CEMEX's standards and respectively decreased their accident rates by 50% and 61%, in the latter half of the year compared with the first half. Of the 40 cement plants, 4 facilities operated with zero accidents (Spain's Lloseta and Tenerife plants, Colombia's Santa Rosa plant, and Venezuela's Guyana plant), while 12 other achieved an accident rate of less than 1%. Ciments Calcia, part of the Italcementi Group, has achieved a more than 50% decrease in frequency rate from 29.8 to 13.7 per million working hours over a period of 12 years (1987 - 1999). For the last 6 years the figures are stable and no further improvement has been achieved. The company has now formulated a safety program with an objective of a 15
frequency rate below 10 for 2001. Ciments Calcia regards unsafe acts as the main cause of injuries. The company considers management responsible for the improvement of the working conditions to avoid unsafe acts and conditions and responsible for the development of safety awareness of the employees.
3.6 FOCUS FOR THE FUTURE

The health and safety performance of the cement industry as a whole is lagging behind that of other, more proactive, sectors of manufacturing industry. Within the sector, there is a wide range of performances. The better companies have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve accident rates similar to the average for the manufacturing industry. However even the best have room for further improvement. There is a particular need for the industry to encourage and help those companies and plants that are significantly under-achieving to raise their safety standards to ensure a sustainable industry that meets social and employment expectations. In the short term, the best ways to improve performance is to share knowledge and good practices so these can become the industry norm. The industry should find ways to engage operators from around the world in industry safety initiatives and forums such as the CSI. The Health and Safety Taskforce should be encouraged to develop and publish information on key hazards and their control and safe working practices. Lack of consistent safety data and a common measurement framework have been a barrier to monitoring and comparing safety performance between facilities and companies. Specific priorities should include: Contractor selection, training and control Vehicle hazards and driver training Maintenance and cleaning operations which involve possible contact with hazards Working at height Harmful contacts e.g. heat, hazardous substances
In the medium to long term, the industry should encourage the wider use of risk assessment in plant design, plant modification and for key operational activities. This leads both to better planning and improved awareness of hazards. Inherently safer approaches to hazard management should be encouraged, with a hierarchy of safeguards being adopted: Inherent safety hazard avoidance, elimination, substitution or reduction at source Preventative measures means to prevent hazards arising Control measures means to control hazards before any harm can result Mitigation measures means to control or limit the scale of accidents Incident response arrangements intervention to limit the consequences of accidents and deal with any harm arising
It is important that the industry continues and expands on its work to harmonize incident reporting requirements so that data can be collected and analyzed to identify the underlying causes of accidents and ill health. This will provide a better basis for industry
16
benchmarking and enable health and safety improvements to be targeted where they will be most effective. It will be useful to distinguish between quarry activities and cement production activities when reporting and analyzing accident statistics, since these have very different risk profiles and safety issues. Health surveillance programs should also be encouraged as a means to monitor health effects and target improvements. There is also an opportunity for the industry to work together to develop industry specific guidelines on heath, safety and environmental management systems. This should not necessarily be taken as a means to harmonize systems, but as a mechanism to ensure everyone is addressing the relevant aspects and to disseminate good practice. Experience within the cement industry and with other industries suggests that the risk management and management systems approach to safety can only go so far in improving performance. Changing the culture, not just the organizational systems is a vital part of moving toward a goal of zero accidents. If, in the longer term, the industry as whole is to achieve health and safety performance in line with the best in manufacturing industry, it will need to address the safety culture as a whole and at all organizational levels. As a starting point, companies should consider the use of safety culture climate surveys. These can identify and monitor: attitudes and perceptions; good practices and barriers to good performance; and progress of initiatives to improve safety and safety culture.
At the working level, behavioral programs should also be considered to help develop and implement safe behaviors during operation and maintenance. These programs need to be introduced and implemented with the active participation of the workers themselves if they are to be effective. Some of the best cement manufacturing companies are already active in these areas, and reducing their accident rates to low levels (< 1 reportable accident per 100 employees per year). An example of an industry-wide, integrated and committed initiative is the STEP initiative in the UK Offshore Oil and Gas Industry. The Dupont STOP program serves as an example of a company behavioral based safety program (http://stop.dupont.com/).
3.7 SUMMARY
The most urgent priority is to gather good, consistent performance data from across the sector. This is a precursor to effective targeting of initiatives to apply some of the existing best practices to the worst performing areas of the sector. This action will lead to a clearer understanding of safety incident causes, so that corrective action can be tailored to primary causes. The cement manufacturing sector currently lags other, similar risk sectors in safety performance; some of the leading performers within the sector are demonstrating that performance in line with other sectors can be achieved. Improvements can and will be made over time as a greater proportion of production comes from modern equipment with improved controls.
17
Worker groups most at risk are those involved in non-routine operations such as maintenance (and in some plant cleaning). Often this work is carried out by contractors. It is important that initiatives to improve health and safety management systems and to safety awareness and culture include non-routine activities and contractor management issues.
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4. Environmental performance
4.1 AIR EMISSIONS
