Bogati Cov

.., .., ..
,
.., ..
,
.
,
[ ]: / .., ..,
.., .., ... . . . (1,2 ).
.: - , 2003.
: http://anubis.bsu.by/publications/elresources/Chemistry/bogatikov.pdf .
. . , 2002. PDF , 1.4 . .
: Adobe Acrobat 5.0 .

2003
.., ..,
.., ..,
.., 2003.
-
, 2003
www.elbook.bsu.by
elbook@bsu.by
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x Ar ( A)
y Ar ( B)
;
.
w( A) =
w( B) =
M r ( Ax B y )
M r ( Ax B y )
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Mr(HNO2) = Ar(H) + Ar(N) + 2Ar(O) = 1 + 14 + 32 = 47.
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1 Ar (H )
1
w(H ) =
=
= 0,021 = 2,1 %;
M r (HNO 2 ) 47
w( N) =
1 Ar ( N)
14
=
= 0,298 = 29,8 % ;
M r (HNO 2 ) 47
w(O) = 100 % 2,1 % 29,8 % = 68,1 % .

7
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[m(N) = m(NxOy) m(O) = ]] ]
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m( N )
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=
fhev
Zn(N) =
M ( N ) 14 ]fhev
[n(O) =
m( O )
63,15 ]
=
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8
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m(C) m(H) m(O)
n(C) : n(H) : n(O) =
:
:
=
M (C) M (H) M (O)
2,4 ]
0,4 ]
3,2 ]
:
:
=
= 1 : 2 : 1.
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qbkehZlhfh\dZ`^h]hwe_f_glZ\fhe_dme_bihemqZ_lkymfgh`_gb_f
bg^_dkh\\ijhkl_cr_cnhjfme_gZhij_^_e_ggh_qbkehjZa
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkubkoh^gh]h\_s_kl\Zih
_]hhlghkbl_evghciehlghklb
M1(CxHyOz) = 29 D\ha^ = 29 ]fhev
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkubkoh^gh]h\_s_kl\Zih
_]hijhkl_cr_cnhjfme_
M2(CH2O ]fhev
Ihkdhevdm agZq_gb_ F1 [hevr_ agZq_gby F2 \ jZaZ lh êy
gZoh`^_gbyfhe_dmeyjghcnhjfmeu\_s_kl\Z\k_bg^_dku\_]hijh
kl_cr_cnhjfme_gm`ghm\_ebqblv\jZaZLZdbfh[jZahfbkdhfZy
nhjfmeZK3G6H3.
AZdhgwd\b\Ze_glh\
<_s_kl\Z\klmiZxl\j_Zdpbbbh[jZamxlky\j_amevlZl_j_Zd
pbc\wd\b\Ze_glguodhebq_kl\Zo
<gZqZe_ jZkkfhljbf hij_^_e_gby ihgylbc obfbq_kdbc wd\b\Z
e_gl qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb nZdlhj wd\b\Ze_glghklb fheyjgZy
fZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZfheyjguch[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZbdhebq_kl\h\_s_
kl\Zwd\b\Ze_glZ
Obfbq_kdbcwd\b\Ze_glj_ZevgZybebmkeh\gZyqZklbpZ\_s_
kl\Z dhlhjZy \ dbkehlgh-hkgh\ghc j_Zdpbb wd\b\Ze_glgZ l _ obfbq_kdb jZ\ghp_ggZ h^ghfm bhgm G+ Z \ hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evghcj_Zdpbbh^ghfmwe_dljhgm
J_ZevgZy qZklbpZ fhe_dmeZ Zlhf beb bhg mkeh\gZy qZklbpZ
hij_^_e_ggZyqZklviheh\bgZlj_lvbl^fhe_dmeuZlhfZbebbhgZ
9
<h[s_fkemqZ_wd\b\Ze_glex[h]h\_s_kl\ZOh[hagZqZ_lkyke_1
^mxsbfh[jZahf ( X ) ]^_z* qbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklb

z
Qbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz* qbkehbhgh\G+\dbkehlgh-hkgh\ghcj_Zdpbbbebqbkehwe_dljhgh\\hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evghc
j_Zdpbbdhlhjh_wd\b\Ze_glghobfbq_kdbjZ\ghp_gghh^ghcqZklbp_\_s_kl\ZO
1
qbkeh dhlhjh_ ihdZau\Z_l
z
dZdZy^heyqZklvj_ZevghcqZklbpuOwd\b\Ze_glgZh^ghfmbhgmG+
\ dbkehlgh-hkgh\ghc j_Zdpbb beb h^ghfm we_dljhgm\hdbkebl_evgh\hkklZgh\bl_evghcj_Zdpbb
NZdlhj wd\b\Ze_glghklb
FheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZ\_s_kl\ZO M ( X ) fZkkZ
z
h^gh]hfhevwd\b\Ze_glZwlh]h\_s_kl\Z?^bgbpZbaf_j_gby]fhev
beb d]fhev FheyjgZy fZkkZ wd\b\Ze_glZ \_s_kl\Z O k\yaZgZ k fh
eyjghcfZkkhc\_s_kl\ZOkhhlghr_gb_f
1
M (X )
.
M ( X ) =
z
z
K^jm]hcklhjhgufheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZ\_s_kl\ZOqbk
e_ggh jZ\gZ hlghr_gbx fZkku \_s_kl\Z O d khhl\_lkl\mxs_fm ob
fbq_kdhfmdhebq_kl\mwd\b\Ze_glZ\_s_kl\ZO:
m( X )
1
.
M ( X ) =
z
n 1 ( X )
z
Obfbq_kdh_dhebq_kl\hwd\b\Ze_glZ\_s_kl\ZO n ( X )
z
\_ebqbgZqbke_gghjZ\gZyhlghr_gbxfZkku\_s_kl\ZOdfheyjghc
fZkk__]hwd\b\Ze_glZ?^bgbpZbaf_j_gbyfhev
1
Fheyjguch[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZ]ZaZO Vm ( X ) h[t_fh^
z
gh]h fhey wd\b\Ze_glZ ]Zahh[jZagh]h \_s_kl\Z O ?^bgbpZ baf_j_gby efhevbebf3fhev

10
Fheyjguch[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZ]ZaZOk\yaZgkfheyjgufh[t_fhf
]ZaZOkhhlghr_gb_f
1
V (X )
Vm ( X ) = m .
z
z
<lh`_\j_fyfheyjguch[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZ]ZaZOqbke_gghjZ
\_ghlghr_gbxh[t_fZ]ZaZOdkhhl\_lkl\mxs_fmobfbq_kdhfmdh
ebq_kl\m\_s_kl\Z
V (X )
1
V ( X ) =
.
z
n 1 ( X )
z
Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb nZdlhj wd\b\Z

e_glghklbwd\b\Ze_glbfheyjgmxfZkkmwd\b\Ze_glZnhknhjghcdb
kehlu\j_Zdpbb
Ca(OH)2 + H3PO4 :&D+324 + 2H2O.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz*<^Zgghcj_Zdpbbhlh^ghc
fhe_dmeuG3PO4hls_ieyxlkybhgZG+beb^jm]bfbkeh\Zfbh^ghc
fhe_dme_ dbkehlu wd\b\Ze_glgu obfbq_kdb khhl\_lkl\mxl bhgZ
G+Ihwlhfmqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz*\^Zgghcj_ZdpbbjZ\gh
GZoh^bf nZdlhj wd\b\Ze_glghklb b hij_^_ey_f wd\b\Ze_gl
1 1
dbkehluIhhij_^_e_gbx f wd\ = * = .
2
z
+
WlhagZqblqlhh^ghfmbhgmG \^Zgghcj_Zdpbbkhhl\_lkl\m_l
qZklviheh\bgZfhe_dmeudbkehludhlhjZyby\ey_lky\^Zgghc
j_Zdpbb__obfbq_kdbfwd\b\Ze_glhf
GZoh^bffheyjgmxfZkkmwd\b\Ze_glZdbkehlu
1
M (H 3PO 4 ) 98
M (H 3PO 4 ) =
=
= 49 ]fhev .
2
2
z
Ijbf_jHij_^_eblvwd\b\Ze_glbjZkkqblZlvfheyjgmxfZkkm
wd\b\Ze_glZ]b^jhdkb^ZojhfZ,,,\j_Zdpbb
2Cr(OH)3 + 3H2SO4 = Cr2(SO4)3 + 6H2O.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbKUHG3:
qZklbpZfKUHG3khhl\_lkl\mxlbhgh\G+,
qZklbp_
x bhgh\
-"11
hldm^Z o AgZqbl qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb ]b^jhdkb^Z ojhfZ z* \

^Zgghcj_ZdpbbjZ\gh
GZoh^bf nZdlhj wd\b\Ze_glghklb KUHG3 b hij_^_ey_f _]h
obfbq_kdbcwd\b\Ze_gl
qZklbpZKUHG3,
bhgZfG+ wd\b\Ze_glgZ
+
-"yqZklbphldm^Zy = 1/3.
bhgmH
WlhagZqblqlh\^Zgghcj_Zdpbbwd\b\Ze_glhf]b^jhdkb^ZojhfZ
,,,y\ey_lkymkeh\gZyqZklbpZqZklv_]hnhjfmevghc_^bgbpu
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkuwd\b\Ze_glZKUHG3:
1
M (Cr (OH )3 )
M (Cr (OH)3 ) =
]fhev
3
3
Ijbf_jHij_^_eblvwd\b\Ze_glbjZkkqblZlvfheyjgmxfZkkm
wd\b\Ze_glZ]b^jhdkb^ZfZj]ZgpZII\j_Zdpbb
2Mn(OH)2 + 12KOH + 5Cl2 :.0Q24 + 10KCl + 8H2O.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbêyFQHG2:
Ihkdhevdm \ nhjfmevghc _^bgbp_ wlh]h ]b^jhdkb^Z kh^_j`blky
Zlhf fZj]ZgpZ \ kl_i_gb hdbke_gby Z \ nhjfmevghc _^bgbp_
D0Q24 \ kl_i_gb hdbke_gby ^_eZ_f \u\h^ qlh qZklbp_
FQHG2khhl\_lkl\mxlwe_dljhgh\AgZqblqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklb
]b^jhdkb^ZjZ\gh
GZoh^bf nZdlhj wd\b\Ze_glghklb ]b^jhdkb^Z b hij_^_ey_f
1 1
_]hobfbq_kdbcwd\b\Ze_gl f wd\ =
= .
z* 5
WlhagZqblqlh\^Zgghcj_Zdpbbwd\b\Ze_glhf]b^jhdkb^ZfZj
]ZgpZ,,y\ey_lkymkeh\gZyqZklbpZqZklv_]hnhjfmevghc_^b
gbpu
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkuwd\b\Ze_glZ]b^jhdkb^Z
1
M (Mn (OH ) 2 ) 89 ]fhev
M (Mn (OH ) 2 ) =
]fhev
=
5
5
5
Ijbf_jHij_^_eblvwd\b\Ze_glbjZkkqblZlvagZq_gb_fheyj
ghcfZkkuwd\b\Ze_glZkmevnZlZZexfbgby\j_Zdpbb
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Pb(NO3)2 = 2Al(NO3)3 + 3PbSO4.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklb$O2(SO4)3.
<^Zgghcj_Zdpbbh[f_gZg_ijbgbfZxlmqZklbybhguG+<wlhf
kemqZ_ijbgbfZxlky\h\gbfZgb_^jm]b_bhgukihklhyggufaZjy^hf
12
jZ\gufbeb<gZr_fijbf_j_wlhbhguNO 3 BamjZ\g_gbyj_
Zdpbb\b^ghqlhh^ghcqZklbp_$O2(SO4)3wd\b\Ze_glgubhgh\12 3 ,
l_qbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz*êykmevnZlZZexfbgbyjZ\ghr_klb
GZoh^bfnZdlhjwd\b\Ze_glghklbbhij_^_ey_fwd\b\Ze_gl
bhgZf12 3 khhl\_lkl\m_lqZklbpZ$O2(SO4)3,
bhgm
-"xqZklbphldm^Zx = 1/6.
WlhagZqblqlh\^Zgghcj_Zdpbbh[f_gZobfbq_kdbfwd\b\Ze_g
lhf kmevnZlZ Zexfbgby y\ey_lky mkeh\gZy qZklbpZ qZklv _]h
nhjfmevghc_^bgbpu
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkuwd\b\Ze_glZ
1
M (Al2 (SO 4 )3 )
M (Al2 (SO 4 )3 ) =
]fhev
6
6
Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblvwd\b\Ze_glbjZkkqblZlvagZq_gb_fheyj
gh]hh[t_fZwd\b\Ze_glZk_jh\h^hjh^Z\j_Zdpbb
H2S2 + 8HNO3 :+2S+6O4 + 8NO2 + 4H2O.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bf qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb G2S Ihkdhevdm \ fhe_dme_
k_jh\h^hjh^Zkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyk_jujZ\gZZ\fhe_dme_k_jghc
dbkehlu hgZ jZ\gZ ^_eZ_f \u\h^ qlh fhe_dme_ H2S khhl\_lkl
\mxlwe_dljhgh\WlhagZqblqlhqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz*k_jh
\h^hjh^Z\^Zgghcj_ZdpbbjZ\gh
GZoh^bfnZdlhjwd\b\Ze_glghklbk_jh\h^hjh^Zbhij_^_ey_f
_]hwd\b\Ze_gl
we_dljhgZfkhhl\_lkl\m_l fhe_dmeZG2S,
we_dljhgm
-"xfhe_dmehldm^Zx = 1/8.
Wlh agZqbl qlh obfbq_kdbf wd\b\Ze_glhf k_jh\h^hjh^Z \ ^Zg
ghcj_Zdpbby\ey_lkymkeh\gZyqZklbpZ\hkvfZyqZklv_]hfhe_dmeu
GZoh^bfagZq_gb_fheyjgh]hh[t_fZwd\b\Ze_glZk_jh\h^hjh^Z
22,4 efhev
1
V
Vm (H 2S) = m =
efhev
8
8
8
Ijbf_j G_ba\_klgucf_lZeefZkkhc]kh`]eb\dbkehjh^_
bihemqbebhdkb^f_lZeeZfZkkhc]Hij_^_eblvf_lZee
J_r_gb_
AZibr_fh[smxko_fmj_ZdpbbF_0H 02 :F_ +2 x H x 2 .
13
< khhl\_lkl\bb k aZdhghf wd\b\Ze_glh\ obfbq_kdh_ dhebq_kl\h

wd\b\Ze_glZ f_lZeeZ jZ\gh obfbq_kdhfm dhebq_kl\m wd\b\Ze_glZ
dbkehjh^Z
m(Me)
m (O 2 )
1
1
=
.
n * (Me) = n * (O 2 ) =>
1
z
z
M * (Me) M * (O 2 )
z
A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ\klmib\r_]h\j_Zdpbx

m(O2) fZkkZdbkehjh^Z\klmib\r_]h\j_Zdpbx
1
M * (Me) fheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZf_lZeeZ
z
M * (O 2 ) fheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZdbkehjh^Z
z
GZc^_ffZkkmdbkehjh^Z\klmib\r_]h\j_Zdpbx
m(O2) = mhdkb^Z mf_lZeeZ ]] ]
GZc^_ffheyjgmxfZkkmwd\b\Ze_glZfhe_dmeyjgh]hdbkehjh
^ZIjbh[jZah\Zgbbhdkb^ZdZ`^Zyfhe_dmeZdbkehjh^Zijbkh_^bgy_l
we_dljhgZbij_\jZsZ_lky\hdkb^-bhgZO 02 :O2.
Lh]^Z we_dljhgZfkhhl\_lkl\m_lfhe_dmeZH2,
we_dljhgm
-"xfhe_dmehldm^Zx = 1/4.
Wlh agZqbl qlh obfbq_kdbf wd\b\Ze_glhf dbkehjh^Z \ ^Zgghc
j_Zdpbby\ey_lkymkeh\gZyqZklbpZq_l\_jlZyqZklvfhe_dmeuGZc
^_fagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkkuwd\b\Ze_glZdbkehjh^Z
1
M (O 2 ) 32
M (O 2 ) =
=
= 8 ]fhev .
4
4
4
Ih^klZ\bf qbkeh\u_ agZq_gby \_ebqbg \ \ujZ`_gb_ aZdhgZ

wd\b\Ze_glh\
1
m(Me) M * (O 2 )
1
z
= 10 8 ]fhev
M * (Me) =
m (O 2 )
8,89
z
*
>eyf_lZeeZqbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklbz jZ\ghkl_i_gb_]hhdbk
1
e_gby\kh_^bg_gbbIhkdhevdmM(Me) = M * (Me) z*lhijb

z
*
FF_ ]fhev
z =1
*
z =2
FF_ ]fhev
*
FF_ ]fhev
z =3
14
H^gh\Ze_glgh]h f_lZeeZ k fheyjghc fZkkhc ]fhev b ^\mo\Z

e_glgh]hf_lZeeZkfheyjghcfZkkhc]fhevg_kms_kl\m_lLj_o
\Ze_glgucf_lZeekfheyjghcfZkkhcZexfbgbcAl).
Ijbf_jIjbjZkl\hj_gbb\dbkehl_f_lZeeZfZkkhc]\u
^_ebeky\h^hjh^h[t_fhfegmHij_^_eblvf_lZee
J_r_gb_
n
AZibr_fh[smxko_fmj_ZdpbbF_0 + nH+ :Men+ + H 02 .
2
<khhl\_lkl\bbkaZdhghfwd\b\Ze_glh\dhebq_kl\h\_s_kl\Zwd
\b\Ze_glZf_lZeeZjZ\ghdhebq_kl\m\_s_kl\Zwd\b\Ze_glZ\h^hjh^Z
Ke_^h\Zl_evgh
m(Me)
V (H 2 )
=
.
1
M * (Me) Vm * (H 2 )
z
A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ

V(H2) h[t_f\h^hjh^Z
1
M * (Me) fheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZf_lZeeZ
z
Vm * (H 2 ) fheyjguch[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZ\h^hjh^Z
z
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fheyjgh]hh[t_fZwd\b\Ze_glZ\h^hjh^Z
Ihkdhevdmfhe_dmeZ\h^hjh^Zh[jZam_lkyihko_f_H+:H 02 lh
jZkkm`^Z_flZd
we_dljhgZfkhhl\_lkl\m_lfhe_dmeZG2,
1
we_dljhgmkhhl\_lkl\m_lxfhe_dmehldm^Zx = .
2
LZdbfh[jZahfwd\b\Ze_glhf\h^hjh^Z\^Zgghcj_Zdpbby\ey_l
ky mkeh\gZy qZklbpZ iheh\bgZ _]h fhe_dmeu Ihwlhfm fheyjguc
h[t_fwd\b\Ze_glZ\h^hjh^Z[m^_ljZ\_g
22,4
1
V
= 11,2 efhev .
Vm (H 2 ) = m =
2
2
2
Ih^klZ\bfagZq_gby\_ebqbg\\ujZ`_gb_aZdhgZwd\b\Ze_glh\
gZc^_ffheyjgmxfZkkmwd\b\Ze_glZf_lZeeZbhij_^_ebff_lZee
1
m(Me) Vm * (H 2 )
1
z
= 9,58 11,2 ]fhev
M * (Me) =
V (H 2 )
6,72
z
15
1
M (Me)
IhkdhevdmF * (Me) =
lhfheyjgZyfZkkZf_lZeeZ[m
z*
z
^_l\ujZ`ZlvkyM(Me) = M * (Me) z*,

z
*
=^_z bebKfijbf_j
FF_ ]fhev
Ijbz* = 1
*
FF_ ]fhev
ijbz = 2
*
ijbz = 3
FF_ ]fhev
H^gh-b^\mo\Ze_glgh]hf_lZeeh\kgZc^_ggufbagZq_gbyfbfh
eyjguofZkkg_kms_kl\m_llj_o\Ze_glgucf_lZeekfheyjghcfZkkhc
]fhevlblZg7L
Ijbf_jBaoehjb^Zg_ba\_klgh]hf_lZeeZfZkkhc]ihem
q_ggbljZlwlh]h`_f_lZeeZfZkkhc]Hij_^_eblvf_lZee
J_r_gb_
Ihkdhevdm obfbq_kdh_ dhebq_kl\h wd\b\Ze_glZ oehjb^Z f_
lZeeZjZ\ghobfbq_kdhfmdhebq_kl\mwd\b\Ze_glZ_]hgbljZlZlh
m(Me + x Cl x )
m(Me + x ( NO 3 ) x )
.
=
1
M * (MeCl x ) M * (Me( NO 3 ) x )
z
Ijbj_r_gbbih^h[guoaZ^Zqg_h[oh^bfhihfgblvqlhfheyjgZy
fZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZkeh`gh]h\_s_kl\ZjZ\gZkmff_fheyjguofZkkwd
\b\Ze_glh\ _]h khklZ\guo qZkl_c >himklbf qlh fheyjgZy fZkkZ wd
\b\Ze_glZg_ba\_klgh]hf_lZeeZjZ\gZx]fhevMqblu\Zyqlhfheyj
gZy fZkkZ wd\b\Ze_glZ oehjb^-ZgbhgZ Cl ]fhev Z fheyjgZy
fZkkZ wd\b\Ze_glZ gbljZl-ZgbhgZ NO 3 jZ\gZ ]fhev b ih^klZ\b\
agZq_gby\_ebqbg\\ujZ`_gb_aZdhgZwd\b\Ze_glh\ihemqbf
18,34
23,64
=
hlkx^Zx ]fhev
x + 35,5 x + 62
Hij_^_ebff_lZee
1
IhkdhevdmM(Me) = M * (Me) z*,

z
]^_ z* kl_i_gv hdbke_gby f_lZeeZ \ kh_^bg_gbb lh ijb

z* = 1 FF_ = ]fhev ]fhevf_lZeeg_kms_kl\m_l
ijbz* = 2 FF_ ]fhev ]fhevf_lZeedZ^fbc&G
16
AZdhg:\h]Z^jh
<jZ\guoh[t_fZojZaebqguo]Zah\ijbh^bgZdh\uo\g_rgbomkeh
\byo^Z\e_gbbbl_fi_jZlmj_kh^_j`blkyh^bgZdh\h_qbkehfhe_dme
Ijbj_r_gbbaZ^Zqbkihevamxlkyke_^kl\bybawlh]haZdhgZ
IjbghjfZevguomkeh\byo^Z\e_gbbdIZbl_fi_jZ
lmj_ hK beb D fhev ex[h]h ]ZaZ aZgbfZ_l h[t_f ijbf_jgh
jZ\guc e Hg gZau\Z_lky fheyjguf h[t_fhf ]ZaZ ijb ghjfZev
guo mkeh\byo b h[hagZqZ_lky V om . ?^bgbpu baf_j_gby efhev beb
f3fhev
Fheyjguch[t_f]ZaZqbke_gghjZ\_ghlghr_gbxh[t_fZ]ZaZd
khhl\_lkl\mxs_fmobfbq_kdhfmdhebq_kl\mwlh]h\_s_kl\Z
Vm =
V (X )
.
n( X )
Hlghkbl_evgZy iehlghklv ]ZaZ O ih ]Zam Y Dy(X) [_ajZa

f_jgZy\_ebqbgZjZ\gZyhlghr_gbxfheyjguofZkk^Zgguo]Zah\
DY ( X ) =
M (X )
.
M (Y )
HgZihdZau\Z_l\hkdhevdhjZa]ZaOe_]q_bebly`_e__]ZaZY_kebboh[t_fuh^bgZdh\uGZijbf_jhlghkbl_evgZyiehlghklvZffbZdZih\h^hjh^m
M ( NH 3 ) 17 ]fhev
= 8,5.
DH 2 ( NH 3 ) =
=
M (H 2 )
2 ]fhev
?keblj_[m_lkygZclbagZq_gb_hlghkbl_evghciehlghklb]ZaZO)
ih \ha^mom lh fheyjgmx fZkkm ]ZaZ O ^_eyl gZ kj_^gxx fheyjgmx
fZkkm\ha^moZF\ha^kjjZ\gmx]fhevGZijbf_jhlghkbl_evgZy
iehlghklvoehjh\h^hjh^Zih\ha^mom
D\ha^(HCl) =
36,5 ]fhev
M (HCl)
= 1,259.
=
M \ha^ (kj.) 29 ]fhev
Kj_^g_cfheyjghcfZkkhc]Zah\hckf_kbFkjgZau\ZxlfZkkmkf_

kb h[t_f dhlhjhc ijb g m jZ\_g e HgZ k\yaZgZ k fheyjgufb
fZkkZfb]Zah\khhlghr_gb_f
Fkjkf_kb 3(O) F(O) + 3(Y) M(Y).
A^_kv3Xb3Y) h[t_fgu_^heb]Zah\\kf_kbF(XbM(Y) fh
eyjgu_fZkku]Zah\H[t_fgZy^hey]ZaZ3\kf_kb\_ebqbgZjZ\
17
gZy hlghr_gbx h[t_fZ ]ZaZ O d h[t_fm kf_kb DZd b fZkkh\Zy^hey

hgZfh`_l\ujZ`Zlvky\^heyo_^bgbpubeb\ijhp_glZo
Iehlghklv]ZaZ!\_ebqbgZqbke_gghjZ\gZhlghr_gbx_]h
fheyjghcfZkkudfheyjghfmh[t_fm
!(X) =
M (X )
.
Vm
GZijbf_jiehlghklv\ha^moZijbgmjZ\gZ
! \ha^
M \ha^. (kj.)
29 ]fhev
]e
=
Vm
22,4 efhev
AZdhg;hceyFZjbhllZ
Ijbihklhygghcl_fi_jZlmj_h[t_f^Zgghcihjpbb]ZaZh[jZlghijhihjpbhgZe_g_]h^Z\e_gbx
Wlh agZqbl qlh ijb m\_ebq_gbb ^Z\e_gby ]ZaZ \ hij_^_e_ggh_
qbkehjZa_]hh[t_fmf_gvrZ_lky\hklhevdh`_jZaIhwlhfmijhba
\_^_gb_^Z\e_gby]ZaZgZ_]hh[t_fijbihklhygghcl_fi_jZlmj_y\ey
_lky\_ebqbghcihklhygghc
p1V1 = p2V2 = const.
Ijbf_j Ijb ^Z\e_gbb dIZ h[t_f ]ZaZ jZ\_g e <u
qbkeblvagZq_gb_h[t_fZ^Zgghcihjpbb]ZaZijb^Z\e_gbbdIZ
J_r_gb_
BamjZ\g_gby;hcey-FZjbhllZ\ujZabfV2bgZc^_f_]hagZq_gb_
V2 =
p1V1 98,5 10,4

=
= 6,3 e .
p2
162,6
AZdhg=_c-ExkkZdZ
Ijb ihklhygghf ^Z\e_gbb h[t_f ^Zgghc ihjpbb ]ZaZ ijyfh
ijhihjpbhgZe_g_]hZ[khexlghcl_fi_jZlmj_
WlhagZqblqlhijbm\_ebq_gbbZ[khexlghcl_fi_jZlmju]ZaZ\
hij_^_e_ggh_ qbkeh jZa _]h h[t_f m\_ebqb\Z_lky \h klhevdh `_ jZa
Ihwlhfm hlghr_gb_ h[t_fZ ]ZaZ d _]h Z[khexlghc l_fi_jZlmj_ ijb
ihklhygghf^Z\e_gbby\ey_lkyihklhygghc\_ebqbghc
V1 V2
=
= const .
T1 T2
18
Ijbf_jIjbl_fi_jZlmj_ hKh[t_f]ZaZjZ\_ge<u
qbkeblvagZq_gb_h[t_fZ^Zggh]h]ZaZijbl_fi_jZlmj_18 hK
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_fZ[khexlgu_agZq_gbyl_fi_jZlmju
ZT1 = t1 + 273 = 18 + 273 = 291 K;
[) T2 = t2 + 273 = 118 + 273 = 391 K.
Ba mjZ\g_gby =_c-ExkkZdZ \ujZabf V2 b jZkkqblZ_f _]h agZ
q_gb_
VT
6,72 391
V2 = 1 2 =
= 9,03 e .
T1
291
H[t_^bg_gguc]Zah\ucaZdhg
Ijhba\_^_gb_\_ebqbgu^Z\e_gby^Zgghcihjpbb]ZaZgZ\_ebqbgm
_]hh[t_fZhlg_k_ggh_dagZq_gbxZ[khexlghcl_fi_jZlmju_klv
\_ebqbgZihklhyggZy
p0V0 p1V1
=
= const .
T0
T1
WlhmjZ\g_gb_gZau\Z_lkymjZ\g_gb_fDeZi_cjhgZ?]hqZklhbk
ihevamxlêyjZkq_lZh[t_fZ]ZaZijbghjfZevguomkeh\byo_kebba
\_klgh_]hagZq_gb_ijb^jm]bomkeh\byo
Ijbf_jIjbl_fi_jZlmj_hKb^Z\e_gbbdIZh[t_f]Z
aZjZ\_ge<uqbkeblvagZq_gb_h[t_fZ]ZaZijbghjfZevguomk
eh\byo
J_r_gb_
Ba mjZ\g_gby h[t_^bg_ggh]h ]Zah\h]h aZdhgZ \ujZabf V0 b jZk
kqblZ_f_]hagZq_gb_
T p V 273 68,8 120,4
V0 = 0 1 1 =
= 70,2 e .
p0T1
101,3 318
?kebobfbq_kdh_dhebq_kl\h]ZaZjZ\ghfhevlhagZq_gb_^jh
pV
[b
y\ey_lky ihklhygghc \_ebqbghc b gZau\Z_lky mgb\_jkZevghc
T
]Zah\hc ihklhygghc R < kemqZ_ dh]^Z ^Z\e_gb_ ]ZaZ \ujZ`Z_lky \
dIZ Z h[t_f \ ebljZo lh R ijbgbfZ_l agZq_gb_ jZ\gh_
8,314 >`fhev KKmq_lhfwlh]hêyfhev]ZaZfh`ghaZibkZlv
pV
= R bebpV = RT.
T
19
?keb`_obfbq_kdh_dhebq_kl\h]Zahh[jZagh]h\_s_kl\ZjZ\ghn
fhevlh
pV = nRT.
WlhmjZ\g_gb_gZau\Z_lkymjZ\g_gb_fDeZi_cjhgZ F_g^_e__\Z.
m
^Zggh_mjZ\g_gb_fh`ghaZibkZlv\\b^_
Mqblu\Zyqlh n =
M
m
pV =
RT .
M
Hgh k\yau\Z_lfZl_fZlbq_kdb^Z\e_gb_]ZaZ_]hh[t_ffZkkmb
l_fi_jZlmjm >Zggh_ mjZ\g_gb_ iha\hey_l \uqbkeblv ex[mx ba \oh
^ysbo\g_]h\_ebqbg_kebba\_klguhklZevgu_\_ebqbgu
Ijbf_j<uqbkeblvagZq_gb_fheyjghcfZkku\_s_kl\Z_keb
_]hiZjufZkkhc]ijbl_fi_jZlmj_ oKb^Z\e_gbbdIZaZ
gbfZxlh[t_fjZ\gucfe
J_r_gb_
Ba mjZ\g_gby DeZi_cjhgZ-F_g^_e__\Z \ujZabf M b jZkkqblZ_f
__agZq_gb_
mRT 2,6 8,314 360
=
= 78 ]fhev
M=
pV
83,2 1,2
AZdhgiZjpbZevguo^Z\e_gbc]Zah\
H[s__ ^Z\e_gb_ kf_kb ]Zah\ g_ \klmiZxsbo \ obfbq_kdh_ \aZb
fh^_ckl\b_ jZ\ghkmff_iZjpbZevguo^Z\e_gbcdZ`^h]hbagbo
Pkf_kb j(1)j(2) + j(n).
IZjpbZevgh_ ^Z\e_gb_ ]ZaZ j ^Z\e_gb_ dhlhjh_ ijhba\h^be
[uwlhl]Za_keb[uhgh^bgijbl_o`_mkeh\byoaZgbfZe\_kvh[t_f
]Zah\hckf_kb
IZjpbZevgh_^Z\e_gb_]ZaZ\kf_kbijhihjpbhgZevgh_]hh[t_f
ghc^he_
j(1) = Jkf_kb 3(1).
Ijbf_j H[s__ ^Z\e_gb_ kf_kb khklhys_c ba ZahlZ fZkkhc
14 ]bdbkehjh^ZfZkkhc]jZ\ghdIZ<uqbkeblvagZq_gbyiZj
pbZevguo^Z\e_gbc]Zah\\kf_kb
J_r_gb_
Ihkdhevdm \ kf_kb h[t_fgu_ ^heb ]Zah\ qbke_ggh jZ\gu bo
fhevguf^heyflh\^ZgghfkemqZ_iZjpbZevgu_^Z\e_gby]Zah\[m
^mlijhihjpbhgZevgubofhevguf^heyf
20
JZkkqblZ_fobfbq_kdh_dhebq_kl\hdZ`^h]hba]Zah\
14 ]
fhev
n(N2) =
28 ]fhev
n(O2) =
8]
fhev
32 ]fhev
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gbyfheyjguo^he_c]Zah\\kf_kb
n( N 2 )
0,5 fhev
$(N2) =
=
= 0,666 .
n(kf_kb) 0,75 fhev
Ke_^h\Zl_evghfheyjgZy^heydbkehjh^Z$H2jZ\gZ
$(O2) = 1 0,666 = 0,334.
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gbyiZjpbZevguo^Z\e_gbc]Zah\
p(N2) = $(N2) Pkf_kb = 0,666 dIZ dIZ
p(O2) $(O2) Pkf_kb = 0,334 dIZ dIZ.
Ijbf_j < khkm^_ h[t_fhf e kf_rZeb dbkehjh^ h[t_fhf
3,5 egZoh^b\rbckyih^^Z\e_gb_fdIZbZahlh[t_fhfegZ
oh^b\rbcky ih^ ih^ ^Z\e_gb_f dIZ <uqbkeblv iZjpbZevgu_
^Z\e_gby]Zah\bh[s__^Z\e_gb_ihemq_gghckf_kb
J_r_gb_
IhmjZ\g_gbx;hcey-FZjbhllZjZkkqblZ_fgh\u_^Z\e_gby]Z
ah\ihke_bokf_rb\Zgbyl_iZjpbZevgu_^Z\e_gby
p (O ) V (O ) 125 3,5
p 2 (O 2 ) = 1 2 1 2 =
= 72,92 dIZ ;
V2
6
p2 ( N 2 ) =
p1 ( N 2 ) V1 ( N 2 ) 105 5,5
=
= 96,25 dIZ .
V2
6
GZc^_fh[s__^Z\e_gb_kf_kb
Pkf_kb = p(1) + p(2) dIZdIZ dIZ
Ijbf_j<[Zeehg_h[t_fhfeijbl_fi_jZlmj_ oKkh
^_j`Zlkydbkehjh^fZkkhc]m]e_dbkeuc]ZafZkkhc]bZahl
g_ba\_klghcfZkku<uqbkeblvagZq_gb_fZkkuZahlZ\kf_kb_keb__
^Z\e_gb_jZ\ghdIZ
J_r_gb_
Ba mjZ\g_gby DeZi_cjhgZ F_g^_e__\Z \ujZabf ^Z\e_gb_ b
jZkkqblZ_f_]hagZq_gbyêydbkehjh^Zbm]e_dbkeh]h]ZaZ
21
mRT
;
VM
27,2 8,314 (273 + 19)
= 46,35 dIZ .
p (O 2 ) =
44,5 32
55 8,314 (273 + 19)
= 68,16 dIZ .
p(CO 2 ) =
44,5 44
JZkkqblZ_fiZjpbZevgh_^Z\e_gb_ZahlZ\kf_kb
p(N2) = Pkf_kb p(CO2) p(O2) = 139,05 68,16 dIZ
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_fZkkuZahlZ\kf_kb
pVM
24,5 44,5 28
=
= 12,58 ] .
m( N 2 ) =
RT
8,31 (273 + 19)
Ijbf_j<]Zahf_lj_gZ^\h^hcijbl_fi_jZlmj_ hKkh^_j
`blkydbkehjh^h[t_fhfeih^^Z\e_gb_fdIZJZkkqblZlv
agZq_gb_h[t_fZkmoh]hdbkehjh^Z\]Zahf_lj_ijbgm_keb^Z\e_
gb_gZkus_ggh]h\h^ygh]hiZjZijboKjZ\ghdIZ
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_iZjpbZevgh]h^Z\e_gbyqbklh]hdbkehjh
^Z\kf_kb
j(O2) = P(cf_kb p(H2O) = 102,455 dIZ
Ba mjZ\g_gby h[t_^bg_ggh]h ]Zah\h]h aZdhgZ \ujZabf Vh b
jZkkqblZ_f_]hagZq_gb_
T pV
273 99,291 5,2
V0 = 0 1 1 =
= 4,67 e .
p0T1 101,3 (273 + 25)
p=
1.
2.
3.
4.
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< q_f aZdexqZxlky jZaebqby f_`^m obfbq_kdbf we_f_glhf b
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dmeyjgZy fZkku" Qlh y\ey_lky Zlhfghc _^bgbp_c fZkku" DZdh_
agZq_gb_hgZijbgbfZ_lbdZdh[hagZqZ_lky"
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ljhibb"
22
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jmcl_hij_^_e_gb_ihgylbyfhevDZdh\nbabq_kdbckfukeihklh
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23
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24
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Z) 2H2S + (CuOH)2SO4 = 2CuS + H2SO4 + 2H2O;
[) 2H2S + O2 = 2H2O + 2S;
\) 2H2S + 3O2 = 2H2O + 2SO2;
]) H26G2SO4 = 4H2O + 4SO2
45. Hij_^_eblv wd\b\Ze_gl b jZkkqblZlv agZq_gb_ fheyjghc fZkku
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Z) Al2(SO4)3 + 12KOH = 2K3[Al(OH)6] + 3K2SO4;
[) Al2(SO4)3 + Al(OH)3 = 3Al(OH)SO4;
\) Al2(SO4)3 + 2KOH = 2Al(OH)SO4 + K2SO4.
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qZ_jZ\gZ]
Z) 4H3PO4 + Ca3(PO4)2 = 3Ca(H2PO4)2;
[) 2H3PO4 + (CaOH)3PO4 = 3CaHPO4 + 3H2O.
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65. < hj]Zgbq_kdhf \_s_kl\_ fZkkh\u_ ^heb we_f_glh\ khklZ\eyxl
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70. G_ba\_klgh_ [jhfkh^_j`Zs__ \_s_kl\h fZkkhc ] kh`]eb \
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71. Ijbl_jfbq_kdhfjZaeh`_gbbhdkb^ZfZj]ZgpZIVfZkkhc]

