Introduction to Electromagnetics

Introduction

• In this course, we will study/investigate

– the nature of the ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION
– at (very) low energies, i.e. E ~ 0 GeV
• 1 GeV = 109 electron volts = 1.602×10−10 Joules
• The electromagnetic interaction is ONE of FOUR known FORCES
(or INTERACTIONS) of Nature:
– Electromagnetic Force
• binds electrons & nuclei together to form atoms- binds atoms together to
form molecules, liquids, solids. . . .
– Strong Force
• binds protons & neutrons together to form nuclei
– Weak Force
• responsible for radioactivity (e.g. β decay) (weak force important @ high
energies)
– Gravity
• binds matter together to form stars, planets, solar systems, galaxies, etc.
 Introduction (cont.)

At the MICROSCOPIC (i.e. QUANTUM) LEVEL

(elementary particle physics) the forces of nature are
mediated by the exchange of a “force-carrying”
particle e.g. between two “charged” particles:
 EM force

• At microscopic level, EM force mediated by

– (virtual) photons
– two electrically charged particles “know” about each other by
exchanging virtual photons.
 COULOMB’S LAW

• It has been experimentally observed (Charles Augustin

Coulomb, 1785) that the net, time-averaged force (i.e.
summed over many, many virtual photons) between two
stationary point charges Qa & Qb:
– Acts along the line joining the two point charges, Qa & Qb (i.e.
radial force!)
– Is linearly proportional to the product of the two point charges,
• Qa * Qb (n.b. Force is charge-signed!)
• Net force is repulsive if Qa is same sign as Qb.
• Net force is attractive if Qa is opposite sign as Qb.
– Is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance
between the two point charges.

電磁9701-c2.1.2-1
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.)

• The net force exerted by point charge Qa ON point

charged Qb is given by:

Fab is a radial force, one which points from

(to) point A to (from) point B, depending on
sign of the charge product (QaQb)

Qa Qb < 0 is attractive force (F < 0)

Qa Qb > 0 is repulsive force (F > 0)

電磁9701-c2.1.2-2
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.)

• The NET force exerted by point charge Qb ON point

charge Qa:

Fba is radial force, point from (to) point B to (from)

point A, depending on sign of charge product
(QaQb)
• Qa Qb < 0 is attractive force (F < 0)
• Qb Qa > 0 is repulsive force (F > 0)
電磁9701-c2.1.2-3
COULOMB’S LAW (conti.) - Newton’s 1st Law

電磁9701-c2.1.2-4
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.)

ε0 is the macroscopic, time-averaged electric permittivity of vacuum

– the physical vacuum behaves like a dielectric medium!!!

電磁9701-c2.1.2-5
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.)

• Factor of 4π = “flux factor” for solid angle associated

with flux of virtual photons emitted by point charge!!!
• Virtual photons “emitted” from QA are emitted into
4π steradians @ point A:

• Force decreases a 1/r2

電磁9701-c2.1.2-6
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.) – dielectric properties

• if dielectric properties of free space (vacuum) were

different than they are, then Coulomb’s Law would be
different.
• Consider a universe in which we could change the EM
properties of the vacuum at will:

• Note further/we shall see that: c = speed of light =

電磁9701-c2.1.2-7
 COULOMB’S LAW (conti.)
– compare with Newton’ Law of Gravity

Compare to Coulomb’ Law

電磁9701-c2.1.2-8
 THE ELECTRIC FIELD

• Also known as the Electric Field Intensity

• Review:
– We’ve introduced/discussed the net/time averaged Force, e.g. of
Qa acting on Qb:

• We now introduce the concept of

a net/time averaged electrostatic field

電磁9701-c2.1.3-1
THE ELECTRIC FIELD (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-2
 THE ELECTRIC FIELD (conti.)

Then

電磁9701-c2.1.3-3
 THE ELECTRIC FIELD (conti.)

• To TEST for the presence/existence of “source” charge(s)

qs, we can use one testing charge, QT

Notation:

電磁9701-c2.1.3-4
 THE ELECTRIC FIELD (conti.)

Unit of E:

電磁9701-c2.1.3-5
 Rigorous definition of electric field intensity
- limiting process

The presence of a finite-singed test charge QT necessarily perturbs

the source charge distribution that one is attempting to measure!!

As the test charge is made smaller and smaller, the perturbing effect
on the original/unperturbed source charge distribution is made smaller
and smaller

In the limit QT → O, the true source charge distribution is obtained

Usually, we might think of e.g. QT = 1 e and e.g. qs = 1019 e,

thus qs >> QT, and thus perturbing effects are negligible.

電磁9701-c2.1.3-6
 Electric field lines

• Review:

• Convention
Direction of electric field lines for qs = +e and qs= −e

電磁9701-c2.1.3-7
 Electric field lines (conti.)

• Equal but opposite charges

電磁9701-c2.1.3-8
 Electric field lines (conti.)

• Equal charges

電磁9701-c2.1.3-9
 THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION

• Question:

電磁9701-c2.1.3-10
 THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION (conti.)

• As we know,

• So,

電磁9701-c2.1.3-11
 THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION (conti.)

• for arbitrary continuous charge distributions

電磁9701-c2.1.3-12
THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-13
THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-14
THE PRINCIPLE of LINEAR SUPERPOSITION (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-15
Complete description of all possible charge distributions

電磁9701-c2.1.3-16
 Example 2.1

• Find the electric field a distance z above the midpoint of

a straight line segment of length 2L, which carries a
uniform line charge λ (Fig. 2.6).

• symmetry of this problem

電磁9701-c2.1.3-17
Example 2.1 (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-18
Example 2.1 (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-19
Example 2.1 (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-20
Example 2.1 (conti.)

電磁9701-c2.1.3-21