The main constituents of exhaust gases from a cement kiln are nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, and oxygen. The exhaust gases also contain small quantities of dust, chlorides, fluorides, sulfur dioxide, NOx, carbon monoxide, and still smaller quantities of organic compounds and heavy metals as shown in Table 4-1. Table 4-1. Major constituents of cement kiln exhaust gas (Cembureau, 1997). Constituent % Nitrogen 45-66 CO2 11-29 Water 10-39 O2 3-10 Remainder <1 Table 4-2 reproduces emission ranges from European cement kilns published by EIPPC (2001). Table 4-2. Measured emission ranges from European cement kilns (EIPPC, 2001). mg/Nm3 kg/tonne clinker tonnes/year NOx (as NO2) <200-3000 <0.4-6 400-6000 SO2 <10-3500 <0.02-7 <20-7000 Dust 5-200 0.01-0.4 10-400 CO 500-2000 1-4 1000-4000 CO2 400-520 g/Nm3 800-1040 0.8-1.04 million total organic 5-500 0.01-1 10-100 carbon HF <0.4-5 <0.8-10 g/t <0.8-10 HCl <1-25 <2-50 g/t <2-50 3 dioxins <0.1-0.5 ng/Nm <200-1000 ng/t <0.2-1 g/year Sum of Hg, Cd, Tl 0.01-0.3 (mainly 20-600 mg/t 20-600 kg/year Hg) Sum of As, Co, Ni, 0.001-0.1 2-200 mg/t 2-200 kg/year Se, Te Sum of Sb, Pb, Cr, 0.005-0.3 10-600 mg/t 10-600 kg/year Cu, Mn, V, Sn, Zn Note: Mass figures are based on 2000 m3/tonne clinker and 1 million tonnes clinker/year. Emission ranges are one-year averages and are indicative values based on various measurement techniques. Oxygen content is normally 10%.
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EIPPC (2001) lists a number of general primary measures to minimize environmental impact, these are shown in Box 4-1.
Box 4-1 General primary measures for the manufacturing of cement Management of the kiln process to achieve stable operating conditions, which may be achieved by applying: - process control optimization, including computer-based automatic control systems; - the use of modern, gravimetric solid fuel feed systems. Minimizing fuel energy use by means of: - preheating and precalcination as far as possible, considering the existing kiln system configuration; - the use of modern clinker coolers enabling maximum heat recovery; - heat recovery from waste gas. Minimizing electrical energy use by means of: - power management systems; - grinding equipment and other electricity based equipment with high energy efficiency. Careful selection and control of substances entering the kiln, to minimize introduction of sulfur, nitrogen, chlorine, metals and volatile organic compounds.
Each of the main groups of air pollutant are discussed in turn below. Where data are available, long term trends (up to 30 years) are illustrated from the national inventory of the United Kingdom which may be taken as typical at least of western Europe and is likely to reflect the trends in other more developed countries. Trends and information from the US, China and Australia are also presented. Comparisons are drawn with two other energy-intensive industry sectors namely oil refineries and the iron and steel sector. The main emphasis is placed on the key aspects NOx, SOx and dust/particulates; and on dioxins which are a key stakeholder concern. 4.1.1 Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) NOx forms by the reaction of nitrogen with oxygen at the high temperatures generated during combustion of fuel. Emissions of NOx are of concern as they can detrimentally affect air quality and human health, an example of which is its role in the production of ground-level ozone, which can aggravate respiratory systems. Trends in emissions for the UK and the US are shown in Figure 4-1. Features of the data to note are: in developed countries, cement kilns are responsible for only a very small fraction of the total releases of NOx;
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the cement sector has made substantial improvements in emissions over the last 30 years with the introduction of emission abatement techniques, though this may have been countered by increased production in the US; other sectors have also improved performance, as a result the relative contribution of the UK cement industry is much the same today as it was in 1970.
The latter finding is further illustrated by the pie charts in Figure 4-2.
250
200
Emissions kt/yr
150 Cement (UK) Iron & Steel (UK) Refineries (UK) Cement (US)
100
50
0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 4-1. Trends in emissions of NOx (source: UK National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002) and the US National Emission Inventory (US EPA, 2002).
1970 3% 2000 2%
Cement Iron & Steel Refineries Other
Figure 4-2. Relative contributions of the cement, iron & steel and refineries sectors to total UK NOx emissions in the years 1970 and 2000. 21
According to EIPPC (2001), the best available techniques6 for reducing NOx emissions are a combination of the general primary measures referred to earlier together with: Primary measures to control NOx emissions: - flame cooling; - low-NOx burner. Staged combustion. Selective non-catalytic reduction.
Achievable emission levels are in the range of 200-500 mg/m3 (but individual kilns may have less scope to achieve these levels) according to EIPPC (2001); or 600 mg/m3 (0.5 kg per tonne of clinker) according to the World Bank Group (1998). Recent German cement industry data show average emissions of approximately 400-800 mg/m3 (VDZ, 2002). Conclusions regarding NOx: The cement industry is a significant but not major source of atmospheric releases of oxides of nitrogen or NOx. The performance of the cement industry has improved over the last 30 years. A benchmark emission is in the region of 500-600 mg/m3 (0.5 kg per tonne of clinker). 4.1.2 Oxides of Sulfur (SOx) Emissions of oxides of sulfur are predominantly (99%) in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2). SO2 emissions arise from oxidation of volatile sulfur present in raw materials such as organic sulfur, or inorganic sulfides. Some may also arise from sulfur in the fuels. If the volatile sulfur content of the fuel and raw materials is low, SO2 emission can be very low. Much of the SO2 produced can potentially be captured within the process due to strongly alkaline conditions. Emissions of SOx are of concern as they can detrimentally affect air quality and human health, some examples of which are the production of acid rain, reduced atmospheric visibility (smog) and aggravation of respiratory systems. Figure 4-3 shows the trend in UK and US emissions since 1970.
Note that best available technique has special meaning within European Union law, and in principle that meaning is used by EIPPC (2001).
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700 Cement (UK) 600 Iron & Steel (UK) Refineries (UK) 500 Cement (US)
Emissions kt/yr
400
300
200
100
0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 4-3. Trends in emissions of SO2 Source: UK National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002) and the US National Emission Inventory (US EPA, 2002). The cement industry is a minor source of SO2 emissions. Over the last few decades the industry has seen some improvements in performance, shown in Figure 4-3 to be the case for both the UK and the US. Other sources of emission, notably power stations, have improved substantially, consequently the cement industry has increased in relative importance as a source of SO2 see Figure 4-4.
60 2.5
50 2
40 Emissions, kt/yr 1.5 Percent