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72. G_ba\_klgh_ k_jhkh^_j`Zs__ \_s_kl\h fZkkhc ] kh`]eb \
ba[uld_dbkehjh^Z\j_amevlZl_q_]hh[jZah\Zebkvm]e_dbkeuc]Za
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73. DZdhch[t_fhahgbjh\Zggh]hdbkehjh^Z\dhlhjhfh[t_fgZy^hey
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ghckf_kb
75. FZkkh\u_^hebdZ^fbybpbgdZ\bokieZ\_jZ\gukhhl\_lkl\_ggh
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eyghc dbkehl_ k p_evx ihemq_gby \h^hjh^Z h[t_fhf e ijb
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<k_\_s_kl\Z^_eylkygZijhklu_bkeh`gu_IjhklufbgZau\Z
xlky\_s_kl\Zkhklhysb_baZlhfh\h^gh]hwe_f_glZZkeh`gufb
khklhysb_baZlhfh\^\mobeb[he__we_f_glh\
GZa\Zgbyijhkluo\_s_kl\dZdijZ\behkh\iZ^ZxlkgZa\Zgbyfb
khhl\_lkl\mxsboobfbq_kdbowe_f_glh\gZijbf_jeblbc[hjk_jZ
Bkdexq_gb_khklZ\eyxlm]e_jh^gZa\Zgbyijhkluo\_s_kl\dhlhjh
]h ZefZa]jZnbldZj[bgnmee_j_gZlZd`_ZeehljhigZyfh^bnbdZ
pbydbkehjh^Zhahg
Keh`gu_g_hj]Zgbq_kdb_\_s_kl\ZihkhklZ\mih^jZa^_eyxlkygZ
^\mowe_f_glgu_[bgZjgu_bfgh]hwe_f_glgu_kh_^bg_gby
Kh]eZkghijbgpbimkbkl_fZlbq_kdhcghf_gdeZlmjuobfbq_kdZy
nhjfmeZ keh`gh]h \_s_kl\Z jZa^_ey_lky gZ mkeh\gh we_dljhiheh`b
l_evgmxbmkeh\ghwe_dljhhljbpZl_evgmxkhklZ\eyxsb_I_j\Zykh
klZ\eyxsZyklZ\blky\nhjfme_ke_\ZZ\lhjZykijZ\Z
31
GZa\Zgb_keh`gh]h\_s_kl\ZqblZ_lkykijZ\ZgZe_\hl_\gZqZ
e_ gZau\Z_lky _]h we_dljhhljbpZl_evgZy khklZ\eyxsZy \ bf_gbl_ev
ghfiZ^_`_ZaZl_fwe_dljhiheh`bl_evgZy\jh^bl_evghfiZ^_`_
;bgZjgu_kh_^bg_gby
GZa\Zgby[bgZjguokh_^bg_gbch[jZamxlkybaeZlbgkdh]hdhjgy
gZa\Zgby [he__ we_dljhhljbpZl_evgh]h we_f_glZ k kmnnbdkhf -b^- b
jmkkdh]h gZa\Zgby f_g__ we_dljhhljbpZl_evgh]h we_f_glZ \ jh^b
l_evghf iZ^_`_ ?keb f_g__ we_dljhhljbpZl_evguc we_f_gl fh`_l
gZoh^blvky \ jZaebqguo kl_i_gyo hdbke_gby lh kl_i_gv hdbke_gby
mdZau\Z_lky\kdh[dZojbfkdbfbpbnjZfb
=Zeh]_gbû: NaCl oehjb^ gZljby +, bh^b^ \h^hjh^Z 2)2
nlhjb^dbkehjh^Z,,)H%U2 [jhfb^`_e_aZ,,
Hdkbû Al2O3 hdkb^ Zexfbgby 34O10 hdkb^ nhknhjZ 9
KH hdkb^ m]e_jh^Z ,, )H2O3 hdkb^ `_e_aZ ,,, Hdkbû kh^_j
`Zsb_]jmiimZlhfh\2 22 (HHgZau\Zxlkyi_jhdkb^ZfbG2H2
i_jhdkb^\h^hjh^Z<ZH2 i_jhdkb^[Zjby
OZevdh]_gbû(kmevnbûk_e_gbûl_eemjbû): CuS kmevnb^
f_^b,,&X26_k_e_gb^f_^b,1D2Te l_eemjb^gZljby
:gZeh]bqgh gZau\Zxlky b ^jm]b_ [bgZjgu_ kh_^bg_gby gZijb
f_jnhknbûlbiZ&D3P2; dZj[bû CaC2; ]b^jbû MgH2 b^jm]b_
Bkdexq_gb_fbamdZaZgguoijZ\bey\eyxlky\h^hjh^gu_kh_^b
g_gbyg_f_lZeeh\ijhy\eyxsb_k\hckl\ZdbkehlBogZa\Zgbyh[jZ
amxlkyihijZ\beZfijbgylufêydbkehlkfgb`_
LjZ^bpbhgghd[bgZjgufkh_^bg_gbyfhlghkyl\_s_kl\Zbf_x
sb_\k\h_fkhklZ\_djhf_Zlhfh\dZdh]heb[hwe_f_glZbhggu_ijhba\h^gu_ \h^hjh^guo kh_^bg_gbc ZahlZ 1+4+ Zffhgbc 1+4Cl
oehjb^ Zffhgby 1+ 2 Zfb^ .1+2 Zfb^ dZeby 1+2 bfb^
Na2NH bfb^gZljby
D ik_\^h[bgZjguf kh_^bg_gbyf hlghkyl _s_ jy^ \_s_kl\ kh
^_j`Zsbomklhcqb\u_]jmiibjh\dbZlhfh\jZaguowe_f_glh\gZijb
f_jpbZgb^-bhgu CN \bkfmlbe BiO+klb[be SbO+.
Ih nmgdpbhgZevguf ijbagZdZf [hevrbgkl\h mdZaZgguo [bgZj
guokh_^bg_gbcy\eyxlkykheyfbbebkhe_ih^h[gufbkh_^bg_gbyfb
djhf_hdkb^guob\h^hjh^guokh_^bg_gbc
Hdkbû ih^jZa^_eyxlky gZ g_khe_h[jZamxsb_ [_ajZaebqgu_ b
khe_h[jZamxsb_G_khe_h[jZamxsb_hdkbûg_\aZbfh^_ckl\mxlgbk
dbkehlZfbgbkhkgh\ZgbyfbCO, NO, N22Khe_h[jZamxsb_hdkb
û^_eylkygZhkgh\gu_dbkehlgu_bZfnhl_jgu_.
32
Fgh]hwe_f_glgu_kh_^bg_gby
D wlhfm lbim g_hj]Zgbq_kdbo \_s_kl\ hlghkblky [hevrbgkl\h
kh_^bg_gbcdhlhju_bf_xl\k\h_fkhklZ\_we_dljhhljbpZl_evgu_b
we_dljhiheh`bl_evgu_khklZ\eyxsb_kh^_j`Zsb_[he__h^gh]hwe_
f_glZ
Hkgh\Zgby Hkgh\Zgbyfb gZau\Zxlky keh`gu_ \_s_kl\Z kh
klhysb_baZlhfh\f_lZeeZbh^ghcbebg_kdhevdbo]b^jhdkh]jmii
Hgb y\eyxlky l\_jûfb djbklZeebq_kdbfb \_s_kl\Zfb Hkgh\
gh_obfbq_kdh_k\hckl\hhkgh\Zgbckihkh[ghklv\aZbfh^_ckl\h\Zlv
k dbkehlZfb b dbkehlgufb hdkb^Zfb k h[jZah\Zgb_f khe_c Hkgh\Z
gbys_ehqguo/L1D.5E&Vbs_ehqgha_f_evguof_lZeeh\&D
6U%DjZkl\hjbfu\\h^_bgZau\Zxlkys_ehqZfbKbkl_fZlbq_kdb_
gZa\Zgbywlh]hlbiZkh_^bg_gbckhklhylbakeh\Z]b^jhdkb^bgZa\Z
gbywe_f_glZ\jh^bl_evghfiZ^_`_kmdZaZgb_f_]hkl_i_gbhdbke_
gby_kebwlhg_h[oh^bfh
LiOH ]b^jhdkbêblby
<ZHG2 ]b^jhdkb^[Zjby
Fe(OH)3 ]b^jhdkb^`_e_aZ(III); Re(OH)4 ]b^jhdkb^j_gby(IV).
DbkehluWlhkeh`gu_\_s_kl\Zkhklhysb_badbkehlguohklZl
dh\bh^gh]hbebg_kdhevdboZlhfh\\h^hjh^Zkihkh[guoaZf_sZlvky
gZZlhfuf_lZeeh\
Dbkehlu\_kvfZjZaghh[jZagudZdihZ]j_]Zlghfmkhklhygbx]Z
ahh[jZagu_ `b^db_ l\_jû_ lZd b ih nbabdh-obfbq_kdbf k\hckl
\Zf ;hevrbgkl\h dbkehl ohjhrh jZkl\hjbfh \ \h^_ Bo \Z`g_cr__
obfbq_kdh_ k\hckl\h kihkh[ghklv h[jZah\u\Zlv kheb ijb \aZbfh
^_ckl\bbkhkgh\Zgbyfbbhkgh\gufbhdkb^Zfb
Qbkeh Zlhfh\ \h^hjh^Z \ fhe_dme_ dbkehlu kihkh[guo aZf_
sZlvkygZf_lZeegZau\Z_lkyhkgh\ghklvxdbkehlu. HNO3 h^ghhk
gh\gZy+2SO4 ^\mohkgh\gZy+3PO4 lj_ohkgh\gZy+4P2O7 q_lu
j_ohkgh\gZy&+3COOH h^ghhkgh\gZydbkehlu
G_hj]Zgbq_kdb_dbkehlu^_eylkygZkh^_j`Zsb_dbkehjh^hdkh
dbkehlulbiZ+nW2mb[_kdbkehjh^gu_lbiZGnXm]^_Wdbkehlh
h[jZamxsbcwe_f_glO Zlhfu]Zeh]_gh\oZevdh]_gh\bg_dhlhjuo
^jm]bowe_f_glh\nbm dhebq_kl\hkhhl\_lkl\mxsboZlhfh\
Ijh^mdluaZf_s_gby\fhe_dmeZohdkhdbkehlZlhfh\dbkehjh^Z
gZ]jmiimHHgZau\Zxlkyi_jhdkhdbkehlZfb(H2SO5Zijh^mdlu
aZf_s_gbydbkehjh^ZgZZlhfuk_ju lbhdbkehlZfb(H3PS4).
LjZ^bpbhggh_gZa\Zgb_hdkhdbkehlukhklhblba^\mokeh\ijb
eZ]Zl_evgh]h hl dhjgy gZa\Zgby dbkehlhh[jZamxs_]h we_f_glZ b
]jmiih\h]hkeh\ZdbkehlZgZijbf_jk_jgZydbkehlZ[hjgZydbkeh
33
lZ?kebwe_f_glh[jZam_lg_kdhevdhdbkehllhjZaebqb_f_`^mgbfb
j_]mebjm_lky k ihfhsvx kmnnbdkh\ ijbkh_^bgy_fuo d dhjgx jmk
kdh]hgZa\Zgbywe_f_glZ-g-, -\-beb-_\-ijb\ukr_cbeb_^bgkl\_g
ghckl_i_gbhdbke_gbyb-h\-, -bkl-, -gh\Zl-, -gh\Zlbkl-ijbijhf_
`mlhqguobgbarbokl_i_gyohdbke_gby
Khebij_^klZ\eyxlkh[hcijh^mdluaZf_s_gbyZlhfh\\h^hjh^Z\
dbkehl_gZf_lZeebeb]jmiiuHG\hkgh\ZgbbgZdbkehlguchklZlhd
< aZ\bkbfhklb hl kl_i_gb aZf_s_gby bhgZ \h^hjh^Z \ dbkehlZo
bebHG]jmiiu\hkgh\Zgbyoh[jZamxsb_kykhebdeZkkbnbpbjmxlky
gZdbkeu_kheb]b^jhkheblbiZ1D+623, Mg(HCO3)2, kj_^gb_ihegh_
aZf_s_gb_GbHGlbiZ)H2(SO4)3, Na2CO3bhkg\gu_]b^jhdkhkh
eblbiZ)H2+&O&X2+2CO3.
JZaebqZxllZd`_^\hcgu_khebh[jZah\Zggu_^\mfyf_lZeeZfbb
h^gbfdbkehlgufhklZldhf.$O624)2, KCr(SO4)2), kf_rZggu_h[jZ
ah\Zggu_ h^gbf f_lZeehf b ^\mfy dbkehlgufb hklZldZfb &D&O2&O
beb &D2&O2 6U+6&O b dhfie_dkgu_ kheb >$J1+3)2]ClO4,
K3[Fe(CN)6]).
;hevrbgkl\h g_hj]Zgbq_kdbo khe_c ij_^klZ\eyxl kh[hc kh_^b
g_gbykbhgghcdjbklZeebq_kdhckljmdlmjhcbhlghkbl_evgh\ukhdb
fbl_fi_jZlmjZfbieZ\e_gbybdbi_gbyFgh]b_khebohjhrhjZkl\h
jbfu\\h^_
LjZ^bpbhggu_gZa\Zgbykhe_ckhklZ\eyxlkybagZa\ZgbcZgbhgh\
\ bf_gbl_evghf iZ^_`_bgZa\ZgbcdZlbhgh\\jh^bl_evghfiZ^_`_
GZa\Zgb_ZgbhgZ\dexqZ_ldhj_gvjmkkdh]hbebeZlbgkdh]hgZa\Zgby
dbkehlhh[jZamxs_]h we_f_glZ k ^h[Z\e_gb_f kmnnbdkZ khhl\_lkl
\mxs_]hlhcbebbghckl_i_gbhdbke_gbywe_f_glZ
?keb dbkehlhh[jZamxsbc we_f_gl bf__l lhevdh h^gm kl_i_gv
hdbke_gbylh^h[Z\ey_lkykmnnbdk-Zl-:
Na2CO3 dZj[hgZlgZljby K2SiO3 kbebdZldZeby
?kebdbkehlhh[jZamxsbcwe_f_glbf__l^\_kl_i_gbhdbke_gby
lh ijb \ukr_c kl_i_gb hdbke_gby ^h[Z\ey_lky kmnnbdk -Zl- Z ijb
gbar_c-bl-:
CaSO4 kmevnZldZevpbyMgSO3 kmevnblfZ]gby
IjbgZebqbbZgbhgh\khhl\_lkl\mxsboq_luj_fkl_i_gyfhdbk
e_gby dbkehlhh[jZamxs_]h we_f_glZ bo gZa\Zgby h[jZamxlky lZdbf
h[jZahf êy h[hagZq_gby \ukr_c kl_i_gb hdbke_gby bkihevamxlky
ijbklZ\dZi_j-bkmnnbdk-Zl:
KBr+7O4 i_j[jhfZldZeby
34
aZl_f\ihjy^d_mf_gvr_gbykl_i_g_chdbke_gby[_aijbklZ\dbkmnnbdk-Zl:

KBr+5O3 [jhfZldZeby
kmnnbdk-bl:
KBr+3O2 [jhfbldZeby
êygZbf_gvr_ciheh`bl_evghckl_i_gbhdbke_gbyijbklZ\dZ ]b
ih-bkmnnbdk-bl:
KBr+1O ]bih[jhfbldZeby
Ijbihkljh_gbbljZ^bpbhgguogZa\Zgbcdbkeuokhe_cdgZa\Zgbx
ZgbhgZkj_^g_ckheb^h[Z\ey_lkyijbklZ\dZ]b^jh-bqbkeh\ZyijbklZ\
dZ_kebdhebq_kl\hZlhfh\\h^hjh^Z\Zgbhg_[hevr__^bgbpu
DGKH3 ]b^jhdZj[hgZldZeby
Fe(H2PO4)2 ^b]b^jhnhknZl`_e_aZII).
=b^jhdkhkheb ljZ^bpbhggh gZau\Zxl ^h[Z\e_gb_f d gZa\Zgbx
dZlbhgZijbklZ\db]b^jhdkh-:
(CuOH)2CO3 dZj[hgZl]b^jhdkhf_^bII);
Al(OH)2NO3 gbljZl^b]b^jhdkhZexfbgbybl^
GZa\Zgby ^\hcguo b kf_rZgguo khe_c kljhylky h[uqguf h[jZ
ahf ?^bgkl\_ggZy hkh[_gghklv ijb ibkvf_gghc aZibkb wlh ihklZ
gh\dZ^_nbkZêyjZa^_e_gby^\hcghcqZklbdZlbhgZbebZgbhgZ
^\hcgu_kheb
KCr(SO4)2 kmevnZlojhfZIIIdZeby;
kf_rZggu_kheb Ca(ClO)Cl oehjb^-]bihoehjbldZevpby
AlNO3SO4 kmevnZl-gbljZlZexfbgby
LjZ^bpbhggu_ gZa\Zgby kj_^gbo khe_c gZb[he__ mihlj_[bl_evguohdkhdbkehlijb\_^_gugb`_
LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ dbkehlu
NhjfmeZ
LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ kj_^g_c kheb
;hjgZy
H3BO3
;hjZlu
M]hevgZy
H2CO3
DZj[hgZlu
F_lZdj_fgb_\Zy
H2SiO3
F_lZkbebdZlu
Hjlhdj_fgb_\Zy
H4SiO4
HjlhkbebdZlu
Furvydh\Zy
H3AsO4
:jk_gZlu
Furvydh\bklZy
H3AsO3
:jk_gblu
NhknhjgZy
H3PO4
NhknZlu
>bnhknhjgZy
H4P2O7
>bnhknZlu
NhknhjbklZy
H3PO3
Nhknblu
35
LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ dbkehlu
NhjfmeZ
LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ kj_^g_c kheb
Nhknhjgh\ZlbklZy
H3PO2
=bihnhknblu
:ahlgZy
HNO3
GbljZlu
:ahlbklZy
HNO2
Gbljblu
Ojhfh\Zy
H2CrO4
OjhfZlu
>bojhfh\Zy
H2Cr2O7
>bojhfZlu
K_jgZy
H2SO4
KmevnZlu
K_jgbklZy
H2SO3
Kmevnblu
FZj]Zgph\Zy
HMnO4
I_jfZg]ZgZlu
FZj]Zgph\bklZy
H2MnO4
FZg]ZgZlu
Oehjgh\ZlbklZy
HClO
=bihoehjblu
OehjbklZy
HClO2
Oehjblu
Oehjgh\ZlZy
HClO3
OehjZlu
OehjgZy
HClO4
I_joehjZlu
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
76. GZibkZlv nhjfmeu hdkb^h\ khhl\_lkl\mxsbo mdZaZgguf
]b^jhdkb^Zf+4SiO4, Cu(OH)2, H3AsO3, H6TeO6, Fe(OH)3.
77. KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbckihfhsvxdhlhjuofh`ghhkms_
kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) Ba :%D2:%D&O2 :%D123)2 :%D624;
[) Mg :0J624 :0J2+2 :0JO :0J&O2 .
78. DZdb_bamdZaZgguo]Zah\\klmiZxl\obfbq_kdh_\aZbfh^_ckl\b_
kjZkl\hjhfs_ehqb+&O+2S, NO2, N2, Cl2, CH4, SO2, NH3"GZib
kZlvmjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
79. DZdb_ kheb fh`ghihemqblvbf_y\k\h_fjZkihjy`_gbb&X624,
AgNO3, K3PO4, BaCl2"GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcbgZa\Zlvih
emq_ggu_kheb
80. KdZdbfbai_j_qbke_gguogb`_\_s_kl\[m^_lj_Z]bjh\Zlvkhey
gZydbkehlZ<2O3, Zn(OH)2, CaO, AgNO3, SiO2, H3PO4"KhklZ\blv
mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
81. DZdb_ ba mdZaZgguo \_s_kl\ j_Z]bjmxl k ]b^jhdkb^hf gZljby
HNO3, CaO, CO2, CuSO4, Cd(OH)2, P4O10"KhklZ\blvmjZ\g_gbyj_
Zdpbc
82. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc k\b^_l_evkl\mxsbo h[ hkgh\guo
k\hckl\Zo)H2&V2O, HgO, Bi2O3.
36
83. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc^hdZau\Zxsb_dbkehlgucoZjZdl_j
SeO2, SO3, Mn2O7, P4O6, CrO3.
84. GZah\bl_ kheb: SbCl2NO3, (Fe(OH)2)2CrO4, (AlOH)SO4, Cd(HS)2,
Ca(H2PO4)2.
85. GZibkZlv mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc h[jZah\Zgby 0J2P2O7, Ca3(PO4)2,
Mg(ClO4)2, Ba(NO3)2\j_amevlZl_\aZbfh^_ckl\by
Zhkgh\gh]hbdbkehlgh]hhdkb^h\
[hkgh\Zgbybdbkehlgh]hhdkb^Z
\hkgh\gh]hhdkb^Zbdbkehlu
]hkgh\Zgbybdbkehlu
86. GZa\Zlv kheb =Q&+3COO)2, NaH2SbO4, K2H2P2O7, Al(OH)2NO3,
Na2Cr2O7, Ba(HSO3)2, CrOHSO4, NaHS.
87. Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju hdkb^h\ dhlhju_ ijb \aZbfh^_ckl\bb k \h
^hc h[jZamxl ^\_ dbkehlu DZd \aZbfh^_ckl\mxl k jZkl\hjhf
]b^jhdkb^ZdZevpby12O3; N2O5; NO2?
88. Hkms_kl\bl_ ij_\jZs_gby q_j_a ijhf_`mlhqguc ijh^mdl
FeCl3 : Fe2O3; Al(CH3COO)3 : Al2O3; CuSO4 : CuO; MnBr2 : MnO.
DZdfh`ghêyh^gh]hblh]h`_we_f_glZbah^gh]hhdkb^Zihem
qblv^jm]hcgZijbf_j&X2ba&X2O)H2ba)H2O3; P4O10ba34O6;
0Q2ba0Q2O7; NO2ba12"
89. GZdZdhfjZaebqbb\k\hckl\Zofh`_l[ulvhkgh\ZghjZa^_e_gb_
ke_^mxsbohdkb^h\%D2b0J23E2b=Q26L22b1D220Q2b
=Q2)H2b6L22?
90. Q_fhij_^_ey_lkyhkgh\ghklvdbkehl"Ijb\_^bl_ijbf_judbkehl
jZaghchkgh\ghklbbgZibrbl_bo]jZnbq_kdb_nhjfmeuDZdke_
^m_ljZkkfZljb\Zlvkljh_gb_fhe_dmeunhknhjbklhcdbkehlubk
oh^ybolh]hqlhhgZ\_^_lk_[ylhevdhdZd^\mohkgh\gZy"
91. GZ ijbf_j_ f_lZ- hjlh- ihebnhknhjguo dbkehl ihdZ`bl_ q_f
hlebqZxlkywlbnhjfmeu^jm]hl^jm]ZbijbdZdbomkeh\byoijh
bkoh^ylbo\aZbfhij_\jZs_gby"
92. DZdb_ kh_^bg_gby h[jZamxlky ijb l_jfbq_kdhf jZaeh`_gbb ke_
^mxsbo dbkehl beb ^_ckl\bb gZ gbo \h^hhlgbfZxsbo kj_^kl\
HNO2; HClO; H3PO3; H2WO4; H3AsO4; HBO2; H2B4O7; HAsO3;
H2S3O10?
93. KdZdbfbbai_j_qbke_gguo\_s_kl\\aZbfh^_ckl\m_lkheygZydb
kehlZ&D212O3; AgNO3; SO3; Pb(NO3)2; CuSO4; FeS; FeO; Cu; Zn?
94. Hkgh\gu_k\hckl\ZdZdh]h]b^jhdkb^Z\ujZ`_gukbevg__bihq_
fm $V2+3 beb %L2+3; Sn(OH)2 beb 6Q2+4; Fe(OH)2 beb
Fe(OH)3; Ba(OH)2beb%H2+2?
37
95. Hij_^_ebl_fZkkm]b^jhdkb^ZgZljbydhlhjucfh`_l[ulvihem
q_gbafhjkdhckhebfZkkhclijbmkeh\bbqlhfZkkh\Zy^hey
oehjb^ZgZljby\g_ckhklZ\ey_l
96. GZc^bl_ fZkkh\mx ^hex ]b^jhdkb^Z gZljby ij_\jZlb\r_]hky \
dZj[hgZlaZkq_lih]ehs_gby&22\ha^moZ_kebfZkkZ]b^jhdkb^Z
\hajhkeZk^h]Q_fmjZ\_gh[t_fgmih]ehs_ggh]h
ijbwlhfKH2?
97. < dZdhf h[t_fghf hlghr_gbb ^he`gu [ulv kf_rZgu jZkl\hju
G3JH4b1D2+h^bgZdh\hcfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpbbêyihemq_
gby]b^jh-b^b]b^jhnhknZlZgZljby"
98. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc dhlhju_ ihke_^h\Zl_evgh ijhl_
dZxlijbihkl_i_gghf^h[Z\e_gbb
Z1D2+djZkl\hjm]b^jhkmevnZlZpbgdZ
[k_jghcdbkehludk\_`_hkZ`^_gghfm]b^jhdkb^mZexfbgby
99. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcijbihfhsbdhlhjuoi_j_qbke_g
gu_ gb`_ kheb fh]ml [ulv i_j_\_^_gu \ kj_^gb_ &X2+2SO4,
Ca(HCO3)2, [Al(OH)2]2SO4, [Cr(OH)2]2SO4, FeOHSO4, (BiOH)SO4.
100. DZdb_ ba khe_c <ZClNO3, KNa2PO4, Pb(CH3COO)2, (BiO)2SO4,
Fe(OH)2NO3 \aZbfh^_ckl\mxl k Z H2SO4 [ NaOH" GZah\bl_
bkoh^gu_ kheb b ijh^mdlu \hafh`guo j_Zdpbc gZibrbl_ bo
]jZnbq_kdb_nhjfmeu
101. DZdbfbkihkh[Zfbfh`ghihemqblvbah^ghckheb^jm]mx
[) CuCl2 :&X624,
Z) Pb(NO3)2:3E624,
]) K2CrO4 :%D&U24,
\) Fe2(SO4)3 :)H&O3,
_) BaCO3 :%D&O2?
^) NaAlO2 :$O2(SO4)3,
102. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcdhlhju_ijhl_dZxl\\h^ghfjZk
l\hj_f_`^m)H6b+&O&X2+2CO3b+2SO4, Ca(HCO3)2b1D2+
NaHSO4b1+3, Al(H2PO4)3b&D2+2.
103. L_jfbq_kdbfjZaeh`_gb_fdZdbokhe_cfh`ghihemqblvljbhd
kb^Z\jZaguoZ]j_]Zlguokhklhygbyo"
104. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcdhlhju_ijhl_dZxl\\h^ghfjZk
l\hj_ f_`^m ke_^mxsbfb \_s_kl\Zfb &D2+2 b 122; NH3 b
SO2; CaCl2 b 1D2HPO4; H2SO4 b )H2+624; CaHAsO3 b %D2+2;
Mg(HCO3)2b&D2+2; KAl(SO4)2b.2+1+4Cr(SO4)2b%D&O2.
105. Ijb ihfhsb dZdbo j_Zdpbc fh`gh hkms_kl\blv ke_^mxsb_ i_
j_ohûhlh^gh]h\_s_kl\Zd^jm]hfm
Z) KAl(SO4)2 :$O&O3 :$O2O3;
[) Fe2(SO4)3 :)H123SO4 :)H&O3 :)H2O3;
\) Fe2(SO4)3 :)H2O3 :)H2:1+4)2Fe(SO4)2 :)H&O3;
]) Fe :)H&O2 :)H&O3 :)H2+624 :)H&O624 :)H2O3 :)H
^) Zn :=Q6:=Q2:=Q2+2SO4 :=Q&O2 :=Q
38
=E:<:,,,
WG?J=?LBD:OBFBQ?KDBOJ?:DPBC
L_jfh^bgZfbdZbamqZ_laZdhghf_jghklbh[f_gZwg_j]b_cf_`^m
kbkl_fhcb\g_rg_ckj_^hc\hafh`ghklvgZijZ\e_gb_bij_^_eukZ
fhijhba\hevgh]hijhl_dZgbyobfbq_kdboijhp_kkh\
Kbkl_fZ kh\hdmighklv \_s_kl\ beb qZklbp hl^_e_gguo hl
\g_rg_c kj_û JZaebqZxl ]hfh]_ggu_ b ]_l_jh]_ggu_ kbkl_fu =h
fh]_ggu_ kbkl_fu khklhyl ba h^ghc nZau ]_l_jh]_ggu_ kbkl_fu
ba ^\mo beb [he__ nZa NZaZ wlh qZklv kbkl_fu h^ghjh^gZy \h
\k_o__lhqdZoihobfbq_kdhfmkhklZ\mbk\hckl\Zfbhl^_e_ggZyhl
^jm]bonZakbkl_fuih\_joghklvxjZa^_eZ
Obfbq_kdZy kbkl_fZ oZjZdl_jbam_lky hij_^_e_ggufb iZjZf_l
jZfb. D iZjZf_ljZf kbkl_fu hlghkylky l_fi_jZlmjZ L ^Z\e_gb_ j,
h[t_fVfZkkZmbdhgp_gljZpbyk
L_jfh^bgZfbq_kdh_khklhygb_kbkl_fuhibku\Z_lkynmgdpbyfb
khklhygby dhlhju_ h^ghagZqgh hij_^_eyxlky q_j_a iZjZf_lju kh
klhygby j, V b L Baf_g_gb_ ohly [u h^gh]h ba gbo \e_q_l aZ kh[hc
baf_g_gb_\k_onmgdpbckhklhygbykbkl_fuIhke_^gb_g_aZ\bkylhl
imlbb\j_f_gbijhp_kkZijb\h^ysbokbkl_fm\^Zggh_khklhygb_D
nmgdpbyf khklhygby gZau\Z_fuo lZd`_ l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdbfb ih
l_gpbZeZfbhlghkylky
U \gmlj_ggyywg_j]by
G wglZeviby
S wgljhiby
G wg_j]by=b[[kZk\h[h^gZywg_j]by
<gmlj_ggyy wg_j]by kbkl_fu U wlh __ ihegZy wg_j]by kh
klhysZy ba dbg_lbq_kdhc b ihl_gpbZevghc wg_j]bb \k_o qZklbp kbk
l_fu fhe_dme Zlhfh\ y^_j we_dljhgh\ Ihkdhevdm iheguc mq_l
\k_o khklZ\eyxsbo g_\hafh`_g ihwlhfm ijb l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdhf
bamq_gbb kbkl_fu ^hklZlhqgh agZlv ebrv baf_g_gb_ __ \gmlj_gg_c
wg_j]bbijbi_j_oh^_bah^gh]hkhklhygbyU1\^jm]h_U2):
U = U2 U1.
;hevrbgkl\h obfbq_kdbo j_Zdpbc b^_l ijb ihklhygghf ^Z\e_gbb
(bah[Zjgu_ ijhp_kku b kbkl_fZ fh`_l h[f_gb\Zlvky wg_j]b_c l_iehlhc4khdjm`Zxs_ckj_^hcbkh\_jrZlvjZ[hlm:ijhlb\kbe\g_rg_]h^Z\e_gbybebgZh[hjhlgZ^kbkl_fhcfh`_l[ulvkh\_jr_gZjZ[hlZ
U = Q + A .
39
<h[s_f\b^_jZ[hlZ
A = p(V2 V1) = pV.
?keb gZ^ kbkl_fhc kh\_jrZ_lky jZ[hlZ lh hgZ kqblZ_lky iheh
`bl_evghc Z _keb kbkl_fZ kZfZ kh\_jrZ_l jZ[hlm lh lZdZy jZ[hlZ
kqblZ_lkyhljbpZl_evghc:
A = pV.
Ihwlhfm\gZr_fkemqZ_j = const):
U = Qp pV
beb
hldm^Z
U2 U1= Qj p(V2 V1),
Qp = (U2+ pV2) (U1+ pV1).

Nmgdpby U + pV h[hagZq_ggZy q_j_a G gZau\Z_lky wglZevib_c.
WglZeviby_klvnmgdpbykhklhygbybbf__ljZaf_jghklvwg_j]bbd>`
Qp = H2 H1 = H.
L_ieh\hc wnn_dl j_Zdpbb ijb ihklhygghf ^Z\e_gbb b l_fi_jZ
lmj_khhl\_lkl\m_lbaf_g_gbxwglZevibbkbkl_fu\oh^_j_ZdpbbHg
aZ\bkblhlijbjhûj_Z]_glh\bijh^mdlh\bonbabq_kdh]hkhklhygby
mkeh\bc L, j ijh\_^_gby j_Zdpbb Z lZd`_ hl dhebq_kl\Z \_s_kl\
mqZkl\mxsbo\j_Zdpbb
H[uqgh l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdb_ \_ebqbgu hij_^_eyxl ijb klZg
^Zjlguo mkeh\byo: j dIZbL D hK
KlZg^ZjlgZywglZevibyj_Zdpbbh[jZah\Zgbyfhev^Zggh]h\_s_
kl\Z ba ijhkluo \_s_kl\ gZoh^ysboky \ klZg^Zjlguo khklhygbyo gZau\Z_lkyklZg^ZjlghcwglZevib_ch[jZah\Zgbywlh]h\_s_kl\ZgZijbf_j
f H 0298 (CO2) = d>`fhev f H 0298 (HgO) = 90,9 d>`fhev Wg
lZevibyh[jZah\Zgbyijhkluo\_s_kl\\klZg^Zjlghfkhklhygbbijb
gbfZ_lkyjZ\ghc.
Obfbq_kdb_mjZ\g_gby\dhlhjuomdZaZgubaf_g_gbywglZevibb
l_ieh\u_wnn_dluj_ZdpbcgZau\Zxlkyl_jfhobfbq_kdbfb mjZ\g_
gbyfb:
beb
K]jZnblH] KH]; G 0298 = d>`
K]jZnblH] KH]d>`

?keb\j_amevlZl_j_Zdpbbl_iehlZ\u^_ey_lkyQ > lhwglZeviby
kbkl_fuihgb`Z_lkyH < LZdZyj_ZdpbygZau\Z_lkywdahl_jfbq_k40
dhc J_Zdpby ijhl_dZxsZy k ih]ehs_gb_f l_iehlu Q < l _ k ih\ur_gb_fwglZevibbkbkl_fuH > gZau\Z_lkywg^hl_jfbq_kdhc.
Hkgh\gufaZdhghfl_jfhobfbby\ey_lkyaZdhg=_kkZ l_ieh
\hcwnn_dlj_Zdpbbhij_^_ey_lkylhevdhgZqZevgufbdhg_qgufkh
klhygb_fkbkl_fubg_aZ\bkblhlimlbi_j_oh^Zkbkl_fubah^gh
]hkhklhygby\^jm]h_.
Ke_^kl\b_baaZdhgZ=_kkZ klZg^Zjlgucl_ieh\hcwnn_dlj_
ZdpbbjZ\_gkmff_klZg^Zjlguol_iehlh[jZah\Zgbyijh^mdlh\j_
Zdpbb aZ \uq_lhf kmffu klZg^Zjlguo l_iehl h[jZah\Zgby bkoh^
guo\_s_kl\kmq_lhfkl_obhf_ljbq_kdbodhwnnbpb_glh\
G 0298 j-pbb f G 0298 ijh^f G 0298 bko
Ijbf_j Ihevamykv ^Zggufb h klZg^Zjlguo wglZevibyo h[jZ
ah\Zgby\_s_kl\\j_Zdpbb0Jd + CO ] = 2MgOd + C]jZnbl\uqbk
eblvGh j_Zdpbb
J_r_gb_
Bkoh^ybalZ[ebqguo^ZgguoihwglZevibyfh[jZah\Zgby&22b
0J2 b mqblu\Zy qlh klZg^Zjlgu_ wglZevibb h[jZah\Zgby \_s_kl\
jZ\gugmexgZoh^bf\_ebqbgmklZg^ZjlghcwglZevibbj_Zdpbb
G 0298 =2f G 0298 (MgO) f G 0298 (CO2) =
= 601,8 .2 + 393,5 = d>`fhev
Ijbf_j Bkoh^y ba l_iehlu h[jZah\Zgby ]Zahh[jZagh]h ^bhd
kb^Zm]e_jh^Z&22) = d>`fhevbl_jfhobfbq_kdh]hmjZ\g_
gbyK]jZnbl + 2N2O ] KH] + 2N]; G 0298 = d>`<uqbkeblv
l_iehlmh[jZah\Zgby12O].
J_r_gb_
hldm^Z
G 0298 j-pbb f G 0298 (CO2) + 0) (2fG 0298 (N2O) + 0),

2fG 0298 (N2O) = f G 0298 (CO2) G 0298 j-pbb
393,5 ( d>`
Ke_^h\Zl_evghf G 0298 (N22 d>`fhev

GZijZ\e_gb_\dhlhjhfkZfhijhba\hevghijhl_dZ_lobfbq_kdZy
j_Zdpbyhij_^_ey_lkykh\f_klguf^_ckl\b_f^\monZdlhjh\l_g
^_gpb_c d i_j_oh^m kbkl_fu \ khklhygb_ k gZbf_gvr_c \gmlj_gg_c
wg_j]b_c\kemqZ_bah[Zjguoijhp_kkh\kgZbf_gvr_cwglZevib_c
l_g^_gpb_c d ^hklb`_gbx gZb[he__ \_jhylgh]h khklhygby l _
khklhygby dhlhjh_ fh`_l [ulv j_Zebah\Zgh gZb[hevrbf qbkehf
jZ\gh\_jhylguokihkh[h\fbdjhkhklhygbc
41
F_jhci_j\hcbawlbol_g^_gpbcêybah[Zjguoijhp_kkh\kem
`blbaf_g_gb_wglZevibb\obfbq_kdhcj_ZdpbbhljbpZl_evgucagZd
GmdZau\Z_lgZmf_gvr_gb_Ziheh`bl_evgucgZ\hajZklZgb_wg
lZevibbkbkl_fu
F_jhc \_jhylghklb g_mihjy^hq_gghklb [_kihjy^dZ khklhygby
kbkl_fu \ l_jfh^bgZfbd_ ijbgylh kqblZlv wgljhibx S \_ebqbgm
ijhihjpbhgZevgmx eh]Zjbnfm qbkeZ jZ\gh\_jhylguo fbdjhkhklhy
gbcq_j_adhlhju_fh`_l[ulvj_Zebah\Zgh^Zggh_fZdjhkhklhygb_
S = k . ln W.
?^bgbpZbaf_j_gbywgljhibb>`fhevK.
Wgljhiby\hajZklZ_lijbi_j_oh^_\_s_kl\ZbadjbklZeebq_kdh]h
khklhygby \ `b^dh_ b ba `b^dh]h \ ]Zahh[jZagh_ ijb jZkl\hj_gbb
djbklZeeh\ijbjZkrbj_gbb]Zah\ijbobfbq_kdbo\aZbfh^_ckl\byo
ijb\h^ysbodm\_ebq_gbxqbkeZqZklbpbij_`^_\k_]hqZklbp\]Z
ahh[jZaghfkhklhygbbGZijhlb\\k_ijhp_kku\j_amevlZl_dhlhjuo
mihjy^hq_gghklv kbkl_fu \hajZklZ_l dhg^_gkZpby ihebf_jbaZpby
k`Zlb_ mf_gvr_gb_ qbkeZ qZklbp khijh\h`^Zxlky mf_gvr_gb_f
wgljhibb
Ijbf_jG_ijhba\h^y\uqbke_gbchij_^_eblvagZdbaf_g_gby
wgljhibb\ke_^mxsboj_Zdpbyo
NH4NOd = N2O]G2H];
(1)
(2)
G]H] G2H];
G]H] G2H`.
(3)
J_r_gb_
<j_Zdpbbfhev\_s_kl\Z\djbklZeebq_kdhfkhklhygbbh[
jZam_l fhev ]Zah\ ke_^h\Zl_evgh S1 > < j_Zdpbyo b
mf_gvrZ_lkydZdh[s__qbkehfhe_clZdbqbkehfhe_c]Zahh[jZaguo
\_s_kl\lZdqlhS2 < bS3 < IjbwlhfS3bf__l[he__hljbpZ
l_evgh_agZq_gb_q_fS2lZddZdS(H2O`) < S(H2O]).
>ey wgljhibb kijZ\_êb\h ml\_j`^_gb_ ZgZeh]bqgh_ jZkkfhl
j_gghfm \ur_ êy G: baf_g_gb_ wgljhibb kbkl_fu \ j_amevlZl_
obfbq_kdhcj_Zdpbb6jZ\ghkmff_wgljhibcijh^mdlh\j_ZdpbbaZ
\uq_lhfkmffuwgljhibcbkoh^guo\_s_kl\DZdbijb\uqbke_gbb
wglZevibbkmffbjh\Zgb_ijhba\h^ylkmq_lhfkl_obhf_ljbq_kdbodh
wnnbpb_glh\
KlZg^ZjlgZywgljhibyijhkluo\_s_kl\\hlebqb_hlwglZevibbh[jZah\Zgbyijhkluo\_s_kl\g_jZ\gZgmex
42
Nmgdpb_ckhklhygbyh^gh\j_f_gghhljZ`Zxs_c\ebygb_h[_bo
mihfygmluo\ur_l_g^_gpbcgZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyobfbq_kdbo
ijhp_kkh\ kem`bl wg_j]by =b[[kZ (k\h[h^gZy wg_j]by k\yaZggZy k
wglZevib_cbwgljhib_ckhhlghr_gb_f
G = H TS,
]^_L Z[khexlgZyl_fi_jZlmjZ
DZd \b^gh wg_j]by =b[[kZ bf__l lm `_ jZaf_jghklv qlh b wg
lZevibybihwlhfmh[uqgh\ujZ`Z_lky\>`bebd>`
>eybah[Zjgh-bahl_jfbq_kdboijhp_kkh\l_ijhp_kkh\ijhl_
dZxsboijbihklhygguol_fi_jZlmj_b^Z\e_gbbbaf_g_gb_wg_j]bb
=b[[kZjZ\gh
G =H TS.
DZdb\kemqZ_HbS, baf_g_gb_wg_j]bb=b[[kZ G \j_amev
lZl_ obfbq_kdhc j_Zdpbb (wg_j]by =b[[kZ j_Zdpbb jZ\gh kmff_
wg_j]bc =b[[kZ h[jZah\Zgby ijh^mdlh\ j_Zdpbb aZ \uq_lhf kmffu
wg_j]bc=b[[kZh[jZah\Zgbybkoh^guo\_s_kl\kmffbjh\Zgb_ijhba
\h^ylkmq_lhfqbkeZfhe_cmqZkl\mxsbo\j_Zdpbb\_s_kl\
Wg_j]bx =b[[kZ h[jZah\Zgby \_s_kl\Z hlghkyl d fhex wlh]h
\_s_kl\Zbh[uqgh\ujZ`Zxl\d>`fhevijbwlhfG0 h[jZah\Zgby
gZb[he__ mklhcqb\hc fh^bnbdZpbb ijhklh]h \_s_kl\Z ijbgbfZxl
jZ\ghcgmex.
Ijbihklhygkl\_l_fi_jZlmjub^Z\e_gbyobfbq_kdb_j_Zdpbbfh]mlkZfhijhba\hevghijhl_dZlvlhevdh\lZdhfgZijZ\e_gbbijbdhlhjhfwg_j]by=b[[kZkbkl_fumf_gvrZ_lkyG < 0)Wlh_klvmkeh\b_
ijbgpbibZevghc\hafh`ghklbhkms_kl\e_gby^Zggh]hijhp_kkZ
< ijb\_^_gghc lZ[ebp_ ihdZaZgZ \hafh`ghklv b mkeh\by ijhl_
dZgbyj_ZdpbbijbjZaebqguokhq_lZgbyoagZdh\GbS.
AgZd baf_g_gby nmgdpbb
/
IjbgpbibZevgZy \hafh`ghklv
b mkeh\by ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbb
<hafh`gZijbex[hcl_fi_jZlmj_
IjbgpbibZevghg_\hafh`gZ
<hafh`gZijbgbadbol_fi_jZlmjZo
<hafh`gZijb\ukhdbol_fi_jZlmjZo
Ijbf_j . Ihevamykv kijZ\hqgufb ^Zggufb mklZgh\blv \ha

fh`ghebijbl_fi_jZlmjZobD\hkklZgh\e_gb_hdkb^ZlblZ
gZ,9^hk\h[h^gh]hf_lZeeZihko_f_
TiOdK]jZnbl = TidKH]?
43
AZ\bkbfhklvxGhbShhll_fi_jZlmjuij_g_[j_qv
J_r_gb_
AgZq_gbyG 0h[j \d>`fhevijbDêyTiO2 (bCH
(Lh]^ZêyjZkkfZljb\Z_fhcj_ZdpbbG 0298 = 137,12 (888,6) =
d>ÌhkdhevdmG 0298 !\hkklZgh\e_gb_TiO2 ijbDg_
\hafh`gh
>eyjZkq_lZG 02500 \hkihevam_fkymjZ\g_gb_fG = Ho TSo.
Ijb wlhf \ khhl\_lkl\bb k mdZaZgb_f \ mkeh\bb aZ^Zqb bkihevam_f
agZq_gbyGh bSoijbD>eyjZkq_lZHobSoj_Zdpbcg_h[oh
^bfhgZclb\lZ[ebp_agZq_gbyG 0h[j êyTiO2 (bKH110,5),
ZlZd`_agZq_gbySoêyTiO2KTibKH
Lh]^ZêyjZkkfZljb\Z_fhcj_Zdpbb
Ho = 110,5 2 ( d>`
So = 30,6 + 197,5 2 50,3 5,7 2 = >`D
L_i_jvgZoh^bfG 02500 j_Zdpbb\ujZ`ZySo\d>`D
G 02500 = G 02500 TS 02500 = 722,9 2500 363,9/1000 =
= 722,9 909,8 = d>`
LZdbf h[jZahf G 02500 < lZd qlh \hkklZgh\e_gb_ TiO2 ]jZnb
lhfijbD\hafh`gh
1. >Zcl_ hij_^_e_gb_ ihgylbyf kbkl_fZ nZaZ kj_^Z fZdjh- b
fbdjhkhklhygb_.
2. DZdb_kbkl_fugZau\Zxlky]hfh]_ggufbZdZdb_]_l_jh]_ggufb"
3. DZdb_^\ZnZdlhjZhij_^_eyxlkZfhijhba\hevgh_ijhl_dZgb_ob
fbq_kdboj_Zdpbc\^ZgghfgZijZ\e_gbb"
4. GZah\bl_ hkgh\gu_ l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdb_ \_ebqbgu oZjZdl_jb
amxsb_khklhygb_kbkl_fuIhq_fmhgbghkylgZa\Zgb_nmgdpbc
khklhygby?
5. JZkkfhljbl_ kfuke ihgylbc \gmlj_ggyy wg_j]by kbkl_fu b wg
lZeviby Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju j_Zdpbc m dhlhjuo > U b
U > .
6. DZdb_ nZdlhju hij_^_eyxl \_ebqbgm baf_g_gbywglZevibbj_Zd
pbb"DZdaZ\bkblwlZ\_ebqbgZhlwg_j]bbZdlb\Zpbbimlbbmkeh
\byijhl_dZgbyijhp_kkZijbkmlkl\bydZlZebaZlhjh\"
44
7. Fh]ml eb [ulv wdahl_jfbqgufb ijhp_kku ^bkkhpbZpbb fhe_dme