Cem ent % Cem ent kt/yr
30
1 20
0.5 10
0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Figure 4-4. SO2 emissions from cement production as a proportion of total SO2 emissions Source: UK National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002). 23
A primary measure to avoid SO2 emissions is to minimize the volatile sulfur content of the raw materials. Concentrations of SO2 in the kiln exhaust gases may be reduced by enhancing capture within the process itself. The captured sulfur is thus incorporated into the final cement product. Capture may be enhanced by: improving the sulfur/alkali ratio by decreasing the sulfur feed or increasing the alkali feed to the process; increasing oxygen concentration in key zones of the process; increasing the fineness of raw materials and solid fuels; avoiding reducing conditions (lack of oxygen) at the kiln wall. Scrubbers may be used to remove SO2 from exhaust gases. According to EIPPC (2001), emission levels of 200-400 mg/m3 are achievable using best available technologies. The World Bank Group (1998) recommends a maximum emission level of 400 mg/m3. German industry data for 2001 fall well within this range (VDZ, 2002). Conclusions regarding SO2: The cement industry is a significant but not major source of SO2 emissions. Despite improving performance over the last 30 years, the cement industry now contributes a greater proportion of total emissions due to substantial gains in other sectors. A key control measure is to minimize the volatile sulfur content in the kiln. Mitigation techniques can achieve emission concentrations of 400 mg/m3 or less. 4.1.3 Dust/particulates The principal sources of dust emissions are kilns, raw mills, clinker coolers and cement mills (EIPPC, 2001). Dust emissions also arise as a result of transport of raw materials to the site, from stockpiles of raw materials, from hoppers and raw material transfer, and pipework (EBRD, undated). Quarrying operations are also an important source of dust. Cembureau (1997) indicates that dust emissions from European cement kilns in the year 1950 represented as much as 3.5% of the production but this had been reduced to a fraction of a percent by 1970 and further reduced by 90% over the last 20 years. Emission levels below 10 mg/m3 are now achieved in some installations (EIPPC, 2001), although 50 mg/m3 is more typical for the majority of modern facilities. German industry data show an average emissions level in 2001 for 55 kilns below 20 mg/m3 (VDZ, 2002). Similar dramatic improvements have been seen in eastern Europe. For example in Hungary it is estimated that the emission of solids amounted to 6-8% of the production volume until a modernization program commenced in 1963; the corresponding figure in 1997 was 0.019% (Hungarian Cement Association, undated). In contrast, ambient air levels of total suspended particulates (TSP) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in Chinese cities are among the highest in the world. Particulate emissions remain 24
as high as 2% of production and in 1998, cement plants were responsible for over 40 % of total industrial particulate emissions - data presented by Battelle, 2002d indicates that particulate emissions in 1998 were 11 million tonnes; USGS, 2000 gives production in the same year of 513.5 million tonnes. The figure of 40% is part of an upward trend from 22% in 1991 (Battelle, 2002d). Of these emissions, medium and small plants are responsible for the vast majority due to their obsolete equipment and production methods. The projected modernization programs described by Battelle (2002d) will reduce these emissions substantially. As an imperfect generalization, near-ground fugitive releases of dust impact primarily on the local environment, whereas releases from high stacks may have an impact on air quality over a much larger area. Larger diameter grains or dust may give rise to local nuisance. However it is the finer sized particulates which give the greatest cause for concern mainly because of impacts on human health (see section 3 and Box 4-2). The production of cement kiln dust (CKD) and its disposal may have an impact on the environment and human health. In 1995, 3.3 million metric tons of CKD was disposed of by the US cement industry (US EPA, 1999a). When waste derived fuels comprise a part of the fuel source CKD may contain 200-2000 ppm lead and traces of other heavy metals (Ash Grove, 2000) and possibly dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans. The issue is dealt with by the implementation of management standards in the US (US EPA, 1999a). Management standards outline appropriate techniques to control releases to groundwater from landfills through leaching, and the control of fugitive dust emissions in handling, storage and disposal areas from wind dispersal. Standards also cover the concentration of various pollutants, including chlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans in CKD used for agricultural purposes.
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Box 4-2 Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Condensable Dust and particulates some definitions The mass of particles collected on a filter. Some material that is in the vapor phase at stack temperature (and which would therefore pass through a filter) may condense to form particles as the plume disperses in the atmosphere and cools to ambient temperatures these are the condensable particulates, in contrast to the filterable particulates. When people breathe particle-laden air, particles with a diameter greater than 10 micrometers (ten millionths of a meter) are usually stopped by the nose. Smaller particles can enter the respiratory system and are often called inhalable or inspirable. Particles smaller than 10 micrometers but larger than 2.5 micrometers can generally get as far as the larynx. Smaller particles can penetrate into the lungs and are often called respirable. Particulate matter with a diameter of less than or equal to 10 micrometers. Particulate matter with a diameter of less than or equal to 2.5 micrometers.
Inhalable or Inspirable
Respirable
PM10 PM2.5
Figure 4-5 shows the 30-year trend in emissions of inhalable (PM10) emissions in the UK since 1970. The equivalent figure for total particulates is similar.
26
35 30
Cement Iron & Steel
Emissions kt/yr
25 20 15 10 5 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Quarrying (All) Refineries
Figure 4-5. Trends in emissions of PM10 Source: UK National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002). Points to note include: Cement production is a small contributor to total particulate emissions. This is typical of a developed country where there are other major sources of particulates, notably from powered transport. In China however, cement production is a major contributor to national emissions (Battelle, 2002d). Quarrying operations are an important source, far larger than cement production. Note however that these UK data do not identify quarrying operations associated solely with providing raw materials for cement production. The relative importance of quarrying activities as a contribution to total emissions has grown considerably, though still remains at just 12% of the total see also Figure 4-6.
1%
1970
1%
2000
Cement Iron & Steel Refineries Quarrying (All) Other
Figure 4-6. Relative contributions of the cement, iron & steel, refineries and quarrying sectors to total UK PM10 emissions in the years 1970 and 2000. 27
EIPPC (2001) describes a number of measures for reducing dust/particulate releases. For exhaust stacks the two primary technologies are electrostatic precipitators and fabric filters; both systems can achieve stack concentrations of 5 to 50 mg/m3 or specific releases of 0.01 to 0.1 kg per tonne of clinker when installed as new technology. For fugitive emissions the following techniques are indicated: simple and linear site layout; proper and complete maintenance of the installation; use of automatic devices and control systems; open pile wind protection; water spray and chemical dust suppressors; paving areas used by lorries, and wetting roads; vacuum cleaning during maintenance operations or to handle spillages; enclosure of all systems under negative pressure, with dedusting of air by fabric filter; closed storage with automatic handling systems.
Many cement plants, including US plants, still employ older technology. The best available technology in these cases is indicated by emission limit values as indicated in Table 4-3. Here as with new technology proper maintenance such as the emptying of bag filters as part of a good management system is important in maintaining standards. Table 4-3 Emission Limit Values for Particulate Releases in Different Regions of the World. Region European Union1 (for waste burning cement kilns) United States of America2 (for waste burning cement kilns) India3 Pollutant Description PM5 (total dust) PM (general) Emission Limit Value 30 mg/Nm3 10 vol% O2 dry
0.15 kg/Mg dry feed
Suspended Particulate Material
50 mg/Nm3 (new plant) Existing plant: 150 mg/Nm3 (> 200 tpd6, protected area) 250 mg/Nm3 (< 200 tpd, protected area) 250 mg/Nm3 (> 200 tpd, other areas) 400 mg/Nm3 (< 200 tpd, other areas)
China4
Currently 150 mg/m3 exhaust gas, moving toward 100 mg/m3 1 Taken from the Waste Incineration Directive 2000/76/EC (EU, 2000). 2 Maximum Achievable Control Technology; US EPA, 1999b. 3 EIC, undated. 4 Battelle, 2002d. 5 PM = particulate matter. 6 tpd = tons per day capacity PM 28
Conclusions regarding dust/particulates: Cement production is a significant but generally not major source of dust and particulates, though in some countries it may be of national significance. Quarrying is a significant and major source in developed countries. Mitigation measures are available for dealing with stack emissions and fugitive releases. 4.1.4 Oxides of carbon: CO and CO2 Cement production is a major source of emissions of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2). As much as 5% of global carbon dioxide emissions originates from cement production (Hendriks et al., 1998). This aspect is dealt with by the report on Substudy 8 (Battelle, 2002c) and is not discussed further here. The largest portion of greenhouse gas emissions from production of cement worldwide (about 50%) originates from the process reaction that converts limestone (CaCO3) to calcium oxide (CaO), the primary precursor to cement. About 40% of the industrys emissions come from fossil fuel combustion at cement manufacturing operations with remaining emissions coming from transport of raw materials (about 5%) and combustion of fossil fuel required to produce the electricity consumed by cement manufacturing operations (about 5%), (Batelle, 2002a). Combustion conditions in cement kilns are managed so as to achieve optimum fuel economy and maximum conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide. Only a small proportion is converted to volatile organic compounds (see below) and a variable proportion to carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon monoxide production may be of concern as it can detrimentally affect air quality and human health. According to EIPPC (2001), good control of fuel feed rate is essential to maintain optimal combustion conditions in the kiln. 4.1.5 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) VOCs are an ill-defined group of substances which are principally of concern in the environment because of their role (together with oxides of nitrogen), under certain atmospheric conditions, in the formation of ground-level ozone and other photochemical oxidants. Emissions of VOCs arise from cement kilns as products of incomplete combustion. Under normal circumstances the VOC content of the exhaust gas is low, typically between 10 and 100 mg/Nm3 (EIPPC, 2001). In developed countries cement production is not a significant source of VOCs whose emissions are dominated by powered transport, together with organic solvent use, oil and chemical industry processes, and industrial and domestic combustion.
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4.1.6 Acid gases Cement production is a minor source of hydrogen chloride (HCl) and hydrogen fluoride (HF) arising from trace amounts of chlorine and fluorine present in feed materials. 4.1.7 Metals Metals are present in raw materials and fuels, at widely variable concentrations. The behavior of the metals in a cement kiln depends on their volatility. Non-volatile metals and metal compounds remain within the process and leave the kiln as part of the clinker. Semi-volatile metals are partly taken into the gas phase at sintering temperatures and condense on the raw material in cooler parts of the kiln system. Volatile metals can exhibit similar behavior but may also be emitted with flue gas (EIPPC, 2001). Dusts from cement production contain small amounts of a wide range of metals. Figure 4-7 illustrates the estimated composition of atmospheric releases of metals from cement production in the UK over the last 30 years. As outlined in the earlier section on dust and particulates, when waste derived fuels comprise a part of the fuel source the cement kiln dust (CKD) produced may contain 2002000 ppm lead and traces of other heavy metals (Ash Grove, 2000), requiring proper management of this by-product, such as the lining of landfills to prevent leachates reaching groundwater (US EPA, 1999a).
0.04
0.035
0.03
Emissions, kt/yr
0.025
2000
0.02
0.015
0.01
0.005
As Cd Cr Cu Hg Mn Ni Pb Se V Zn
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
0 1970 1975
Figure 4-7. The composition of metals released from cement production in the UK in 2000 (pie chart) and the total emissions of heavy metals from UK cement production since 1970. Source: National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002).
30
In the UK vanadium is thought to have dominated the metal releases from cement production. This vanadium has mainly originated from fuel oil used as fuel in UK cement kilns. 4.1.8 Organic micropollutants Cement kilns, in common with other combustion processes, are potential sources of emissions of a number of semivolatile organic substances which are of concern because of their highly toxic properties: polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans collectively known as dioxins; polychlorinated biphenyls usually known as PCBs; polyaromatic hydrocarbons known as PAHs. These substances are sometimes collectively referred to as micropollutants as the absolute mass of their releases from a given process is normally orders of magnitude lower than releases of VOCs or other air pollutants. Dioxins and PCBs may be formed within the kiln if chlorine is introduced into the kiln as a constituent of the raw materials or fuels. Formation of dioxins occurs at relatively low temperatures most typically in exhaust gases from combustion processes as the gases cool through a temperature window of 450oC to 200oC. To minimize the possibility of dioxin formation it is important that the kiln gases are cooled through the window of 450oC to 200oC as quickly as possible (EIPPC, 2001). The European Dioxin Inventory report (European Commission, 1997) has compiled the emission factors used for dioxin emissions from cement production in several national inventories of the EU; these are illustrated in Figure 4-8. With the exception of the Belgian emission factors, the values used are based on measurements. Excluding the Belgian values which were based on literature estimates, the emission factors reported as typical (shown here as blue spots) span an order of magnitude from 0.015 g I-TEQ per tonne of production used in Germany, to 0.17 g I-TEQ per tonne of production (average of Swiss range of 0.16 to 0.17 g I-TEQ/t). Similar levels of uncertainty are to be found in data from other regions of the world. For example the Australian Emissions Inventory (Environment Australia, 2002) notes a dioxin emission factor for Australia with a range spanning orders of magnitude from 0.0043 to 0.28 g ITEQ/tonne clinker produced.
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1.2
microgram I-TEQ/tonne
0.8
20 g I-TEQ/t
28 g I-TEQ/t (see also Table 4.7)
0.6
0.4
0.2
CH
S Country
UK
US
Australia
Range of data Best estimate