gZ Zlhfubhguwg^hl_jfbqgufbijhp_kkuh[jZah\Zgbyfhe_
dmebaZlhfh\jZ^bdZeh\ba^jm]bofhe_dme"
8. H[tykgbl_ kfuke ihgylby wglZeviby h[jZah\Zgby \_s_kl\Z.
Knhjfmebjmcl_ mkeh\by klZg^ZjlbaZpbb wlhc oZjZdl_jbklbdb
Q_fhlebqZxlkyklZg^Zjlgu_mkeh\byhlghjfZevguo"
9. Knhjfmebjmcl_aZdhg=_kkZDZdZyk\yavf_`^ml_ieh\ufwnn_d
lhf wglZevib_c j_Zdpbb b wglZevibyfb h[jZah\Zgby bkoh^guo
\_s_kl\bijh^mdlh\j_Zdpbb"
10. Q_f h[tykgy_lky kZfhijhba\hevgh_ ijhl_dZgb_ g_dhlhjuo j_Zd
pbckih]ehs_gb_fl_ieZ>0)?
11. >Zcl_h[tykg_gb_ihgylbywgljhiby.
12. G_ ijh\h^y jZkq_lZ hij_^_ebl_agZdbaf_g_gbywgljhibb\oh^_
ke_^mxsboijhp_kkh\
Z+2 ] + O ] = 2H2O ];
[+2S ] + 3O ] = 2 H2O ` + 2 SO ];
\ MgO d + CO ] = MgCO d;
]e_^\h^ZiZj
^) CH3COOH (j-j) = CH3COO++.
13. >Zcl_hij_^_e_gb_ihgylbywg_j]by=b[[kZ.
14. DZdh\hkhhlghr_gb_f_`^m\_ebqbghcbaf_g_gbywg_j]bb=b[[kZ
b\_ebqbgZfbbaf_g_gbywglZevibbbwgljhibbkbkl_fu"
15. Ihq_fmGfh`_ljZkkfZljb\ZlvkydZddjbl_jbckZfhijhba\hev
ghklbijhl_dZgbyobfbq_kdhcj_Zdpbb"<hafh`guebkemqZbdh
]^Zj_ZdpbbkG < ijZdlbq_kdbg_b^ml">Zcl_h[tykg_gb_
16. Mqblu\ZyjhevwglZevibcgh]hbwgljhibcgh]hnZdlhjh\bl_fi_
jZlmju\hij_^_e_gbb\_ebqbguG\u^_ebl_q_luj_h[sbolbiZ
j_Zdpbc jZaebqZxsboky \hafh`ghklvxbl_fi_jZlmjgufbmkeh
\byfbijhl_dZgby
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
106. Qlh gZau\Zxl l_ieh\ufb wnn_dlZfb j_Zdpbc" < dZdbo kemqZyo
mjZ\g_gbyobfbq_kdboj_ZdpbcgZau\Zxll_jfhobfbq_kdbfb"
107. DZdb_mkeh\bykhklhygbykbkl_fuijbgbfZxl\l_jfh^bgZfbd_\
dZq_kl\_klZg^Zjlguo"DZdbfbkbf\heZfbboh[hagZqZxl"
108. QlhgZau\Zxl\gmlj_gg_cwg_j]b_ckbkl_fu"Ihq_fm\l_jfh^b
gZfbq_kdbojZkq_lZobkihevamxlg_Z[khexlgu_agZq_gby\gml
j_gg_c wg_j]bb U Z __ baf_g_gb_ U ijb i_j_oh^_ kbkl_fu ba
h^gh]hkhklhygby\^jm]h_"
45
109. DZdbf mjZ\g_gb_f hij_^_ey_lky wglZeviby b __ baf_g_gb_" DZ

dhc aZdhg y\ey_lky hkgh\guf aZdhghf l_jfhobfbb" >Zcl_ _]h
nhjfmebjh\dm
110. DZdhcnmgdpb_ckhklhygbyoZjZdl_jbam_lkyl_g^_gpbykbkl_fud
^hklb`_gbxlZdgZau\Z_fh]hgZb[he__\_jhylgh]hkhklhygbydh
lhjhfm khhl\_lkl\m_l fZdkbfZevgZy [_kihjy^hqghklv jZkij_^_
e_gbyqZklbp"
111. DZdbaf_gy_lkywgljhibykbkl_fukih\ur_gb_fl_fi_jZlmju\
j_Zdpbyokbgl_aZbjZaeh`_gby\_s_kl\"
112. DZd baf_gy_lky wgljhiby kbkl_fu ijb bkiZj_gbb dhg^_gkZpbb
m\_ebq_gbb^Z\e_gbynZah\uoi_j_oh^Zo"
113. DZdbfb h^gh\j_f_ggh ^_ckl\mxsbfb nZdlhjZfb hij_^_ey_lky
gZijZ\e_gghklvobfbq_kdh]hijhp_kkZ"
114. Ijbkh_^bg_gbb]`_e_aZkk_jhc\u^_ebehkvd>`JZk
kqblZlvl_iehlmh[jZah\Zgbykmevnb^Z`_e_aZ
115. Hij_^_eblv klZg^Zjlgmx wglZevibx G 0298 h[jZah\Zgby JG3,
bkoh^ybamjZ\g_gby
2PH]H] J2HdG2H`; Gh = d>`
116. Bkoh^ybal_ieh\h]hwnn_dlZj_Zdpbb
KZHdJ2Hd KZ3JH4) d; Gh = d>`
hij_^_eblvG 0298 h[jZah\ZgbyhjlhnhknZlZdZevpby
117. KjZ\gblvG 0298 j_Zdpbb\hkklZgh\e_gbyhdkb^Z`_e_aZIIIjZa
ebqgufb\hkklZgh\bl_eyfbijbD
Z)H2Od + 3H2 = 2 Fed + 3H2O ];
[)H2OdK]jZnbl = 2 Fed KH];
\)H2OdKH] = 2 Fed KH].
118. <uqbkeblvagZq_gb_Gh êyijhl_dZxsbo\hj]Zgbaf_j_Zdpbc
ij_\jZs_gby]exdhau
ZK6G12H d K2G5HG`KH ];
[K6G12H dH ] KH]G2H`.
DZdZybawlboj_ZdpbcihklZ\ey_lhj]Zgbafm[hevr_wg_j]bb"
119. G_ ijhba\h^y \uqbke_gbc mklZgh\blv agZd Sh ke_^mxsbo
ijhp_kkh\
Z1+] = N] + 3H];
[KHd KH];
\12] + O] = 2NO];
]+2S] + 3O] = 2H2O` + 2SO];
^K+3OH]+ 3O] = 4H2O]KH].
46
120. G_ijhba\h^y\uqbke_gbcmdZaZlvêydZdbobai_j_qbke_gguo
ijhp_kkh\baf_g_gb_wgljhibbiheh`bl_evgh
Z0J2d + H] = Mgd + H2O`;
[K]jZnblKH] KH];
\KG3KHHG\h^g KG3KHH-\h^gG+\h^g;
]G&O]H] = 2Cl]G2H];
^1+4NOd = N2O])G2H].
121. MklZgh\blv ijhl_dZgb_ dZdbo ba gb`_ke_^mxsbo j_Zdpbc \ha
fh`gh\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\byo
Z1] + H] = N2O];
[+&O]H] = 2Cl]G2H`;
\)H2OdKH] = 2FedKH].
122. MdZaZlvdZdb_baj_Zdpbch[jZah\Zgbyhdkb^h\ZahlZbijbdZdbo
l_fi_jZlmjZo\ukhdbobebgbadbofh]mlijhl_dZlvkZfhijhba
\hevgh
Z1]H] = 2N2O] ; Gh298 > 0
[1]H] = 2NO]; Gh298 > 0
\12] + O] = 2NOd;
Gh298 < 0
]12] + NO] = N2Od;Gh298 < 0
123. Hij_^_ebl_agZq_gbyGh298, h298 bSh298 êygb`_ijb\_^_gguo
j_ZdpbcbmklZgh\bl_l_fi_jZlmjgu_mkeh\bybohkms_kl\e_gby
\ijyfhfgZijZ\e_gbb
Z1L2d +Pb d =Nid + PbOd;
[1+] = 3H] + N];
\&D&2d = CaOdKH].
124. Ih baf_g_gbx klZg^Zjlghc wglZevibb b wgljZibb j_Zdpbb \u
qbkeblvbaf_g_gb_wg_j]bb=b[[kZ
H] + F] = 2HF]
125. Hp_gblv l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdmx \hafh`ghklv ijhl_dZgby \ klZg
^Zjlguomkeh\byoj_Zdpbb
N] + 2H2O` = NH4NOl.
126. Bkihevamy kijZ\hqgu_ ^Zggu_ hij_^_eblv dZdZy ba j_Zdpbc
l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdb\hafh`gZ\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\byo
a) CaCO3(l) = CaO(l) + CO2(]);
[) CO2(]) + CaO(l) = CaCO3(l);
\) Ca(OH)2(l) + CO2(]) = CaCO3(l) + H2O(`).
127. Hp_gblv ijbgpbibZevgmx \hafh`ghklv hkms_kl\e_gby j_Zdpbb
f_`^m dhfihg_glZfb Zlfhkn_ju Z ijb klZg^Zjlguo mkeh\byo
[ijbih\ur_gghcl_fi_jZlmj_
1) N] + O] :NO]; NO];
2) N2(]) +H2O(`) :1+4NO2(l);
3) N2(]) + H2O(`) + O2(]) :1+4NO3(l);
4) N2(]) + H2O(`) + O2(]) :+123(`).
47
=E:<:IV
HKGH<UOBFBQ?KDHCDBG?LBDB
OBFBQ?KDH?J:<GH<?KB?
NZdlhju\ebyxsb_gZkdhjhklvobfbq_kdhcj_Zdpbb
Kdhjhklv ]hfh]_gghc j_Zdpbb wlh \_ebqbgZ qbke_ggh jZ\gZy
baf_g_gbxdhgp_gljZpbbh[uqghfheyjghcex[h]hmqZklgbdZj_Zd
pbb\_^bgbpm\j_f_gb
Kj_^gyykdhjhklvj_Zdpbbvkj \bgl_j\Ze_\j_f_gbhlt1 ^h t2 hi
c c
c
j_^_ey_lkykhhlghr_gb_f vkj = 2 1 =
.
t 2 t1
t
Hkgh\gu_ nZdlhju \ebyxsb_ gZ kdhjhklv ]hfh]_gghc obfbq_
kdhcj_Zdpbb
ijbjh^Zj_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\
dhgp_gljZpby^Z\e_gb__keb\j_ZdpbbmqZkl\mxl]Zau
l_fi_jZlmjZ
dZlZebaZlhj
<k_obfbq_kdb_j_ZdpbbihklZ^bcghklbih^jZa^_eyxlkygZwe_
f_glZjgu_ b keh`gu_ ;hevrbgkl\h obfbq_kdbo j_Zdpbc ij_^klZ\
eyxlkh[hckeh`gu_ijhp_kkuijhl_dZxsb_\g_kdhevdhklZ^bcl_
khklhysb_bag_kdhevdbowe_f_glZjguoijhp_kkh\
>ey we_f_glZjguo j_Zdpbc kijZ\_êb\ aZdhg ^_ckl\mxsbo
fZkk kdhjhklv we_f_glZjghc obfbq_kdhc j_Zdpbb ijb ^Zgghc l_f
i_jZlmj_ijyfhijhihjpbhgZevgZijhba\_^_gbxdhgp_gljZpbcj_Z]b
jmxsbo\_s_kl\\kl_i_gyojZ\guokl_obhf_ljbq_kdbfdhwnnbpb
_glZf
>eyj_Zdpbb\h[s_f\b^_Z:bB :__kdhjhklvkh]eZkghaZ
dhgm^_ckl\mxsbofZkk\ujZ`Z_lkykhhlghr_gb_f
v = kc a ( A)c b ( B ) ,
]^_ k:bk< fheyjgu_dhgp_gljZpbbj_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\:b<

k dhgklZglZ kdhjhklb ^Zgghc j_Zdpbb Nbabq_kdbc kfuke dhg
klZglu kdhjhklb hgZ qbke_ggh jZ\gZ kdhjhklb obfbq_kdhc j_Zd
pbbijbdhgp_gljZpbyoj_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\F:bF< fheve
DhgklZglZ kdhjhklb ]hfh]_gghc j_Zdpbb aZ\bkbl hl ijbjhû j_Z]b
jmxsbo\_s_kl\l_fi_jZlmjubdZlZebaZlhjZ
;hevrbgkl\h obfbq_kdbo j_Zdpbc y\eyxlky keh`gufb ijhl_
dZxsbfbq_j_afgh`_kl\hijhf_`mlhqguoklZ^bc<lZdhfkemqZ_aZ
dhg^_ckl\mxsbofZkkijbf_gbflhevdhddZ`^hchl^_evghcklZ^bb
48
>ey]_l_jh]_gguoj_Zdpbc\mjZ\g_gb_aZdhgZ^_ckl\mxsbofZkk
\oh^yl dhgp_gljZpbb g_ \k_o j_Z]_glh\Zlhevdh]Zahh[jZaguobeb
jZkl\hj_gguo LZd êy j_Zdpbb ]hj_gby m]ey Kd H] : KH]
mjZ\g_gb_kdhjhklbbf__l\b^ v = k c(O 2 ) .
Ijbf_j >eyj_Zdpbb12] + O] <12]ijhl_dZxs_c\
]Zah\hc nZa_ dhgklZglZ kdhjhklb jZ\gZ JZkkqblZcl_ Z gZqZev
gmx kdhjhklv j_Zdpbb_kebbkoh^gu_dhgp_gljZpbb\_s_kl\jZ\gu
c12 fheve c(O2 fheve[kdhjhklvwlhcj_Zdpbb\fh
f_gldh]^Zijhj_Z]bjm_l12
J_r_gb_
Z<khhl\_lkl\bbkaZdhghf^_ckl\mxsbofZkkkdhjhklv^Zgghc
j_Zdpbbhibku\Z_lkymjZ\g_gb_f v = k c 2 ( NO) c(O 2 ). Ke_^h\Zl_evghkdhjhklvj_Zdpbb\gZqZevgucfhf_gl\j_f_gb[m^_ljZ\gZ
vo = 0,8 0,4 2 0,3 = 0,0384 fheve k
[ Kdhjhklv wlhc j_Zdpbb \ fhf_gl dh]^Z ijhj_Z]bjm_l 12
hibku\Z_lky mjZ\g_gb_f v1 = k c12 ( NO) c1 (O 2 ), ]^_ c112 b c1(O2)
gh\u_dhgp_gljZpbb12b22ihke_lh]hdZdijhj_Z]bjh\Zeh12
Bkoh^ybamjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbbjZkkqblZ_f\_ebqbgu c112b c1(O2).
12 khklZ\ey_l c(NO fheve lh]^Z
c1(NO) = c0(NO) c(NO) = 0,4 fheve<khhl\_lkl\bbkh
kl_obhf_ljbq_kdbfb dhwnnbpb_glZfb mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbb mf_gvr_
gb_dhgp_gljZpbbH2jZ\ghc(O2) = c(NO fheve
LZdbfh[jZahf c1H2) = c0(O2) c(O2) =0,3 fheveKe_
^h\Zl_evgh v1 = 0,8 0,32 fheve k
Ijbf_j DZd baf_gblky kdhjhklv j_Zdpbb 12] + Cl] <
<12&O] _keb Z m\_ebqblv ^Z\e_gb_ \ j_Zdpbhgghf khkm^_ \ ^\Z
jZaZ[mf_gvrblvh[t_fkhkm^Z\jZaZ"
J_r_gb_
Z<khhl\_lkl\bbkaZdhghf^_ckl\mxsbofZkkkdhjhklv^Zgghc
j_Zdpbb hibku\Z_lky mjZ\g_gb_f v = k c 2 ( NO) c(Cl 2 ). Ihkdhevdm
m\_ebq_gb_ ^Z\e_gby ijb\h^bl d ijhihjpbhgZevghfm m\_ebq_gbx
dhgp_gljZpbc ]Zahh[jZaguo \_s_kl\ dhgp_gljZpbb j_Z]_glh\ \ gh
\uo mkeh\byo [m^ml jZ\gu c1(NO) = 2c0(NO), c1(Cl2) = 2c0(Cl2Dhg
klZglZ kdhjhklb j_Zdpbb ijb m\_ebq_gbb ^Z\e_gby g_ baf_gy_lky b
kdhjhklvj_Zdpbb\gh\uomkeh\byo[m^_ljZ\gZ
v1 = k c12 ( NO) c1 (Cl 2 ) = k (2c0 ( NO)) 2 (2c0 (Cl 2 )) =
= 8 k c 02 (NO) c0(Cl2).
49
v 8 k c0 ( NO) c0 (Cl 2 )
Hlkx^Zke_^m_lqlh 1 =
= 8.
2
v
k c0 ( NO)c0 (Cl 2 )
Kdhjhklvj_Zdpbbm\_ebqblky\jZa
[ Mf_gvr_gb_ h[t_fZ khkm^Z \ jZaZ ijb\h^bl d khhl\_lkl
\mxs_fm m\_ebq_gbx dhgp_gljZpbc j_Z]_glh\ LZdbf h[jZahf
c2(NO) = 4 c0(NO), a c2(Cl2) = 4 c0(Cl2J_rZyaZ^ZqmihZgZeh]bbk
v
ij_û^msbfimgdlhfihemqbf 2 = 64 l_mf_gvr_gb_h[t_fZkh
v
km^Z\jZaZijb\_^_ldm\_ebq_gbxkdhjhklb\jZaZ
2
<ebygb_l_fi_jZlmjugZkdhjhklvobfbq_kdhcj_Zdpbb
AZ\bkbfhklvkdhjhklbj_Zdpbbhll_fi_jZlmjuijb[eb`_gghhi
j_^_ey_lky wfibjbq_kdbf ijZ\behf <Zgl-=hnnZ ijb ih\ur_gbb
l_fi_jZlmju gZ dZ`û_ ]jZ^mkh\ kdhjhklv obfbq_kdhc j_Zdpbb
m\_ebqb\Z_lky\-jZaZ\jZa
vT2
vT1
T2 T1
10
]^_ vT2 b vT1 kdhjhklbj_Zdpbbkhhl\_lkl\_gghijbl_fi_jZlmjZoL2b

L1; l_fi_jZlmjguc dhwnnbpb_gl kdhjhklb j_Zdpbb dhlhjuc \u
qbkey_lky gZ hkgh\_ wdki_jbf_glZevguo ^Zgguo b ijbgbfZ_l agZq_
gbyêy[hevrbgkl\Zj_Zdpbchl^h>ey^Zgghcj_Zdpbb\_eb
qbgZijZdlbq_kdbihklhyggZyijbL 100h.
KihfhsvxijZ\beZ<Zgl-=hnnZ\hafh`ghebrvijbf_jghhp_
gblv\ebygb_l_fi_jZlmjugZkdhjhklvj_Zdpbb;he__lhqgh_hibkZ
gb_ aZ\bkbfhklb kdhjhklb j_Zdpbb hl l_fi_jZlmju hkms_kl\bfh \
jZfdZol_hjbbZdlb\guoklhedgh\_gbc:jj_gbmkZ
< l_hjbb Zdlb\Zpbb \ebygb_ l_fi_jZlmju b dZlZebaZlhjZ gZ
kdhjhklv obfbq_kdhc j_Zdpbb hibku\Z_lky ke_^mxsbf mjZ\g_gb_f
êydhgklZglukdhjhklbobfbq_kdhcj_Zdpbb
Ea
RT
,
k = Ae
]^_:ihklhyggucfgh`bl_evg_aZ\bkysbchll_fi_jZlmjuhij_
^_eyxsbcky ijbjh^hc j_Z]bjmxsbo \_s_kl\ R mgb\_jkZevgZy ]Z
ah\ZyihklhyggZy?Z wg_j]byZdlb\Zpbb_hkgh\Zgb_gZlmjZevgh]h
eh]ZjbnfZDZdke_^m_lbamjZ\g_gby:jj_gbmkZdhgklZglZkdhjhklb
j_Zdpbbl_f[hevr_q_ff_gvr_wg_j]byZdlb\Zpbb
50
Ijbf_j . L_fi_jZlmjguc dhwnnbpb_gl kdhjhklb obfbq_kdhc

j_Zdpbb jZ\_g <h kdhevdh jZa \hajZkl_l kdhjhklv j_Zdpbb ijb
m\_ebq_gbbl_fi_jZlmju\j_Zdpbhgghfkhkm^_k^hhK"
J_r_gb_
<khhl\_lkl\bbkijZ\behf<Zgl-=hnnZ
vT2
vT1
T2 T1
10
v38o
v15 o
38 15
2,1 10
= 2,12,3 = 5,5.
Ijbf_qZgb_ ?keb m <Zr_]h dZevdmeylhjZ hlkmlkl\m_l dghidZ

\ha\_^_gby\kl_i_gvlhlZdb_Zjbnf_lbq_kdb_\ujZ`_gbyfh`gh\u
qbkeylv q_j_a klZ^bb eh]Zjbnfbjh\Zgby b ihke_^mxs_]h ihl_gpbb
jh\Zgby
v o
v o
lg 38 = lg 2,12,3 = 2,3 lg 2,1 = 0,74 Z 38 = 100,74 5,5 .
v15o
v15o
Obfbq_kdh_jZ\gh\_kb_
Obfbq_kdb_ j_Zdpbb \ j_amevlZl_ dhlhjuo bkoh^gu_ \_s_kl\Z
iheghklvx ij_\jZsZxlky \ ijh^mdlu j_Zdpbb gZau\Zxlky g_h[jZ
lbfufb J_Zdpbb b^msb_ h^gh\j_f_ggh \ ^\mo ijhlb\hiheh`guo
gZijZ\e_gbyoijyfhfbh[jZlghfgZau\Zxlkyh[jZlbfufb.
<h[jZlbfuoj_Zdpbyokhklhygb_kbkl_fuijbdhlhjhfkdhjhklb
ijyfhcbh[jZlghcj_ZdpbbjZ\gu vij = vh[j gZau\Z_lkykhklhygb_f
obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kbyObfbq_kdh_jZ\gh\_kb_y\ey_lky^bgZfbq_
kdbfl__]hmklZgh\e_gb_g_hagZqZ_lij_djZs_gb_j_Zdpbb<h[
s_fkemqZ_êyex[hch[jZlbfhcj_ZdpbbZ: + bB <dD + eEg_aZ
\bkbfhhl__f_oZgbafZ\uihegy_lkykhhlghr_gb_
K=
c d ( D) c e ( E )
.
c a ( A) c b ( B )
IjbmklZgh\b\r_fkyjZ\gh\_kbbijhba\_^_gb_dhgp_gljZpbcijh
^mdlh\ j_Zdpbb hlg_k_ggh_ d ijhba\_^_gbx dhgp_gljZpbc bkoh^guo
\_s_kl\êy^Zgghcj_Zdpbbijb^Zgghcl_fi_jZlmj_ij_^klZ\ey_lkh
[hcihklhyggmx\_ebqbgmgZau\Z_fmxdhgklZglhcjZ\gh\_kby(D).
Ijbf_j.GZc^bl_dhgklZglmjZ\gh\_kbyj_Zdpbb: + < <D,
ijhl_dZxs_c \ ]Zah\hc nZa_ \aZdjulhfkhkm^__kebbkoh^gu_dhg
p_gljZpbb : b < jZ\gu khhl\_lkl\_ggh fheve b fheve Z d
fhf_glm gZklmie_gby jZ\gh\_kby ijhj_Z]bjh\Zeh \_s_kl\Z <.
51
JZkkqblZcl_ baf_g_gb_ ^Z\e_gby \ kbkl_f_ ih kjZ\g_gbxki_j\hgZ

qZevguf
J_r_gb_
AZibr_f\ujZ`_gb_dhgklZglujZ\gh\_kbyêywlhcj_Zdpbb
c 2 ( D)
K= 2
.
c ( A) c( B )
Hij_^_ebfjZ\gh\_kgu_dhgp_gljZpbb\_s_kl\
D fhf_glm gZklmie_gby jZ\gh\_kby ijhj_Z]bjh\Zeh \_s_
kl\Z<ke_^h\Zl_evghk(<) = 0,25 k0(<) = 0,25 fheveJZ\gh\_kgZydhgp_gljZpby\_s_kl\Z<jZ\gZc(<) = c0(<) c(<) = 0,4
fheve
< khhl\_lkl\bb k mjZ\g_gb_f j_Zdpbb c(:) = 2c(<) = 20,1 =
= fheve Ke_^h\Zl_evgh jZ\gh\_kgZy dhgp_gljZpby \_s_kl\Z :
jZ\gZ c(:) = c0(:) c(:) = 0,6 fheve
<khhl\_lkl\bbkmjZ\g_gb_fj_Zdpbbdhebq_kl\hh[jZah\Z\r_
]hky \_s_kl\Z D qbke_ggh jZ\gh dhebq_kl\m ijhj_Z]bjh\Z\r_]h \_
s_kl\Z:ihwlhfmc(D fheveLZddZd\i_j\hgZqZevgucfh
f_gl\_s_kl\hDhlkmlkl\h\ZehlhjZ\gh\_kgZydhgp_gljZpbyDjZ\gZ
c(D) = 0 + c(D fheve
Ih^klZ\b\gZc^_ggu_jZ\gh\_kgu_dhgp_gljZpbb\_s_kl\:, <b
D\\ujZ`_gb_êydhgklZglujZ\gh\_kbyihemqbf
0,2 2
K=
= 0,83 .
0,4 2 0,3
Baf_g_gb_ ^Z\e_gby \ kbkl_f_ ijhihjpbhgZevgh baf_g_gbx
kmffZjghcdhgp_gljZpbb]Zahh[jZaguo\_s_kl\LZdbfh[jZahf
p c( A) + c( B ) + c(C ) 0,4 + 0,3 + 0,2
=
=
= 0,9.
po
co ( A) + co ( B)
0,6 + 0,4
>Z\e_gb_\kbkl_f_\fhf_gljZ\gh\_kby[m^_lkhklZ\eylv
hlbkoh^gh]h
Ijbf_j<kbkl_f_:] + <] <D]jZ\gh\_kgu_dhgp_gljZpbb
jZ\gu c(: fheve c(< fheve c(D fheveGZc^bl_
dhgklZglm jZ\gh\_kby j_Zdpbb b bkoh^gu_ dhgp_gljZpbb : b < \_s_kl\hD\bkoh^ghckf_kbhlkmlkl\m_l
J_r_gb_
DhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kbyêy^Zgghcj_ZdpbbjZ\gZ
c 2 ( D)
0,6 2
K=
=
= 1.
c( A) c( B ) 0,4 0,9
52
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( vij = vh[j \uau\Z_lgZjmr_gb_jZ\gh\_kby<j_amevlZl_g_h^bgZdh
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l_q_gb_f \j_f_gb \ kbkl_f_ mklZgZ\eb\Z_lky gh\h_ obfbq_kdh_ jZ\
gh\_kb_ vij = vh[j khhl\_lkl\mxs__ gh\uf mkeh\byf I_j_oh^ ba
h^gh]h jZ\gh\_kgh]h khklhygby \ ^jm]h_ gZau\Z_lky k^\b]hf beb
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54
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lZ_l\jZaZHij_^_ebl_l_fi_jZlmjgucdhwnnbpb_glkdhjh
klbj_Zdpbb
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mf_gvrbeZkv\jZaHij_^_ebl_l_fi_jZlmjgucdhwnnbpb_gl
kdhjhklbj_Zdpbb
55
135. GZkdhevdh]jZ^mkh\g_h[oh^bfhbaf_gblvl_fi_jZlmjm\kbkl_
f_qlh[ukdhjhklvj_Zdpbbm\_ebqbeZkv\jZa_kebl_fi_jZ
lmjgucdhwnnbpb_gljZ\_g"
136. <dZdmxklhjhgmkf_klblkyjZ\gh\_kb_\kbkl_fZo
Z+] +I] <+I];
Ho = d>`
[1]H] <12];
Ho d>`
\KH]H] <KH];
Ho = d>`
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ijbm\_ebq_gbb^Z\e_gby
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kbkl_f_
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ijbl_fi_jZlmj_ hKjZ\gZJZ\gh\_kgu_dhgp_gljZpbb\h
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56
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p_Hij_^_eblvkdhevdhijhp_glh\KH2ih^\_j]g_lkyij_\jZs_
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dhgklZglZ jZ\gh\_kby jZ\gZ Hij_^_eblv h[t_fguc khklZ\
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p_gljZpby \_s_kl\Z fheyjgZy dhgp_gljZpby \_s_kl\Z fheyjgZy
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m1 ( X )
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fhev\k_odhfihg_glh\jZkl\hjZni:
n (X )
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100%
n
i
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\ d]^f3 ]kf3 ]e ]fe f]fe Qbke_ggh jZ\gZ hlghr_gbx fZkku
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m( X )
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.
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58
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dhebq_kl\ZjZkl\hj_ggh]h\_s_kl\ZX)dh[t_fmjZkl\hjZV:
n( X )
c( X ) =
.
V (j jZ )
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1
gZy dhgp_gljZpby k * ( X ) \ujZ`Z_lky \ fheve fhev^f3,

z
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z
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l\hjbl_eymd]
b( X ) =
n( X )
.
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klvxlZd`_gZau\Zxlfheyjgmxdhgp_gljZpbx\_s_kl\Z\_]hgZ
kus_gghfjZkl\hj_
Ijbf_jDZdb_h[t_fu\hûbjZkl\hjZ%D&O2kfZkkh\hc^he_c
kheb b iehlghklvx ]fe ihlj_[mxlky êy ijb]hlh\e_gby
gh\h]h jZkl\hjZ h[t_fhf e k fZkkh\hc ^he_c kheb jZ\ghc b
iehlghklvx]fe"
J_r_gb_
Z<uqbkebffZkkmihemq_ggh]hjZkl\hjZh[t_fhfemj-jZ
= 1000 ]
[<uqbkebffZkkm%D&O2\ihemq_gghfjZkl\hj_m(BaCl2):
\]jZkl\hjZkh^_j`blky ]\_s_kl\Z%D&O2),
59
\]
x ] (BaCl2),
100 2
x ]
=
1012 x
<uqbkebffZkkmbkoh^gh]hjZkl\hjZkh^_j`Zs_]h]oehjb
^Z[Zjby
\]jZkl\hjZkh^_j`blky ]%D&O2,
\y ]
]%D&O2,
y ]
<uqbkebfh[t_fbkoh^gh]hjZkl\hjZfZkkhc]
202
m(j jZ )
Vj-jZ
fe
=
(j jZ ) 1,09
FZkkZ ^h[Z\e_gghc \hû khklZ\beZ m(H2O) = mj-jZ mj-jZ
BaCl2) = 1012 ]ldiehlghklv\hûijbdhfgZlghcl_f
m(H 2 O) 810
i_jZlmj_[ebadZd_^bgbp_lh V (H 2O) =
=
= 810 fe.
1
(H 2O)
Ijbf_j GZc^bl_ fZkkm \hû b f_^gh]h dmihjhkZ &X624
5H2O), g_h[oh^bfu_êyijb]hlh\e_gbyjZkl\hjZh[t_fhfekfZk
kh\hc ^he_c CuSO4 jZ\ghc b iehlghklvx lZdh]h jZkl\hjZ
1,084 ]kf3.
J_r_gb_
FZkkZihemq_ggh]hjZkl\hjZ[m^_lkhklZ\eylv
mj-jZ Vj-jZ j-jZ ]
<uqbkebffZkkm&X624\wlhfjZkl\hj_
m(CuSO4) = w(CuSO4) mj-jZ= 0,08 108 ]
<uqbkebffZkkmf_^gh]hdmihjhkZkh^_j`Zs_]h]&X624:
M(CuSO4 5H2O) = 160 + 90 = ]fhev
\]dmihjhkZkh^_j`blky ]&X624,
x]
]&X624, x =]
FZkkZ\hûkhklZ\blm(H2O) = 1084 ]
Ijbf_j DZdb_ h[t_fu jZkl\hjZ k_jghc dbkehlu k fZkkh\hc
^he_ciehlghklvx]feb\hûg_h[oh^bfh\aylvêyijb
]hlh\e_gbyjZkl\hjZ+2SO4h[t_fhffekfZkkh\hc^he_cb
iehlghklvx]kf3.
J_r_gb_
GZc^_ffZkkmfejZkl\hjZ
m(j jZ ) = V (j jZ ) (j jZ ) = 100 ]
60
15 110
= 16,5 ]
100
GZc^_ffZkkmjZkl\hjZ+2SO4kh^_j`Zs_]h]+2SO4:
100 16,5
m1j-jZ
= ]
96
AgZyfZkkmjZkl\hjZbiehlghklvgZc^_fh[t_fjZkl\hjZ
m(j jZ ) 17,19
=
= 9,34 fe.
V1 (j jZ ) =
(j jZ ) 1,84
FZkkZ+2SO4\wlhfjZkl\hj_ m(H2SO4) =
<uqbkebffZkkm\hûg_h[oh^bfmxêyijb]hlh\e_gbyjZkl\hjZ
m(H2O) = mj-jZ m1j-jZ ]
LZd dZd iehlghklv \hû ijb dhfgZlghc l_fi_jZlmj_ [ebadZ d
_^bgbp_lhh[t_f^h[Z\e_gghc\hû\uqbkey_lky
m(H 2O) 92,81
V(H2O) =
=
= 92,81 fe
1
(H 2O)
Ijbf_jDZdhch[t_fjZkl\hjZkfZkkh\hc^he_ck_jghcdbkehlu
b iehlghklvx ]fe ihlj_[m_lky êy ijb]hlh\e_gby fe
jZkl\hjZfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpbbwd\b\Ze_glZH2SO4fheve"
J_r_gb_
FheyjgZyfZkkZwd\b\Ze_glZk_jghcdbkehlu
1
98
F = (H 2SO 4 ) =
= 49 ]fhev
z*
2
Dhebq_kl\h wd\b\Ze_glZH2SO4\jZkl\hj_dhlhjucg_h[oh^bfh
ijb]hlh\blv
fhevwd\b\Ze_glh\H2SO4kh^_j`blky\fejZkl\hjZ
ofhevwd\b\Ze_glh\H2SO4kh^_j`blky\fejZkl\hjZ
o= 0,125 fhev
FZkkZH2SO4\jZkl\hj_dhlhjucg_h[oh^bfhijb]hlh\blv
m(H2SO4) = 0,125 ]
FZkkZbkoh^gh]hjZkl\hjZkh^_j`Zs_]h]H2SO4:
\]jZkl\hjZkh^_j`blky]H2SO4,
\y ]
]H2SO4,
y ]
<uqbkebfh[t_fbkoh^gh]hjZkl\hjZk_jghcdbkehlu
m(j jZ ) 7,66
=
= 4,4 fe
V=
(j - jZ 1,732
61
Ijbf_j . Dhwnnbpb_glu jZkl\hjbfhklb gbljZlZ dZeby ijb

60 KbhKkhhl\_lkl\_gghjZ\gub]\]\hûDZdh\Z
fZkkZgbljZlZdZeby\u^_eb\r_]hky\hkZ^hdijbhoeZ`^_gbbhl
^hhKgZkus_ggh]hijbhKjZkl\hjZwlhckhebfZkkhc]"
J_r_gb_
FZkkZgZkus_ggh]hjZkl\hjZijbhKjZ\gZ
mj-jZ ]
FZkkZgbljZlZdZeby\wlhfjZkl\hj_
\jZkl\hj_fZkkhc]kh^_j`blkyKNO3fZkkhc]
-]
-o]
110,1 40
= 20,96 ]
o= m(KNO3) =
210,1
h
FZkkZ\hû\]jZkl\hjZ[m^_ljZ\gZ
m(H2O) = 40 ]
<uqbkebffZkkmKNO3\gZkus_gghfjZkl\hj_ijbhK\ ]
H2O:
\]H2OjZkl\hjy_lky]KNO3,
\]
-y]KNO3,
y = m(KNO3 ]
IjbhoeZ`^_gbb\u^_eblkygbljZldZebyfZkkhc
m(KNO3) = 20,96 ]
1. >Zcl_hij_^_e_gb_ihgylbyjZkl\hj.
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7. Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju ]Zah\ bf_xsbo g_agZqbl_evgmx b hq_gv
[hevrmxjZkl\hjbfhklv\\h^_Q_fwlhh[tykgy_lky"
62
8. DZd\ebyxll_fi_jZlmjZb^Z\e_gb_gZjZkl\hjbfhklv]Zah\\\h^_"
9. Fh`_leb[ulvgZkus_ggucjZkl\hjjZa[Z\e_ggufZdhgp_gljb
jh\ZggucjZkl\hj-g_gZkus_gguf"
10. DZdfh`ghihemqblvbkhojZgblvi_j_kus_ggucjZkl\hj"
11. Qlhijhbahc^_lkgZkus_ggufi_j_kus_ggufbg_gZkus_gguf
jZkl\hjZfb kmevnZlZ f_^b ijb \g_k_gbb \ dZ`ûc ba gbo g_
kdhevdbodjbklZeeh\f_^gh]hdmihjhkZ"
12. QlhlZdh_djbklZeeh]b^jZlu"Ijb\_^bl_ijbf_ju
13. Qlhij_^klZ\ey_lkh[hcdhwnnbpb_gljZkl\hjbfhklb\_s_kl\Zb\
dZdbo_^bgbpZo_]h\ujZ`Zxl"
14. DZdbaf_gy_lkyjZkl\hjbfhklv\_s_kl\kbaf_g_gb_fl_fi_jZlmju"
15. DZdh\uhkgh\gu_kihkh[u\ujZ`_gbykhklZ\ZjZkl\hjh\"
16. QlhlZdh_fZkkh\Zy^hey\_s_kl\Z\jZkl\hj_"
17. DZdZydhgp_gljZpbygZau\Z_lkyfheyjghcwd\b\Ze_glghc"
18. DZdgZclbwd\b\Ze_gldbkehluhkgh\Zgbykheb"
19. DZd i_j_kqblZlv fheyjgmx dhgp_gljZpbx gZ fZkkh\mx ^hex \_
s_kl\Z\jZkl\hj_"GZc^bl_fZkkh\mx^hex+3PO4\-fheyjghf
jZkl\hj__keb_]hiehlghklvjZ\gZd]f3.
20. DZdi_j_kqblZlvfZkkh\mx^hex\_s_kl\Z\jZkl\hj_gZ_]hwd\b
\Ze_glgmxdhgp_gljZpbx"GZc^bl_wd\b\Ze_glgmxdhgp_gljZpbx
jZkl\hjZ +&O k fZkkh\hc ^he_c _keb _]h iehlghklv jZ\gZ
]fe
21. DZdhlghkylkywd\b\Ze_glgu_dhgp_gljZpbbj_Z]bjmxsbojZkl\h
jh\dboh[t_fZf"
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
149. DZdhch[t_fjZkl\hjZk_jghcdbkehlukfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpb_c
fhevefh`ghijb]hlh\blvbafefheyjgh]hjZkl\hjZ"
150. IehlghklvjZkl\hjZkfZkkh\hc^he_c+2SO4jZ\gZ ]kf3.
<uqbkeblvZfheyjgmxdhgp_gljZpbx[ wd\b\Ze_glgmxdhgp_gljZpbx\fheyevghklvjZkl\hjZ
151. <uqbkeblv fZkkm kZoZjhau g_h[oh^bfmx êy ijb]hlh\e_gby
jZkl\hjZfZkkhc]fheyevghklvdhlhjh]hfhevd]
152. <uqbkebl_ obfbq_kdh_ dhebq_kl\h ]_dkZ]b^jZlZ oehjb^Z dZev
pbydhlhjh_g_h[oh^bfh\aylvêyijb]hlh\e_gbyjZkl\hjZoeh
jb^Z dZevpby h[t_fhf fe k fZkkh\hc ^he_c kheb b
iehlghklvx]kf3.
153. <dZdhfh[t_f_jZkl\hjZkmevnZlZf_^b ]kf3kfZkkh
\hc^he_ckhebke_^m_ljZkl\hjblv]f_^gh]hdmihjhkZ
qlh[uihemqblvjZkl\hjkmevnZlZf_^b"
63
154. DfejZkl\hjZ ]kf3kmevnZlZgZljbykwd\b\Ze_gl

ghc dhgp_gljZpb_c fheve ^h[Z\beb fe jZkl\hjZ
( = ]kf3wlhckhebkfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpb_cfheve
<uqbkeblvfheyjgmxbwd\b\Ze_glgmxdhgp_gljZpbbkheb\ih
emq_gghfjZkl\hj_
155. >hdZdh]hh[t_fZg_h[oh^bfhjZa[Z\blvfejZkl\hjZkheyghc
dbkehlukfZkkh\hc^he_c ]kf3qlh[uihemqblv
jZkl\hj ]kf3bdZdh\Z[m^_l_]hfheyjgZydhgp_g
ljZpby"
156. DZdhch[t_fZffbZdZgmg_h[oh^bfhjZkl\hjblv\fe\h
ûêyihemq_gbyjZkl\hjZkfZkkh\hc^he_cZffbZdZ
157. <uqbkebl_k(HNO3_kebgZg_cljZebaZpbxwlh]hjZkl\hjZh[t
_fhffejZkoh^m_lkykf_kvdZj[hgZlh\khklhysZybaK2CO3
fZkkhc]bNa2CO3fZkkhc]
158. DZdhch[t_fih^dbke_ggh]hjZkl\hjZi_jfZg]ZgZlZdZebykwd\b
\Ze_glghcdhgp_gljZpb_cfheveihlj_[m_lkyêydhebq_kl
\_ggh]h hij_^_e_gby `_e_aZ \ gZ\_kd_ djbklZeeh]b^jZlZ
(NH4)2SO4 FeSO4 6H2OfZkkhc]"
159. DZdhch[t_fjZkl\hjZZahlghcdbkehlu ]fek__fZkkh
\hc^he_cg_h[oh^bfh^h[Z\blvdfejZkl\hjZ = 1,05
]kf3kfheyjghc^he_cdbkehluqlh[uihemqblvjZkl\hjk
fZkkh\hc^he_cHNO3 20 %?
160. Kf_rZebfejZkl\hjZk_jghcdbkehlu ]kf3kwd\b\Z
e_glghcdhgp_gljZpb_cfhevebfe__jZkl\hjZkfheyj
ghc ^he_c ]kf3 <uqbkeblv fZkkh\mx ^hex
H2SO4\ihemq_gghfjZkl\hj_
161. DZdb_h[t_fujZkl\hjZgbljZlZfZ]gbykfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpb_c
fheve b jZkl\hjZ gbljZlZ ojhfZ k fheyjghc dhgp_gljZpb_c
1 fheveg_h[oh^bfh\aylvêyijb]hlh\e_gbykf_kbhdkb^h\fZ]
gbybojhfZfZkkhc]cfheyjghc^he_cCr2O3jZ\ghc"
162. Kf_kv f_^b b hdkb^Z f_^bII k fZkkh\hc ^he_c f_lZeebq_kdhc
f_^b h[jZ[hlZeb jZkl\hjhf Zahlghc dbkehlu k fZkkh\hc
^he_c b iehlghklvx jZkl\hjZ ]fe Ijb wlhf \u^_ebeky
hdkb^ ZahlZII h[t_fhf e g m <uqbkebl_fZkkmkf_kbb
h[t_fbajZkoh^h\Zggh]hjZkl\hjZdbkehlu
163. <uqbkebl_h[t_fgmhdkb^Zk_juIVbadhlhjh]hfh`ghih
emqblv fe jZkl\hjZ k_jghc dbkehlu k fZkkh\hc ^he_c
( ]kf3).
64
164. >eyi_j_djbklZeebaZpbbgbljZldZeby[uejZkl\hj_g\\h^_fZk
khc]ijbhK^hihemq_gbygZkus_ggh]hjZkl\hjZdhlhjuc
aZl_fhoeZ^beb^hhK<uqbkebl_fZkkm\udjbklZeebah\Z\r_cky
khebDZdh\ug_ba[_`gu_ihl_jbgbljZlZdZebyhlghkbl_evghbk
oh^gh]hh[jZapZ_kebdhwnnbpb_gljZkl\hjbfhklbgbljZlZdZeby
ijb hKjZ\_g]ZijbhK]\]\hû"
165. Dhwnnbpb_glu jZkl\hjbfhklb Pb(NO3)2 ijb b hKkhhl\_l
kl\_gghjZ\gu]b]\]\hûDZdmxfZkkmqbklh]hgbl
jZlZ k\bgpZ fh`gh ihemqblv ijb hoeZ`^_gbb _]h gZkus_ggh]h
jZkl\hjZhl^hhK_kebgZijb]hlh\e_gb_gZkus_ggh]hjZk
l\hjZ[uehaZljZq_ghfe\hû"DZdh\Z[m^_lfZkkh\Zy^hey
kheb\fZlhqghfjZkl\hj_"
166. <gZkus_gghfjZkl\hj_ijb hKfZkkh\Zy^heyK2Cr2O7khklZ\
ey_lDZdh\dhwnnbpb_gljZkl\hjbfhklb^bojhfZlZdZeby
ijbwlhcl_fi_jZlmj_"
167. GZc^bl_fZkkmKKlO3\u^_eb\r_]hkybajZkl\hjZfZkkhc]k
fZkkh\hc ^he_c kheb ijb hoeZ`^_gbb _]h ^h hK DZdh\Z
[m^_l fZkkh\Zy ^heykheb\fZlhqghfjZkl\hj__kebdhwnnbpb
_gljZkl\hjbfhklbkhebijbhKjZ\_g]"
168. JZkkqblZcl_ fheyjgmx dhgp_gljZpbx oehjb^Z gZljby \
nbabheh]bq_kdhfjZkl\hj_! ]kf3).
169. H[sZyfZkkZZahlZ\kmlhqghcfhq_\ghjf_jZ\gZ]<ujZab
l_dhebq_kl\hZahlZ\kmlhqghcfhq_\fheyo
170. Bf__lky jZkl\hj kh^_j`Zsbc h^gh\j_f_ggh k_jgmx b Zahlgmx
dbkehluHij_^_ebl_fZkkh\mx^hexdZ`^hcbadbkehl\jZkl\h
j_ _keb ijb g_cljZebaZpbb ] wlh]h jZkl\hjZ jZkoh^m_lky
fe ! ]kf3 jZkl\hjZ ]b^jhdkb^Z gZljby k fZkkh\hc
^he_cZijbijb[Z\e_gbbd]lZdh]h`_jZkl\hjZba[uldZ
oehjb^Z[Zjbyh[jZam_lkyhkZ^hdfZkkhc]
171. DZdhcfZkku]_dkZ]b^jZloehjb^ZdZevpbyg_h[oh^bfh^h[Z\blv
djZkl\hjmdZj[hgZlZgZljbyh[t_fhffe! ]fekfZk
kh\hc^he_ckhebqlh[uihemqblvjZkl\hj\dhlhjhffZk
kh\Zy^heydZj[hgZlZgZljbyjZ\gZ"
172. KieZ\ jZ\guo ih fZkk_ f_^b `_e_aZ b pbgdZ h[s_c fZkkhc ]
ihf_klbeb\jZkl\hjfZkkhc]kfZkkh\hc^he_ckheyghcdb
kehluJZkkqblZcl_fZkkh\u_^heb\k_o\_s_kl\\ihemqb\
r_fkyjZkl\hj_
173. Kf_rZebjZkl\hjh[t_fhffe! ]kf3^b]b^jhnhknZlZ
dZebykfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpb_ckhebfhevebjZkl\hjfZk
khc]]b^jhdkb^ZgZljbykfZkkh\hc^he_cs_ehqbJZk
kqblZcl_fZkkh\u_^heb\_s_kl\\ihemq_gghfjZkl\hj_
65
174. DjZkl\hjmfZkkhc]kfZkkh\hc^he_coehjb^ZdZevpby
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kf_kv ijhimklbeb m]e_dbkeuc ]Za h[t_fhf e baf_j_gguc
ijbghjfZevguomkeh\byoHij_^_ebl_fZkkmihemq_ggh]hhkZ^dZ
bfZkkh\u_^heb\_s_kl\\h[jZah\Z\r_fkyjZkl\hj_
175. D jZkl\hjm h[t_fhf fe ! ]kf3 k fZkkh\hc ^he_c
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fZkkh\hc ^he_c DHG ^h iheghc g_cljZebaZpbb DZdh\Z
fZkkZkheb\uiZ\r_c\hkZ^hdijbhoeZ`^_gbbjZkl\hjZ^hhK
_keb\gZkus_gghfjZkl\hj_ijbwlhcl_fi_jZlmj_fZkkh\Zy^hey
khebkhklZ\ey_l"
176. >ey ihemq_gby kl_deZ kf_kv ihlZrZ b ba\_klgydZ ijhdZebeb k
dj_fg_a_fhf Z \u^_eb\rbcky ]Za ih]ehlbeb jZkl\hjhf ]b^jh
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iZe hkZ^hd fZkkhc ] ijbq_f ]Z kh s_ehqvx j_Z]bjh\Ze \
khhlghr_gbyo Hij_^_ebl_ fZkkh\mx ^hex s_ehqb b h[t_f
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oh^h\Zgh]jZkl\hjZkw(H2SO4) = 90 <uqbkebl_fZkkmf_^b
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We_dljheblu^bkkhpbbjmxsb_\jZkl\hjZog_iheghklvxgZ
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k^bkKG3KHHG kG+) = kKG3KHH),
lh
c(CH 3COO )
c( H + )
.
=
=
c(CH 3COOH ) c(CH 3COOH)
< p_eyo mijhs_gby \b^Z nhjfme h[hagZqbf h[smx dhgp_gljZ
pbxmdkmkghcdbkehlu[md\hckl_kKG3KHHG k
Lh]^Zke_^m_lqlh
kG+) = kKG3KHH) = . k,
Zkg_^bkKG3KHHG k . k = (1 .)k.
Ihke_ ih^klZgh\db k^bk b kg_^bk ihemqZ_f mjZ\g_gb_ dhlhjh_ gZ
au\ZxlaZdhghfjZa[Z\e_gbyHkl\Zev^Z
c 2 2
c 2
K=
.
=
(1 )c 1
?kebkl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbbagZqbl_evghf_gvr__^bgbpulhijb
ijb[eb`_gguo\uqbke_gbyofh`ghijbgylvqlh.Lh]^Z\u
jZ`_gb_aZdhgZjZa[Z\e_gbymijhsZ_lky
K
.
c
Ihke_^g__ khhlghr_gb_ ihdZau\Z_l qlh ijb jZa[Z\e_gbb jZk
l\hjZ l _ ijb mf_gvr_gbb dhgp_gljZpbb we_dljheblZ c kl_i_gv
^bkkhpbZpbbwe_dljheblZ\hajZklZ_l
?keb\jZkl\hj_we_dljheblZAXkl_i_gv_]h^bkkhpbZpbbjZ\gZ
.lhdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\A+bX\jZkl\hj_h^bgZdh\ubkhklZ\eyxl
k(:+) = k(O) = . k.
D = .2khldm^Z. =
67
Ih^klZ\b\kx^ZagZq_gb_.baij_û^ms_]hkhhlghr_gbygZoh^bf
K
= Kc .
c
Ijbf_j.Hij_^_ebl_dhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\bg_ijh^bkkhpbbjh
\Zgguofhe_dme\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_+)kk(HF) = fheveKl_i_gv
^bkkhpbZpbb+)\wlbomkeh\byojZ\gZ
J_r_gb_
AZibr_fmjZ\g_gb_we_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbb+)
HF H+ + F.
Ihmkeh\bxaZ^Zqbkl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbb+)jZ\gZihwlh
fm dhgp_gljZpbb dZ`^h]h ba bhgh\ ++ b ) jZ\gu
= 0,0025 fheve .103fheveDhgp_gljZpbyg_ijh^bkkhpbbjh\Zgguofhe_dme+)khklZ\ey_lk(HF) = 0,01 fheve
= 7,5 103fheve
Ijbf_j Q_fm jZ\gZ kl_i_gv we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb
mdkmkghcdbkehlu\__F\h^ghfjZkl\hj_"DZdh\Zdhgp_gljZpby
bhgh\G+\wlhfjZkl\hj_"D^bk(CH3COOH) = 1,80 105.
J_r_gb_
AZibr_f fZl_fZlbq_kdh_ \ujZ`_gb_ aZdhgZ jZa[Z\e_gby Hkl
c 2
.
\Zev^Z K =
1
LZddZd\gZrbomkeh\byolhfh`gh\hkihevah\Zlvkymi
jhs_gghcnhjfhcD= 2khldm^Z
k:+) = kO) = c
K
1,8 10 5
=
=
= 9,5 10 3 , beb
C
0,2
Dhgp_gljZpbybhgh\G+[m^_ljZ\gZ
kG+) = k = 9,5 10-3 0,2 = 1,9 10-3fheve
Bhggh_ijhba\_^_gb_\hû
<h^hjh^gucihdZaZl_ev
<h^Z[m^mqbhq_gvkeZ[ufwe_dljheblhf\g_agZqbl_evghckl_
i_gb^bkkhpbbjm_lh[jZamybhgu\h^hjh^Zb]b^jhdkb^-bhgu
G2H<G+HG.
Wlhfmijhp_kkmkhhl\_lkl\m_ldhgklZglZ^bkkhpbZpbb
c(H + ) c(OH )
K=
= 1,8 1016ijbhK
c ( H 2 O)
68
Ihkdhevdmkl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbb\hûhq_gvfZeZlhjZ\gh\_kgZy
dhgp_gljZpbyg_^bkkhpbbjh\Zgguofhe_dme\hûkG2Hk^hklZlhq
ghclhqghklvxjZ\gZh[s_cdhgp_gljZpbb\hûfheveLh]^Z
\ujZ`_gb_ êy dhgklZglu ^bkkhpbZpbb \hû fh`gh ij_h[jZah\Zlv
ke_^mxsbfh[jZahf
kG+) kHG) = D kG2H 14 = DW.
DhgklZglZDWgZau\Z_lkybhggufijhba\_^_gb_f\hû
>ey \hû b jZa[Z\e_gguo \h^guo jZkl\hjh\ ijb g_baf_gghc
l_fi_jZlmj_DW \_ebqbgZihklhyggZyIjbhKDW =1014.
Ihkdhevdm ^bkkhpbZpby \hû wg^hl_jfbq_kdbc ijhp_kk lh k
jhklhfl_fi_jZlmju^bkkhpbZpbymkbeb\Z_lkybagZq_gb_DW\hajZk
lZ_l
<qbklhc\h^_dhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\\h^hjh^Zb]b^jhdkb^-bhgh\
h^bgZdh\ubijbhKkhklZ\eyxl7fheve
JZkl\hju\dhlhjuodhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\\h^hjh^Zb]b^jhdkb^bhgh\ h^bgZdh\u gZau\Zxlky g_cljZevgufb jZkl\hjZfb < g_c
ljZevguojZkl\hjZokG+ kHG) = 107fheve
<dbkeuojZkl\hjZokG+) > 107fhevebkG+!kHGZ\s_
ehqguojZkl\hjZokG+) < 107fhevebkG+kHG).
<f_klh dhgp_gljZpbc bhgh\ G+ b HG m^h[g__ ihevah\Zlvky bo
^_kylbqgufbeh]ZjbnfZfb\aylufbkh[jZlgufagZdhfwlb\_ebqb
guh[hagZqZxlkykbf\heZfbS+bS2+bgZau\Zxlkykhhl\_lkl\_ggh
\h^hjh^gufb]b^jhdkb^gufihdZaZl_eyfb
pH = lg c(H+); pOH = lg c(OH).
<qZklghklbêy\hûijbhK
jG lg107 = 7, pOH = lg107 = 7.
Ke_^h\Zl_evgh\g_cljZevguojZkl\hjZo
pH = pOH ZkmffZpH + pOH = 14.
<dbkeuojZkl\hjZojG < Z\s_ehqguojZkl\hjZoS+!
Ijbf_j Hij_^_ebl_S+\h^gh]hjZkl\hjZ+2SO4kk+2SO4) =
= fheve
J_r_gb_
LZd dZd k_jgZy dbkehlZ \ jZa[Z\e_gghf jZkl\hj_ ^bkkhpbbjm_l
iheghklvx+2SO4 2H+ + SO42, lhdhgp_gljZpbybhgh\G+[m^_ljZ\gZkG+ . k 2 = 1 0,02 fheveHlkx^ZS+ OJk++) =
= lg 0,04 = lg 4 102 = lg 4 lg102 = 0,6 +2 = 1,4.
Bkoh^ybajZ\_gkl\ZS+S2+ ke_^m_lqlhS2+ 1,4 =
= 12,6.
69
Ijbf_jJZkkqblZcl_fheyjgmxdhgp_gljZpbx+&O_keb\h^h
jh^gucihdZaZl_ev\h^gh]hjZkl\hjZoehjh\h^hjh^ZjZ\_g
J_r_gb_
LZddZdS+ ke_^h\Zl_evghOJk++) = 1,85; lg c(H+) = 1,85 =
= 2,15 l_2 + 0,15 = Hlkx^Zk++) = 1,4 102LZddZdkhey

gZy dbkehlZ y\ey_lky kbevghc h^ghhkgh\ghc dbkehlhc lh b
k+&O = 1,4 102fheve
Ijhba\_^_gb_jZkl\hjbfhklb
JZkkfhljbf]_l_jh]_ggmxkbkl_fmgZkus_ggucjZkl\hjfZehjZkl\hjbfh]hwe_dljheblZgZoh^ysbcky\jZ\gh\_kbbkhk\hbfhkZ^dhf
KnAm(d) <nKm+(j) + mAn(j).
>ey l\_j^hc nZau hkZ^dZ k(DnAm) = const b fZl_fZlbq_kdh_
\ujZ`_gb_dhgklZglu^Zggh]hjZ\gh\_kbybf__l\b^
Ds = kn(Dm+) km(:n)
LZdZydhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kbygZau\Z_lkyijhba\_^_gb_fjZkl\h
jbfhklbIJbebdhgklZglhcjZkl\hjbfhklb (Ds):
Ds IJ k n(Dm+) k m(:n)
LZdbf h[jZahf \ gZkus_gghf jZkl\hj_ fZehjZkl\hjbfh]h
we_dljheblZ ijhba\_^_gb_ dhgp_gljZpbc _]h bhgh\ \ kl_i_gyo jZ\
guokl_obhf_ljbq_kdbfdhwnnbpb_glZfijb^Zgghcl_fi_jZlmj_
\_ebqbgZihklhyggZy
Ijhba\_^_gb_ jZkl\hjbfhklb oZjZdl_jbam_l kjZ\gbl_evgmx jZk
l\hjbfhklv h^ghlbiguo \_s_kl\ q_f [hevr_ IJ ^Zggh]h \_s_kl\Z
l_f[hevr__]hjZkl\hjbfhklv
Mkeh\byh[jZah\ZgbyhkZ^dZ
ID k(Dm+)n k(:n)m!IJKnAm,
]^_ ID ijhba\_^_gb_ dhgp_gljZpbc bhgh\ gZoh^ysboky \ ^Zgghf
jZkl\hj_
JZkl\hj\dhlhjhfkha^Z_lkywlhmkeh\b_ i_j_kus_gguchl
ghkbl_evgh^Zggh]hwe_dljheblZbag_]h[m^_l\uiZ^ZlvhkZ^hd
>Zggh_mkeh\b_fh`_l^hklb]ZlvkygZijbf_j\\_^_gb_fh^gh
bf_ggh]hbhgZ\gZkus_ggucjZkl\hjKnAm.
Mkeh\b_jZkl\hj_gbyhkZ^dZID < IJKnAm.
JZkl\hj \ ^Zgghf kemqZ_ g_gZkus_gguc djbklZeeu fZehjZk
l\hjbfh]hwe_dljheblZKnAmijb\\_^_gbb\g_]h[m^mljZkl\hjylvky
70
Mkeh\by ID IJKnAm fh`gh ^hklb]gmlv ijbeb\Zy ^hklZlhqgh

[hevrh_dhebq_kl\hjZkl\hjbl_eyeb[h`_k\yau\Zy\fZeh^bkkhpbb
jmxsb_qZklbpul_bhgudhlhju_hkZ^hdKnAmihkueZ_l\jZkl\hj
Ih \_ebqbg_ IJ fh`_l [ulv gZc^_gZ jZkl\hjbfhklv \_s_kl\Z
sfheve>ey[bgZjguowe_dljheblh\gZijbf_j%D624IJ 10),
jZkl\hjbfhklvs = k(Ba2+) = c(SO42ihwlhfm
IJ = k(Ba2+) c(SO42) = s2hldm^Z s = IJ = 1,1 1010 10 5 fheve
Ijbf_j Ijhba\_^_gb_ jZkl\hjbfhklb $J2SO4 jZ\gh .105
(25 hKHij_^_eblvjZkl\hjbfhklvwlhckheb\fheveb\]e
J_r_gb_
Khev^bkkhpbbjm_lihko_f_$J2SO4 :Ag+ + SO42.
H[hagZqbfbkdhfmxjZkl\hjbfhklvkhebq_j_asfheve
Lh]^Zk(Ag+) = 2sZk(SO42) = s.
IJ$J2SO4 k2(Ag+k6242) = (2s)2 s = 4s3.
1,6 10 5 3
= 4 10 6 1,6102 fheve
Hlkx^Zs = IJ / 4 =
4
LZd dZd fheyjgZy fZkkZ $J2SO4 jZ\gZ ]fhev lh jZkl\hjb
fhklv$J2SO4\]e[m^_ljZ\gZ2 312 ]e
Ijbf_j JZkl\hjbfhklv 3E,2 ijb hKjZ\gZ 104fheve
JZkkqblZlvIJ3E,2ijbhK
J_r_gb_
LZddZdjZkl\hjbfhklv3E,2jZ\gZ 104fhevelhdhgp_gljZpby
bhgh\3E2+\gZkus_gghfjZkl\hj_kheb[m^_llZdZy`_ 6,5 104 fheve
dhgp_gljZpby,[m^_l\^\ZjZaZ[hevr_
PbI2 :3E2+ + 2Il_
Bafhev3E,2ijb^bkkhpbZpbbh[jZam_lkyfhev,Lh]^Z
IJPbI2) = c( Pb2+) c2(I) = 6,5 104 (2 6,5 104)2 1,1 109.
Ijbf_j . Kf_rZeb jZ\gu_ h[t_fu F jZkl\hjh\ &D&O2 b
Na2SO4H[jZam_lkyebhkZ^hd&D624"IJ&D624) = 2,5 105 .
J_r_gb_
Ba\_klgh qlh hkZ^hd kheb h[jZam_lky _keb ijhba\_^_gb_ dhg
p_gljZpbckhhl\_lkl\mxsbobhgh\kheb\fhf_glkf_rb\Zgby[m^_l
[hevr_ijhba\_^_gbyjZkl\hjbfhklbwlhckhebLZddZdijbkf_rb\Z
gbbjZ\guoh[t_fh\^\mokhe_cdhgp_gljZpbydZ`^hckhebmf_gvrZ
_lky \^\h_ lh \ fhf_gl kf_rb\Zgby dhgp_gljZpbb khe_c \ gZr_f
kemqZ_ [m^ml jZ\gu ih fheve Dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ &D2+ b
SO42\wlhl`_fhf_gl[m^mljZ\guihfheveKe_^h\Zl_evgh
3
71
k(Ca2+) k(SO42) = 0,0005 0,0005 = 2,5107qlhagZqbl_evghf_gvr_

\_ebqbguIJ&D624AgZqblhkZ^hdg_h[jZam_lky
Ijbf_jKhihklZ\blvjZkl\hjbfhklv$J&Oijb hK\\h^_b\
jZkl\hj_ 1D&O k dhgp_gljZpb_c F1D&O fheve IJ$J&O
=1,81010.
J_r_gb_
ImklvjZkl\hjbfhklv$J&Oijbwlbomkeh\byo\\h^_jZ\gZVLh
]^Zc(Ag+) = c(Cl) = skfijbf_j
IJ$J&O c(Ag+) c(Cl) = s2;
s = IJ = 1,34 105 fheve
ImklvjZkl\hjbfhklv$J&O\FjZkl\hj_1D&OjZ\gZs1lh]^Z
k(Ag ) = s1, k(Cl) = s1 Ih^klZ\bf wlb agZq_gby \ \ujZ`_gb_
IJ$J&O
IJ(AgCl) = s1(s1 + 0,1) = 1,8 1010. LZddZd >> s1lhs1 + 0,1 0,1
bij_û^ms__\ujZ`_gb_fh`ghmijhklblvs1 0,1 = 1,8 1010Hl
kx^Zs1 = 1,8109.
KjZ\gbfjZkl\hjbfhklvAgCl\\h^_b\FjZkl\hj_NaCl.
<FjZkl\hj_1D&OjZkl\hjbfhklv$J&O[m^_lf_gvr_\
+
s 1,34 10 5
=
= 7,4 103 jZa
9
s1 1,8 10
=b^jhebakhe_c
=b^jhebakheb ijhp_kk\aZbfh^_ckl\bykhebk\h^hcijb\h^y
sbc d h[jZah\Zgbx keZ[h^bkkhpbbjmxsbo qZklbp fhe_dme beb bh
gh\=b^jhebakhe_cdZq_kl\_gghfh`ghjZkkfZljb\ZlvdZdj_amevlZl
iheyjbaZpbhggh]h \aZbfh^_ckl\by bhgh\ kheb k bo ]b^jZlghc h[h
ehqdhcbmijhs_gghij_^klZ\blvke_^mxsbfbko_fZfb
Kn+ + HOH KOH(n1)+ + H+,
An + HOH HA(n1) + OH-.
=b^jheba h[mkeh\e_g h[jZah\Zgb_f fZeh^bkkhpbbjmxsbo qZklbpDHG(n1)+bG:(n1).
Q_f [hevr_ aZjy^ b f_gvr_ jZ^bmk bhgh\ kheb l_f kbevg__ bo
iheyjbaZpbhggh_ \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ k \h^hc keZ[__ ^bkkhpbZpby h[jZ
amxsboky qZklbp DHG(n1)+ b G:(n1) b \ [hevr_c kl_i_gb ijhbkoh
^bl]b^jheba
Iheyjbamxs__ \ebygb_ gZ fhe_dmeu \hû g_\_ebdh m dZlbhgh\
s_ehqguobs_ehqgha_f_evguof_lZeeh\h^ghaZjy^guoZgbhgh\gZ
72
ijbf_j&O, Br, NO 3 mg_dhlhjuo^\moaZjy^guogZijbf_j62 24 Ih

wlhfm kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ Zgbhghf kbevghc dbkehlu b dZlbhghf
kbevgh]hhkgh\Zgby]b^jhebamg_ih^\_j]Zxlky
<hafh`gu ke_^mxsb_ kemqZb ]b^jhebaZ khe_c ]b^jheba ih
ZgbhgmihdZlbhgmihdZlbhgmbZgbhgmh^gh\j_f_ggh
=b^jheba ih Zgbhgm ?fm ih^\_j]Zxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZ
lbhghf kbevgh]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf keZ[hc dbkehlu (K2CO3, Na2S,
Na2SO3, K3PO4b^jIjb]b^jheba_kha^Z_lkys_ehqgZykj_^ZS+ > 7).
GZijbf_j
CH3COONa CH3COO + Na+,
Na+ + HOH j_Zdpbyg_b^_l
CH3COO + HOH CH3COOH + OH.
Fhe_dmeyjgh_mjZ\g_gb_]b^jhebaZ
CH3COONa + HOH <&+3COOH + NaOH.
>Zgguc ijhp_kk h[jZlbfuc jZ\gh\_kb_ ]b^jhebaZ kbevgh kf_
s_gh\e_\hihkdhevdmD+2O) <D&+3COOH).
=b^jheba fgh]haZjy^gh]h ZgbhgZ ijhl_dZ_l klmi_gqZlh b ijb
h[uqguomkeh\byo]eZ\gufh[jZahfb^_llhevdhihi_j\hcklmi_gb
GZijbf_j:
Na2SO3 2Na+ + SO 32 ,
Na+ + HOH j_Zdpbyg_b^_l
SO 32 + HOH <+62 3 + OHklmi_gv
HSO 3 + HOH <+2SO3 + OH klmi_gv
Fhe_dmeyjgu_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\_gghbf_xl\b^
Na2SO3 GHG<1DG623 +NaOH,
NaHSO3 + HOH <+2SO3 + NaOH.
=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm. ?fm ih^\_j]Zxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZ
lbhghf keZ[h]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf kbevghc dbkehlu (NH4Br, ZnCl2,
Cu(NO3)2b^jKj_^Zijb]b^jheba_dbkeZyjGGZijbf_j
CuCl2 Cu2+ + Cl,
Cl + HOH j_Zdpbyg_b^_l
Cu2+ + HOH <CuOH+ + H+klmi_gv
Fhe_dmeyjgh_mjZ\g_gb_i_j\hcklmi_gb]b^jhebaZ
CuCl2 + HOH <&X2+&O+&O
=b^jhebahf ih \lhjhc klmi_gb ijb h[uqguo mkeh\byo fh`gh
ij_g_[j_qv
73
=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm. Ih dZlbhgmbZgbhgm]b^jheb

amxlky kheb h[jZah\Zggu_ dZlbhghf keZ[h]h hkgh\Zgby b Zgbhghf
keZ[hcdbkehluGZijbf_j
CH3COONH4 CH3COO + NH4+,
CH3COO + HOH <CH3COOH + OH,
NH4+ + HOH <NH4OH + H+,
CH3COO + NH4+ + HOH <CH3COOH + NH4OH.
Fhe_dmeyjgh_mjZ\g_gb_
CH3COONH4 + HOH <CH3COOH + NH4OH.
=b^jheba\^ZgghfkemqZ_ijhl_dZ_l^h\hevghbgl_gkb\ghH[jZ
amxsb_ky ijb ]b^jheba_ bhgu G+ b HG k\yau\Zxlky \ fhe_dmeu
G2Hqlhmkbeb\Z_l]b^jhebabihdZlbhgmbihZgbhgmJ_Zdpbykj_
ûaZ\bkblhlkhhlghr_gbydhgklZgl^bkkhpbZpbbh[jZamxsbokydb
kehlu b hkgh\Zgby < ^Zgghf kemqZ_ S+ lZd dZd K(NH3 H2O)
K(CH3COOH).
?keb dbkehlZ b hkgh\Zgb_ h[jZamxsb_ky \ ijhp_kk_ ]b^jhebaZ
moh^ylbaahguijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb\\b^_hkZ^dZbeb]ZaZlh]b^
jheba fh`_l ijhl_dZlv ijZdlbq_kdb g_h[jZlbfh LZd gZijbf_j
Al2S3ijbdhglZdl_k\h^hciheghklvxij_\jZsZ_lky\fZehjZkl\hjb
fuc]b^jhdkb^Zexfbgbyb\]Zahh[jZaguck_jh\h^hjh^
Al2S3GHG 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S.
Ih wlhc `_ ijbqbg_ kf_rb\Zy \h^gu_ jZkl\hju AlCl3 b Na2S,
g_evayihemqblvAl2S3 :
2AlCl3 + 3Na2S + 6HOH 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S + 6NaCl,
2Al3+ + 3S2 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2S.
Ba-aZ\aZbfgh]hmkbe_gby]b^jhebaZihdZlbhgmbihZgbhgmkh
\f_klgh]h]b^jhebaZ\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_lZd`_g_\hafh`ghkbgl_ab
jh\Zlv dZj[hgZlu Zexfbgby ojhfZIII `_e_aZIII kmevnb^ ojh
fZIIIg_dhlhju_^jm]b_khebIjb\_^_f_s_h^bgijbf_jkh\f_kl
gh]h]b^jhebaZ
2AlCl3 + 3Na2CO3 + 3HOH 2Al(OH)3 + 3CO2+6NaCl,
2Al3+ + 3CO32- + 3HOH 2Al(OH)3 + 3CO2.
Dhebq_kl\_ggu_ oZjZdl_jbklbdb ]b^jhebaZ. Dhebq_kl\_ggh
]b^jhebakheboZjZdl_jbam_lkykl_i_gvx]b^jhebaZK bdhgklZglhc
]b^jhebaZD].
74
c
h= ] ,
k
]^_k] dhgp_gljZpby]b^jhebah\ZgghcqZklbkhebk h[sZydhgp_g
ljZpbyjZkl\hj_gghckheb
>ey]b^jhebaZihZgbhgm\h[s_f\b^_:GHG<G:HG
ijb[eb`_gghkijZ\_êb\h
c(HA) c(OH )
= K c(H 2O ) = K ] , ]^_D] dhgklZglZ]b^jhebaZ.
c( A )
Bkihevamykhhlghr_gb_ c(OH ) =
K] =
Kw
ihemqZ_f
c(H + )
Kw
K
beb K ] = w .
K HA
K dbk
A^_kvDdbk dhgklZglZ^bkkhpbZpbblhcdbkehludhlhjZyh[jZam
_lky\j_amevlZl_]b^jhebaZ
>ey]b^jhebaZihdZlbhgm.+ + HOH <.2+++ZgZeh]bqgh
( )
( )
c(KOH ) c H +
= K] ,
c K+
K] =
Kw
.
K hkg
A^_kvDhkg dhgklZglZ^bkkhpbZpbblh]hhkgh\Zgbydhlhjh_h[
jZam_lky\j_amevlZl_]b^jhebaZ
>ey]b^jhebaZihdZlbhgmbZgbhgm
K+ + A + HOH <.2++$
Kw
c(KOH) c(HA)
K] =
.
= K] ,
+
K dbk K hkg
c(K ) c(A )
DZ`^Zyklmi_gv]b^jhebaZfgh]haZjy^guobhgh\oZjZdl_jbam_lky
k\h_cD]LZdklmi_gqZlu_dhgklZglu]b^jhebaZ^\moaZjy^gh]hZgbh
gZke_^mxsb_
Kw
, D] > D] ,
D] = K w , D] =
K dbk
K dbk
]^_Dd bDd dhgklZglu^bkkhpbZpbbdbkehluihbklmi_gbBa
khhlghr_gbc ke_^m_l q_f keZ[__ dbkehlZ hkgh\Zgb_ h[jZamxsZy
h[jZamxs__ khev l_f kbevg__ khev ]b^jhebam_lky b dhgklZglZ
]b^jhebaZ __ [hevr_ =b^jheba ijhp_kk wg^hl_jfbq_kdbc ihwlhfm
ijbih\ur_gbbl_fi_jZlmjuD]m\_ebqb\Z_lky
75
>ey]b^jhebaZihdZlbhgmbebihZgbhgmaZ\bkbfhklvf_`^mhbk
hibku\Z_lky\ujZ`_gb_fZgZeh]bqgufaZdhgmjZa[Z\e_gbyHkl\Zev^Z
K]
,
c
l_jZa[Z\e_gb_jZkl\hjZkhebmkbeb\Z_l__]b^jheba
?kebkhev]b^jhebam_lkyh^gh\j_f_gghbihdZlbhgmbihZgbh
gmlhdhgp_gljZpbykheb\jZkl\hj_ijZdlbq_kdbg_\eby_lgZh:
D] ch2bebh
D]
< khhl\_lkl\bb k ijbgpbihf E_ RZl_ev_ ]b^jheba ih dZlbhgm

mkbeb\Z_lkyhm\_ebqb\Z_lkyijb^h[Z\e_gbbhkgh\ZgbydjZkl\hjm
khebZ]b^jhebaihZgbhgmmkbeb\Z_lkyijb^h[Z\e_gbbdbkehlu
Obfbq_kdh_jZ\gh\_kb_
1. DZdh_ khklhygb_ j_Zdpbhgghc kbkl_fu gZau\Z_lky obfbq_kdbf

jZ\gh\_kb_f"
2. DZdhij_^_eblvfhf_glgZklmie_gbyobfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_kby"
3. Fh`ghebkqblZlvihklhygkl\hdhgp_gljZpbcj_Z]_glh\\kbkl_f_
^hdZaZl_evkl\hfbklbgghklbobfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_kby"
4. Qlh lZdh_ dhgklZglZ obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby" DZdh\ __ nbabq_
kdbckfuke"
5. AZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdb_ \ujZ`_gby dhgklZgl jZ\gh\_kby êy
kbkl_f
ZHCl] + O] 2Cl2 ] + 2H2O]
[Fed + 3Cl] 2FeCld
6. DZdh\h \ebygb_ l_fi_jZlmju ^Z\e_gby dhgp_gljZpbb b ijbkml
kl\bydZlZebaZlhjZgZ\_ebqbgmdhgklZgluobfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_
kby"
7. DZdh\h \ebygb_ l_fi_jZlmju ^Z\e_gby dhgp_gljZpbb b ijbkml
kl\bydZlZebaZlhjZgZkhklhygb_obfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_kby"
8. Knhjfmebjmcl_ijbgpbiE_-RZl_ev_
9. < dZdmx klhjhgm kf_klblky jZ\gh\_kb_ NO] + O] 2NO2];
H0 = d>ìjbZmf_gvr_gbb^Z\e_gby[\\_^_gbb\kbk
l_fmdbkehjh^Z\ih\ur_gbbl_fi_jZlmju"
10. <dZdhfgZijZ\e_gbbijhbahc^_lkf_s_gb_jZ\gh\_kby
Fe3Od + 4H] 3Fed + 4H2O]
ijbZ\\_^_gbb\kbkl_fm\h^hjh^Z[\\_^_gbb\kbkl_fmijh
dZe_ggh]hhdkb^ZdZevpby\m\_ebq_gbb^Z\e_gby"
76
11. DZdb_j_Zdpbbhlghkylkydnhlhobfbq_kdbf"
12. Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju g_jZa\_l\e_gguo b jZa\_l\e_gguo p_iguo
j_Zdpbc
13. DZdh\hagZq_gb_nhlhobfbq_kdboj_Zdpbcêy`b\hcijbjhû"
JZkl\hjuwe_dljheblh\
14. <q_fkhklhblkmsghklvl_hjbbwe_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbb"
15. Hlq_]haZ\bkbljZkiZ^gZbhgu\ijhp_kk_jZkl\hj_gby\_s_kl\\
\h^_"
16. JZaebqZxlkyebf_oZgbafu^bkkhpbZpbbijbjZkl\hj_gbb\\h^_
\_s_kl\kbhggufbdh\Ze_glguflbiZfbk\ya_c"
17. Qlh lZdh_ ^bwe_dljbq_kdZy ihklhyggZy jZkl\hjbl_ey b dZdh\h __
\ebygb_gZijhp_kk^bkkhpbZpbb"
18. <q_faZdexqZ_lkydZq_kl\_ggh_jZaebqb_ijhp_kkh\^bkkhpbZpbb
kbevguobkeZ[uowe_dljheblh\"
19. DZd fh`gh dhebq_kl\_ggh hoZjZdl_jbah\Zlv ^bkkhpbZpbx
we_dljheblh\"
20. QlhoZjZdl_jbam_ldhgklZglZ^bkkhpbZpbbwe_dljheblZ"
21. Hl dZdbo nZdlhjh\ aZ\bkbl kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb keZ[h]h
we_dljheblZ"
22. DZdh\Zk\yavf_`^mkl_i_gvx^bkkhpbZpbbbdhgp_gljZpb_ckeZ
[h]hwe_dljheblZ"
23. Ihq_fm êy oZjZdl_jbklbdb ^bkkhpbZpbb kbevguo we_dljheblh\
ijbf_gyxll_jfbgdZ`msZykykl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbb?
24. QlhlZdh_Zdlb\ghklvbdhwnnbpb_glZdlb\ghklb"
25. >Zcl_hij_^_e_gbydbkehlhkgh\Zgbcbkhe_cklhqdbaj_gbyl_h
jbbwe_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbb
26. GZah\bl_kbevgu_hkgh\Zgbybkbevgu_dbkehlu
27. DZdbaf_gyxlkydbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_k\hckl\Z]b^jhdkb^h\ihi_
jbh^Zfb]jmiiZfI_jbh^bq_kdhckbkl_fu"
28. <dZdmxklhjhgmkf_klblkyjZ\gh\_kb_^bkkhpbZpbbmdkmkghcdb
kehluijb^h[Z\e_gbbZZp_lZlZgZljby[\hû\oehjh\h^h
jh^Z]]b^jhdkb^ZgZljby"
29. >h[Z\e_gb_f dZdbo \_s_kl\ fh`gh Z mkbeblv beb [ hkeZ[blv
^bkkhpbZpbxZffbZdZ\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_"
30. DZdb_we_dljheblu^bkkhpbbjmxlklmi_gqZlh"Ihq_fm\_ebqbgu
dhgklZgl dZ`^hc ihke_^mxs_c klmi_gb ^bkkhpbZpbb j_adh
mf_gvrZxlky"
77
>bkkhpbZpby\hû<h^hjh^gucihdZaZl_ev
31. DZdh\Z\aZbfhk\yavf_`^mdhgp_gljZpbyfbbhgh\]b^jhdkhgbyb
]b^jhdkb^-bhgh\\\h^guojZkl\hjZo"
32. QlhgZau\Z_lky\h^hjh^guf]b^jhdkb^gufihdZaZl_e_f"
33. <dZdbo_^bgbpZoke_^m_l\ujZ`Zlvdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\ijbjZk
q_l_jGjHG"
34. DZdb_ \_s_kl\Z fh]ml kem`blv bg^bdZlhjZfb" DZdh\u hdjZkdb
eZdfmkZn_ghenlZe_bgZbf_lbeh\h]hhjZg`_\h]h\jZkl\hjZodb
kehlbs_ehq_c"
35. I_j_qbkebl_ mkeh\by ijb dhlhjuo j_Zdpbb h[f_gZ \ jZkl\hjZo
ijhl_dZxlijZdlbq_kdb^hdhgpZ
36. GZibrbl_\bhggh-fhe_dmeyjghcnhjf_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc\jZk
l\hjZof_`^m
Zoehjb^hfdZevpbyb]b^jhdZj[hgZlhfgZljby
[nhknZlhfdZevpbybkheyghcdbkehlhc
\f_^gufdmihjhkhfbk_jh\h^hjh^hf
=b^jhebakhe_c
37. DZdh\uf_oZgbafu]b^jhebaZkhebihdZlbhgmbihZgbhgm"
38. DZdb_nZdlhju\ebyxlgZijhp_kk]b^jhebaZkheb"
39. DZdh\h \ebygb_ ijbjhû kheb dhgp_gljZpbb kheb \ jZkl\hj_
l_fi_jZlmjubjGkj_ûgZkl_i_gv]b^jhebaZ"
40. >h[Z\e_gb_f dZdbo \_s_kl\ fh`gh Z hkeZ[blv beb [ mkbeblv
ijhp_kk]b^jhebaZkheb"Ijb\_^bl_ijbf_ju
41. DZdhcfh`_l[ulvj_Zdpbykj_û\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_khebh[jZah
\ZgghckeZ[ufhkgh\Zgb_fbkeZ[hcdbkehlhc"
42. DZdh\Zj_Zdpbykj_û\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_
Zkmevnb^ZZffhgby
[bh^b^ZZexfbgby
\kmevnblZdZeby"
43. GZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdb_ \ujZ`_gby êy dhgklZgl ]b^jhebaZ
ZZp_lZlZgZljby[oehjb^ZZffhgby
44. DZdb_ bhgu ih^\_j]Zxlky klmi_gqZlhfm ]b^jhebam" Ijb\_^bl_
ijbf_ju
45. <dZdbokemqZyo]b^jhebakhebh[jZah\ZgghckeZ[ufhkgh\Zgb_f
b keZ[hc dbkehlhc ijhl_dZ_l ^h dhgpZ" Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju
ihevamykvlZ[ebp_cjZkl\hjbfhklb
78
Ijhba\_^_gb_jZkl\hjbfhklb
46. QlhgZau\Z_lkyijhba\_^_gb_fjZkl\hjbfhklbIJ"