Figure 4-8. Dioxin emission factors for cement production from national dioxin inventories. Source: European Dioxin Inventory (European Commission, 1997). This illustrates the uncertainties in inventory data for dioxin releases from the cement industry. The uncertainties arise from several factors, including variabilities in specific emissions from plant to plant according to the technology employed, the type and composition of fuel burnt, the sampling point, and the composition of raw materials. The uncertainties in the emission factors also arise from uncertainties in dioxin measurements. In the EU, a measurement standard (EN 1948) has been established which is based on manual extractive sampling of dioxins over 6-8 hour sampling periods. This gives a snap-shot view of the emissions. For example under Directive 2000/76/EC, cement kilns co-incinerating waste should demonstrate compliance with a dioxin emission limit value of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/m3 at least twice per year using a measurement method compliant with the EN 1948 standard. In Belgium (Flanders) in 1997 continuous dioxin samplers (which collect an integrated sample over a period of up to 6 weeks) were compared with EN 1948 measurements on the main exhaust stacks of a number of municipal solid waste incinerators. It was found that in this case the averaged dioxin stack concentrations reported from the continuous samplers were higher than those found using the EN 1948 method by a factor of 30 to 50 and were exceeding the Flemish emission limit value allowed for such plants; as a result 5 of the plants were closed though 3 subsequently allowed to start up again (De Fr & Wevers, 1998). Despite the significantly different results obtained from the two techniques, no definitive answer is available as to which method is the most likely to be correct.
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It is evident therefore that dioxin emission estimation is an evolving science, and the exact contribution of cement production or indeed any other industrial source may not yet be fully understood. Nevertheless the broad picture which emerges from the European Dioxin Inventory is that the major industrial emission sources in Europe (accounting for about 62% of total dioxin air emissions) are probably: incinerators for municipal waste; iron ore sinter plants; incinerators for clinical waste; facilities of the non-ferrous metal industry.
The remaining 38% are partly due to other industrial sources but mainly come from nonindustrial sources such as: domestic heating facilities (particularly wood combustion); accidental fires, e.g. forest and brush fires; traffic (mainly where petrol is used).
Cement manufacturing is identified as a dioxin emission source in studies performed in the US, the UK and the Netherlands (Environment Australia, 2002). The overall message, however, is that although the cement industry is an emitter to air of dioxins and furans, in the majority of cases it is not considered to be a significant source. The US data do rank cement manufacture as third among significant sources, but here as elsewhere it is regarded as less significant than municipal and medical waste incineration (Table 4-4). Australian data also support the European studies - see Table 4-5. Table 4-5. Dioxin emission estimates for Australian sources (Environment Australia, 2002) Source Emission (g/year) Fires prescribed burning Bushfires Cement and Lime Production Total 65-1300 7-400 0.31-0.60 150-2100
Specifically for the cement sector, the European Dioxin Inventory concludes as follows: In many cases cement production is of minor relevance for the total emission of PCDD/F [dioxins as defined above] in Europe. Nevertheless, from the data reported in the surveyed document follows that there is still substantial uncertainty concerning dioxin emissions Measurements may be recommended at some plants incinerating waste, in particular hazardous waste with chlorinated compounds. In most other 33
cases measurements at cement producing plants do not appear to be necessary. Figure 4-9 shows the trends in dioxin emissions in the UK. Unlike for other air pollutants, data are only available for the last 10 years.
90 80 70 60 Emission, g/yr 50 40 30 20 10 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 Cement Iron & Steel Refineries
Figure 4-9. Emissions of dioxins in the UK. Source National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI, 2002). In Europe, cement kilns can mostly comply with an emission concentration of 0.1 ng ITEQ/Nm3 (EIPPC, 2001), which is the limit value in the European legislation for waste incineration (Parliament and Council Directive 2000/76/EC) and hazardous waste incineration (Council Directive 94/67/EC). Understanding of PCB and PAH formation mechanisms and emission characteristics is less well advanced than for dioxins, and there has not been international agreement on a measurement standard for stack emissions of PCBs and PAHs. Initial information on the formation of PCBs indicates that the mechanisms are analogous to those for dioxins this implies that control techniques developed for dioxins, with suitable optimization, are likely to reduce levels of PCB also (EIPPC, 2001). PAHs are a product of incomplete combustion. As such they occur naturally in the environment as a result of forest fires. Important man-made combustion sources include: transport (tailpipe emissions); power generation; industrial heaters and boilers; domestic combustion.
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Conclusions regarding organic micropollutants: There are considerable uncertainties regarding emissions and emission factors for dioxins, and little data available for PCBs and PAHs. A number of emission measurements have been made, although the measurement process is complex and expensive. Kilns using chlorinated raw materials or chlorinated fuels need to take particular care to satisfy their local communities that any releases of micropollutants are within regulatory limits. Burning by-products and alternative fuels is dealt with in the following section.
4.2 ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Because of the high combustion temperatures employed in cement production, cement kilns are capable of burning waste materials effectively, achieving almost complete destruction of organic wastes. As well as the organic component, inorganic constituents of a wide variety of waste types are suitable for incorporation into the cement product. Consequently cement production is emerging as an effective way to recover and find an additional worth for a wide range of industrial waste materials that might otherwise create problems if disposed of to landfill. The types of waste most frequently used as fuels in Europe are listed in Table 4-6 (taken from EIPPC, 2001 source Cembureau). A similar mix of fuels is evident in the inventories of the United States and Australia (Environment Australia, 2002).
Table 4-6. The types of by-product most frequently used in Europe Used tires Waste oils Sewage sludge Rubber Waste woods Plastics Paper waste Paper sludge Spent solvents The use of waste as an alternative fuel has a number of environmental benefits, including: the use of non renewable fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas is reduced; the environmental impact of fossil fuel recovery is avoided; the wastes do not need to be disposed of via for example incineration or landfill, both of which have post-disposal problems such as disposal of incinerator ash, and groundwater contamination.
Alternative fuels provided about 10% of the thermal energy consumption in the European cement industry in 1995, substituting approximately 2.5 million tonnes of coal per year (Cembureau, 1997). The level of alternative fuel use is widely variable between countries and, as shown in Figure 4-10, in France cement kiln co-incineration has reached ~50% of the market share in hazardous waste incineration. Plants operating on as much as 60% alternative fuel are reported in some countries (Battelle, 2002a). In contrast use is very low in other countries such as Portugal at the present time.
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700000 600000 500000 Raw materials Emulsions Oils Solids Solvents Aqueous 100000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Tonnes / year
400000 300000 200000
Figure 4-10 Cement kiln co-incineration of waste materials in France (Boyd, 2001). There is general agreement between studies from different countries that the use of alternative fuel sources need not increase emissions from cement manufacture. Emissions data for some national studies are presented in Table 4-7. Dioxin emissions have been measured at several Australian cement plants using various fuels, different raw materials and operating different processes. The Australian inventory (Environment Australia, 2002) indicates that there is no significant difference in emissions resulting from the use of alternative fuel sources. The data from the US show greater differences but with a low confidence rating as a consequence of the small number of facilities tested and, for the facilities using waste derived fuel, to the uncertainty regarding whether the measured emissions were representative of normal operations due to trial burn procedures. Table 4-7. International emissions data for cement production emissions of dioxins (Environment Australia, 2002, except where otherwise stated). Study Australia - standard fuel - with waste derived fuel US (US EPA, 2000) - standard fuel - with waste derived fuel UK - standard fuel - with waste derived fuel Dioxin emissions (g I-TEQ/tonne clinker) 0.0043 0.25 0.0087 0.28 0.27 28.58 (pollution control device inlet temp > 450oF) 1.04 (pollution control device inlet temp < 450oF) 0.025-1.04 0.025-1.08
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The Australian inventory notes that: there is no significant difference in dioxin emissions associated with the use of wastederived fuels. The waste-derived fuels used by Australian cement producers have included used tires and used oil. The study of UK literature in the Australian inventory (Environment Australia, 2002) supported the Australian argument that there was no significant difference between emissions produced from different fuel sources in the UK (Table 4-7), but also stated that: it is difficult to make direct comparisons with the limited data available, as the emissions are likely to depend upon the fraction of hazardous waste in the fuel. It is indicated that only waste liquids (i.e. solvents) are used to supplement fuel requirements at UK cement kilns, while the USEPA ... indicate that in addition to solvents, materials such as chipped rubber and shredded municipal waste are used in US kilns. (Environment Australia, 2002). Table 4-8 extends the comparison to emissions of dioxins, PAHs and PCBs from cement plants in the UK using substitute liquid fuels and traditional fuels. The data are normalized to CO2 emissions as a proxy measure of production. No obvious relationships between type of fuel burnt and releases of the organic substances may be discerned from these limited data.
Table 4-8. Emissions of organic micropollutants and VOCs from UK cement kilns in 2000, normalized to CO2 emissions1 Installation Dioxins PAHs PCBs Total -7 (TEQ) x 10 (TEQ) VOCs as C Cement kilns Plant A 0.13 0.11 4.01 10-5 108.51 burning Plant B 1.97 BRT2 BRT substitute liquid Plant C 6.92 BRT 72.08 fuels Cement kilns Plant D 4.38 BRT BRT not burning Plant E 1.04 0.32 BRT 159.44 substitute liquid Plant F 0.22 0.81 BRT 217.39 fuels Plant G 38.1 37.39 BRT 585.79 1 Units are g per tonne of CO2 2 BRT = Below Reporting Threshold
Nevertheless, public perceptions about the cement industry continue to differ from the data available. The use of alternative fuels is of major interest to stakeholders, especially understanding the potential impact, if any, on releases of toxic substances. Much has already been written and published on the subject, but it is evident that cement plants that use alternative fuels are likely to continue to attract attention for the foreseeable future, particularly from pressure groups.
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4.3 LOCAL NUISANCE