47. >eydZdbo\_s_kl\ijbf_gbfhihgylb_IJ"
48. GZibrbl_ fZl_fZlbq_kdh_ \ujZ`_gb_ IJ êy nlhjb^Z dZevpby
Baf_gblky eb \_ebqbgZIJCaF2ijb^h[Z\e_gbb\gZkus_gguc
jZkl\hjCaF2ke_^mxsbo\_s_kl\
Zkmoh]hnlhjb^ZdZeby
[kmoh]hoehjb^ZdZevpby"
DZd^h[Z\e_gb_wlbo\_s_kl\\eby_lgZjZkl\hjbfhklvCaF2?
49. <dZdbo_^bgbpZoke_^m_l\ujZ`Zlvdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\ijbjZk
q_l_IJ"
50. DZdh\umkeh\byh[jZah\ZgbyhkZ^dh\"<k_]^Zeb\uiZ^Z_lhkZ^hd
ijbkeb\ZgbbjZkl\hjh\ih\Zj_gghckhebbgbljZlZk_j_[jZ"
51. KjZ\gb\\_ebqbguIJhp_gbl_\hafh`ghklvijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbc
Z) AgCl + KI = AgI + KCl;
[) AgI + KCl = AgCl + KI;
IJ$J&O 10IJ$J, 16.
52. Ihq_fmhkZ^dbkhe_ckeZ[uodbkehlh[uqghjZkl\hjyxlky\kbev
guodbkehlZo"
53. Ihq_fmkmevnb^f_^b,,\hlebqb_hlkmevnb^ZfZj]ZgpZ,,g_
jZkl\hjbf\kheyghcdbkehl_"
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
178. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb ke_^mx
sbo\_s_kl\+123, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH, Ba(OH)2, Al(OH)3,
Al2(SO4)3, KHSO4, Ba(OH)NO3, Fe(OH)(NO3)2.
179. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \ fhe_dmeyjghc b bhgghfhe_dmeyjghcnhjfZoijhl_dZxsbo\\h^guojZkl\hjZof_`^m
ke_^mxsbfbkh_^bg_gbyfb
Z) BaCl2 + Al2(SO4)3 :
[) Fe(OH)SO4 + BaCl2 :
\) CaCO3 + CH3COOH :
]) Ca(HCO3)2 + HNO3 :
^) KHS + H2SO4 :
_)AgCl + NaI :
`) FeCl3 + Na4[Fe(CN)6] :
a) Fe(NO3)2 + K3[Fe(CN)6] :
180. Hij_^_ebl_fheyjgu_dhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\\ke_^mxsbo\h^guo
jZkl\hjZoFHNO3; 0,1M H2SO4; 0,01M Ba(OH)2; 0,2M AlCl3;
0,2M Al2(SO4)3.
79
181. Kl_i_gv we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb +122 \ F \h^ghf

jZkl\hj_ jZ\gZ JZkkqblZcl_ dhgp_gljZpbb qZklbp G+, NO 2 ,
HNO2\wlhfjZkl\hj_
182. Q_fmjZ\gZi_j\ZydhgklZglZ^bkkhpbZpbbm]hevghcdbkehlu_k
ebkl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbb__ihi_j\hcklmi_gb\jZkl\hj_kh^_j
`Zs_f3fhevedbkehlujZ\gZ
183. Ijb dZdhc fheyjghc dhgp_gljZpbb mdkmkghc dbkehlu __
[m^_l gZoh^blvky \ jZkl\hj_ \ g_ijh^bkkhpbbjh\Zgghf \b^_"
DKH3COOH) = 1,8 105.
184. Hij_^_ebl_dhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\G+\FjZkl\hjZoke_^mxsbo
dbkehl +&O +2SO4, HCOOH, CH3COOH. K(HCOOH) = 1,8 104;
K(CH3COOH) = 1,8 105.
185. DZdbaf_gblkydhgp_gljZpbyG+bkl_i_gv^bkkhpbZpbbmdkmkghc
dbkehlu_keb\eF&+3&22+jZkl\hjblveoehjh\h
^hjh^Zmkeh\byghjfZevgu_Baf_g_gb_fh[t_fZjZkl\hjZij_
g_[j_qv
186. Hij_^_eblv dhgp_gljZpbx bhgh\ G+ b kl_i_gv ^bkkhpbZpbb md
kmkghcdbkehlu\__jZkl\hj_ ]kf3). D(CH3COOH) =
= 1,810 5.
187. Hij_^_ebl_S+ jZkl\hjh\\dhlhjuodhgp_gljZpbbG+\fheve
jZ\guZ[3\11.
188. Hij_^_ebl_ S+ b S2+ jZkl\hjh\ \ dhlhjuo dhgp_gljZpbb HG
\ fhevejZ\guZ[5\,4 1012 .
189. Hij_^_ebl_S+ ke_^mxsbo\h^guojZkl\hjh\ZF+2SO4;
[F%D2+2.
190. Hij_^_ebl_ S+ \h^gh]h jZkl\hjZ k_jghc dbkehlu _keb
w(H2SO4) = iehlghklvjZkl\hjZ ]kf3.
191. Hij_^_ebl_S+ bS2+ \h^gh]hjZkl\hjZkh^_j`Zs_]hfheve
NH3.H2O.
192. Hij_^_ebl_S+ bS2+ \h^gh]hjZkl\hjZmdkmkghcdbkehlu_keb
w(CH3&22+ biehlghklvjZkl\hjZjZ\gZ]kf3.
193. <uqbkebl_ dhgklZglm ^bkkhpbZpbb keZ[hc h^ghhkgh\ghcdbkeh
lu _keb jZkl\hj kh^_j`Zsbc fheve dbkehlu bf__l
pH = 4,15.
194. Hij_^_ebl_ SH b pOH jZkl\hjZ kh^_j`Zs_]h fheve \blZ
fbgZ C Zkdhj[bgh\hc dbkehlu DhgklZglZ ^bkkhpbZpbb Zkdhj
[bgh\hc dbkehlu keZ[Zy h^ghhkgh\gZy hj]Zgbq_kdZy dbkehlZ
jZ\gZ.105.
80
195. JZkkqblZcl_k(H+\`_em^hqghfkhd_b\djh\bq_eh\_dZ_kebS+

`_em^hqgh]h khdZ b djh\b a^hjh\h]h q_eh\_dZ jZ\gu khhl\_lkl
\_gghb
196. DZdbaf_gblkyS+ F&+3&22+_kebjZkl\hjblv]Zp_lZ
lZgZljby\ewlh]hjZkl\hjZ"
197. GZ hkgh\Zgbb lZ[ebqguo ^Zgguo ih \_ebqbgZf ijhba\_^_gbc
jZkl\hjbfhklb$J&O$J%U$J,b$J26jZkkqblZcl_jZkl\hjbfh
klbwlbokhe_c\fheveb\]e
198. Kdhevdh]bhgh\$J+kh^_j`blky\fegZkus_ggh]hjZkl\hjZ
Ag2SO4"IJ$J2SO4 ) = 1,6 105.
199. <h kdhevdh jZa mf_gvrblky dhgp_gljZpby 3E2+ \ gZkus_gghf
jZkl\hj_ 3E&O2 _keb \ fe lZdh]h jZkl\hjZ ^hihegbl_evgh
jZkl\hjblvfhev1D&O"
200. <uiZ^Z_lebhkZ^hd_kebkf_rZlvfejZkl\hjZ$J123kdhg
p_gljZpb_ck(AgNO3) = 2,5 103fhevebfejZkl\hjZ&D&l2 c
dhgp_gljZpb_ck(CaCl2 fheve"
201. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby ]b^jhebaZ \ fhe_dmeyjghc b bhgghfhe_dmeyjghcnhjfZoihdZ`^hcklmi_gbêyke_^mxsbokhe_c
AlI3, K3PO4, ZnSO4, Al2(SO4)3, NH4CN, NH4HCO3, Al2Se3.
202. Ijb]hlh\e_gu F jZkl\hju ke_^mxsbo \_s_kl\ .&O2 1+4I,
1D&1JZkkqblZcl_kl_i_gb]b^jhebaZkhe_cbjGjZkl\hjh\
203. KjZ\gbl_]b^jhebam_fhklvkhe_c
Z) FeCl2 FeCl3;
[)Na2CO3 Na2SiO3;
\)NaHCO3 Na2CO3;
]) Be(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2;
^) Na2CO3 (NH4)2CO3;
_) Na2S Na2Se.
204. DZdh\Z kj_^Z dbkeZy s_ehqgZy g_cljZevgZy \h^gh]h jZkl\hjZ
dZ`^hc ba ke_^mxsbo khe_c NaHCO3, KHSO3, Cs2SO4, K2HPO4,
RbH2PO4GKHHNH4, Ba(OH)Cl"Hl\_lh[hkgh\Zlv
205. Ijb\_^bl_ fhe_dmeyjgu_ b bhggh-fhe_dmeyjgu_ mjZ\g_gby j_
Zdpbc ijhl_dZxsbo \ \h^guo jZkl\hjZo f_`^m dZj[hgZlhf gZ
ljbybZoehjb^hf`_e_aZIII[kmevnZlhfZexfbgby\gbl
jZlhfojhfZIIIoehjb^hff_^bIIDZdb_[m^mlh[jZah\u\Zlv
ky ijh^mdlu j_Zdpbb _keb dZj[hgZl gZljby aZf_gblv gZ ]b^jh
dZj[hgZlgZljby
81
=E:<:9,,
KLJH?GB?:LHF:
BI?JBH>BQ?KDBCA:DHG>BF?G>?E??<:
1. MdZ`bl_hkgh\gu_oZjZdl_jbklbdbfZkkmaZjy^bhlghkbl_evgu_
jZaf_juwe_f_glZjguoqZklbp\oh^ysbo\khklZ\ZlhfZ
2. >Zcl_ hij_^_e_gb_ ihgylbc fZkkh\h_ qbkeh Zlhfguc ghf_j
bahlhiubah[Zjubahlhgugmdebû.
3. QlhlZdh_jZ^bhZdlb\ghklv"DZdh\u__ijbqbgu"Ijb\_^bl_ijb
f_juhkgh\guolbih\jZ^bhZdlb\guoij_\jZs_gbc
4. H[tykgbl_ ijbqbgu dhjimkdmeyjgh-\hegh\hc ^\hckl\_gghklb
fbdjhh[t_dlh\
5. Qlh lZdh_ we_dljhggh_ h[eZdh \hegh\Zy nmgdpby we_dljhggZy
iehlghklvZlhfgZyhj[blZev"<q_fjZaebqb_ihgylbchj[blZevb
hj[blZ?
6. DZdhckfukebf_xld\Zglh\u_qbkeZoZjZdl_jbamxsb_khklhygb_
we_dljhgZ \ Zlhf_" DZdb_ qbke_ggu_ agZq_gby hgb fh]ml ijbgb
fZlv"
7. >Zcl_ lhedh\Zgb_ ihgylbc we_dljhggZy h[hehqdZ wg_j]_lbq_
kdbcmjh\_gvwe_dljhgguckehcih^mjh\_gvZlhfgZyhj[blZev
8. QlhlZdh_wnn_dlb\gucaZjy^y^jZ"
9. Ihykgbl_hkgh\gu_ijbgpbiujZkij_^_e_gbywe_dljhgh\ihhj[b
lZeyf\Zlhf_
10. >Zcl_ nhjfmebjh\dm ijZ\beZ De_qdh\kdh]h DZd hgh hij_^_ey_l
ihjy^hd aZiheg_gby Zlhfguo hj[blZe_c :H" DZdb_ :H bf_xl
h^bgZdh\u_agZq_gb_kmffunOjZ\gh_beb"
11. GZibrbl_ nhjfmeu we_dljhgguo dhgnb]mjZpbc Zlhfh\ i_j\uo
q_luj_oi_jbh^h\, La, Ru, W, Hg, Po, U, Bk, Md&Gwe_f_glh\k
Zlhfgufb ghf_jZfb Bah[jZabl_ ]jZnbq_kdb kljmdlmjm
bo^\moihke_^gbowg_j]_lbq_kdbomjh\g_c
12. DZdb_jZaebqby\ihgylbyogmdebûbbahlhiu?
13. Q_fhlebqZ_lkyjZ^bhgmdeb^hlklZ[bevgh]hgmdeb^Zlh]h`_we_
f_glZ"
14. Qlhy\ey_lky]eZ\ghcoZjZdl_jbklbdhcZlhfZ"
15. >Zcl_kh\j_f_ggmxoZjZdl_jbklbdmi_jbh^bq_kdh]haZdhgZbih
ykgbl__]hnbabq_kdbckfuke
16. DZdh\uhkgh\gu_lbiubah[jZ`_gbyi_jbh^bq_kdhckbkl_fuwe_
f_glh\"MdZ`bl_bokoh^kl\ZbjZaebqby
17. DZdh\nbabq_kdbckfukeghf_jZi_jbh^Zghf_jZ]jmiiu"
82
18. Qlh lZdh_ s-, p-, d-, f-we_f_glu" DZdh\h bo jZkiheh`_gb_ ih i_
jbh^Zfb]jmiiZf"DZdh\ufZdkbfZevgu__fdhklbi_jbh^h\"
19. <q_fijhy\ey_lkykoh^kl\hbjZaebqb_we_f_glh\]eZ\guobih
[hqguoih^]jmii"Ihykgbl_ihgylb_we_f_glu-ZgZeh]b.
20. DZdh\unZdlhjuhij_^_eyxsb_oZjZdl_jbaf_g_gbyobfbq_kdbo
k\hckl\we_f_glh\ihi_jbh^Zfb]jmiiZf"
21. >Zlv lhedh\Zgb_ ihgylbc wnn_dlb\guc dh\Ze_glguc bhgguc
\Zg-^_j-<ZZevkh\kdbc f_lZeebq_kdbc hj[blZevguc jZ^bmku <
q_fbokoh^kl\hbjZaebqb_"
22. DZdb_ jZ^bmku hl\_qZxl ih kfukem ihgylbx Zlhfguc jZ^bmk?
Ihykgbl_ dZd \ebyxl gZ \_ebqbgm Zlhfgh]h jZ^bmkZ ke_^mxsb_
nZdlhjuwnn_dlb\gucaZjy^y^jZdhgnb]mjZpby\g_rg_]hwe_d
ljhggh]hkehyqbkehwe_dljhgguokeh_\lbiobfbq_kdhck\yabb
__djZlghklv
23. Qlh lZdh_ ihl_gpbZe bhgbaZpbb b wg_j]by bhgbaZpbb" Hl dZdbo
nZdlhjh\aZ\bkbl_]h\_ebqbgZ"
24. IjhZgZebabjmcl_baf_g_gb_i_j\h]hbhgbaZpbhggh]hihl_gpbZeZ
mwe_f_glh\\lhjh]hi_jbh^Z
25. >Zcl_hij_^_e_gb_ihgylbykjh^kl\hdwe_dljhgm.
26. DZdb_ nZdlhju hij_^_eyxl \_ebqbgm kjh^kl\Z d we_dljhgm" DZd
fh`gh h[tykgblv jZaebqgu_ agZdb wlhc oZjZdl_jbklbdb êy jZa
ebqguowe_f_glh\"
27. Fh]ml eb kms_kl\h\Zlv \ k\h[h^ghf khklhygbb Zgbhgu 22 62
N3"Ihq_fm"
28. Qlh lZdh_ we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklv" DZdmx kihkh[ghklv ZlhfZ
hgZoZjZdl_jbam_l"
29. DZdh\u ijbgpbiu ihkljh_gby rdZeu we_dljhhljbpZl_evghkl_c
we_f_glh\" DZd baf_gy_lky wlZ oZjZdl_jbklbdZ ih i_jbh^Zf b
]jmiiZfi_jbh^bq_kdhckbkl_fu"
=E:<:VIII
OBFBQ?KD:YK<YAV
BF?@FHE?DMEYJGH?<A:BFH>?CKL<B?
1. Qlh lZdh_ obfbq_kdZy k\yav" MdZ`bl_ mkeh\by __ h[jZah\Zgby b
hkgh\gu_iZjZf_lju
2. DZdh\Zijbjh^Zobfbq_kdhck\yab"
3. DZdh\u hkgh\gu_ lbiu obfbq_kdhc k\yab" MdZ`bl_ koh^kl\h b
jZaebqbyf_`^mgbfb
83
4. >Zcl_hij_^_e_gb_dh\Ze_glghck\yabDZdh\Zko_fZ__h[jZah\Z
gbygZijbf_j_fhe_dme+2, Cl2b+&O"
5. GZah\bl_bijhbeexkljbjmcl_dhgdj_lgufbijbf_jZfbhkgh\gu_
kihkh[uh[jZah\Zgbydh\Ze_glghck\yab
6. Knhjfmebjmcl_hkgh\gu_iheh`_gbyf_lh^Z\Ze_glguok\ya_c
7. I_j_qbkebl_hkgh\gu_k\hckl\Zdh\Ze_glghck\yab
8. H[tykgbl_f_oZgbafh[jZah\Zgby-, -b-k\ya_c
9. QlhlZdh_djZlghklvk\yab"DZdh\h__\ebygb_gZêbgmbijhq
ghklvk\yabf_`^mZlhfZfb"
10. QlhlZdh_\Ze_glghklv"Q_fhij_^_ey_lkydhebq_kl\_ggZyoZjZd
l_jbklbdZ\Ze_glghklb"
11. DZdh\umkeh\byh[jZah\Zgbyiheyjghcbg_iheyjghcdh\Ze_glghc
k\yab"Ihykgbl_ihgylb_wnn_dlb\gucaZjy^ZlhfZgZdhgdj_l
guoijbf_jZo
12. QlhlZdh_we_dljbq_kdbc^bihev"<dZdhfkhhlghr_gbbgZoh^ylky
êbgZ^biheybêbgZk\yab\^\moZlhfghcfhe_dme_"
13. Qlhy\ey_lkyf_jhciheyjghklbk\yab"
14. IjhZgZebabjmcl_\kjZ\gbl_evghfieZg_iheyjghklvfhe_dme&22
b622, NH3b1)3, H22b+2S.
15. QlhlZdh_kl_j_hobfby"
16. Q_fhij_^_ey_lky]_hf_ljbykljmdlmjfhe_dmekdh\Ze_glguflb
ihfk\ya_c"
17. >Zcl_h[tykg_gb_dhgp_ipbb]b[jb^baZpby.
18. Ihykgbl_hkgh\gu_mkeh\bymklhcqb\hc]b[jb^baZpbb
19. DZdh\ulbiu]b[jb^baZpbbb]_hf_ljbq_kdb_kljmdlmjudhlhju_
bfkhhl\_lkl\mxl"
20. Qlh lZdh_ k\yau\Zxsb_ b g_k\yau\Zxsb_ hj[blZeb" DZdh\h bo
\ebygb_gZ]_hf_ljbxdh\Ze_glguokljmdlmj"
21. DZd \eby_l ijbjh^Z eb]Zg^Z b djZlghklv k\yab gZ]_hf_ljbxh^
ghlbiguokljmdlmj"
22. QlhlZdh_dhhj^bgZpbhggh_ qbkehDZdh\Z_]hdhebq_kl\_ggZybg
l_jij_lZpby"
23. Ijb\_^bl_ijbf_jukljmdlmjkfgh]hp_gljh\ufbk\yayfb
24. Q_fm jZ\gZ \Ze_glghklv b kl_i_gv hdbke_gby ZahlZ b m]e_jh^Z \
fhe_dmeZo 12, NH3, N2H4, NH2OH, NF3, CH4, CCl4, C2H6, C2H4,
C2H2, CO2, CO?
25. IjhZgZebabjmcl_ke_^mxsb_fhe_dmeyjgu_kljmdlmjumklZgh\b
l_oZjZdl_jjZkij_^_e_gby\Ze_glguowe_dljhgh\lbi]b[jb^baZ
pbbp_gljZevguoZlhfh\m]euk\ya_ciheyjghklv\Ze_glghklvb
84
kl_i_gvhdbke_gbyhl^_evguoZlhfh\&2&22, N2O, NO2, N2O5,

HNO3, H2SO4, BF, BF3, NH3, NF3, CO 32 , ClO 3 , ClO 4 , HN3, SO2,
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
SO 32 , NO 3 , NH +4 , BF 4 .
>Zcl_ hij_^_e_gb_ bhgghc k\yab DZdh\Z __ ijbjh^Z b f_oZgbaf
h[jZah\Zgby"
QlhlZdh_^heybhgghklbk\yab?
I_j_qbkebl_bh[tykgbl_hkgh\gu_oZjZdl_jbklbdbbhgghck\yab
MdZ`bl_\q_f__koh^kl\hbjZaebqb_\kjZ\g_gbbkdh\Ze_glghc
k\yavx"
Q_fhij_^_ey_lky\_ebqbgZdhhj^bgZpbhggh]hqbkeZ\bhgguokh
_^bg_gbyo"
DZdZyk\yav\dZ`^hfbakh_^bg_gbc+&O21D+624, KOH, H2CO3
bf__lgZb[he__bhggucoZjZdl_j"
>Zcl_hij_^_e_gb_f_lZeebq_kdhck\yabDZdh\Z__ijbjh^Zbf_
oZgbafh[jZah\Zgby"
< q_f aZdexqZxlky hkh[_gghklb lj_o lbih\ f_`fhe_dmeyjgh]h
\aZbfh^_ckl\by.
JZkkfhljbl_f_oZgbafh[jZah\Zgby\h^hjh^ghck\yab__hlebqb_
hlobfbq_kdhck\yabbkbef_`fhe_dmeyjgh]h\aZbfh^_ckl\by
DZd \eby_l gZebqb_ \h^hjh^ghc k\yab gZ nbabq_kdb_ b obfbq_
kdb_ k\hckl\Z \_s_kl\" Ihykgbl_ gZ ijbf_j_ baf_g_gby k\hckl\
\_s_kl\\jy^Zo+) HJ; H2O H2Te; NH3 SbH3; CH4 SnH4.
Ihykgbl_ jhev \h^hjh^ghc k\yab \ [bheh]bq_kdbo h[t_dlZo gZ
ijbf_j_\hû[_edh\ihebi_ilb^h\>GDJGD
=E:<:,;
HDBKEBL?EVGH-<HKKL:GH<BL?EVGU?J?:DPBB
Dhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgufhlghkylkyj_Zdpbbijhl_
dZxsb_kbaf_g_gb_fkl_i_g_chdbke_gbyZlhfh\\oh^ysbo\khklZ\
j_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\
Kl_i_gvhdbke_gby mkeh\gucaZjy^ZlhfZjZkkqblZggucbk
oh^yba^hims_gbyqlh\_s_kl\hkhklhblbabhgh\
IhkdhevdmlZdh_^hims_gb_y\ey_lkymkeh\gufihgylb_kl_i_gv
hdbke_gbyghkbllZd`_mkeh\gucoZjZdl_jby\ey_lky\_ebqbghcnhj
fZevghc g_ hljZ`Zxs_c j_Zevgh]h jZkij_^_e_gby aZjy^h\ f_`^m
ZlhfZfb H^gZdh wlh ihgylb_ rbjhdh bkihevam_lky ijb khklZ\e_gbb
mjZ\g_gbcH<J
85
&l_i_gbhdbke_gbywe_f_glh\ijbgbfZxlagZq_gbyhl^h\
khhl\_lkl\bbkijZ\beZfb
Kl_i_gv hdbke_gby we_f_glh\ \ ijhkluo \_s_kl\Zo jZ\gZ
gZijbf_j2 02 D0, S 80 .
<h^hjh^\[hevrbgkl\_k\hbokh_^bg_gbcgZoh^blky\kl_i_gb
hdbke_gby jZ\ghc H^gZdh \ kh_^bg_gbyo kh s_ehqgufb b s_
ehqgha_f_evgufbf_lZeeZfbhgijhy\ey_lkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyjZ\gmx
gZijbf_j1D+-1<ZG 21 .
Dbkehjh^\ih^Z\eyxs_f[hevrbgkl\_kh_^bg_gbcgZoh^blky
\kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyjZ\ghcgZijbf_jKZH-2, HNO 32 <i_jhdkb
^Zo hg ijhy\ey_l kl_i_gv hdbke_gby jZ\gmx gZijbf_j G2H 21 ,
<ZH 21 Iheh`bl_evgu_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbydbkehjhîjhy\ey_lebrv
\kh_^bg_gbyoknlhjhfgZijbf_jH+2F2.
Nlhj \ kh_^bg_gbyo \k_]^Z ijhy\ey_l lhevdh h^gm kl_i_gv
hdbke_gbyjZ\gmx1.
We_f_glu]jmiiu,-$s_ehqgu_f_lZeeu\kh_^bg_gbyo\k_
]^Zijhy\eyxlkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyjZ\gmx
We_f_glu]jmiiu,,-$%H0Js_ehqgha_f_evgu_f_lZeeuZ
lZd`_ =Q b &G \ kh_^bg_gbyo ijhy\eyxl \k_]^Z kl_i_gv hdbke_gby
jZ\gmx
:exfbgbc\kh_^bg_gbyoijhy\ey_lkl_i_gvhdbke_gby
Kl_i_gb hdbke_gby ^jm]bo we_f_glh\ fh]ml bf_lv i_j_f_ggu_
agZq_gbybjZkkqblu\Zxlkybkoh^ybalh]hqlhkmffZkl_i_g_chdbk
e_gbywe_f_glh\\fhe_dme_bebnhjfmevghc_^bgbp_jZ\gZZ\bh
g__]haZjy^m
Ijbf_j JZkkqblZlv kl_i_gv hdbke_gby nhknhjZ \ hjlhnhknZl_
dZevpbyKZ3JH4)2.
P_r_gb_
H[hagZqbfbkdhfmxkl_i_gvhdbke_gbynhknhjZq_j_aoMqblu
\ZyqbkehZlhfh\dZ`^h]hwe_f_glZ\nhjfmevghc_^bgbp_bagZq_gby
kl_i_g_cbohdbke_gbykhklZ\bfmjZ\g_gb_
3 (+2) + 2 o + 8 ( hldm^Zo= +5.
<oh^_ex[hcH<Jh^gh\j_f_gghijhl_dZxlijhp_kkZhdbk
e_gb_b\hkklZgh\e_gb_Klhqdbaj_gbywe_dljhgghcl_hjbbhdbke_
gb_ijhp_kkhl^Zqbwe_dljhgh\\oh^_dhlhjh]hkl_i_gvhdbke_gby
ZlhfZih\urZ_lkyZ\hkklZgh\e_gb_ijhp_kkijbkh_^bg_gbywe_d
ljhgh\\oh^_dhlhjh]hkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyZlhfZihgb`Z_lky
86
QZklbpudhlhju_\oh^_j_Zdpbbhl^Zxlwe_dljhgugZau\Zxl
ky\hkklZgh\bl_eyfbQZklbpudhlhju_\oh^_j_Zdpbbijbkh_^bgy
xlwe_dljhgugZau\Zxlkyhdbkebl_eyfb.
LZdbf h[jZahf \ oh^_ H<J \hkklZgh\bl_ev hl^Z\Zy we_dljh
gu hdbkey_lky Z hdbkebl_ev ijbgbfZy we_dljhgu \hkklZgZ\eb\Z
_lkyIjbwlhfqbkehwe_dljhgh\hl^Zgguo\hkklZgh\bl_e_f\k_]^Z
jZ\ghqbkemwe_dljhgh\ijbgyluohdbkebl_e_f
Hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Z\_s_kl\fh`ghhij_
^_eblvbkoh^ybaagZq_gbckl_i_g_chdbke_gbywe_f_glh\\oh^ysbo
\bokhklZ\
?keb\khklZ\\_s_kl\Z\oh^ylZlhfuwe_f_glZ\fbgbfZevghc
kl_i_gbhdbke_gbylhhghfh`_lijhy\eylvlhevdh\hkklZgh\bl_ev
gu_k\hckl\Z
?keb\khklZ\\_s_kl\Z\oh^ylZlhfuwe_f_glZ\fZdkbfZevghc
kl_i_gb hdbke_gby lh hgh fh`_l ijhy\eylv lhevdh hdbkebl_evgu_
k\hckl\Z
?keb\khklZ\\_s_kl\Z\oh^ylZlhfuwe_f_glZ\ijhf_`mlhq
ghckl_i_gbhdbke_gbylhhghfh`_lijhy\eylvdZd\hkklZgh\bl_ev
gu_lZdbhdbkebl_evgu_k\hckl\Z
<Z`g_crb_\hkklZgh\bl_eb
Z ijhklu_ \_s_kl\Z \k_ f_lZeeu b g_dhlhju_ g_f_lZeeu gZ
ijbf_jG2K6L34b^j
[ \h^hjh^gu_ kh_^bg_gby s_ehqguo b s_ehqgha_f_evguo f_
lZeeh\ Z lZd`_ \h^hjh^gu_ kh_^bg_gby g_dhlhjuo g_f_lZeeh\ gZ
ijbf_j +, +%U +2O2, H2S, H2Se, H2Te, NH3, PH3, AsH3, SbH3, SiH4,
SnH4;
\hdkbûwe_f_glh\ZlhfudhlhjuogZoh^ylky\ijhf_`mlhqghc
kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyWlhhdkbûjy^Zg_f_lZeeh\KH622, NO, P2O3,
ZlZd`_gbarb_hdkbûg_dhlhjuoj-bd-we_f_glh\6Q2)H2KU2
92bkhhl\_lkl\mxsb_bfkhebgZijbf_j6Q&O2, FeSO4b^j
] g_dhlhju_ dbkehjh^kh^_j`Zsb_ dbkehlu b bo kheb \ khklZ\
dhlhjuo\oh^ylZlhfuwe_f_glh\\ijhf_`mlhqguokl_i_gyohdbke_
gbygZijbf_j+2SO3, H3PO2, H3PO3bbokhebZlZd`_lbhkmevnZlu
(Na2S2O3^bkmevnblu1D2S2O5^blbhgblu1D2S2O4gbljblu
^ g_dhlhju_ hj]Zgbq_kdb_ \_s_kl\Z gZijbf_j kibjlu Zev^_
]bû g_dhlhju_ dZj[hgh\u_dbkehlu+COOH, HOOC&22+m]
e_\hûK6H12O6).
87
<Z`g_crb_hdbkebl_eb
Zijhklu_\_s_kl\Z]Zeh]_guhahgdbkehjh^k_jZ
[hdkbûg_dhlhjuoj-bd-we_f_glh\\\ukhdbokl_i_gyohdbk
e_gbygZijbf_j&O2O7, ClO2, I2O5, SO3, SeO3, SeO2, N2O5, NO2, PbO2,
Mn2O7, MnO2, CrO3, V2O5;
\ Dbkehjh^kh^_j`Zsb_ dbkehlu g_dhlhjuo j- b d-we_f_glh\ \
\ukhdbo kl_i_gyo hdbke_gby gZijbf_j +&O23, H5IO6, HIO3, HBrO4,
HBrO3, H2SO4, H2SeO4, H2SeO3, HNO3, H2CrO4, H2Cr2O7, HMnO4bkheb
wlbo dbkehl D hdbkebl_eyf hlghkylky lZd`_ dbkehjh^kh^_j`Zsb_
dbkehlu]Zeh]_gh\\dhlhjuohgbijhy\eyxlb[he__gbadb_kl_i_gb
hdbke_gbygZijbf_j+&O+1O, HCl+3O2ZlZd`_bokheb
] i_jhdkb^ \h^hjh^Z G2H2 i_jhdkbû s_ehqguo b s_ehqgha_
f_evguof_lZeeh\Na2O2, BaO2).
DeZkkbnbdZpbyhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguoj_Zdpbc
DeZkkbnbdZpbyihkh^_j`Zgbx\hkklZgh\bl_eybhdbkebl_ey\
h^ghfbeb\g_kdhevdbobkoh^guo\_s_kl\Zo
Z_keb\hkklZgh\bl_evbhdbkebl_evkh^_j`Zlky\h^ghfbkoh^
ghf \_s_kl\_ lh H<J hlghkblky d j_Zdpbyf \gmljbfhe_dmeyjgh]h
hdbke_gby-\hkklZgh\e_gbygZijbf_j
(N3H4)2Cr2+6O7 :12+0 + Cr+32O3 + H2O.
< ^Zgghc j_Zdpbb hdbkebl_ev Cr+6 b \hkklZgh\bl_ev N3 kh
^_j`Zlky\h^ghf\_s_kl\_
[_keb\hkklZgh\bl_evbhdbkebl_evkh^_j`Zlky\jZaguobkoh^
guo \_s_kl\Zo lh H<J hlghkblky d j_Zdpbyf f_`fhe_dmeyjgh]h
hdbke_gby-\hkklZgh\e_gbygZijbf_j
N3H3 + KCl+5O3 :120 + KCl + H2O.
< wlhc j_Zdpbb hdbkebl_ev Cl+5 b \hkklZgh\bl_ev N3 gZoh^ylky\jZaguo\_s_kl\Zo
DeZkkbnbdZpby ih oZjZdl_jm baf_g_gby kl_i_gb hdbke_gby
Zlhfh\h^gh]hwe_f_glZ
Z_keb\bkoh^ghf\_s_kl\_Zlhfuwe_f_glZgZoh^ylky\h^ghc
kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyZ\ijh^mdlZoj_Zdpbb\^\mo^jm]bo[he__\u
khdhcb[he__gbadhcihhlghr_gbxdbkoh^ghckl_i_gbhdbke_gby
lh khhl\_lkl\mxsb_ H<J hlghkylky d j_Zdpbyf ^bkijhihjpbhgbjh
\Zgby beb^bkfmlZpbbgZijbf_j
N+4O2 + H2O :+1+5O3 + HN+3O2;
88
[_keb\bkoh^guo\_s_kl\Zoh^bgblhl`_we_f_glgZoh^blky\
^\mojZaguokl_i_gyohdbke_gbyZ\ijh^mdl_j_Zdpbblhevdh\h^
ghcijhf_`mlhqghcihhlghr_gbxdbkoh^gufkl_i_gyfhdbke_gby
lh khhl\_lkl\mxsb_ H<J hlghkylky d j_Zdpbyf dhfijhihjpbhgbjh
\ZgbybebdhgfmlZpbbgZijbf_j
H2S2 + H2S+6O dhgp :6+4O2 + H2O
JZkklZgh\dZdhwnnbpb_glh\\mjZ\g_gbyoH<J
f_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ
H[jZlbl_\gbfZgb_gZlhqlh\kemqZ_j_Zdpbcf_`fhe_dmeyjgh
]hhdbke_gby-\hkklZgh\e_gbyjZkklZgh\dZdhwnnbpb_glh\ijh\h^blky
ke_\Z gZijZ\h ijbf_j Z \ kemqZ_ j_Zdpbc \gmljbfhe_dmeyjgh]h
hdbke_gby-\hkklZgh\e_gbykijZ\ZgZe_\hijbf_j
Ijbf_jF_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb
_glu\mjZ\g_gbbj_Zdpbbijhl_dZxs_cihko_f_
H2O-12 + K2Cr+62O7 + H2SO4 :202 + Cr+32(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + H2O
J_r_gb_
1. >ZggZyH<Jhlghkblkydj_Zdpbyff_`fhe_dmeyjgh]hhdbke_
gby-\hkklZgh\e_gby ihwlhfm jZkklZgh\dm dhwnnbpb_glh\ ijh\h^bf
ke_\ZgZijZ\h
2. Hij_^_ey_fwe_f_gluZlhfudhlhjuo\oh^_j_Zdpbbbaf_gb
ebkl_i_gvhdbke_gby<^ZgghfkemqZ_wlhdbkehjh^bojhfDbkeh
jh^baf_gbekl_i_gvhdbke_gbyhl^hZojhfhl^h
3. AZibku\Z_f we_dljhggu_ mjZ\g_gby ijhp_kkh\ hdbke_gby b
\hkklZgh\e_gby<wlbomjZ\g_gbyoqbkehZlhfh\dZ`^h]hwe_f_glZ
jZ\ghboqbkem\nhjfmeZokhhl\_lkl\mxsbobkoh^guo\_s_kl\GZ
oh^bfgZbf_gvr__h[s__djZlgh_qbkeZhl^ZgguobqbkeZijbgyluo
we_dljhgh\bkhklZ\ey_fko_fmwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ
2O1 :220
6 3 O1 \hkklZgh\bl_evhdbkey_lky
2Cr+6:&U+3 2 1 KU+6 hdbkebl_ev\hkklZgZ\eb\Z_lky
4. GZoh^bfqbkehZlhfh\dbkehjh^ZbojhfZmfgh`b\dZ`^h_ba
mjZ\g_gbcgZkhhl\_lkl\mxsbcfgh`bl_evi_j\h_mjZ\g_gb_gZ
\lhjh_ gZ IhemqZ_f qbkeh Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z baf_gb\rbo kl_
i_gvhdbke_gbydhlhjh_jZ\gh ZqbkehZlhfh\ojhfZjZ\gh
2 1=2.
5. JZkklZgh\dmdhwnnbpb_glh\ijh\h^bf\ke_^mxs_fihjy^d_
Z mjZ\gb\Z_fqbkeZZlhfh\ojhfZihklZ\b\i_j_^nhjfmeZfb
K2Cr2O7bCr2(SO4)3dhwnnbpb_gl
89
[ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z baf_gb\rbo kl_i_gv

hdbke_gbyihklZ\b\i_j_^nhjfmeZfbO2bH2O2dhwnnbpb
_glu
\ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ dZeby ihklZ\b\ i_j_^ nhjfmehc
K2SO4dhwnnbpb_gl
] mjZ\gb\Z_fqbkeZdbkehlguohklZldh\62 24 ihklZ\b\i_j_^
nhjfmehck_jghcdbkehludhwnnbpb_gl
^ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ \h^hjh^Z ihklZ\b\ i_j_^ nhjfm
ehc\hûdhwnnbpb_gl
_ ijh\_jy_fh^bgZdh\uebqbkeZZlhfh\dbkehjh^Z\e_\hcb
ijZ\hcqZklyomjZ\g_gby
3H2O2 + K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 = 3O2 + Cr2(SO4)3 + K2SO4 + 7H2O
Ijbf_jF_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb
_glu\mjZ\g_gbbj_Zdpbb
Fe+3(N+5O 32 )3 :)H +23 O3 + N+4O2 + O02
J_r_gb_
>ZggZyH<Jhlghkblkydj_Zdpbyf\gmljbfhe_dmeyjgh]hhdbk
e_gby-\hkklZgh\e_gby ihwlhfm jZkklZgh\dm dhwnnbpb_glh\ ijh\h
^bfkijZ\ZgZe_\h
Hij_^_ey_fwe_f_gluZlhfudhlhjuobaf_gbebkl_i_gvhdbk
e_gby < ^Zgghf kemqZ_ wlh Zahl b dbkehjh^ :ahl baf_gbe kl_i_gv
hdbke_gbyhl^hdbkehjh^hl^h
AZibku\Z_f we_dljhggu_ mjZ\g_gby ijhp_kkh\ hdbke_gby b
\hkklZgh\e_gby<wlbomjZ\g_gbyoqbkehZlhfh\dZ`^h]hwe_f_glZ
jZ\ghboqbkem\nhjfmeZoijh^mdlh\j_ZdpbbGZoh^bfgZbf_gvr__
h[s__ djZlgh_qbkeZhl^Zgguobijbgyluowe_dljhgh\bkhklZ\ey_f
ko_fmwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ
1
3
H-2 :H 02
N+5 :1+4
4
12
GZoh^bfqbkehZlhfh\ZahlZbdbkehjh^Zmfgh`b\dZ`^h_ba
we_dljhgguo mjZ\g_gbc gZ khhl\_lkl\mxsbc fgh`bl_ev i_j\h_
mjZ\g_gb_mfgh`Z_fgZ\lhjh_gZIhemqZ_fqlhqbkehZlhfh\
dbkehjh^Zbaf_gb\rbokl_i_gvhdbke_gbyjZ\gh Zkhhl\_l
kl\mxs__ qbkeh Zlhfh\ ZahlZ jZ\gh Gh ihkdhevdm \ nhj
fmevghc _^bgbp_ Fe(NO3)3 kh^_j`blky ZlhfZ ZahlZ i_j_^ ^Zgghc
nhjfmehc ijb^_lky ihklZ\blv ^jh[guc dhwnnbpb_gl qlh g_ kh
\k_f m^h[gh Ihwlhfm êy ba[Z\e_gby hl ^jh[gh]h dhwnnbpb_glZ
90
gZc^_ggu_qbkeZZlhfh\ZahlZbdbkehjh^Zmfgh`bfgZIhemqZ_l
ky qlh kl_i_gv hdbke_gby baf_gbeZkv m Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z b m
Zlhfh\ZahlZ
5. JZkklZgh\dm dhwnnbpb_glh\ ijh\h^bf \ ke_^mxs_c ihke_^h\Z
l_evghklb
Z mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ ZahlZ ihklZ\b\ i_j_^ nhjfmehc
Fe(NO3)3 dhwnnbpb_glZi_j_^nhjfmehcNO2 dhwnnb
pb_gl
[ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ `_e_aZ ihklZ\b\ i_j_^ nhjfmehc
Fe2O3dhwnnbpb_gl
\ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeh Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z ihklZ\b\ i_j_^ nhjfm
ehcO2dhwnnbpb_gl
6. Ijh\_jy_fh^bgZdh\hebh[s__qbkehZlhfh\dbkehjh^Z\e_\hc
bijZ\hcqZklyomjZ\g_gby
4Fe+3(N+5O 32 )3 :)H +23 O3 + 12N+4O2 + 3O 02 .
We_dljh^gu_bhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_
ihl_gpbZeubbobkihevah\Zgb_
Dhebq_kl\_gghc oZjZdl_jbklbdhc hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguok\hckl\\_s_kl\\\h^guojZkl\hjZoy\eyxlkyagZq_gbywe_d
ljh^guo beb hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguo ihl_gpbZeh\ khhl\_l
kl\mxsboihemj_ZdpbcWe_dljh^gucihl_gpbZeij_^klZ\ey_lkh
[hc jZaghklv ihl_gpbZeh\ \hagbdZxsmx gZ ]jZgbp_ jZa^_eZ we_d
ljh^ jZkl\hj we_dljheblZ :[khexlgu_ agZq_gby ihl_gpbZeh\
wdki_jbf_glZevgh hij_^_eblv g_\hafh`gh ihwlhfm gZ ijZdlbd_ bk
ihevamxlkybohlghkbl_evgu_agZq_gbybaf_j_ggu_ihhlghr_gbxd
klZg^Zjlghfm \h^hjh^ghfm we_dljh^m ihl_gpbZe dhlhjh]h mkeh\gh
ijbjZ\gb\Z_lkydIhl_gpbZeubaf_j_ggu_\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\b
yo dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\ jZ\gu fheve ^Z\e_gb_ \h^hjh^Z jZ\gh
dIZl_fi_jZlmjZ 25 hKgZau\ZxlkyklZg^Zjlgufbwe_dljh^gufb beb klZg^Zjlgufb hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgufb
ihl_gpbZeZfb b h[hagZqZxlky kbf\hehf ?h Bo agZq_gby bkihevam
xlkyêyoZjZdl_jbklbdbj_Zdpbcijhl_dZxsbo\klZg^Zjlguomkeh
\byo?keb`_j_Zdpbyijhl_dZ_l\^jm]bomkeh\byolhêy__hibkZ
gby bkihevamxlky jZ\gh\_kgu_ ihl_gpbZeu ? dhlhju_ jZkkqblu\Z
xlkyihmjZ\g_gbxG_jgklZ
2,303 R T c(\hkkl)
.
E = E0
lg
nF
k(hdbke)
91
<wlhfmjZ\g_gbb
2,303 dhwnnbpb_gli_j_oh^ZhlgZlmjZevguoeh]Zjbnfh\d^_
kylbqguf
R mgb\_jkZevgZy]Zah\ZyihklhyggZy
T Z[khexlgZyl_fi_jZlmjZ
n qbkehwe_dljhgh\ijbgbfZxsbomqZklb_\ihemj_Zdpbb
F ihklhyggZyNZjZ^_yjZ\gZyijbf_jghDefhev
k\hkkl dhgp_gljZpby\hkklZgh\e_gghcnhjfuwe_f_glZ\dh
lhjhchggZoh^blky\[he__gbadhckl_i_gbhdbke_gby
khdbkedhgp_gljZpbyhdbke_gghcnhjfuwe_f_glZ\dhlhjhc
hggZoh^blky\[he__\ukhdhckl_i_gbhdbke_gby
?keb \ mjZ\g_gb_ G_jgklZ ih^klZ\blv qbkeh\u_ agZq_gby
R (8,314), Fbijbgylvl_fi_jZlmjmjZ\ghcDlhhghijb
gbfZ_l\b^
E = E0
0,059 c(\hkkl)
.
lg
n
k(hdbke)
BamjZ\g_gbyG_jgklZke_^m_lqlh\_ebqbgZihl_gpbZeZaZ\bkblhl
dhgp_gljZpbc\hkklZgh\e_gghcbhdbke_gghcnhjfwe_f_glZ?keb\j_
Zdpbb ijbgbfZ_l mqZklb_ f_lZee lh \_ebqbgZ _]h we_dljh^gh]h ihl_g
pbZeZaZ\bkblebrvhldhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\wlh]hf_lZeeZ_]hhdbke_g
ghcnhjfu\jZkl\hj_Dhgp_gljZpbykZfh]hf_lZeeZ\hkklZgh\e_gghc
nhjfudZd\_ebqbgZihklhyggZy\mjZ\g_gb_G_jgklZg_ih^klZ\ey_lky
Djhf_lh]h_keb\ihemj_ZdpbbijbgbfZxlmqZklb_bhguH+bebHGbo
dhgp_gljZpbblZd`_\ebyxlgZ\_ebqbgmihl_gpbZeZ
Bkihevamy
agZq_gby
we_dljh^guo
beb
hdbkebl_evgh\hkklZgh\bl_evguoihl_gpbZeh\ihemj_Zdpbcfh`gh\uihegblvke_
^mxsb_hi_jZpbb
1. Hp_gblv hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z khhl\_lkl
\mxsbo\_s_kl\
2. Ij_^kdZaZlv ijbgpbibZevgmx \hafh`ghklv hkms_kl\e_gby j_
Zdpbb\mdZaZgghfgZijZ\e_gbb
3. Hij_^_eblvgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb
4. <u[jZlv gZb[he__ \_jhylgmx j_Zdpbx ba g_kdhevdbo \hafh`
guo
5. JZkkqblZlvagZq_gb_dhgklZgluobfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_kby^Zgghc
j_Zdpbb
Knhjfmebjm_f khhl\_lkl\mxsb_ ijZ\beZ b jZkkfhljbf bo ijb
f_g_gb_gZdhgdj_lguoijbf_jZo
92
;he__ kbevgufb \hkklZgh\bl_evgufb k\hckl\Zfb h[eZ^Z_l

\_s_kl\h dhlhjhfm khhl\_lkl\m_l ihemj_Zdpby k [he__ gbadbf
agZq_gb_fihl_gpbZeZ;he__kbevgufbhdbkebl_evgufbk\hckl
\Zfbh[eZ^Z_l\_s_kl\hdhlhjhfmkhhl\_lkl\m_lihemj_Zdpbyk
[he__\ukhdbfagZq_gb_fihl_gpbZeZ
Ijbf_jHij_^_ebl_dZdhcba\hkklZgh\bl_e_cijhy\ey_lgZb
[he__kbevgu_\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\ZijbklZg^Zjlguomkeh\b
yo\j_Zdpbyo
Z) FeSO4 + O2 + H2SO4 :)H2(SO4)3 + H2O;
[) HI + O2 :,2 + H2O;
\) H2SO3 + O2 :+2SO4.
J_r_gb_
Hij_^_ey_fdZdb_\_s_kl\Z\^Zgguoj_Zdpbyoy\eyxlky\hk
klZgh\bl_eyfb < j_Zdpbb Z \hkklZgh\bl_e_f y\ey_lky FeSO4 ih
kdhevdmm`_e_aZkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyih\urZ_lkyhl^h\khhl
\_lkl\bbkmjZ\g_gb_fihemj_Zdpbb
Fe+2 :)H+3
< j_Zdpbb [ \hkklZgh\bl_e_f y\ey_lky HI ihkdhevdm m bh^Z
kl_i_gvhdbke_gbyih\urZ_lky\khhl\_lkl\bbkmjZ\g_gb_fihemj_
Zdpbb:
I :I0
<j_Zdpbb\\hkklZgh\bl_e_fy\ey_lkyH2SO3ihkdhevdmmk_
jukl_i_gvhdbke_gbym\_ebqb\Z_lky\khhl\_lkl\bbkmjZ\g_gb_fih
emj_Zdpbb
H2SO3 + H2O :+2SO4 + 4H+
GZoh^bfagZq_gbyklZg^Zjlguoihl_gpbZeh\Fhhl\_lkl\mxsbo
ihemj_Zdpbc
0
Z EFe
3+
Fe 2+
= 0,77 B [ EI00
2I
0
= 0,54 < \ ESO
2
4
H 2 SO 3
= 0,17 < .
GZoh^bf gZb[he__ kbevguc \hkklZgh\bl_evIhkdhevdmkZfh_

gbadh_agZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZmihemj_Zdpbbhdbke_gbyk_jgbklhcdb
kehlulhwlh\_s_kl\hb[m^_ly\eylvkygZb[he__kbevguf\hkklZgh
\bl_e_f
Ijhl_dZgb_hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evghcj_Zdpbb\^ZgghfgZijZ\e_gbb\hafh`ghebrvlh]^Zdh]^Zihl_gpbZe\hkklZgh\e_gbybkihevam_fh]hhdbkebl_ey[hevr_ihl_gpbZeZhdbke_gby
bkihevam_fh]h\hkklZgh\bl_ey
93
Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv fh`gh eb bkihevah\Zlv \ klZg^Zjlguo

mkeh\byokheb`_e_aZIIIêyhdbke_gbybhgh\), BrbI^hijhkluo
\_s_kl\"Hl\_lih^l\_j^blvjZkq_lZfb
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfagZq_gby?hihemj_Zdpbc
EI00
2I
EF00
2F
0
= 0,53 <; EBr
0
2
0
= 2,85 <; EFe
3+
0
IhkdhevdmagZq_gb_ EFe
3+
Fe 2+
2 Br
Fe 2+
= 1,08 <;
= 0,77 <.
[hevr_agZq_gby EI00
2I
lhbhgu
Fe3+kihkh[guhdbkeblvbhgu, ^hijhklh]h\_s_kl\ZI2Ke_^h\Zl_ev
gh ba mdZaZgguo Zgbhgh\ lhevdh bhgu , [m^ml hdbkeylvky bhgZfb
`_e_aZ,,,
Ex[Zy H<J \k_]^Z ijhl_dZ_l \ lhf gZijZ\e_gbb dhlhjhfm
khhl\_lkl\m_l iheh`bl_evgh_ agZq_gb_ jZaghklb ihl_gpbZeh\
hdbkebl_eyb\hkklZgh\bl_ey.
H^gZdhg_h[oh^bfhihfgblvqlh\^ZgghfgZijZ\e_gbbj_Zdpby
ijhl_dZ_l ijZdlbq_kdb g_h[jZlbfh ijb jZaghklb ihl_gpbZeh\ ?,
[hevr_ceb[hjZ\ghc<?keb`_jZaghklvihl_gpbZeh\?hdZau
\Z_lkyf_gvr_<lhH<Jijhl_dZ_lh[jZlbfhbgZijZ\e_gb_j_Zd
pbbhij_^_ey_lkymkeh\byfb__ijh\_^_gby
Ijbf_jMklZgh\blv\dZdhfgZijZ\e_gbb\hafh`ghkZfhijh
ba\hevgh_ijhl_dZgb_j_Zdpbb
SnCl4 + 2FeCl2 <6Q&O2 + 2FeCl3.
J_r_gb_
GZoh^bfagZq_gby?hihemj_Zdpbc
0
ESn
4+
Sn 2+
= 0,15 <,
0
EFe
3+
Fe 2+
= 0,77 <.
IhkdhevdmagZq_gb_Ehihemj_ZdpbbkmqZklb_fbhgh\`_e_aZ
[hevr_ agZq_gby ?h ihemj_Zdpbb k mqZklb_f bhgh\ heh\Z lh bhgu
Fe3+[m^mlhdbkeylvbhgu6Q2+kh[jZah\Zgb_fbhgh\)H2+b6Q4+Wlh
khhl\_lkl\m_lijhl_dZgbxmdZaZgghcj_ZdpbbkijZ\ZgZe_\h
Ba \k_o \hafh`guo H<J gZb[he__ \_jhylghc [m^_l lZ j_Zd
pby dhlhjhc khhl\_lkl\m_l fZdkbfZevgh_ agZq_gb_ jZaghklb
ihl_gpbZeh\bkihevam_fuohdbkebl_eyb\hkklZgh\bl_ey
Ijbf_j Bkihevamy agZq_gby E0 ihemj_Zdpbc hij_^_eblv gZb[he__\_jhylgucijh^mdl\hkklZgh\e_gbybh^Zl-bhgh\k_jgbklhcdbkehlhc
ZIO 3 + 6H+:IH2O, E0 = 1,08 <;
[IO 3 + 6H+ + 5:I2 + 3H2O, E0 = 1,19 <;
94
\IO 3 + 5H+:HIO + 2H2O, E0 = 1,14 <;

]) SO 24 + 4H+:+2SO3 + H2O, E0 = 0,17 <.
J_r_gb_
IhkdhevdmagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZihemj_Zdpbb]f_gvr_agZ
q_gbcihl_gpbZeh\ihemj_ZpbcZ[b\lhkmevnbl-bhgu[m^ml
y\eylvky\hkklZgh\bl_eyfbihhlghr_gbxdbh^Zl-bhgZf
>ey dZ`^hc ba ihemj_Zdpbc Z [ b \ gZc^_f jZaghklv
f_`^m__ihl_gpbZehfbihl_gpbZehfihemj_Zdpbb]
E0Z E0] < 0,17 < = 0,91 <;
E0[ E0] < 0,17 < = 1,02 <;
E0\ E0] < 0,17 < = 0,97 <.
<b^ghqlhfZdkbfZevgh_agZq_gb_E0khhl\_lkl\m_ljZaghklb
f_`^mihl_gpbZeZfbihemj_Zdpbc[b]Ke_^h\Zl_evghk_jgbklZy
dbkehlZ[m^_l\hkklZgZ\eb\Zlvbh^Zl-bhgu^hk\h[h^gh]hbh^Z
Q_f [hevr_ agZq_gb_ ? j_Zdpbb l_f [hevr_ agZq_gb_ dhg
klZglu obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby b l_f kbevg__ hgh kf_s_gh \
klhjhgmh[jZah\Zgbyijh^mdlh\.
Ijbf_jJZkkqblZlvagZq_gb_dhgklZgluobfbq_kdh]hjZ\gh\_
kbyêyj_Zdpbbhdbke_gbykmevnZlZ`_e_aZIIi_jfZg]ZgZlhfdZeby
\ k_jghdbkehf jZkl\hj_ \ dhlhjhf dhgp_gljZpbb \k_o ihl_gpbZeh
ij_^_eyxsbobhgh\jZ\gufheve
J_r_gb_
KhklZ\bf mjZ\g_gb_ ^Zgghc H<J jZkklZ\bf dhwnnbpb_glu
f_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZbgZc^_fagZq_gb_n.
2KMnO4 + 10FeSO4 + 8H2SO4 :)H2(SO4)3 + 2MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8H2O
Mn+7:0Q+2
1
2
+2
+3
Fe :)H
5
10
BamjZ\g_gbcwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ\b^ghqlhqbkehwe_dljhgh\
hl^Zgguo \hkklZgh\bl_e_f b ijbgyluo hdbkebl_e_f l _ qbkeh n
jZ\gh
GZc^_fagZq_gbyihl_gpbZeh\ihemj_Zdpbchdbke_gbybhgh\`_
e_aZZb\hkklZgh\e_gbyi_jfZg]ZgZl-bhgh\\dbkehckj_^_[
0
Z EFe
= 0,77 < ;
3+
Fe 2+
0
[ EMnO
Mn 2+
= 1,51< .
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_E0j_Zdpbb
0
E0 = EMnO
Mn 2+
0
EFe
3+
Fe 2+
= 1,51 < 0,77 < = 0,74 <
95
<uqbkebfagZq_gb_dhgklZglujZ\gh\_kby
K jZ\g = 10
E n
0 , 059
= 10
0 , 745
0 ,059
5 1062 .
LZdh_h]jhfgh_agZq_gb_dhgklZglujZ\gh\_kbyk\b^_l_evkl\m_l
hlhfqlh^ZggZyj_Zdpbyijhl_dZ_lke_\ZgZijZ\hijZdlbq_kdbg_h[
jZlbfh
<ebygb_jZaebqguonZdlhjh\gZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgby
hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguoj_Zdpbc
Hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgZyj_Zdpbyijhl_dZ_l\lhfgZ
ijZ\e_gbb \ dhlhjhf hkms_kl\ey_lky ihemj_Zdpby k [he__ \ukhdbf
agZq_gb_fihl_gpbZeZIhwlhfmnZdlhju\ebyxsb_gZ\_ebqbgmih
l_gpbZeZ hdZau\Zxl \ebygb_ b gZ gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby H<J D
lZdbfnZdlhjZfhlghkylky
dhgp_gljZpbyihl_gpbZehij_^_eyxsbobhgh\
\_ebqbgZjGjZkl\hjZ
l_fi_jZlmjZjZkl\hjZ
\_ebqbgZIJfZehjZkl\hjbfh]hijh^mdlZj_Zdpbb
<_ebqbgZdhgklZglug_klhcdhklbh[jZamxs_]hkydhfie_dkgh
]hbhgZ
JZkkfhljbf oZjZdl_j \ebygby dZ`^h]h ba wlbo nZdlhjh\ gZ gZ
ijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
<ebygb_dhgp_gljZpbcihl_gpbZehij_^_eyxsbobhgh\
Baf_gyy agZq_gby dhgp_gljZpbcbhgh\\jZkl\hj_fh`ghbaf_
gblvgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
Ijbf_jHij_^_eblvgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb
Sn0 + Pb2+ <6Q2+ + Pb0
ijbke_^mxsboagZq_gbyodhgp_gljZpbcbhgh\
Zk(Pb2+ fhevek(Sn2+ fheve
[k(Pb2+ fhevek(Sn2+ fheve
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gby jZ\gh\_kguo we_dljh^guo ihl_gpbZeh\
êykemqZyZbhij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_j_Zdpbb
0,059
1
0,059 1
o
lg
= 0,13
lg = 0,13B
EPb 2+ Pb 0 = EPb
2+
2+
Pb 0
2
1
n
c(Pb )
96
:gZeh]bqghkqblZ_fagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZheh\Z
0,059 1
lg = 0,14 B .
ESn 2+ Sn 0 = 0,14
2
1
Ihkdhevdm agZq_gb_ we_dljh^gh]h ihl_gpbZeZ k\bgpZ [hevr_
q_fmheh\Zlhbhguk\bgpZ[m^mly\eylvkyhdbkebl_eyfbihhlghr_
gbxdheh\mbmdZaZggZyj_Zdpby[m^_lijhl_dZlvke_\ZgZijZ\h.
1) JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gbyjZ\gh\_kguoihl_gpbZeh\êykemqZy[b
hij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_j_Zdpbb
0,059
1
0,059
1
o
EPb 2+ Pb 0 = EPb
lg
0
,
13
lg
= 0,15B ;
2+
0
Pb
n
2
0,15
c(Pb 2 + )
0,059
1
lg
= 0,13B .
ESn 2+ Sn 0 = 0,14
2
1,5
<^ZgghfkemqZ_we_dljh^gucihl_gpbZe[hevr_mheh\Zihwlh
fm_]hbhgu[m^mly\eylvkyhdbkebl_eyfbihhlghr_gbxdk\bgpmb
mdZaZggZyH<J\^Zgguomkeh\byoijhl_dZ_lkijZ\ZgZe_\h.
<ebygb_\_ebqbgujGjZkl\hjZ
Baf_gyy agZq_gb_ jG jZkl\hjZ fh`gh baf_gblv gZijZ\e_gb_
ijhl_dZgbyH<J_keb\g_cijbgbfZxlmqZklb_bhguG+bebHG.
Ijbf_jBaf_gblkyebgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb\kbk
l_f_K3AsO4 + KI + H2SO4 <K3AsO3 + I2 + K2SO4 + H2O
ijbbaf_g_gbbjGjZkl\hjZhl^h_kebdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\
AsO 34 , AsO 33 , Ibfhe_dmeI2\jZkl\hj_jZ\gufheve"
J_r_gb_:
1. >ZggZyH<Jhkms_kl\ey_lky[eZ]h^Zjyijhl_dZgbx^\moihem
j_Zdpbc
ZAsO4 3 + 2H+:AsO33 + H2O; E0 = 0,57 <;
[) I2:,; E0 = 0,54 <.
Ihkdhevdm\ihemj_ZdpbbZijbgbfZxlmqZklb_bhgu\h^hjh^Z__
ihl_gpbZeaZ\bkblhl\_ebqbgujGjZkl\hjZ<ihemj_Zdpbb[bhguG+
g_mqZkl\mxlihwlhfm__ihl_gpbZeg_aZ\bkblhl\_ebqbgujG
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZihemj_ZdpbbZijbjGjZ\
ghfbhij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_H<J
?kebjGjZkl\hjZjZ\ghlhdhgp_gljZpbybhgh\\h^hjh^ZjZ\gZ
fheveLh]^Z
0,059
1
EAsO 3- AsO 3- = 0,57
lg 2 = 0,57 B .
4
3
2
1 1
97
IhkdhevdmijbjGjZ\ghfihl_gpbZeihemj_ZdpbbZ[hevr_
ihl_gpbZeZ ihemj_Zdpbb [ Zjk_gZl-bhgu [m^ml ijhy\eylvhdbkeb
l_evgu_Zbh^b^-bhgu\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\ZbmdZaZggZyj_
Zdpby\p_ehfijhl_dZ_lke_\ZgZijZ\h.
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZihemj_ZdpbbZijbjGjZ\
ghfbhij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_H<J
?keb jG jZkl\hjZ jZ\_g lh dhgp_gljZpby bhgh\ \h^hjh^Z kh
klZ\ey_l0-8 fheveLh]^Z
EAsO 34
AsO 33-
= 0,57
0,059
1
lg
= 0,098B .
2
1 (10 8 ) 2
Ihkdhevdm ijb jG jZ\ghf ihl_gpbZe ihemj_Zdpbb Z f_gvr_

ihl_gpbZeZihemj_Zdpbb[lhZjk_gbl-ZgbhguAsO 33 [m^mlijhy\eylv
\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_Zfhe_dmeuI2 hdbkebl_evgu_k\hckl\ZWlhagZqbl
qlh\^Zgguomkeh\byomdZaZggZyj_Zdpbyijhl_dZ_lkijZ\ZgZe_\h
<ebygb_l_fi_jZlmjugZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
BamjZ\g_gbyG_jgklZ\b^ghqlh\_ebqbgZwe_dljh^gh]hihl_gpbZeZ
aZ\bkbl b hl agZq_gby l_fi_jZlmju Ihwlhfm baf_gyy l_fi_jZlmjm jZkl\hjZfh`ghbaf_gblvgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyg_dhlhjuoH<J
Ijbf_jIhdZaZlvdZd\eby_lbaf_g_gb_l_fi_jZlmjuhloK
^hoKgZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb
Na2Cr2O7 + 14HCl <&O2 + 2CrCl3 + 2NaCl + 7H2O,
_kebdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\Cr2O 72 bCr3+jZ\gufhevedhgp_gljZpby
kheyghc dbkehlu jZ\gZ fheve Z iZjpbZevgh_ ^Z\e_gb_oehjZ
dIZ
J_r_gb_
1. MdZaZggZyj_Zdpbykhklhblba^\moihemj_Zdpbc
Z&U2O 72 + 14H+:Cr3+ + 7H2O?0 = 1,333 <;
[Kl2:Cl?0 = 1,359 <.
2. JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gby ihl_gpbZeh\ihemj_ZdpbcZb[ijb
l_fi_jZlmj_hKbhij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
2,303RT
c 2 (Cr 3 + )
o
Z ECr O 2 Cr 3+ = ECr O 2 Cr 3+
lg
=
2 7
2 7
nF
c(Cr2O 72 ) c14 (H + )
2,303 8,314 298
1
= 1,333
lg 14 = 1,350B ;
6 96500
11
98
[ ECl 0
Cl
o
= ECl
0
Cl
2,303RT
c 2 (Cl )
lg
=
0
nF
p(Cl 2 )
2,303 8,314 298 1,322

= 1,359
lg
= 1,352 B .
2 96500
1
Ihkdhevdm \ ^Zgghf kemqZ_ jZaghklv ihl_gpbZeh\ E hdZaZeZkv
f_gvr_ < \ kbkl_f_mklZgZ\eb\Z_lkyobfbq_kdh_jZ\gh\_kb_Gh
mqblu\Zy[he__\ukhdh_agZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZihemj_Zdpbb[^_eZ
_f\u\h^qlhijboK[he__kbevgufbhdbkebl_evgufbk\hckl\Zfb
h[eZ^Z_loehjbqlhmdZaZggh_jZ\gh\_kb_kf_s_gh\e_\h
3. JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gby ihemj_Zdpbc ijb oK b hij_^_ebf gZ
ijZ\e_gb_kf_s_gbyjZ\gh\_kby
2,303RT
c 2 (Cr 3+ )
o
Z ECr O 2 Cr 3+ = ECr O 2 Cr 3+
lg
=
2
2 7
2 7
nF
c(Cr2O 7 ) c14 (H + )
2,303 8,314 363
1
= 1,333
lg 14 = 1,353B .
6 96500
1 1
c 2 (Cl )
2,303RT
o
[ ECl 0 Cl = ECl 0 Cl
lg
=
2
2
nF
p(Cl02 )
2,303 8,314 363 1,322
= 1,359
lg
= 1,350B .
2 96500
1
LZdbf h[jZahf ijb l_fi_jZlmj_ oK [he__ \ukhdh_ agZq_gb_
ihl_gpbZeZ m ihemj_Zdpbb Z Wlh agZqbl qlh [he__ kbevgu_ hdbk
ebl_evgu_k\hckl\Zijhy\eyxlbhguCr2O 72 bjZ\gh\_kb_j_Zdpbb\
p_ehfkf_s_gh\ijZ\h
<ebygb_\_ebqbguIJfZehjZkl\hjbfh]hijh^mdlZ
gZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
?keb\j_amevlZl_H<Jh[jZam_lkyfZehjZkl\hjbfucijh^mdllh
dhgp_gljZpby h[jZamxsbo _]h bhgh\ \ jZkl\hj_ j_adh mf_gvrZ_lky
<ke_^kl\b_ wlh]h baf_gy_lky ihl_gpbZe khhl\_lkl\mxs_c ihemj_Zd
pbbqlhfh`_lijb\_klbdbaf_g_gbxgZijZ\e_gbyH<J
Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbc ijb
o
25 K\kbkl_fZo
Z$J+&O<+2 + 2AgCl;
[) 2Ag + 2HI <+2 + 2AgI,
_kebdhgp_gljZpbboehjh\h^hjh^Zbbh^h\h^hjh^Z\jZkl\hj_jZ\gu
1 fheveZ^Z\e_gb_\h^hjh^ZjZ\ghdIZ
99
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_fdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\k_j_[jZ\jZkl\hj_gZ^hkZ^
dhfAgCl^himklb\qlhdhgp_gljZpbyoehjb^-bhgh\\jZkl\hj_jZ\gZ
dhgp_gljZpbbGClbkhklZ\ey_lfheve
c(Ag+) =
IJ(AgCl) 1,8 1010

=
= 1,8 1010 fheve
1
c(Cl )
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZk_j_[jZ\^Zg

ghfjZkl\hj_
0,059
1
o
=
EAg + Ag 0 = EAg
lg
0
+
Ag
n
c(Ag + )
0,059
1
= 0,8
lg
= 0,225B.
1
1,8 1010
Hij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_j_ZdpbbZ
Ihkdhevdm\mdZaZgguomkeh\byoihl_gpbZe\h^hjh^ZjZ\_gZ
ihl_gpbZek_j_[jZjZ\_g<lhbhguk_j_[jZijhy\eyxlhdbkeb
l_evgu_k\hckl\Zihhlghr_gbxd\h^hjh^mbjZ\gh\_kb_j_ZdpbbZ
kf_s_gh\e_\hIhwlhfmf_lZeebq_kdh_k_j_[jhg_jZkl\hjy_lky\kh
eyghcdbkehl_
JZkkqblZ_fdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\k_j_[jZ\jZkl\hj_gZ^hkZ^
dhf AgI ^himklb\ qlh dhgp_gljZpby bh^b^-bhgh\ \ jZkl\hj_ jZ\gZ
dhgp_gljZpbbHIbkhklZ\ey_lfheve
c(Ag+) =
IJ(AgI) 8,3 1017

=
= 8,3 1017 fheve .
1
c(I )
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZk_j_[jZ\^Zg

ghfjZkl\hj_
0,059
1
o
lg
=
EAg + Ag 0 = EAg
+
Ag 0
n
c(Ag + )
0,059
1
= 0,8
lg
= 0,14 B.
1
8,3 1017
Hij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_j_Zdpbb[
Ihkdhevdm\jZkl\hj_HIihl_gpbZek_j_[jZf_gvr_ihl_gpbZeZ
\h^hjh^ZjZ\gh]hlhk_j_[jh[m^_lhdbkeylvkybhgZfb\h^hjh^Zb
jZ\gh\_kb_j_Zdpbb[ijZdlbq_kdbiheghklvxkf_s_gh\ijZ\h
LZdbf h[jZahf f_lZeebq_kdh_ k_j_[jh \ul_kgy_l \h^hjh^ ba
jZkl\hjZbh^h\h^hjh^ghcdbkehlu
100
<ebygb_dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zgby
gZgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J
?keb \ j_amevlZl_ H<J h[jZamxlky dhfie_dkgu_ kh_^bg_gby \
dhlhjuo jhev dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ey b]jZxl ihl_gpbZehij_^_eyx
sb_bhgulhdhgp_gljZpbywlbobhgh\\jZkl\hj_j_adhmf_gvrZ_lky
<ke_^kl\b_ wlh]h ihl_gpbZeu khhl\_lkl\mxsbo ihemj_Zdpbc baf_
gyxlkyqlhfh`_lijb\_klbdbaf_g_gbxgZijZ\e_gbyH<J
Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbc ijb
h
25 K \kbkl_fZo
ZHg + 4HBr <H2 + H2[HgBr4];
[Hg + 4HI <H2 + H2[HgI4],
_kebdhgp_gljZpbbHBrbHI\jZkl\hjZojZ\gufhevedhgp_gljZ
pbbbhgh\>HgBr4]2b>HgI4]2jZ\gufheve^Z\e_gb_\h^hjh^ZjZ\
ghdIZ
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_fdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\Hg2+h[jZamxsboky\j_amev
lZl_ ^bkkhpbZpbb bhgh\ >HgBr4]2 Ijb wlhf ^himkdZ_f qlh dhgp_g
ljZpby bhgh\ Br \ jZkl\hj_ jZ\gZ dhgp_gljZpbb HBr b khklZ\ey_l
2 fheve
Dg_kl[HgBr4]2 =
k(Hg 2 + ) c 4 (Br )
= 2 10 22 .
2
c([HgBr4 ] )
Hlkx^Z
2+
c(Hg ) =
K (gg_k) k([HgBr4 ] )
2
c 4 (Br )
2 1022 1
= 1,25 10 23 fheve.
4
2
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZ EHg 2+
Hg 0
ijb
^Zgghcdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\Hg2+:
EHg 2+
Hg 0
0
= EHg
2+
= 0,85
Hg 0
0,059
1
lg
=
2
c(Hg 2 + )
0,059
1
lg
= 0,174B.
2
1,25 10 23
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ ihl_gpbZeZ E2H +
H 02
^himklb\ qlh dhg
p_gljZpbybhgh\G+jZ\gZdhgp_gljZpbbHIbkhklZ\ey_lfheve
0,059
1
0,059
1
lg 2 + = 0
lg 2 = 0,018B .
E2H + H 0 = E2H + H 0
2
2
2
2
c (H )
2
101
Hij_^_ebfgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_ZdpbbZIhkdhevdm\
^ZgghfkemqZ_[he__\ukhdbfy\ey_lkyagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZjlmlblh
bhguHg2+h[jZah\Z\rb_kyba>HgBr4]2hdbkeyxlfhe_dmeu\h^hjh
^Zbj_ZdpbyZijhl_dZ_lkijZ\ZgZe_\h.
JZkkqblZ_fdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\Hg2+h[jZamxsboky\j_amev
lZl_^bkkhpbZpbbbhgh\>HgI4]2-Ijbwlhf^himkdZ_fqlhdhgp_gljZ
pbybhgh\I-\jZkl\hj_jZ\gZdhgp_gljZpbbHIbkhklZ\ey_lfheve
c(Hg 2 + ) c 4 (I )
= 1,48 10 30 .
Dg_kl[HgI4] =
2
c([HgI 4 ] )
2
Hlkx^Z
2+
c(Hg ) =
K ( g_kl ) k([HgI 4 ]2 )
c 4 (I )
1,48 10 30 1
= 9,25 10 32 fheve.
4
2
JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZ EHg 2+
Hg 0
ijb
^Zgghcdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\Hg2+:
EHg 2+
Hg
= 0,85
0
= EHg
2+
Hg
0,059
1
lg
=
2
c(Hg 2 + )
0,059
1
lg
= 0,065B.
2
9,25 10 32
Hij_^_ebf gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbb [ Ihkdhevdm \

^ZgghfkemqZ_[he__\ukhdbfy\ey_lkyagZq_gb_ihl_gpbZeZ\h^hjh^Z
lhbhgu++hdbkeyxljlmlvbj_Zdpby[ijhl_dZ_lke_\ZgZijZ\h.
Ih wlhc `_ ijbqbg_ f_^v \ul_kgy_l \h^hjh^ ba \h^guojZkl\h
jh\pbZgb^h\
1. Qlh lZdh_ kl_i_gv hdbke_gby" DZdb_ agZq_gby hgZ fh`_l ijbgb
fZlv" Q_fm jZ\gZ kmffZ kl_i_g_c hdbke_gby Zlhfh\ \ fhe_dme_
\ bhg_"
2. DZdb_j_Zdpbbhlghkylkydhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguf"
3. <q_faZdexqZxlkyklhqdbaj_gbywe_dljhgghcl_hjbbijhp_kku
hdbke_gby b \hkklZgh\e_gby" DZd baf_gyxlky agZq_gby kl_i_g_c
hdbke_gbyZlhfh\\j_amevlZl_wlboijhp_kkh\"
4. DZdaZ\bkylhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Z\_s_kl\hl
agZq_gbckl_i_g_chdbke_gbyZlhfh\\oh^ysbo\bokhklZ\"
5. Ijb\_^bl_ijbf_julbibqguo\hkklZgh\bl_e_c
102
6. DZdb_\_s_kl\Zy\eyxlkylbibqgufbhdbkebl_eyfb"
7. Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju \_s_kl\ dhlhju_ \ aZ\bkbfhklb hl mkeh\bc
fh]ml ijhy\eylv dZd hdbkebl_evgu_ lZd b \hkklZgh\bl_evgu_
k\hckl\Z"
8. DZd deZkkbnbpbjmxlky hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ j_Zd
pbb" Q_f hlebqZxlky j_Zdpbb f_`fhe_dmeyjgh]h hdbke_gby\hkklZgh\e_gby hl j_Zdpbc \gmljbfhe_dmeyjgh]h hdbke_gby\hkklZgh\e_gby j_Zdpbb ^bkijhihjpbhgbjh\Zgby hl j_Zdpbc
dhfijhihjpbhgbjh\Zgby"
9. Qlh y\ey_lky dhebq_kl\_gghc oZjZdl_jbklbdhc hdbkebl_evgh\hkklZgh\bl_evguo k\hckl\ \_s_kl\" Qlh ij_^klZ\ey_l kh[hc
klZg^Zjlgucwe_dljh^guchdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgucih
l_gpbZe"
10. DZdb_ihl_gpbZeugZau\ZxlkyjZ\gh\_kgufb"DZdhgbk\yaZgukh
klZg^Zjlgufb we_dljh^gufb ihl_gpbZeZfb" Hl dZdbo nZdlhjh\
aZ\bkbl\_ebqbgZjZ\gh\_kgh]hihl_gpbZeZ"
11. DZd k\yaZgu hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z \_s_kl\
khagZq_gbyfbwe_dljh^guoihl_gpbZeh\khhl\_lkl\mxsboihem
j_Zdpbc"
12. DZdhp_gb\Z_lkyijbgpbibZevgZy\hafh`ghklvijhl_dZgbyH<J\
mdZaZgghfgZijZ\e_gbb"
13. DZdhij_^_ey_lkygZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyH<J"
14. DZd fh`gh hij_^_eblv gZb[he__ \_jhylgmx H<J ba g_kdhevdbo
\hafh`guoj_Zdpbc"
15. DZdh\Z aZ\bkbfhklv dhgklZglu obfbq_kdh]h jZ\gh\_kby H<J hl
agZq_gbcwe_dljh^guoihl_gpbZeh\ihemj_Zdpbc"
16. DZdb_ nZdlhju hdZau\Zxl \ebygb_ gZ gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby
H<J"HoZjZdl_jbamcl_\ebygb_dZ`^h]hbagbo
17. DZdh\Z jhev hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguo j_Zdpbc \ ijhp_k
kZo`bag_^_yl_evghklb"
18. <q_faZdexqZ_lkyijbgpbibZevgh_hlebqb_H<Jijhl_dZxsbo\
`b\uohj]ZgbafZohlH<Jijhl_dZxsbo\g_`b\hcijbjh^_"
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
206. F_lh^hf we_dljhggh]h [ZeZgkZ jZkklZ\blv dhwnnbpb_glu \
mjZ\g_gbyoH<JmdZaZlvhdbkebl_evb\hkklZgh\bl_ev
Z) SnCl2+K2Cr2O7 +H2SO4 :
: SnCl4+Sn(SO4)2+Cr2(SO4)3+K2SO4+G2H;
[) FeSO4+HNO3 :)H2(SO4)3+Fe(NO3)+NO2+H2O;
\) P4+Sr(OH)2 :3+3+Sr(H2PO2)2+H2O;
103
]) KMnO4+FeSO4+H2O :
: K2SO4+MnO2+Fe(OH)SO4+[(Fe(OH)2]2SO4;
^) Al+HClO3 :$O&O3+Al(ClO3)3+H2O;
_) FeS2+KOH+Cl2 :.2FeO4+K2SO4+KCl+H2O;
`) H2O2+Mn3O4+H2SO4 :22+MnSO4+H2O;
a) Fe(OH)2 + NO2 :)H123)3 + NO + H2O;
b) P2S3+H2SO4(dhgp.) :+3PO4+SO2+H2O;
d) (NH4)2CrO4 :12+NH3+Cr2O3+H2O.
207. AZdhgqblv mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc f_lh^hf we_dljhggh]h [ZeZgkZ
jZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb_glumdZaZlvhdbkebl_evb\hkklZgh\bl_ev
Z) I2+Cl2+H2O :+&O
[) Ba(OH)2+Br2 :%D%U23)2 +
\) KMnO4+PH3+H2SO4 :+3PO4 +
]) H3AsO4+Al+H2SO4 :$V+3 +
^) Ca(ClO)2+HCl :&O2 +
208. Hij_^_eblv gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby \ klZg^Zjlguo mkeh\byo
ke_^mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z) H2O2+HOCl <+&O22+H2O;
[) H3PO4+2HI < H3PO3+I2+H2O;
\) 2FeCl3+Cu <)H&O2+CuCl2;
]) SnCl4+2KI <6Q&O2+I2+2KCl;
^) H2SO3+Cl2+H2O <+2SO4+2HCl.
209. DZdb_ ba mdZaZgguoj_Zdpbcfh]mlijhl_dZlv\klZg^Zjlguomk
eh\byo
Z) MnO 4 +Ag0 :0Q2 24 +Ag+;
[) MnO 4 +3Ag0+2H2O :0Q22+3Ag++4OH-;
\) MnO 4 +8H++5Ag0 :0Q2++5Ag++4H2O?
210. < \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ k(Hg2+ fheve c(Fe3+ fheve
c(Fe2+ fheve DZdZy ba j_Zdpbc fh`_l ijhl_dZlv kZfh
ijhba\hevgh
ZFeCl3+Hg :FeCl2+HgCl2;
[) HgCl2+2FeCl2 :+J)H&O3?
211. AZdhgqblvmjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc^bkfmlZpbbjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb
_gluf_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ
Z) K2SO3 :.2S +
[) HClO3 :&O22 +
\) P4O6+H2O :3+3 +
]) NO2+Ca(OH)2 :&D122)2 +
^) Se+KOH :.2SeO3 +
104
212. AZdhgqblvmjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcdhgfmlZpbbjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb
_gluf_lh^hfwe_dljhggh]h[ZeZgkZ
Z) SO2+H2S :
[) Ca(ClO3)2+HCl(dhgp.) :
\) H2S+H2SO4(dhgp.) :
]) KMnO4+MnSO4+H2O :
213. Fh`gheboehjb^hf`_e_aZIII\jZkl\hj_hdbkeblvkmevnb^gZ
ljby^hk_ju^hkmevnblZgZljby^hkmevnZlZgZljby"Ijh\_^b
l_ khhl\_lkl\mxsb_ jZkq_lu KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gb_ \hafh`ghc
H<J
214. ;m^_lebhdbkeylvkynhknhjbklZydbkehlZijbklZg^Zjlguomkeh
\byoihke_^mxsbfko_fZf"
Z) H3PO3 + I2 + H2O :
[) H3PO3 + AgNO3 +H2O :$J0 +
\) H3PO3 + Cd(NO3)2 + H2O :&G0 +
]) H3PO3 + Hg(NO3)2 + H2O :+J0 +
AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gby\hafh`guoj_ZdpbcjZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb
_glu
215. Fh`gh eb ijb klZg^Zjlguo mkeh\byo ijb]hlh\blv jZkl\hj kh
^_j`Zsbch^gh\j_f_ggh
[CuSO4bNaBr;
\H2O2bH2S;
ZDMnO4bKI;
_D2Kr2O7bK2S?
]Cu(NO3)2b<ZI2; ^Cl2bCrCl2;
Ijh\_^bl_ khhl\_lkl\mxsb_ jZkq_lu KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby \ha
fh`guoH<J
216. JZkkqblZcl_ agZq_gby dhgklZgl jZ\gh\_kby j_Zdpbc \ klZg^Zjl
guomkeh\byo
Z) SnCl4 + 2TiCl3 = SnCl2 + 2TiCl4;
[) SnCl4 + 2CrCl2 = SnCl2 + 2CrCl3.
<dZdhcba^Zgguoj_Zdpbcijhbkoh^bl[he__ihegh_\hkklZgh\
e_gb_bhgh\heh\Z"
217. DZdb_bamdZaZgguogb`_\_s_kl\fh]mlijhy\eylvlhevdhhdbk
ebl_evgu_k\hckl\Zlhevdh\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_dZdhdbkebl_ev
gu_lZdb\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Z
Z) KMnO4; MnO2; V2O5; KI;
[) PbO2; NH3; KNO2; (NH4)2S;
\) K2SO3; HNO3; CaCrO4; P4O6?
218. Hp_gblv\hafh`ghklvijhl_dZgbyH<Jf_`^m\_s_kl\Zfb
\K2Cr2O7bHClO4;
ZHNO3bP2O5; [H2SbH2SO dhgp;
^SnObCrO3;
_KH2ObO2.
]H2SbNH3;
GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gby\hafh`guoH<JjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb_glu
105
219. < dZdhf gZijZ\e_gbb ijhl_dZxl mdZaZggu_ j_Zdpbb \klZg^Zjl