4.3.1 Noise Cement manufacturing plants contain a number of items of heavy equipment such as fans, engines, generators, cement grinding plant. Added to this, cement plants may be located adjacent to quarries with associated heavy moving equipment and possibly use of blasting and/or drilling operations. There will often also be associated road or rail traffic, including truck movement and loading equipment. Consequently cement manufacturing is likely to generate noise and vibration, the focus within this report being that from the cement production plant itself. Noise and vibration is greater from heavy truck traffic associated with quarry operations and transport of raw materials and finished product. The World Bank Group (1998) has published guidelines on appropriate noise levels for cement plants (Table 4-9): noise abatement measures should achieve either the levels given below or a maximum increase in background levels of 3 dB(A); measurements are to be taken at noise receptors located outside the property boundary.
Table 4-9. World Bank guidelines on noise levels for cement plants (World Bank Group, 1998).
Receptor
Residential, institutional, educational Industrial, commercial
Maximum allowable log equivalent (hourly measurements), in dB(A) Day Night (07:00-22:00) (22:00-07:00)
55 70 45 70
Mitigation measures which may be taken to reduce the noise impact of cement plants include: use of low noise components and equipment; enclosure of equipment; use of soundproofing materials in buildings; use of banks, trees, walls and other physical barriers to noise transmission.
4.3.2 Visual impact Cement plants are necessarily large establishments with a high visibility profile; associated quarrying and transportation operations add to this impact. Visual impact is perhaps the most subjective of all forms of environmental impact. Nevertheless there are many mitigation strategies which may be applied even to existing structures, though the greatest opportunity for improving visual impact is at the planning stage.
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There are four major categories of measures to mitigate adverse visual impact: Avoidance: Reduction: Remediation: Compensation: through site location or design planning of the site or design of the structure using design to reduce residual impact counterbalance unavoidable impact through atonement measures
4.3.3 Dust/Haze Local dust nuisance arising from cement production is usually associated with nearground fugitive releases. Suitable control measures are described in Section 4.1.3 above. The nuisance of dust in the vicinity of cement kilns, such as the production of local haze and resultant reductions in visibility, is of much lower priority than potential health impacts (see Section 3). 4.3.4 Odor Odor emissions are very rarely a problem with a well operated cement plant (EIPPC, 2001).
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4.4 MONITORING, MANAGING AND REPORTING RELEASES