guomkeh\byo
Z) NO 3 + Cr3+ + H2O <12&U2O 72 + H+;
[) Fe2+ + MnO 4 + H+ <)H3+ + Mn2+ + H2O;
\) Co2+ + MnO 4 + H+ <&R3+ + Mn2+ + H2O.
220. Fh`ghebbkihevah\Zlvhdkb^k\bgpZIV\dZq_kl\_hdbkebl_ey
êyhkms_kl\e_gby\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\byomdZaZgguoj_Zdpbc
Z) I2 + 6H2O -:,23- + 12H+;
[) Mn2+ + 4H2O -:0Q24- + 8H+;
\Sn2+ -:Sn4+;
]Cr3+ + 7H2O -:Cr2O72- + 14H+.
221. Hij_^_eblvgZijZ\e_gb_ijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbb\kbkl_f_
2Co2+ + Pb4+ <&R3+ + Pb2+,
_kebdhgp_gljZpbbbhgh\jZ\gu
c(Co2+) = 1101fhevec(Co3+) = 1 105fheve
c(Pb2+) = 1104fhevec(Pb4+) = 1 102fheve
222. DZd\eby_lihgb`_gb_\_ebqbgujGjZkl\hjZgZ\_ebqbgmhdbk
ebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgh]hihl_gpbZeZihemj_Zdpbb
ZMnO4H+:Mn2+ + 4H2O;
[) Fe3+:)H2+;
\) CrO 24 +2H22:&U2 4 + 4OH.
223. DZdZybaj_ZdpbcgZb[he__\_jhylgZ\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\byo
Z) SnCl4 + Fe :6Q&O2 + FeCl2;
[) SnCl4 + 2Fe :6Q)H&O2.
224. Fh]mleb\klZg^Zjlguomkeh\byoijhl_dZlvj_Zdpbb
Z) Ag + H2SO4 (jZa[.) :$J2SO4 + H2;
[) Fe + FeCl3 :)H&O2;
\) Cu + Fe2(SO4)3 :&X624 + FeSO4;
]) Hg + H2S :+2 + HgS?
225. Kihfhsvxkhhl\_lkl\mxsbojZkq_lh\ihdZ`bl_dZdbaf_gblky
ihl_gpbZeihemj_ZdpbbCr2O 72 + 14H+:Cr3+ +7H2Oijb
m\_ebq_gbb jG jZkl\hjZ hl ^h _keb dhgp_gljZpbb bhgh\
Cr2O 72 bCr3+jZ\gufheve
226. DZdhcbahdbkebl_e_c KMnO4., PbO2bebK2Cr2O7ijbklZg^Zjl
guo mkeh\byo y\ey_lky gZb[he__ wnn_dlb\guf ih hlghr_gbx d
HClijbihemq_gbboehjZ"Ijh\_^bl_khhl\_lkl\mxsb_jZkq_lu
khklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbckmqZklb_fmdZaZgguohdbkebl_e_c
jZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb_glu
106
227. We_dljh^guc ihl_gpbZe pbgdZ ihf_s_ggh]h \ jZkl\hj gbljZlZ

pbgdZjZ\_g0,85 <<uqbkeblvagZq_gb_fheyjghcdhgp_gljZ
pbbbhgh\pbgdZ\^ZgghfjZkl\hj_
228. Hij_^_ebl_ gZb[he__ \_jhylgu_ ijh^mdlu j_Zdpbc \ klZg^Zjl
guomkeh\byo
Z) KMnO4 + K2S + H2O :
[) NaNO2 + NaI + HCl :
\H2O2 + HI :
229. <dZdhckj_^_i_jfZg]ZgZluijhy\eyxlgZb[he__kbevgu_hdbk
ebl_evgu_k\hckl\Z"Ihq_fm"KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyH<J\aZbfh
^_ckl\by i_jfZg]ZgZlZ dZeby k kmevnblhf gZljby \ jZaguo kj_
^ZojZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb_glu
230. >hibrbl_ ijb\_^_ggu_ gb`_ ko_fu \ dhlhjuo mdZaZgu bhgu
lhevdhbkoh^guo\_s_kl\Ih^[_jbl_dhwnnbpb_glubgZibrbl_
khhl\_lkl\mxsb_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc\fhe_dmeyjghcnhjf_
Z) Fe3+ + I [) Kr2O 72 + NO 2 + H+ :\) NO 3 + Zn + H+ :
231. JZkkqblZcl_fZkkmi_jfZg]ZgZlZdZebyg_h[oh^bfh]hêyijb]h
lh\e_gby jZkl\hjZ h[t_fhf ^f3 k fheyjghc dhgp_gljZpb_c
wd\b\Ze_glZ^Zgghckhebfheve_kebba\_klghqlhijb]h
lh\e_ggucjZkl\hj[m^_lbkihevah\Zgêyhdbke_gby\g_cljZev
ghckj_^_
232. <uqbkebl_ fheyjgmx dhgp_gljZpbx wd\b\Ze_glZ ^bojhfZlZ dZ
eby\jZkl\hj_kfZkkh\hc^he_c_]h biehlghklvxjZkl\hjZ
d]f3_keb^bojhfZl-bhg\hkklZgZ\eb\Z_lky^hCr3+.
233. DZdhc ba hdbkebl_e_c MnO2; PbO2; K2Cr2O7 y\ey_lky gZb[he__
wnn_dlb\gufihhlghr_gbxdHClijbihemq_gbboehjZ"
:
=E:<:X
DHHJ>BG:PBHGGU?KH?>BG?GBY
GZb[he__ h[rbjguc b jZaghh[jZaguc deZkk g_hj]Zgbq_kdbo\_
s_kl\ij_^klZ\eyxldhfie_dkgu_bebdhhj^bgZpbhggu_kh_^bg_gby
DK < ihke_^g__ \j_fy \ gZmqghc ebl_jZlmj_ gZjy^m k l_jfbghf
dhfie_dkgu_ kh_^bg_gby qZklh mihlj_[ey_lky lh`^_kl\_gguc _fm
l_jfbg dhhj^bgZpbhggu_ kh_^bg_gby H^gZdh l_jfbg dhfie_dkgh_
kh_^bg_gb_ \ gZmqghc obfbq_kdhc ebl_jZlmj_ ijh^he`Z_l rbjhdh
ijbf_gylvky<gZklhys__\j_fy_]hqZs_ijbf_gyxldbhgZf dhf
ie_dkgucbhgIjhp_kkh[jZah\Zgbydhfie_dkguokh_^bg_gbcgZau
\Zxlijhp_kkhfdhfie_dkhh[jZah\ZgbyIhf_j_lh]hdZdddhhj^bgZ
107
pbhgguf hlghkbeb \k_ gh\u_ lbiu kh_^bg_gbc klZgh\behkv \k_

ljm^g__ ^Zlv bf hij_^_e_gb_ ;_amkeh\gh [_amij_qgh_ hij_^_e_gb_
dhhj^bgZpbhgghfm kh_^bg_gbx ^Zlv hq_gv ljm^gh L_f g_ f_g__
fh`gh ij_êh`blv ke_^mxs__ Dhhj^bgZpbhggufb gZau\Zxlky kh
_^bg_gby\maeZodjbklZeebq_kdboj_r_lhddhlhjuogZoh^ylkydhf
ie_dkgu_ qZklbpu kihkh[gu_ d kms_kl\h\Zgbx \ jZkl\hjZo Wlb
qZklbpuh[jZah\ZguaZkq_ldhhj^bgZpbbwe_dljhgh^_nbpblgufZlh
fhf beb dZlbhghf Zdp_ilhju we_dljhgh\ we_dljhg_cljZevguo qZk
lbpbebZgbhgh\^hghjuwe_dljhgh\
Hkgh\gu_iheh`_gbydhhj^bgZpbhgghcl_hjbb
Lbiudhfie_dkguokh_^bg_gbc
Kljh_gb_bk\hckl\Zdhhj^bgZpbhgguokh_^bg_gbch[tykgyxlky
dhhj^bgZpbhgghcl_hjb_chkgh\udhlhjhc[uebaZeh`_gu\]h
^m:<_jg_jhfHgijbr_edaZdexq_gbxqlh\khklZ\dhfie_dkgh]h
kh_^bg_gby \oh^bl keh`gZy qZklbpZ khklhysZy ba p_gljZevgh]h
ZlhfZ lZd`_ gZau\Z_fh]h dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_e_f bhgf_lZeeZ
\hdjm]dhlhjh]hjZkiheZ]Zxlkydhhj^bgbjmxlkyg_cljZevgu_fhe_
dmeu beb Zgbhgu gZau\Zxsb_ky eb]Zg^Zfb Qbkeh dhhj^bgbjh\Zg
guoeb]Zg^h\qZs_\k_]hjZ\ghbebDhhj^bgZpbym^_j`b\Z
gb_eb]Zg^h\hdhehp_gljZevgh]hZlhfZhkms_kl\ey_lkyaZkq_lh[
jZah\Zgbyobfbq_kdbok\ya_cWlbk\yabgZau\Zxldhhj^bgZpbhggu
fb k\yayfbDhebq_kl\hdhhj^bgZpbhgguok\ya_cdhlhju_h[jZam_l
h^bg eb]Zg^ k dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_e_f gZau\Z_lky ^_glZlghklvx
eb]Zg^Z^b-ljb-l_ljZ^_glZlgucbl^H[s__qbkehobfbq_kdbo
k\ya_cdhlhjh_dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_evh[jZam_lkeb]Zg^ZfbgZau\Z
_lkydhhj^bgZpbhggufqbkehfdhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ey
Kh\hdmighklv bhgZ f_lZeeZ b hdjm`Zxsbo _]h eb]Zg^h\ [ueZ
gZa\ZgZ<_jg_jhf\gmlj_gg_ckn_jhcdhfie_dkZ<nhjfmeZodhhj
^bgZpbhgguokh_^bg_gbc__aZdexqZxl\d\Z^jZlgu_kdh[db<k_qlh
gZoh^blky aZ d\Z^jZlgufb kdh[dZfb khklZ\ey_l \g_rgxx kn_jm <
aZ\bkbfhklbhlagZdZaZjy^Z\gmlj_gg_ckn_jujZaebqZxlZgbhggu_
dhfie_dkugZijbf_j.2[Zn(CN)4@]^_\gmlj_ggyykn_jZ>=Q&14]2
Zgbhg; dZlbhggu_ dhfie_dku [Cu(NH3)4]SO4]^_\gmlj_ggyykn_jZ
[Cu(NH3)4]2+ dZlbhg b g_cljZevgu_ dhfie_dku >3W1+3)2Cl2]0.
G_cljZevgu_dhfie_dkgu_kh_^bg_gbyg_bf_xl\g_rg_ckn_juAZ
jy^\gmlj_gg_ckn_jujZ\_gZe]_[jZbq_kdhckmff_aZjy^Zp_gljZev
gh]hbhgZbaZjy^Zeb]Zg^h\
Ijbf_j JZkkfhljbfkljh_gb_dhfie_dkgh]hkh_^bg_gbykhklZ
\Z.4[Fe(CN)6].
108
J_r_gb_
BhguD+ \g_rgyykn_jZ>)H&16]4 \gmlj_ggyykn_jZdhf
ie_dkgh]h kh_^bg_gby khklhysZy ba dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ey bhg
Fe3+ b eb]Zg^h\ bhgh\ &1 H^bg eb]Zg^ &1 k\yau\Z_lky k dhf
ie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_e_f)H3+lhevdhh^ghck\yavxihwlhfm^_glZlghklv
wlh]heb]Zg^ZjZ\gZDhebq_kl\hdhhj^bgZpbhgguok\ya_cdhlhju
fb dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ev k\yaZg kh \k_fb eb]Zg^Zfb jZ\gh ke_
^h\Zl_evgh dhhj^bgZpbhggh_ qbkeh `_e_aZ \ ^Zgghf dhfie_dkghf
kh_^bg_gbbjZ\gh
< ijb\_^_gghc lZ[ebp_ jZkkfhlj_gh kljh_gb_ g_dhlhjuo dhf
ie_dkguokh_^bg_gbc
Kljmdlmjguc we_f_gl
<gmlj_ggyykn_jZ
<g_rgyy cn_jZ
P_gljZevgucZlhf
Eb]Zg^
>_glZlghklv
Dhhj^bgZpbhggh_
qbkeh
Dhfie_dkgh_ kh_^bg_gb_
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3
[Cr(H2O)6]
ClCr3+
3+
K[Ag(CN)2]
[Ag(CN)2]
K+
Ag+
[Pt(NH3)2Cl2]
K3[Ag(S2O3)2]
[Pt(NH3)2Cl2]
Pt2+
[Ag(S2O3)2]3
K+
Ag+
H2O
CN-
NH3; Cl-
1
6
1
2
1, 1
4
S2O 3
2
4
Ijbdhhj^bgZpbbbaf_gyxlkyk\hckl\ZdZdeb]Zg^h\lZdbbhgZ
f_lZeeZ-dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_eyQZklhdhhj^bgbjh\Zggu_eb]Zgûb
bhgf_lZeeZg_\hafh`ghh[gZjm`blv\jZkl\hj_dhfie_dkgh]hkh_^b
g_gbyijbihfhsbobfbq_kdboj_ZdpbcoZjZdl_jguoêygbo\k\h
[h^ghf g_dhhj^bgbjh\Zgghf khklhygbb l d hgb gZoh^ylky \ k\y
aZgghfkhklhygbb\khklZ\_dhfie_dkghcqZklbpu
Ghf_gdeZlmjZdhhj^bgZpbhgguokh_^bg_gbc
Ihjy^hd gZa\Zgby dhfie_dkguo kh_^bg_gbc ZgZeh]bq_g gZa\Z
gbyfh[uqguokhe_cl_kgZqZeZmdZau\Z_lkyZgbhg\bf_gbl_evghf
iZ^_`_ZaZl_fdZlbhg\jh^bl_evghfih^_`_Nhjfmeudhfie_dkh\
qblZxlky kljh]h kijZ\Z gZe_\h kh[ex^Zy mdZaZgguc \ gbo ihjy^hd
jZkiheh`_gbyeb]Zg^h\
?keb kh_^bg_gb_ g_we_dljheblgh]h lbiZ \gmljbdhfie_dkgh_
kh_^bg_gb_lh_]hgZau\Zxl\h^ghkeh\hDZlbhggu_bebg_cljZev
gu_DKg_ihemqZxl\gZa\Zgbyoki_pbZevguohdhgqZgbc\gZa\Zgb
yoZgbhgguodhfie_dkh\dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_evgZau\ZxleZlbgkdbf
l_jfbghf k ^h[Z\e_gb_f kmnnbdkZ(-Zl b mdZaZgb_f jbfkdbfb qbk
109
eZfb kl_i_gb hdbke_gby p_gljZevgh]h ZlhfZ _keb hg fh`_l bf_lv

i_j_f_ggu_kl_i_gbhdbke_gby
GZa\Zgbyg_cljZevguoeb]Zg^h\g_baf_gyxlkyZgZa\ZgbyZgb
hgguoeb]Zg^h\hdZgqb\ZxlkygZ h>eyh[hagZq_gbyqbkeZh^bgZdh
\uo eb]Zg^h\ \h \gmlj_gg_c kn_j_ dhfie_dkZ \ dZq_kl\_ ijbklZ\db
i_j_^ gZa\Zgb_f eb]Zg^h\ bkihevamxl ]j_q_kdb_ qbkebl_evgu_ ^b-;
ljb-l_ljZi_glZ]_dkZ-blÎjbklZ\dmfhghg_mihlj_[eyxl
GZa\Zgb_\gmlj_gg_ckn_juaZibku\Zxl\h^ghkeh\h
<h^ZbZffbZdy\eyxlkyg_cljZevgufbeb]Zg^ZfbbgZau\Zxlky
khhl\_lkl\_gghZd\Z-bZffbg
DZd ihdZaZgh \ gZa\Zgbyo _keb eb]Zg^ k\yaZg k p_gljZevguf
Zlhfhfg_kdhevdbfbkihkh[ZfbwlhjZaebqb_hlf_qZ_lkykihfhsvx
kbf\heh\ Zlhfh\ q_j_a dhlhju_ h[jZam_lky dhhj^bgZpbhggZy k\yav
dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_eykeb]Zg^hf
GZa\Zgbyg_cljZevguoeb]Zg^h\djhf_+2O, NH3, NO, NO2, CO
b &6 aZdexqZxlky \ djm]eu_ kdh[db b i_j_^ kdh[dhc ijb\h^yl qb
keh\u_ijbklZ\db
Ijbf_j Ijb\_klb ijbf_ju dhhj^bgZpbhgguo kh_^bg_gbc
jZaebqguolbih\bgZa\Zlvbo
J_r_gb_
DZlbhggu_dhfie_dku
[Co(NH3)6]3+Cl3 oehjb^]_dkZZffbgdh[ZevlZ (III);
[Co(NH3)5H2O]3+Cl3 oehjb^Zd\Zi_glZZffbgdh[ZevlZIII).
:gbhggu_dhfie_dku
(NH4)2[PdCl4]2 l_ljZoehjhiZeeZ^Zl,,Zffhgby
K[PtNH3Br5] i_glZ[jhfoZffbgieZlbgZlIVdZeby
K4[Fe(CN)6] ]_dkZpbZghn_jjZlIIdZeby
G_cljZevgu_dhfie_dku
[Fe(H2O)3(ClO4)(SCN)2] ^blbhpbZghi_joehjZlhljbZd\Z`_e_ahIII);
[Co(N2H4)2(NO2)2] ^bgbljblh^b]b^jZabgdh[Zevl,,
[Hg(H2O)2(NCS)2] ^bbahlbhpbZgh^bZd\Zjlmlv,,
Dhhj^bgZpbhggu_kh_^bg_gby\\h^guojZkl\hjZo
Ijb jZkl\hj_gbb djbklZeebq_kdh]h dhhj^bgZpbhggh]h kh_^bg_
gby \ \h^__]hdjbklZeebq_kdZyj_r_ldZjZajmrZ_lkyZdhhj^bgZpb
hggZykn_jZb\g_rg_kn_jgu_bhgu]b^jZlbjmxlky^bihevgufbfh
e_dmeZfb \hû Wlhl ijhp_kk ijhl_dZ_l ih f_oZgbafm ^bkkhpbZpbb
kbevguowe_dljheblh\GZijbf_j
K4[Fe(CN)6] :K+ [Fe(CN)6]4
110
Dhfie_dkgucbhg\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_g_h[eZ^Z_lZ[khexlghcmk
lhcqb\hklvxEb]Zgû_]hdhhj^bgZpbhgghckn_jufh]mlaZf_sZlvky
fhe_dmeZfb\hûdhlhjZylZd`_y\ey_lkyeb]Zg^hfLhqghlZd`_ijb
\aZbfh^_ckl\bb Zd\Zdhfie_dkZ k ^jm]bfb eb]Zg^Zfb \ jZkl\hj_ fh
`_lijhbkoh^blvihkl_i_ggh_aZf_s_gb_fhe_dme\hûdhhj^bgZpb
hgghckn_juZd\Zdhfie_dkZgZwlbeb]ZgûLZdhcijhp_kk\obfbb
dhfie_dkh\gZau\Z_lkyeb]Zg^gufh[f_ghf.
JZkkfhljbf \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ ]Zahh[jZagh]h ZffbZdZ k \h^guf
jZkl\hjhfkhebgbd_ey<\h^ghfjZkl\hj_dZlbhg1L2+kms_kl\m_l\
\b^_dhfie_dkgh]hbhgZ>1L+2O)6]2+<aZbfh^_ckl\b_wlh]hZd\Zdhf
ie_dkZ k ZffbZdhf ijhbkoh^bl \ r_klv klZ^bc dZ`^Zy ba dhlhjuo
ij_^klZ\ey_lkh[hch[jZlbfmxj_ZdpbxboZjZdl_jbam_lkykh[kl\_g
ghcdhgklZglhcjZ\gh\_kby DhgklZglujZ\gh\_kbydZ`^hcbaklZ^bc
h[jZah\Zgby dhfie_dkghc qZklbpu gZau\Zxlky qZklgufb dhgklZg
lZfbmklhcqb\hklb.
GZ dZ`^hc klZ^bb f_klh h^ghc fhe_dmeu \hû \h \gmlj_gg_c
kn_j_aZgbfZ_lh^gZfhe_dmeZZffbZdZ
[Ni(H2O)6]2+j + NHj <>NiNH3(H2O)5]2+(j + H2O`
H[uqgh êy ijhklhlu aZibkb nhjfmeu fhe_dme \hû \ mjZ\g_
gbyoih^h[guoj_ZdpbchimkdZxl
Ni2+j + NHj <>Ni(NH3)]2+j
bqZklgZydhgklZglZmklhcqb\hklbdhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kbyêyi_j\hc
klmi_gbh[jZah\Zgbydhfie_dkgh]hbhgZaZibku\Z_lkylZd
c([ Ni(NH 3 )]2 + )
K1mkl =
bl^Zh[sZyDmklêyi-klZ^bc
c( Ni 2 + ) c( NH 3 )
c([ Ni(NH 3 )i ]2 + )
K mkl =
bebDi mkl=K1 K2 ... Ki.
c( Ni 2 + ) c i ( NH 3 )
J_Zdpby h[jZlgZy j_Zdpbb dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zgby ^bkkhpbZpby
dhfie_dkZy\ey_lkyj_Zdpb_ceb]Zg^gh]hh[f_gZ\dhlhjhceb]Zgû
dhfie_dkgh]hbhgZaZf_sZxlkyfhe_dmeZfbjZkl\hjbl_ey
[Ni(NH3)6]2+j + H2O` <>Ni(NH3)5(H2O)]2+j + NHjbeb
[Ni(NH3)6]2+j <>Ni(NH3)5]2+j+ NHj
>eyj_Zdpbb^bkkhpbZpbbdhfie_dkgh]hbhgZdhgklZglmjZ\gh\_
kbygZau\ZxldhgklZglhcg_klhcdhklbDg_kl.ihdZ`^hcklZ^bb
c( Ni( NH 3 ) 5 ]2 + ) c( NH 3 )
K1g_kl =
ijbq_fK1 > K2 > ... > Ki.
c([ Ni( NH 3 ) 6 ]2 + )
111
Ijhba\_^_gb_ qZklguo dhgklZgl g_klhcdhklb ^Z_l h[smx dhg

klZglm g_klhcdhklb Kg_kl = K1 K2 ... Ki DhgklZglu mklhcqb\hklb b
g_klhcdhklbwlh\aZbfghh[jZlgu_\_ebqbgu
1
K mkl =
.
K g_kl
DhgklZglumklhcqb\hklbbg_klhcdhklb\gmlj_gg_ckn_jukeZ[h
aZ\bkylhll_fi_jZlmju
Ijbf_jGZibrbl_dhhj^bgZpbhggmxnhjfmemmdZ`bl_dhhj
^bgZpbhggh_qbkehbaZjy^dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_eyaZjy^\gmlj_gg_c
kn_jub\ujZ`_gb_dhgklZglug_klhcdhklbke_^mxs_]hdhfie_dkgh
]hkh_^bg_gby]_dkZgbljblhdh[ZevlZl,,,dZevpby
J_r_gb_
<mkeh\bbijb\_^_ghgZa\Zgb_Zgbhggh]hdhfie_dkgh]hkh_^bg_
gby Eb]Zg^hf y\ey_lky gbljbl-bhg Z p_gljZevguf bhghf Kh3+.
<gmlj_ggyy kn_jZ [Co(NO2)6]3- ke_^h\Zl_evgh nhjfmeZ dhfie_dk
gh]hkh_^bg_gby[m^_lKZ3[Co(NO2)6]2.
Dhhj^bgZpbhggh_qbkehjZ\gh
6
AZjy^dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ey
3+
AZjy^\gmlj_gg_ckn_ju
3
MjZ\g_gb_i_j\bqghc^bkkhpbZpbbdZdkbevgucwe_dljhebl
KZ3[Co(NO2)6]2 :KZ2+ + 2[Co(NO2)6]3.
H[s__mjZ\g_gb_\lhjbqghc^bkkhpbZpbbkeZ[ucwe_dljhebl
[Co(NO2)6]3 <Kh3+ + 6NO 2 .
<ujZ`_gb_h[s_cdhgklZglug_klhcdhklbdhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kby
c(Co3 + ) c 6 ( NO 2 )
K g_kl =
.
c([Co( NO 2 ) 6 ]3 )
Ijbf_j.Fh`ghebjZajmrblvdhfie_dkgucbhg>Ag(NH3)2]+k
_]hfheyjghcdhgp_gljZpb_c\jZkl\hj_fheve^h[Z\e_gb_fjZ\
gh]h h[t_fZ jZkl\hjZ .&O k lZdhc `_ dhgp_gljZpb_c ijb gZebqbb \
dhg_qghf jZkl\hj_ ba[uldZ ZffbZdZ k _]h fheyjghc dhgp_gljZpb_c
fheve"
J_r_gb_
JZkkqblZ_ffheyjgmxdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\>Ag(NH3)2]+ \jZk
l\hj_ihke_^h[Z\e_gbyjZ\gh]hh[t_fZjZkl\hjZKClIhkdhevdmh[t
_fbkoh^gh]hjZkl\hjZm\_ebqbeky\jZaZlhfheyjgZydhgp_gljZpby
bhgh\>Ag(NH3)2]+mf_gvrbeZkv\jZaZbkhklZ\ey_lfheve
112
JZkkqblZ_ffheyjgmxdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\Ag+\ihemq_gghf
jZkl\hj_ Ihkdhevdm dhgp_gljZpb_c ZffbZdZ h[jZah\Z\r_]hky ijb
^bkkhpbZpbb dhfie_dkgh]h bhgZ fh`gh ij_g_[j_qv ^himkdZ_f qlh
dhgp_gljZpbyZffbZdZ\ihemq_gghfjZkl\hj_jZ\gZ_]hba[ulhqghc
dhgp_gljZpbbbkhklZ\ey_lfheveBkdhfmxdhgp_gljZpbxbhgh\
Ag+h[hagZqbfq_j_ao:
< Ag+ +
2NH3
[Ag(NH3)2]+
fheve
ofheve
fheve
AgZq_gbydhgp_gljZpbcbhgh\ih^klZ\bf\\ujZ`_gb_dhgklZglu
g_klhcdhklbdhfie_dkgh]hbhgZ
K ( g_kl ) =
c(Ag + ) c 2 ( NH 3 )
x 102
8
1
10
.
=
=
0,05
c([Ag( NH 3 ) 2 ]+ )
Hlkx^Zo = 51012fheve
JZkkqblZ_fagZq_gb_IDbhgh\Ag+bCl\ihemq_gghfjZkl\hj_
ID kAg+) c(Cl) =5 1012 101 = 51013.
Ihkdhevdm agZq_gb_ ID f_gvr_ agZq_gby IJ(AgCl) jZ\gh]h
10
10 lhhkZ^hdAgClg_\uiZ^Z_lbdhfie_dk>Ag(NH3)2]+\wlbomkeh
\byobhgZfb&Og_jZajmrZ_lky
Ijbf_j.;m^_lebjZajmrZlvkydhfie_dkgucbhg>Ag(NH3)2]+\
mkeh\byoijbf_jZijbaZf_g_.&OgZ.,"
J_r_gb_:
AZibr_fmjZ\g_gb_j_Zdpbb\aZbfh^_ckl\bydhfie_dkgh]hbhgZ
kbh^b^-ZgbhgZfb
[Ag(NH3)2]+ + I< AgI + 2NH3.
IJ$J, 1016LZddZd 1013 > 1 1016lhhkZ^hdAgI\u
iZ^Z_lbke_^h\Zl_evghdhfie_dkgucbhg>$J1+3)2]+\l_o`_mkeh
\byobhgZfb,jZajmrZ_lky
1. Knhjfmebjmcl_ hkgh\gu_ iheh`_gby dhhj^bgZpbhgghc l_hjbb
: <_jg_jZbijhbeexkljbjmcl_bogZijbf_jZo
2. DZdh\hkljh_gb_dhfie_dkguokh_^bg_gbc"
3. DZdhij_^_eblvaZjy^dhfie_dkgh]hbhgZbaZjy^dhfie_dkhh[jZ
ah\Zl_ey"
4. DZdh\Zijbjh^Zobfbq_kdhck\yab\dhfie_dkguokh_^bg_gbyo"
5. Q_f h[tykgy_lky hkh[Zy kdehgghklv d-we_f_glh\ h[jZah\u\Zlv
dhfie_dkgu_kh_^bg_gby"
113
6. GZq_fhkgh\Zgukihkh[udeZkkbnbdZpbbdhfie_dkguokh_^bg_
gbc"
7. Ijb\_^bl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcdhlhjufbfh`ghih^l\_j^blvgZ
oh`^_gb_ bhgh\ Cl b SO 24 \h \gmlj_gg_c beb \g_rg_c kn_jZo
dhfie_dkh\
8. GZah\bl_ lbiu bahf_jbb b ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju bahf_jh\ \ dhf
ie_dkguokh_^bg_gbyo
9. Hlq_]haZ\bkbl\_ebqbgZdhhj^bgZpbhggh]hqbkeZdhfie_dkhh[
jZah\Zl_ey"
10. Q_fh[mkeh\e_gZ^_glZlghklveb]Zg^h\"
11. GZhkgh\Zgbbf_lh^Z\Ze_glguok\ya_ch[tykgbl_khklZ\bkljh_
gb_ZffbZdZlZpbgdZdjbheblZdZj[hgbeZgbd_ey
12. Bah[jZabl_kljh_gb_hdkZeZlgh]hbpbljZlgh]hdhfie_dkh\Fe3+b
Zn2+.
13. <q_faZdexqZ_lkyjZaebqb_f_`^mdhfie_dkgufbkh_^bg_gbyfb
b^\hcgufbkheyfb"
14. DZdb_nZdlhju\ebyxlgZmklhcqb\hklvdhfie_dkguokh_^bg_gbc
\jZkl\hjZo"
15. QlhgZau\Z_lkyo_eZlgufwnn_dlhfbq_fhgh[mkeh\e_g"
16. DZd fh`gh h[tykgblv \ukhdmx lhdkbqghklv khe_c ly`_euo f_
lZeeh\"
17. DZdb_k\hckl\Zdhfie_dkh\bkihevamxlijbih^[hj_e_dZjkl\êy
e_q_gbyijbhljZ\e_gbyo"QlhlZdh_Zglb^hl?
18. Ihq_fm fh`gh hkeZ[blv k ihfhsvx dhfie_dkhgh\ lhdkbq_kdh_
^_ckl\b_bhgh\ly`_euof_lZeeh\gZhj]Zgbafq_eh\_dZ"
19. Qlhkh[hcij_^klZ\ey_l]_fdjh\b"Ihq_fm]_fh]eh[bgjZ\ghp_g
gh\aZbfh^_ckl\m_ldZdkdbkehjh^hflZdbkm]Zjguf]Zahf"
AZ^Zqbêyj_r_gby
234. Ba jZkl\hjZ kheb khklZ\Z 3W&O4 6NH3 gbljZl k_j_[jZ hkZ`^Z_l
\_kv oehj \ \b^_ oehjb^Z k_j_[jZ Z ba jZkl\hjZ kheb
PtCl4 3NH3 lhevdh qZklv \oh^ys_]h \ __ khklZ\ oehjZ GZ
ibkZlv dhhj^bgZpbhggu_ nhjfmeu b ^Zlv gZa\Zgby wlbo khe_c
hij_^_eblv dhhj^bgZpbhggh_ qbkeh ieZlbgu \ dZ`^hc ba gbo
DZd[m^ml^bkkhpbbjh\Zlvwlb\_s_kl\Z\jZkl\hj_"
235. >\Zdhhj^bgZpbhgguokh_^bg_gbydh[ZevlZkh^bgZdh\hcwfib
jbq_kdhcnhjfmehc&R%U6245NH3JZaebqbyf_`^mgbfbijhy\
eyxlky \ j_Zdpbyo bo \aZbfh^_ckl\by \ jZkl\hjZo k %D&O2 b
AgNO3 H^gZ khev ^Z_l hkZ^hd lhevdh k oehjb^hf [Zjby Z \lh
114
jZy lhevdh k gbljZlhf k_j_[jZ GZibrbl_ dhhj^bgZpbhggu_

nhjfmeu ^Zcl_ gZa\Zgby h[_bo khe_c b mjZ\g_gby bo we_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbb
236. DjZkl\hjmkh^_j`Zs_fm]Z^^mdlZ&R&O2 4NH3^h[Z\beb\^hklZlhqghfdhebq_kl\_jZkl\hj$J123FZkkZhkZ^dZkhklZ\beZ]Hij_^_ebl_dhhj^bgZpbhggmxnhjfmemdhfie_dkZ
bgZah\bl__]h
237. GZibrbl_ \ fhe_dmeyjghc b bhggh-fhe_dmeyjghc nhjfZo mjZ\
g_gbyh[f_gguoj_Zdpbcijhbkoh^ysbof_`^mZ.4[Fe(CN)6@b
CuSO4[1D3[Co(CN)6@b)H624\.3[Fe(CN)6@b$J123bf_y\
\b^mqlhh[jZamxsb_kydhhj^bgZpbhggu_khebg_jZkl\hjbfu\
\h^_Ijb\_^bl_bogZa\Zgby
238. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbch[jZah\Zgbydhfie_dkguodbkehlb
hkgh\Zgbcijb\aZbfh^_ckl\bb3W&O4b+&O$J&Ob+&O3E&O2b
HCl; SiF4 b +) )H&12 b +&1 %)3 b +) &XOH)2 b 1+3;
Ni(OH)2 b 1+3 Ijb\_^bl_ mjZ\g_gby we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkh
pbZpbbihemq_gguokh_^bg_gbc
239. GZibrbl_dhhj^bgZpbhggu_nhjfmeuke_^mxsbodhfie_dkguo
kh_^bg_gbc Z ]_dkZgbljblhdh[ZevlZl ,,, dZeby [ Zffbggbl
jhl_ljZoehjhdh[ZevlZl ,,, Zffhgby \ ljbnlhjh]b^jhdkh[_
jbeeZl ]Zeeby ,,, ^ l_ljZlbhpbZgh^bZffbgojhfZl ,,, Zffh
gby MdZ`bl_ dhhj^bgZpbhggh_ qbkeh dhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_ey b
aZjy^\gmlj_gg_ckn_judZ`^h]hdhfie_dkZ
240. >Zcl_gZa\Zgbyke_^mxsbokh_^bg_gbc>3G1+3)3Cl]Cl; K4[Fe(CN)6];
[Pd(H2O)2NH3Cl]Cl; [Co(H2O)(NH3)4CN]Br2; [Co(NH3)5SO4]NO3;
(NH4)2[Rh(NH3)Cl5]; Na2[PdI4@>&X1G3)4](NO3)2; K2[Co(NH3)2(NO2)4].
GZibrbl_\ujZ`_gbydhgklZglg_klhcdhklbdhfie_dkh\bmdZ`bl_dhhj^bgZpbhggu_qbkeZdhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zl_e_c
241. DZd h[tykgblv qlh dhfie_dkguc bhg >$J1+3)2]+ jZajmrZ_lky
m`_ ijb ih^dbke_gbb jZkl\hjZ Z ZgZeh]bqguc bhg >3W1+3)4]2+
khojZgy_lky^Z`_ijb^_ckl\bbdhgp_gljbjh\Zgghckheyghcdb
kehlu"
242. Ihq_fmijbh^ghfblhf`_fheyjghfba[uld_j_Z]_glZZhkZ
^hd $J&O g_ jZkl\hjy_lky \ kheyghc dbkehl_ gh jZkl\hjy_lky \
jZkl\hj_ZffbZdZ[hkZ^hd$J,g_jZkl\hjy_lky\jZkl\hj_Zf
fbZdZghjZkl\hjy_lky\jZkl\hj_pbZgb^ZgZljby"
243. Q_f hij_^_ey_lky \hafh`ghklv aZf_gu h^gbo eb]Zg^h\ \ dhhj
^bgZpbhgghf kh_^bg_gbb gZ ^jm]b_" Hij_^_ebl_ gZijZ\e_gb_
j_Zdpbc\jZkl\hjZo
115
Z) [Ag(CN)2]122<>$J122)2]&1
[) [Ag(NO2)2]&1<>$J&12]122
244. Fh`ghebbaZffbZqgh]hdhfie_dkZk_j_[jZ^_ckl\b_fkhhl\_l
kl\mxsbo eb]Zg^h\ ihemqblv >$J122)2] b >$J&12]" Hl\_l
fhlb\bjmcl_
245. H[tykgbl_ ijhp_kk jZkl\hj_gby hkZ^dh\ Zfnhl_jguo ]b^jhdkb
^h\\dbkehlZobs_ehqZodZdij_\jZs_gb_h^gbodhfie_dkh\\
^jm]b_>hibrbl_mjZ\g_gby
Z>&U+2O)6]3+ + OH
:hkZ^hd
3+
[>&U+2O)6] + OH ba[ :