4.4.1 Monitoring As part of the measures taken in Europe to protect the environment, plant operators have to show that they are following Best Available Techniques (BAT). The essence of BAT is that the selection of techniques to protect the environment should achieve an appropriate balance between realizing environmental benefits and the cost incurred by operators. Best Available Techniques are defined in a BAT Reference Document (BREF) for each industry sector. The production of each BREF is co-ordinated by the European IPPC Bureau in Seville (Spain), drawing on inputs from technical experts around Europe. The BREF contains a detailed description of emissions and techniques to consider in the determination of BAT. For the cement industry the BREF is referenced below as EIPPC (2001). In order to show they are complying with permitted emission limits, operators are required to monitor certain process emissions. For cement plants, measurement and monitoring priorities recommended by EIPPC (2001) are shown in Box 4-3. A modern cement plant uses highly automated control equipment similar to that used in other technically sophisticated industries. The continuous measurements suggested in Box 4-3 are routinely collected by plant instrumentation. The periodic monitoring for other emissions in several cases requires highly specialized analytical procedures, particularly in the case of micro-pollutants where the levels being measured are frequently near the normal detection limits. 4.4.2 Environmental management A number of cement companies have chosen to develop certifiable environmental management systems to aid in the systematic management of environmental aspects. For example, Figure 4-11 shows the number of registrations to EMAS (the Eco-Management and Audit Scheme). Other certification schemes for management systems are available, for example ISO 14001.
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Number of registrations 16 13 9 5 5 6 10 16
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Year
Figure 4-11. Cumulative registrations to the EMAS scheme by cement manufacturers in the European Union and Norway (source: EMAS Helpdesk).
40
Box 4-3 Measurement and monitoring priorities for cement plants (EIPPC, 2001) To control kiln process, continuous measurements are recommended for the following parameters: pressure temperature oxygen content NOx CO possibly SO2 when the SOx concentration is high To accurately quantify the emissions, continuous measurements are recommended for the following parameters (these may need to be measured again if their levels can change after the point where they are measured to be used for control): exhaust volume humidity temperature dust oxygen NOx SO2 CO Regular periodic monitoring is appropriate to carry out for the following substances: metals and their compounds total organic carbon hydrogen chloride hydrogen fluoride ammonia dioxins Measurements of the following substances may be required occasionally under special operating conditions: benzene/toluene/xylene PAHs other organic pollutants (for example chlorobenzenes, PCBs, chloronaphthalenes)
4.4.3 Sectoral guidelines Two sectoral guidelines have been developed to aid companies in reporting notifiable releases of pollutants to regulatory authorities. These are summarized in Box 4-4.
41
Box 4-4 Australia Sectoral reporting guidelines for cement production Environment Australia has produced a Cement and Lime Manufacturing Handbook which includes an Emission Estimation Technique Manual for cement manufacturing. This aims to help companies to report releases to the National Pollutant Inventory. The Niedersachsen Bundesland has developed an Emissionsprofile or fingerprint which gives guidance on the expected substances that would be emitted from each stage of the cement manufacturing process.
Germany
The German initiative is an example of an attempt to increase public reporting of data at the plant level in a consistent and organized manner. Until now this has been lacking despite the high level of emission data available at the national level. 4.5 SUMMARY Emissions to air are the main environmental issue associated with cement production with waste production and emissions to water being less significant. The key air pollutants from cement production are NOx, SO2, particulates and greenhouse gases, the last of which is dealt with by the report on Substudy 8 Climate Change (Battelle, 2002c). Despite not being in the list of key air pollutants above, a lot of attention has been given to releases of dioxins and other micropollutants and this is likely to continue for some time. The cement industry has already undertaken a lot of work to reduce emissions. To further improve environmental performance the key steps are: 1. Improve emission measurement and estimation by the development of industry wide protocols for NOX, SO2, particulates and dioxins. 2. An open approach to public reporting of performance by the industry as a whole and by companies. 3. Adopt best practice in emission control measures and promulgate their use in all countries of operation. Best practice can be broadly defined as a technique or methodology that, through experience and research in an industrial sector, has proven to reliably lead to a desired result.
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Appendices
APPENDIX A: FURTHER READING
The following documents provide guides to environmental management in the cement, concrete and allied industries: Quarrying Good Environmental Practice in the European Extractive Industry: a Reference Guide, by Dr. F. Brodkom (Centre Terre et Pierre, Belgium) a study for CEMBUREAU, CERAME-UNIE, EULA, EUROGYPSUM, EURO-ROC, IMA-EUROPE, UEPG, March 200. Downloadable from the Cembureau website at http://www.cembureau.be/Publications/TechnicalPublications.htm Cement manufacturing Cement and Concrete: Environmental Considerations. From Environmental Building News Volume 2, No. 2 March/April 1993. Downloadable from BuildingGreen.com at http://www.buildinggreen.com/features/cem/cementconc.html Profile of the Stone, Clay, Glass, and Concrete Products Industry, EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project, EPA/310-R-95-017, September 1995. Downloadable from the US Environmental Protection Agencys website at http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/ston e.html See also EBRD (undated), EIPPC (1991) and World Bank Group (1998) under references below. Concrete See BuildingGreen.com article and EPA Sector Notebook cited above.
APPENDIX B: REFERENCES
Ash Grove Cement Company, Material Safety Data Sheet for Cement Kiln Dust, August 2000. Battelle, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry, 2002 (a). Battelle, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Management of Land Use, Landscape and Biodiversity, http://www.wbcsdcement.org/final_reports.asp, 2002 (b). Battelle, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Climate Change Management and the Cement Industry, http://www.wbcsdcement.org/final_reports.asp, 2002 (c).
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Battelle, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities in Chinas Cement Industry, http://www.wbcsdcement.org/final_reports.asp, 2002 (d). Boyd, C., Lafarge, private communication, 2001. Cembureau, Alternative fuels in cement manufacture. Technical and environmental review. April 1997. CIF (Cement Industry Federation), Technical Note. Dioxins and the cement industry in Australia, http://www.cement.org.au/environment/dioxin_tech_note.pdf, undated. De Fr & M. Wevers, Underestimation in dioxin emission inventories, Organohalogen Compounds, 36, 17-20 (1998). Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste (Official Journal of the European Communities L 332, 28.12.2000, p. 91). EBRD (European Bank for Reconstruction and Development), Sub-Sectoral Environmental Guidelines: Cement Production, http://www.ebrd.com/about/policies/enviro/sectoral/construc/cement.pdf, undated. EIC (Environmental Information Centre, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry), The Indian cement industry A perspective of environment friendliness, http://www.cleantechindia.com/eicnew/cement.html (undated). EIPPC (European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau), Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries, Seville, December 2001. El-Megeed, H.S.A., El-Din, S.M.A., Kotb S.A. & El-Oteify, M.A., A Study Of Burns Among Workers In Assiut Cement Factory, Egypt, 1998, Annals of Burns and Fire Disasters Vol XII, no 1, March 1999, http://www.medbc.com/annals/review/vol_12/num_1/text/vol12n1p3.htm. Environment Australia, Sources of Dioxins and Furans in Australia: Air Emissions. May 2002. ERM, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Socioeconomic Development Substudy Report, http://www.wbcsdcement.org/final_reports.asp, 2002. European Commission, European Dioxin Inventory, http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/dioxin/download.htm, November 1997. European Standard EN 1948: Parts 1-3: 1996 Stationary source emissions Determination of mass concentration of PCDDs/PCDFs. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, 1996.
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EU (European Union), Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste, Official Journal L 332, 28.12.2000, p. 91. HSE (Health and safety Executive), Health and Safety Statistics 2000/01, HSE Books, ISBN 0 7176 2110 3, 2001. Hendriks, C. A., Worrell, E., de Jager, D., Blok, K. and Riemer, Pierce, Emission Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from the Cement Industry, presented at the 4th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, Interlaken, 30 August to 2 September 1998. Hungarian Cement Association, Changes in the environmental situation of the Hungarian cement industry, http://www.mcsz.hu/kornya.html, undated. NAEI (National Atmospheric Emissions Inventory), private communication (2002). Data from the inventory may be obtained from http://www.naei.org.uk/. Prodan, L. & Bachofen, G., Cement and Concrete, in Jeanne Mager Stellman (ed.), Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Fourth Edition, , vol. III, Chapter 93 Construction, Geneva: International Labour Office (1998) http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/elcosh/docs/d0200/d000279/ilochap93.html. TNO and PricewaterhouseCoopers, Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry: Environmental, Health and Safety Substudy Report, http://www.wbcsdcement.org/final_reports.asp, April 2002. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Environmental Fact Sheet: Management Standards Proposed for Cement Kiln Dust Waste, http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/other/ckd/index.htm, August 1999a. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories; Portland Cement Manufacturing Industry, http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-AIR/1999/June/Day-14/a12893.htm, Federal Register: Volume 64, Number 113, June 14 1999b. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds. Part I: Estimating Exposure to Dioxin-Like Compounds. Volume 2: Sources of DioxinLike Compounds in the United States, http://www.epa.gov/nceawww1/pdfs/dioxin/part1and2.htm, September 2000. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), Emissions Inventories, http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/eiinformation.html, October 2002. See in particular http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/trends98/appendix_a.pdf and http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/trends/trends00/trends2000.pdf. USGS (United States Geological Survey), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2000 Cement, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/170300.pdf, February 2000.
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USGS (United States Geological Survey), Mineral Commodity Summaries 2002 Cement, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cement/170302.pdf, January 2002. VDZ, Responsibility for Employees, http://www.vdz-online.de/daten/tb_99_01/en/pdf/10.pdf, undated. VDZ (Verein Deutscher Zementwerke, e.V.), Environmental Data of the German Cement Industry, 2001, Dusseldorf, Germany, August 2002. World Bank Group, Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, Cement Manufacturing, http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/essd/essd.nsf/GlobalView/PPAH/$File/50_cemen.pdf, July 1998.
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( TOWARD A SUSTAINABLE CEMENT INDUSTRY )

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( ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH & SAFETY PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT )

Toward a Sustainable Cement Industry

Substudy 10: Environment, Health & Safety Performance Improvement

Ian Marlowe and David Mansfield

An Independent Study Commissioned by:

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Clinker Concrete Dioxins Gypsum Limestone NOx

PAHs PCBs SOx

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Table 4-5. Table 4-6. Table 4-7. Table 4-8.

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A Dutch consultancy company.

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2. Overview of health, safety and environmental challenges

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Health and Safety Performance

3.2 HOW THE CEMENT INDUSTRY COMPARES

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Taken from unpublished research data collected by TNO

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3.3 KEY RISKS AND CONTROL MEASURES

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3.4 IMPROVING PERFORMANCE

A. Cement production in millions of tons

B. Accident rate (accidents per 1 million hours worked) 60 40 20 0

40 30 20 10 0 1969 1998 1999 2000

C. "100-men-rate" (accidents per 100 employees)

D. Working days lost per employee

10 5 0 1969 1998 1999 2000

3 2 1 0 1969 1998 1999 2000

E. Calender days lost per accident

1969 1998 1999 2000

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3.5 CURRENT CEMENT INDUSTRY INITIATIVES

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3.6 FOCUS FOR THE FUTURE

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0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Cement Iron & Steel Refineries Other

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