:hkZ^hd
\>&U2G6]3 + 3H3H+
3
+
]>&U2G6] + H3H ba[ :
246. >hibrbl_ijb\_^_ggu_gb`_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcMdZ`bl_ddZ
dhfm lbim hlghkblky dZ`^Zy ba gbo b q_f hij_^_ey_lky __ gZ
ijZ\e_gghklv"
K2[CuCl4] + NH3 :
Fe3+ + [Fe(CN)6]4- :
Fe2+ + [Fe(CN)6]3- :
[Co(NO2)6]3- + K+ :
Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO3 :>&X623)4]6-+
[Co(NO2)6]3- + N2H4:1D122 + N2 +
Na3[Ag(S2O3)2] + Na2S :
[Ni(NH3)6]SO4 + NaOH :1L2+2+
K4[Fe(CN)6] + Cl2 :
[Co(H2O)6]3+ + Cl- :&O2 +
CoSO4 + NaNO2 + CH3COOH :
:1D3[Co(NO2)6] + NO +
247. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcoZjZdl_jbamxsb_ij_\jZs_gby
Ag+ :>Ag(NH3)2]+ :AgI :>Ag(CN)2]:Ag2S.
DZdh[tykgblv\hafh`ghklvdZ`^h]hbagbo"
116
,,G?HJ=:GBQ?KD:YOBFBY
IJBF?JG:YKO?F:HIBK:GBYOBFBQ?KDBO
WE?F?GLH<BBOKH?>BG?GBC
1. H[sb_k\_^_gbyhobfbq_kdbowe_f_glZoiheh`_gb_\i_jbh^b
q_kdhc kbkl_f_ hldjulb_ kh^_j`Zgb_ \ a_fghc dhj_ hkgh\gu_
ijbjh^gu_kh_^bg_gby
2. We_dljhggu_dhgnb]mjZpbbZlhfh\
3. OZjZdl_jbaf_g_gbyZlhfguooZjZdl_jbklbdwe_f_glh\ih]jmii_
ZlhfgZy fZkkZ dh\Ze_glguc f_lZeebq_kdbc b bhgguc jZ^bmku
ihl_gpbZeubhgbaZpbbkjh^kl\hdwe_dljhgmwe_dljhhljbpZl_ev
ghklvkl_i_gbhdbke_gby
4. Hkgh\gu_ nbabdh-obfbq_kdb_ k\hckl\Z ijhkluo \_s_kl\ Z]j_
]Zlgh_ khklhygb_ p\_l iehlghklv l_fi_jZlmju ieZ\e_gby b db
i_gbywe_dljhijh\h^ghklv
5. Kihkh[uihemq_gbyijhfure_ggu_beZ[hjZlhjgu_\_s_kl\
6. Obfbq_kdb_k\hckl\Zijhkluo\_s_kl\
Zj_Zdpbbkijhklufb\_s_kl\Zfb\h^hjh^dbkehjh^]Zeh]_gu
k_jZZahlnhknhjm]e_jh^f_lZeeu
[ j_Zdpbb k \Z`g_crbfb j_Z]_glZfb \h^Z dbkehlu s_ehqb
hdkbûkheb
7. Ihemq_gb_ kljh_gb_ b obfbq_kdb_ k\hckl\Z hkgh\guo lbih\ kh
_^bg_gbc
: ;bgZjgu_kh_^bg_gby
Zkh_^bg_gbyk\h^hjh^hf
[]Zeh]_gbû
\hdkbû
]kh_^bg_gbyk^jm]bfbg_f_lZeeZfb
^kh_^bg_gbykf_lZeeZfb
;Fgh]hdhfihg_glgu_kh_^bg_gby
Z]b^jhdkbûdbkehluhkgh\Zgby
[kheb
\dhfie_dkgu_kh_^bg_gby
8. <aZbfhk\yavf_`^mhkgh\gufblbiZfbkh_^bg_gbc
9. Ijbf_g_gb_
Zijhkluo\_s_kl\
[kh_^bg_gbc
10. ;bheh]bq_kdZyjhevwe_f_glh\bbokh_^bg_gbc\hj]Zgbaf_q_eh
\_dZb`b\hlguoIjbf_g_gb_kh_^bg_gbcwe_f_glh\\f_^bpbg_
117
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
J-WE?F?GLU9,,=JMIIU
IjhZgZebabjh\ZlvaZdhghf_jghklb\baf_g_gbbjZ^bmkh\Zlhfh\
bhgbaZpbhgguoihl_gpbZeh\kjh^kl\Zdwe_dljhgmwe_dljhhljb
pZl_evghklbZlhfh\ZlZd`_wg_j]bbobfbq_kdhck\yabbl_jfb
q_kdhcmklhcqb\hklbfhe_dme\jy^m]Zeh]_gh\
DZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyijhy\eyxl]Zeh]_gu\k\hbokh_^bg_gb
yo"DZdh\uhkh[_gghklb\Ze_glguokhklhygbcnlhjZ"
Ijhbeexkljbjh\Zlv j_Zdpbyfb ijhfure_ggu_ b eZ[hjZlhjgu_
kihkh[uihemq_gby]Zeh]_gh\
>Zlv kjZ\gbl_evgmx oZjZdl_jbklbdm hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguok\hckl\]Zeh]_gh\gZijbf_jZojZaebqguoj_Zdpbc
GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcihemq_gby\k_o]Zeh]_gh\h^hjh^h\
DZdh\uhkh[_gghklbwlboijhp_kkh\"
DZd baf_gyxlky hkgh\gu_ nbabq_kdb_ k\hckl\Zbijhqghklvfh
e_dme\jy^m+) HI?
IjhZgZebabjmcl_ oZjZdl_j baf_g_gby hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguobdbkehlguok\hckl\\jy^m]Zeh]_gh\h^hjh^h\
GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc\aZbfh^_ckl\by]Zeh]_gh\k\h^hcb
jZkl\hjZfbs_ehq_coheh^gufbb]hjyqbfb
DZdb^_ljZaeh`_gb_oehjgh\Zlbklhcdbkehluih^^_ckl\b_fk\_
lZijbgZ]j_\Zgbb\ijbkmlkl\bb\h^hhlgbfZxs_]h\_s_kl\Z"
DZdb_ j_Zdpbb bkihevamxlky h[uqgh êy ihemq_gby oehjZlh\ b
i_joehjZlh\"
>_ckl\b_f dZdbo ]Zeh]_gh\fh`gh\u^_eblvk\h[h^guc[jhfba
jZkl\hjh\Z[jhfb^ZdZeby[[jhfZlZdZeby"H[hkgh\Zlv^Zg
gufbhklZg^Zjlguowe_dljh^guoihl_gpbZeZobijhbeexkljbjh
\Zlvj_Zdpbyfb
DZd baf_gyxlky kbeZ dbkehl b hdbkebl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z \ jy^Zo
HClO HClO2 HClO3 HClO4b+&O2 HBrO +,2"Ihq_fm"
Qlh lZdh_ oehjgZy ba\_klv `Z\_e_\Zy \h^Z" Ijhbeexkljbjh\Zlv
j_Zdpbyfbbok\hckl\Z
KjZ\gblv]b^jhebam_fhklvkhe_c\jy^Zo
1) KClO KClO2 KClO3 KClO4;
2) KClO KBrO KIO?
H[hkgh\Zlvg_\hafh`ghklvihemq_gbyhdkb^h\]Zeh]_gh\boijy
fuf\aZbfh^_ckl\b_fkdbkehjh^hf
DZdmx ]_hf_ljbq_kdmx dhgnb]mjZpbx bf_xl bhgu &O2-, ClO2-,
ClO3-, ClO4-?
DZdb_ g_hj]Zgbq_kdb_ kh_^bg_gby oehjZ nlhjZ [jhfZ b bh^Z
ijbf_gyxlky\f_^bpbg_"
118
18. G_ba\_klguc]Zeh]_gh\h^hjhîjhimklbeb\jZkl\hjs_ehqbfZk
khc]kfZkkh\hc^he_cDHG<h[jZah\Z\r_fkyg_c
ljZevghfjZkl\hj_fZkkh\Zy^heykhebjZ\gZHij_^_eblv
]Zeh]_gh\h^hjh^
19. JZkkqblZlvh[t_foehjZgmbh[t_fjZkl\hjZ]b^jhdkb^ZdZeby
k_]hfZkkh\hc^he_cbiehlghklvx]feg_h[oh^bfuo
êyihemq_gby[_jlhe_lh\hckhebfZkkhc]_keb__fZkkh\Zy
^hey\uoh^ZjZ\gZ
20. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ijb ihfhsb dhlhjuo fh`gh hkm
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) PbBr2 HBr Br2 KBrO3 HBrO3 FeBr3;
[) Cl2 HCl KCl Cl2 BaCl2 HCl;
\) Cl2 KClO3 KClO4 HClO4 ClO2 HClO3.
21. GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyke_^mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z.2Cr2O7+&Odhgp
[) KI + H2SO4 (dhgp.)
\) HBrO3 + I2
]I2 + HNO3dhgp
^) HClO3 + HCl
_) K2Cr2O7 + KI + H2SO4 (jZa[.)
`) I2 + H2S (j-j)
a) KI + H2O2 + H2SO4
b) Cl2 + I2 + Ba(OH)2
d&O2 + KI + KOH
e) HClO4 + P2O5
f) CaOCl2 + HCl
g+&O3E22
h%U2 + F2 + H2O
i) HClO3 + P + H2O
J-WE?F?GLU9,=JMIIU
JZkkfhljbl_ kljh_gb_ Zlhfh\ b \Ze_glgu_ khklhygby we_f_glh\
]eZ\ghcih^]jmiiu9,]jmiiu
2. DZdbaf_gyxlkyjZ^bmkubhgbaZpbhggu_ihl_gpbZeukjh^kl\hd
we_dljhgmbwe_dljhhljbpZl_evghklv\jy^mdbkehjhîhehgbc"
3. DZdbihq_fmbaf_gy_lkyZ]j_]Zlgh_khklhygb_bkhklZ\ijhkluo
\_s_kl\\jy^m2 Po?
4. Ijhbeexkljbjmcl_khhl\_lkl\mxsbfbj_ZdpbyfboZjZdl_jbaf_
g_gby hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguo k\hckl\ \ jy^m dbkehjh^ ihehgbc
1.
119
5. DZd baf_gyxlky l_fi_jZlmju ieZ\e_gbydbi_gbybl_jfbq_kdZy

mklhcqb\hklv\jy^m+2O H2Po?
6. >Zlv kjZ\gbl_evgmx oZjZdl_jbklbdm baf_g_gby dbkehlgh-hkgh\guo b hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguo k\hckl\ \h^hjh^guo kh
_^bg_gbcwe_f_glh\9,]jmiiu
7. JZkkfhljbl_ jZkl\hjbfhklv b ]b^jhebam_fhklv kmevnb^h\ jZa
ebqguof_lZeeh\
8. JZkkfhljbl_ kihkh[u ihemq_gby hdkb^h\ k_ju DZd baf_gyxlky
hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Zmwlbokh_^bg_gbc"
9. K_jgbklZy dbkehlZ b __ kheb Kljh_gb_ hdbkebl_evgh\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Zijbf_g_gb_
10. DZdbaf_gy_lkymklhcqb\hklvdbkehlgu_k\hckl\Zbhdbkebl_ev
gh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgZykihkh[ghklv\jy^m+2SO3 H2TeO3?
11. DZdmx j_Zdpbx kj_û bf_xl jZkl\hju Na2SO3 b NaHSO3" <u
qbkebl_D]êykmevnbl-b]b^jhkmevnbl-bhgh\ihevamykvagZq_
gb_fdhgklZgl^bkkhpbZpbbk_jgbklhcdbkehlu
12. K_jgZy dbkehlZ ?_ kljh_gb_ ihemq_gb_ dbkehlgu_ b hdbkeb
l_evgu_k\hckl\ZOZjZdl_j\aZbfh^_ckl\bykf_lZeeZfbbg_f_
lZeeZfbIjhbeexkljbjh\Zlvj_Zdpbyfb
13. DZdh\oZjZdl_jbaf_g_gbydbkehlguobhdbkebl_evguok\hckl\\
jy^mk_jgZyl_eemjh\Zydbkehlu"
14. QlhlZdh_he_mf"DZdh\Z_]hobfbq_kdZyijbjh^Z"QlhlZdh_ih
ebk_jgu_dbkehlu"GZjbkh\Zlvkljmdlmjm^bk_jghcdbkehlu
15. >ZlvoZjZdl_jbklbdmiheblbhgh\ufdbkehlZfbbokheyf
16. Lbhk_jgZy dbkehlZ ?_kljh_gb_bhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\ZlbhkmevnZl-bhgZ
17. Qlh lZdh_ i_jhdkh^bk_jgZy dbkehlZ" Kihkh[u __ ihemq_gby
k\hckl\Zbijbf_g_gb_
18. Kf_kv [_jlhe_lh\hckhebkdZlZebaZlhjhfMnO2h[s_cfZkkhc
]gZ]j_ebbihemqbebkf_kvl\_jûo\_s_kl\\dhlhjhcfZk
kh\Zy^heydZlZebaZlhjZjZ\gZ<uqbkeblvh[t_f]ZaZgm
\u^_eb\r_]hkyijbijhdZeb\Zgbbbkoh^ghckf_kb_kebfZkkh\Zy
^heyMnO2\g_cjZ\gZ
19. GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyke_^mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z)H62 + O2
[) S + NaOH
\) H2S + SO2
]) Na2S + S
^) NaBr + H2SO4 (dhgp.)
_+2SO4dhgpjZa[+ Fe, Al, Cu, Zn
120
`+2SO4dhgpjZa[+ C, P, I2
a) Na2S2O3+ Cl2
b) Na2S2O3 + I2
d) H2S + K2Cr2O7 + HCl
e) SO2 + KMnO4 + H2O
f) Na2SO3 + K2S + H2SO4
g) H2SeO4 + Au
h) SO2 + NO2
i) As2S3 + HNO3 + H2O
j) Se + NaOH
k) Al2Te3 + H2O
l) H2S + HNO3
m) SO2 + SeO2
n) H2Se + S
o) Na2SeO3 + HI
p) Na2S2O4 + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4
q) K2S2O8 + FeSO4
20. Fh`gh eb ihemqblv +2O2 g_ihkj_^kl\_gguf \aZbfh^_ckl\b_f
\h^hjh^Zbdbkehjh^Z"Hl\_lh[hkgh\Zlv
21. MdZaZlv kihkh[u ihemq_gby i_jhdkb^Z \h^hjh^Z ijb\_klb mjZ\
g_gbyj_Zdpbc
22. HibkZlvkljh_gb_fhe_dmeu+2O2Ihq_fmwlZfhe_dmeZiheyjgZ"
23. GZibkZlv mjZ\g_gb_ j_Zdpbb jZaeh`_gby i_jhdkb^Z \h^hjh^Z D
dZdhfmlbimhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguoj_ZdpbchgZhlgh
kblky"
24. Ijb\_klb ijbf_ju hdbkebl_evgh]h b \hkklZgh\bl_evgh]h ^_ckl
\byG2H2GZq_fhkgh\Zghijbf_g_gb_G2H2\f_^bpbg_
25. GZibkZlv \ bhggh-fhe_dmeyjghc nhjf_ mjZ\g_gb_ j_Zdpbb ]b^
jhebaZ1D2O2KhojZgblebjZkl\hji_jhdkb^ZgZljbyk\hb[_ey
sb_k\hckl\Z\dbiys_fjZkl\hj_"
26. GZibkZlvmjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc\aZbfh^_ckl\byi_jhdkb^Z\h^hjh^Z
k i_jfZg]ZgZlhf dZeby \ dbkehc kj_^_ bh^b^hf dZeby \ dbkehc
kj_^_ojhfblhfdZeby\s_ehqghckj_^_
27. Ijb\_klbijbf_jubgZibkZlvkljmdlmjgu_nhjfmeui_jhdkhdbk
ehl
28. DZdhc ba hkmrbl_e_c dhgp_gljbjh\Zggmx k_jgmx dbkehlm
l\_j^mxs_ehqvbeb[_a\h^gucoehjb^dZevpbyfh`ghbkihev
ah\Zlvêyhkmr_gbyk_jh\h^hjh^Z"
121
29. DZdb_khebk_jghcdbkehlubihq_fmijbf_gyxl\f_^bpbgkdhc
ijZdlbd_"
30. AZdhgqblvmjZ\g_gbyke_^mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z+2O2 + NaI
[) Na2O2 + NaBr + H2SO4
\+2O2 + KMnO4
]) H2O2 + K2Cr2O7 + HCl
^) H2O2 + As2S3 + NaOH
_) Na2SH3 + KMnO4 + H2SO4
`) TeO2 + KOH
a) PoO2 + HNO3
b) TeO2 + H2O2 + H2O
d) O3 + CrCl3 + KOH
e) O3 + PbS
f) H2O2 + I2
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) S H2S Na2S Na2Sn SO2 S;
[) SO2 NaHSO3 Na2SO3 Na2SO4 NaHSO4 Na2S2O7;
\) KMnO4 O2 Na2O2 H2O2 I2;
]) NaHSO3 Na2S2O5 NaHSO3 Na2SO3 Na2S2O3
Na2S4O6.
J-WE?F?GLU9=JMIIU
JZkkfhljbl_ hkh[_gghklb kljh_gby ZlhfZ ZahlZ b _]h \Ze_glguo
khklhygbc\kjZ\g_gbbklZdh\ufbêynhknhjZbhklZevguowe_
f_glh\ih^]jmiiu
2. DZd baf_gyxlky jZ^bmk ZlhfZ b wg_j]by _]h bhgbaZpbb \ jy^m
Zahl \bkfml" DZdh\Z bo \aZbfhk\yav k nbabq_kdbfb b obfbq_
kdbfbk\hckl\Zfbkh_^bg_gbcwlbowe_f_glh\"
3. DZdbaf_gy_lkymklhcqb\hklvkh_^bg_gbc\kl_i_gbhdbke_gby
\jy^mnhknhj\bkfml"
4. KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ihemq_gby ZahlZ b nhknhjZ ba bo
kh_^bg_gbc
5. DZdh\umkeh\bykbgl_aZZffbZdZbaijhkluo\_s_kl\"Hl\_lfh
lb\bjmcl_
6. DZdbaf_gyxlkywg_j]bybiheyjghklvk\yabW-G\jy^mZffbZd
\bkfmlbgbdZdh\hbo\ebygb_gZnbabq_kdb_bobfbq_kdb_k\hc
kl\Zwlbokh_^bg_gbc"
1.
122
7. DZdh\uhkh[_gghklbijhl_dZgbyj_Zdpbbhdbke_gbyZffbZdZdb
kehjh^hf\ha^moZ"
8. DZdb_ \_s_kl\Z h[jZamxlky ijb ijhimkdZgbb q_j_a jZkl\hj Zf
fbZdZ]Zah\&22, NO, NO2, SO2, SO3?
9. Ijb\_^bl_ oZjZdl_jgu_ êy ZffbZdZ j_Zdpbb ijbkh_^bg_gby
aZf_s_gby
10. DZdb_ \_s_kl\Z fh`gh bkihevah\Zlv êy hkmrdb ]Zahh[jZagh]h
ZffbZdZ nhknhjguc Zg]b^jb^ dhgp_gljbjh\Zggmx k_jgmx db
kehlmdZmklbq_kdmxkh^ml\_jûcDHG"Hl\_lfhlb\bjmcl_
11. KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc l_jfbq_kdh]h jZaeh`_gbygbljZlZ
gbljblZ nhknZlZ oehjb^Z b ^bojhfZlZ Zffhgby DZd ^hdZaZlv
qlhi_j_qbke_ggu_kheby\eyxlkykheyfbZffhgby"
12. Bah[jZabl_kljmdlmjmhdkb^h\ZahlZbgZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zd
pbcbo\aZbfh^_ckl\byk\h^hcbjZkl\hjhfs_ehqb
13. Hlghkylkyebj_Zdpbb\aZbfh^_ckl\by^bhdkb^ZZahlZk\h^hcbk
jZkl\hjhf s_ehqb d hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evguf" Hl\_l
ih^l\_j^bl_mjZ\g_gbyfbj_Zdpbc
14. KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc\dhlhjuoZahlbklZydbkehlZy\ey
_lkyZ\hkklZgh\bl_e_f[hdbkebl_e_f
15. Bah[jZabl_ kljmdlmjm Zahlghc dbkehluKhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gb_j_
Zdpbb__jZaeh`_gby
16. <u^_ey_lky eb \h^hjh^ ijb \aZbfh^_ckl\bb jZa[Z\e_gghc Zahl
ghcdbkehlukZdlb\gufbf_lZeeZfb"
17. DZdh\h ^_ckl\b_ dhgp_gljbjh\Zgghc Zahlghc dbkehlu gZ f_lZe
eu" >h dZdhc kl_i_gb hdbke_gby ijb wlhf \hkklZgZ\eb\Z_lky
Zahl"QlhlZdh_iZkkb\Zpbyf_lZeeZ"
18. KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcl_jfbq_kdh]hjZaeh`_gbygbljZlh\
dZebyf_^b,,k\bgpZbk_j_[jZ
19. Q_f h[mkeh\e_gZ jZaebqgZy obfbq_kdZy Zdlb\ghklv [_eh]h b
djZkgh]hnhknhjZ"Bah[jZabl_bokljmdlmjm
20. KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc]hj_gbynhknbgZbZffbZdZ
21. KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \aZbfh^_ckl\by k \h^hc nhknb^h\
dZevpbyZexfbgbybpbgdZbkihevam_fuo\dZq_kl\_y^hobfbdZ
lh\ Y\eyxlky eb ^Zggu_j_Zdpbbhdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgufb"
22. KhklZ\vl_]jZnbq_kdb_nhjfmeuhdkb^h\bdbkehlnhknhjZHi
j_^_ebl_\Ze_glghklvdhhj^bgZpbhggh_qbkehbkl_i_gvhdbke_
gby nhknhjZ \ wlbo fhe_dmeZo Z lZd`_ hkgh\ghklv nhknhjguo
dbkehl
123
23. KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ihemq_gby nhknhjghc dbkehlu

^\mfykihkh[Zfb\ijhfure_gghklbZlZd`_nhknhjguom^h[
j_gbc ijhklh]h b ^\hcgh]hkmi_jnhknZlZij_pbiblZlZbZffh
nhkZ
24. GZibrbl_\bhgghcbbhggh-fhe_dmeyjghcnhjf_mjZ\g_gbyj_
Zdpbb ]b^jhebaZ nhknZlZ gZljby DZdh\Z j_Zdpby kj_û \h^guo
jZkl\hjh\nhknZlZb^b]b^jhnhknZlZgZljby"
25. DZdb_ ihebf_jgu_ kh_^bg_gby nhknhjZ b]jZxl \Z`gmx jhev \
`bag_^_yl_evghklb`b\uohj]Zgbafh\"
26. KhklZ\vl_mjZ\g_gby]b^jhebaZoehjb^h\nhknhjZQlhlZdh_]Z
eh]_gZg]b^jb^"
27. DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z ]b^jhdkb^h\
j-we_f_glh\9]jmiiu"
28. <khklZ\dZdbo[bhfhe_dmehj]ZgbafZ\oh^ylnhknhjbZahl"
29. <k_hdkbûZahlZiheghklvxj_Z]bjmxlkjZkdZe_gghcf_^vxh[
jZamy CuO b N2 DZdh\Z nhjfmeZ hdkb^Z ZahlZ _keb fZkkZ ihem
q_ggh]h CuO khklZ\beZ ] b Zahl \u^_ebeky h[t_fhf
200 kf3 gm"
30. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcbjZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb_glu
Z/L12
[) Mg3N2 + H2O
\+122 + H2O2
]) HNO2 + H2S
^) KNO2 + K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4
_) KNO2 + KI + H2SO4
`) NO2 + H2O
a) N2O4 + Ca(OH)2
b12H4 + O2
d1+4Cl + CuO
e+123dhgp+ Cu (Ag, Zn, Fe, Al, Mg)
f+123jZa[+ Cu (Ag, Zn, Fe, Al, Mg)
g) Sb2O5 + KOH + H2O
h) H3PO3 + AgNO3 + H2O
i) H3PO4 + CaCl2
j) As2S5 + HNO3(dhgp.)
k) PH3 + KMnO4 + H2SO4
l) HNO3 + Cu2S
m) NaBiO3 + NaI + H2SO4
n) Sb + HNO3(dhgp.)
124

s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) NH3 N2 NO NO2 KNO3 O2;
[) Ca3(PO4)2 P4 H3PO4 (ZnOH)3PO4 Zn(H2PO4)2
Zn3(PO4)2;
\) P4 Ca3P2 PH3 P4O10 Ca3(PO4)2 Ca(H2PO4)2;
]) HNO3 NH3 (NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 Na3N NH4NO3.
J-WE?F?GLU,9=JMIIU
JZkkfhljbl_kljh_gb_Zlhfh\b\hafh`gu_\Ze_glgu_khklhygby
j-we_f_glh\,9]jmiiuDZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyijhy\eyxlmdZ
aZggu_we_f_glu\kh_^bg_gbyo"
2. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ baf_g_gb_ Zlhfguo jZ^bmkh\ wg_j]bb bhgbaZ
pbb kjh^kl\Z d we_dljhgm b we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklb \ jy^m K
Pb.
3. DZd b ihq_fm baf_gy_lky mklhcqb\hklv kh_^bg_gbc mdZaZgguo
we_f_glh\\bo\ukr_ckl_i_gbhdbke_gby\jy^mC Pb?
4. DZdb_ijhklu_\_s_kl\Zh[jZamxlj-we_f_glu,9]jmiiu"DZdb_
lbiudjbklZeebq_kdboj_r_lhdoZjZdl_jguêygbo"JZkkfhljbl_
kljh_gb_ ZefZaZ ]jZnblZ dZj[bgZ ihebdmfme_gZ nmee_j_gh\
\bûk\ya_clbiu]b[jb^baZpbbZlhfguohj[blZe_cijhkljZg
kl\_ggh_jZkiheh`_gb_Zlhfh\Ihq_fmg_kms_kl\m_l]jZnblh
ih^h[gZyfh^bnbdZpbydj_fgby"
5. DZd b ihq_fm baf_gy_lky wg_j]by k\yab W W \ jy^m m]e_jh^
]_jfZgbc" Q_f h[tykgy_lkykihkh[ghklvZlhfh\m]e_jh^Zkh_^b
gylvky\êbggu_p_ib"
6. DZd baf_gyxlky hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z ijh
kluo \_s_kl\ ijb i_j_oh^_ hl m]e_jh^Z d k\bgpm" HoZjZdl_jb
amcl_bohlghr_gb_d\h^_dbkehlZfs_ehqZfkheyfGZibrbl_
mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
7. JZkkfhljbl_ kljh_gb_ fhe_dme mklhcqb\hklv hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Z\h^hjh^guokh_^bg_gbcDZdbaf_gy_l
kyl_fi_jZlmjZdbi_gby\jy^m&+4 SnH4kjZ\gblvkZgZeh]bq
gufb aZ\bkbfhklyfb êy ]b^jb^h\ j-we_f_glh\ 99,, ]jmii"
<hafh`gh eb kms_kl\h\Zgb_ g_ij_^_evguo kbeZgh\ ijb klZg
^Zjlguomkeh\byo"
8. IjhZgZebabjmcl_ kljh_gb_ fhe_dmeu KH Q_f fh`gh h[tykgblv
\ukhdmxwg_j]bxk\yab\g_c"DZdwg_j]byk\yabkdZau\Z_lkygZ
mklhcqb\hklbbobfbq_kdhcZdlb\ghklbhdkb^Zm]e_jh^Z,,"
1.
125
9. Ihq_fmwg_j]byk\yabSi O[hevr_wg_j]bbk\yabKH"
10. Ihq_fm hdkb^ dj_fgby ,9 \ hlebqb_ hl KH2, l\_j^h_ \_s_kl\h"
11. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ aZ\bkbfhklv dbkehlgh-hkgh\guo k\hckl\ hdkb
^h\b]b^jhdkb^h\mdZaZgguowe_f_glh\hlkl_i_gbbohdbke_gby
DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z h^ghlbiguo hdkb
^h\b]b^jhdkb^h\\jy^mm]e_jh^k\bg_p"Ijb\_^bl_khhl\_l
kl\mxsb_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc
12. H[tykgbl_jZaebqby\kljh_gbbb\obfbq_kdbok\hckl\Zo]Zeh]_
gb^h\j-we_f_glh\,9]jmiiuDdZdbfdeZkkZfkh_^bg_gbchlgh
kylky6L&O4, GeCl4, SnCl4; SnCl2,PbCl2"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zd
pbc]b^jhebaZSiCl4bSiF4.
13. DZdh\Z kl_i_gv hdbke_gby k\bgpZ \ hdkb^Zo 3E2 3E22, Pb3O4?
DZdwlbkh_^bg_gby\aZbfh^_ckl\mxlkjZa[Z\e_ggufbbdhgp_g
ljbjh\ZggufbjZkl\hjZfb+&O+2SO4?
14. DZdb_ ba kh_^bg_gbc j-we_f_glh\ ,9 ]jmiiu bkihevamxlky \
eZ[hjZlhjghc ijZdlbd_ \ dZq_kl\_ lbibqguo hdbkebl_e_c" <
dZq_kl\_ \hkklZgh\bl_e_c" Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju j_Zdpbc c bo
mqZklb_f
15. DZdihemqZxlKH2\eZ[hjZlhjbb"DZdb_baijb\_^_gguo\_s_kl\
fh`gh bkihevah\Zlv êy hkmrdb m]e_dbkeh]h ]ZaZ dhgp_gljbjh
\Zggmxk_jgmxdbkehlml\_jûc_^dbcgZljnhknhjgucZg]b^
jb^"
16. DZdb_ ba mdZaZgguo khe_c ]b^jhebamxlky kbevg__ Sn(NO3)2 beb
Pb(NO3)2; Na2CO3bebNa2SiO3"Ihq_fm"
17. Ihq_fm\\h^guojZkl\hjZog_\hafh`ghkbgl_abjh\ZlvdZj[hgZ
lu `_e_aZ ,,, ojhfZ,,, Zexfbgby"DZdb_\_s_kl\Zfh]mlih
emqblvkyijbkf_rb\ZgbbjZkl\hjh\3E123)2b1D2CO3?
18. <hafh`gheb\mkeh\byo[ebadboda_fguf\hagbdgh\_gb_`ba
gb g_ gZ hkgh\_ kh_^bg_gbc m]e_jh^Z Z gZ hkgh\_ kh_^bg_gbc
dj_fgby"
19. Qlhij_^klZ\ey_lkh[hcZdlb\bjh\Zggucm]hev"=^_hgbkihevam
_lky"Q_fh[tykgy_lky_]h\ukhdZykhj[bjmxsZykihkh[ghklv"
20. Kf_kvdj_fgbykhdkb^hfdj_fgbyIVh[jZ[hlZebba[uldhfjZk
l\hjZ ]b^jhdkb^Z gZljby \ j_amevlZl_ q_]h \u^_ebeky ]Za h[t_
fhfegmBah[jZah\Z\r_]hkyjZkl\hjZ[ue\u^_e_gf_lZ
kbebdZl gZljby fZkkhc ] <uqbkeblv agZq_gb_fZkkh\hc^heb
dj_fgby\bkoh^ghckf_kb
21. Kf_kvm]e_jh^Zkhk\bgphfh[jZ[hlZebijbgZ]j_\Zgbbba[uldhf
dhgp_gljbjh\Zggh]hjZkl\hjZZahlghcdbkehlu\j_amevlZl_q_]h
126
\u^_ebeZkvkf_kv]Zah\h[t_fhfegmIjbijhimkdZgbb

wlhc kf_kb q_j_a ba[ulhd ba\_kldh\hc \hû h[jZah\Zeky hkZ^hd
fZkkhc ] <uqbkeblv agZq_gb_ fZkkh\hc ^heb m]e_jh^Z \ bk
oh^ghckf_kb
22. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyke_^mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z) NaOH + H2O + Si (C,Sn,Pb)
[) NaOH + H2O2 + Ge
\) H2SO4 (dhgp) + Sn (C,Si,Pb)
]+12 dhgp + Sn (C,Si,Pb)
^) MgSi + H2SO4(jZa[Z\e.)
_) MnSO4 + PbO2 + H2SO4
`) Sn + KOH + H2O
a) SiO2 + HF
b) SnCl2 + NaBiO3 + HCl H2[SnCl6] + ...
d) GeCl2 + O2 + NaOH + H2O
e) Pb + KOH + H2O
f) PbS + H2O2 .
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) CO2 COCl2 CO2 C Al4C3 CH4;
[) Si Na2SiO3 H4SiO4 SiO2 SiCl4 K2SiO3;
\) CO2 NH4HCO3 BaCO3 CO2 CO COBr2;
]) Pb :3E2+2 :3E22 :3E3O4 :3E&O2 :+2[PbCl6].
P-WE?F?GLU,,,=JMIIU
1.
2.
3.
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_kljh_gb_Zlhfh\j-we_f_glh\III]jmiiuDZdh\u
we_dljhggu_ dhgnb]mjZpbb bo \g_rgbo wg_j]_lbq_kdbo mjh\g_c
\ hkgh\ghf b \ha[m`^_gghf khklhygbyo" DZdb_ hj[blZeb \ Zlh
fZo mdZaZgguo we_f_glh\ y\eyxlky \Ze_glgufb" Ihq_fm wlb
we_f_gluhlghkylkydk_f_ckl\mj-we_f_glh\"
IjhZgZebabjmcl_oZjZdl_jbaf_g_gbyZlhfguojZ^bmkh\wg_j]bc
bhgbaZpbb kjh^kl\Z d we_dljhgm b we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklb Zlh
fh\ \ jy^m < Al Q_f h[mkeh\e_gZ g_fhghlhgghklv baf_g_gby
wlbo Zlhfguo oZjZdl_jbklbd \ hlebqb_ hl ^jm]bo ]jmii j-we_f_glh\"
DZdb_ kl_i_gb hdbke_gby ijhy\eyxl mdZaZggu_ we_f_glu \ kh
_^bg_gbyo" DZd b ihq_fm baf_gy_lky mklhcqb\hklv h^ghlbiguo
kh_^bg_gbc wlbo we_f_glh\ \ \ukrbo kl_i_gyo hdbke_gby ijb
i_j_oh^_hl[hjZdlZeebx"
127
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
DZd fh`gh h[tykgblv j_adh_ hlebqb_ nbabq_kdbo b obfbq_kdbo

k\hckl\ijhkluo\_s_kl\[hjZbZexfbgby"KjZ\gbl_bohlghr_
gb_ d \h^_ jZkl\hjZf dbkehl s_ehq_c b khe_c KhklZ\vl_ mjZ\
g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
Q_ffh`ghh[tykgblvqlhZexfbgbc\h[uqguomkeh\byokh\_j
r_gghg_\aZbfh^_ckl\m_lkqbklhc\h^hcohly_]hwe_dljh^guc
ihl_gpbZeagZqbl_evghf_gvr_gh[mjgh\ul_kgy_l\h^hjh^ba
\h^guojZkl\hjh\s_ehq_c"
DZdbihq_fmbaf_gyxlky\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Zf_lZeeh\\
jy^mAl Tl? CjZ\gbl_oZjZdl_jbo\aZbfh^_ckl\byk\h^hcjZk
l\hjZfbdbkehls_ehq_cbkhe_cQ_ffh`ghh[tykgblvkihkh[
ghklvlZeebyj_Z]bjh\Zlvk\h^hcijbdhfgZlghcl_fi_jZlmj_"
Q_fihobfbq_kdbfk\hckl\ZfhlebqZxlkyhdkb^[hjZhlhdkb^Z
Zexfbgby]b^jhdkb^[hjZhl]b^jhdkb^ZZexfbgby"Mkh_^bg_
gbcdZdh]hwe_f_glZkbevg__\ujZ`_gudbkehlgu_k\hckl\Z"GZ
ibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
DZdfh`ghh[tykgblvqlhijbdhfgZlghcl_fi_jZlmj_Zexfbgbc
ijZdlbq_kdb g_ j_Z]bjm_l \ jZkl\hj_ k CuSO4 gh [mjgh \aZbfh
^_ckl\m_lkCuCl2?
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z hdkb^h\ b ]b^jh
dkb^h\Al, Ga, InbTlKjZ\gbl_bohlghr_gb_djZkl\hjZfdbkehl
bs_ehq_cIjbkmsZebZfnhl_jghklvkh_^bg_gbyflZeeby"
DZdb_ijhp_kkuijhl_dZxlijbihkl_i_gghf^h[Z\e_gbbba[uldZ
jZkl\hjZ _^dh]h gZljZ d jZkl\hjm gbljZlZ Zexfbgby" GZibrbl_
mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_ZdpbcgZah\bl_ijh^mdlu<\b^_
dZdboqZklbpZexfbgbckh^_j`blky\s_ehqguog_cljZevguob
dbkeuojZkl\hjZo"
DZd b ihq_fm baf_gy_lky kl_i_gv ]b^jhebaZ khe_c \ jy^m
Al(NO3)3 Ga(NO3)3 In(NO3)3 Tl(NO3)3\jZkl\hjZokboh^bgZ
dh\hc dhgp_gljZpb_c" DZdZy ba khe_c TlNO3 beb Tl(NO3)3 ]b^
jhebam_lkykbevg__"Ihq_fm"
CmevnZlZexfbgbyrbjhdhbkihevam_lkyêyhqbkldb\hûgZ\h
^hhqbklbl_evguo klZgpbyo GZ q_f hkgh\Zgh _]h ijbf_g_gb_ \
^Zgghf ijhp_kk_" GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby khhl\_lkl\mxsbo j_Zd
pbc\bhgghcbbhggh-fhe_dmeyjguonhjfZo
F_^bpbgkdbcij_iZjZl:efZ]_evij_^klZ\ey_lkh[hcklZ[beb
abjh\Zggmxkmki_gabx]b^jhdkb^h\ZexfbgbybfZ]gbyGZq_f
hkgh\Zgh_]hijbf_g_gb_ijbba`h]_"Fh`ghebijbgbfZlv^Zg
guc ij_iZjZl ijb ]bihZpb^ha_ ihgb`_gghc dbkehlghklb `_em
^hqgh]hkhdZ"
128
14. DZdh\obfbq_kdbckhklZ\ZexfhdZeb_\uod\Zkph\"GZq_fhkgh
\Zgh bkihevah\Zgb_ wlh]h \_s_kl\Z \ f_^bpbg_ \ dZq_kl\_ djh
\_hklZgZ\eb\Zxs_]hkj_^kl\Z"
15. DZdb_ ijhp_kku ijhl_dZxl ijb himkdZgbb Zexfbgby \aylh]h \
ba[uld_ \ \h^guc jZkl\hj oehjb^Z Zexfbgby" GZibrbl_ mjZ\
g_gbyj_ZdpbcgZah\bl_ijh^mdlu
16. Fh`gh eb ihemqblv kmevnb^ Zexfbgby kf_rb\Zgb_f \h^guo
jZkl\hjh\kmevnZlZZexfbgbybkmevnb^ZdZeby"Ihq_fm"DZdb_
khebZexfbgbyijbgpbibZevghg_\hafh`ghkbgl_abjh\Zlv\\h^
guojZkl\hjZo"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
17. <q_fijbgpbibZevgh_hlebqb_\h^hjh^guokh_^bg_gbc[hjZhl
]b^jb^h\^jm]boj-we_f_glh\III]jmiiu"DZdh\ukhklZ\bkljh_
gb_ ijhkl_cr_]h ]b^jb^Z [hjZ" < q_f hkh[_gghklv obfbq_kdbo
k\ya_c \ g_f" DZd fh`gh h[tykgblv g_\hafh`ghklvkms_kl\h\Z
gbyfhe_dmeuBH3?
18. AZkq_lq_]hfhe_dmeuBF3ijbkh_^bgyxldk_[_^jm]b_fhe_dmeu
bebbhgugZijbf_jH2O, NH3, F-"<hafh`ghebijbkh_^bg_gb_
fhe_dmeuCH4"Ihq_fm"DZd\j_amevlZl_ijbkh_^bg_gbybaf_gy
_lky lbi]b[jb^baZpbbhj[blZe_c[hjZb_]h]_hf_ljbq_kdh_hd
jm`_gb_"
19. < \h^ghf jZkl\hj_ [hjghc dbkehlu ijbkmlkl\mxl Zgbhgu
[B(OH)4]-Mqblu\ZywlhgZibrbl_mjZ\g_gb_we_dljheblbq_kdhc
^bkkhpbZpbb [hjghc dbkehlu \ jZkl\hj_ Q_fm jZ\gZ __ hkgh\
ghklv"
20. Qlhh[jZam_lkyijb\aZbfh^_ckl\bb[hjghcdbkehlukjZkl\hjhf
]b^jhdkb^Z gZljby" Qlh lZdh_ [mjZ" DZdh\ __ obfbq_kdbc kh
klZ\" GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ]b^jhebaZ l_ljZ[hjZlZ gZ
ljby\aZbfh^_ckl\by_]hkk_jghcdbkehlhc\jZkl\hj_
21. DZdb_\_s_kl\Zh[jZamxlkyijb]b^jheba_nlhjb^Zboehjb^Z[h
jZ"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
22. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ [bheh]bq_kdmx jhev [hjZ \ ijhp_kkZo `bag_
^_yl_evghklb jZkl_gbc `b\hlguo b q_eh\_dZDZdb_kh_^bg_gby
[hjZbkihevamxlky\f_^bpbg_\k_evkdhfohayckl\_\[ulm"
23. Kh_^bg_gbydZdh]hbajZkkfZljb\Z_fuowe_f_glh\gZb[he__lhd
kbqgu"=^_hgbgZoh^ylijbf_g_gb_"DZdb_f_juij_^hklhjh`
ghklbg_h[oh^bfhkh[ex^ZlvijbjZ[hl_kgbfb"
24. Kf_kv Zexfbgby k kmevnb^hf Zexfbgby jZa^_ebeb gZ jZ\gu_
qZklbIjb\g_k_gbbh^ghcbagbo\\h^m\u^_ebeky]Zah[t_fhf
egmIjb\g_k_gbb^jm]hcqZklbkf_kb\jZkl\hjoehjh
129
\h^hjh^Z \ayluc \ ba[uld_ \u^_ebeZkv kf_kv ]Zah\ h[t_fhf

egmJZkkqblZlvfZkkmbkoh^ghckf_kbbfZkkh\u_^heb
\_s_kl\\g_c
25. >eyih^dhjfdbdhfgZlguojZkl_gbcbkihevam_lkyjZkl\hj\fe
dhlhjh]hkh^_j`blky[hjfZkkhc-4]JZkkqblZcl_fZkkm[mju
g_h[oh^bfhcêyijb]hlh\e_gbylZdh]hjZkl\hjZh[t_fhfe
26. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcjZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb_glu
ZB + HNO dhgp :
[) B2H6 + NaH :
\Na[BH4] + H2O :
]H3BO3 + NaOH jZkl\hj :
^) Na2B4O7 + H2SO4 + H2O :
_) Al + KOH + H2O :
`) Al+ NaOH(jZkieZ\) :
a) Al + HNO3(hq. jZa[Z\e.) :
b) Al + NaNO3 + NaOH + H2O :
t
d) Al2O3 + K2CO3
e) Al2O3 + KOH + H2O :
f) Na3[Al(OH)6] + CO2 :
t
g) Na[Al(OH)4(H2O)2]
h) K3AlO3 + H2O :
i) AlN + HCl(ba[ulhd) :
j) Al(OH)3 + NaF(ba[ulhd) :
k) Al2(SO4)3 + Na2CO3 + H2O :
t
l) Al(NO3)3
m) Al(OH)3 + Al2(SO4)3 :
n) Al2S3 + KOH(ba[ulhd) + H2O :
oAl4C3 + H2O :
s_kl\blvke_^mxsb_ij_\jZs_gby
Z) Al :1D3AlO3 :$O2O3 :>$O2+2]2SO4 :$O&O3;
[) Na3[Al(OH)6] :$O2(SO4)3 :$O2O3 :$O2+3 :$O2O3;
\) Al(NO3)3 :$O&O3 :1D3[Al(OH)6] :$O2+3 :$O2S3;
]) Al :$O1:$O123)3 :$O:.$O22 :$O2O3.
S-WE?F?GLU,B,,=JMII
1. K mq_lhf we_dljhgghc kljmdlmju Zlhfh\ hoZjZdl_jbamcl_ \ha
fh`gu_\Ze_glgu_khklhygbys-we_f_glh\,b,,]jmii<q_fkh
klhbl hkh[_gghklv \Ze_glguo khklhygbc s-we_f_glh\ ih kjZ\g_
gbxkj-we_f_glZfb"
130
2. DZd \ ]jmiiZo V-we_f_glh\ baf_gyxlky jZ^bmku Zlhfh\ wg_j]by

bhgbaZpbb kjh^kl\h d we_dljhgm we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklv" DZd
wlbZlhfgu_oZjZdl_jbklbdbbaf_gyxlkyijbi_j_oh^_hl,dh,,
]jmii_\ij_^_eZoh^gh]hi_jbh^Z"
3. Ijb\_klbijbf_jukh_^bg_gbcs_ehqguof_lZeeh\kjZaebqgufb
lbiZfbobfbq_kdhck\yab
4. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ kihkh[ghklv s-we_f_glh\ h[jZah\u\Zlv dhhj^b
gZpbhggu_kh_^bg_gby
5. H[tykgbl_ \aZbfgh_ jZkiheh`_gb_ s_ehqguo f_lZeeh\ \ we_d
ljhobfbq_kdhfjy^mgZijy`_gbcf_lZeeh\
6. Bkoh^ybaiheh`_gby%Hb0J\we_dljhobfbq_kdhfjy^mgZijy
`_gbc f_lZeeh\ hoZjZdl_jbamcl_ bo kihkh[ghklvd\aZbfh^_ckl
\bxk\h^hc
7. H[hkgmcl_ \hafh`ghklv ihemq_gby s_ehqguo f_lZeeh\ obfbq_
kdbfiml_fGZibrbl_khhl\_lkl\mxsb_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc
8. DZdbaf_gyxlkyhkgh\gu_k\hckl\Zhdkb^h\b]b^jhdkb^h\s-we_f_glh\ihf_j_m\_ebq_gbyihjy^dh\h]hghf_jZwe_f_glZ"GZib
rbl_ j_Zdpbb oZjZdl_jbamxsb_ Zfnhl_jgu_ k\hckl\Z hdkb^Z b
]b^jhdkb^Z[_jbeeby
9. JZkkfhljbl_ obfbq_kdb_ k\hckl\Z ]b^jb^h\ s-we_f_glh\ DZdb_
hkh[_gghklb kljh_gby ]b^jb^Z [_jbeeby" GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby
j_Zdpbc\aZbfh^_ckl\by/L+b%D+2k\h^hcbjZa[Z\e_gghc+&O
10. DZdb_ ijhp_kku ijhl_dZxl ijb we_dljheba_ jZkieZ\Z 1D&O ijb
we_dljheba_jZkl\hjZ1D&l?
11. DZdb_kh_^bg_gbyh[jZamxlkyijb\aZbfh^_ckl\bbV-we_f_glh\k
dbkehjh^hf"DZdb_bhgugZoh^ylky\maeZodjbklZeebq_kdboj_
r_lhd /L2O, Na2O2, KO2, KO3, BaO, BaO2" Hij_^_ebl_ kl_i_gv
hdbke_gbywe_f_glh\\wlbokh_^bg_gbyoHoZjZdl_jbamcl_hdbk
ebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z kh_^bg_gbc s-we_f_glh\ k
dbkehjh^hf
12. KieZ\ gZljby k g_ba\_klguf s_ehqguf f_lZeehf h[s_cfZkkhc
]jZkl\hjbeb\\h^_fZkkhc]<j_amevlZl_j_Zdpbb\u^_
ebeky]Zah[t_fhfegmbh[jZah\ZekyjZkl\hj\dhlhjhf
fZkkh\Zy ^hey NaOH jZ\gZ Hij_^_eblv g_ba\_klguc
f_lZee
13. Kf_rZebfhevhdkb^ZdZevpbyfhevdZj[b^ZdZevpbybfhev
nhknb^Z dZevpby DZdhc h[t_f \hû ijhj_Z]bjm_l k ] lZdhc
kf_kb"Q_fmjZ\gZfZkkZh[jZah\Z\r_]hkyhkgh\Zgby"
14. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyke_^mxsboijhp_kkh\
Z) Na2O + H2SO4
131
[) Na2O2 + H2SO4 (j)

\) BaO2 + KMnO4 + H2SO4
]1+4Cl + Mg(OH)2
^) BeCl2 + KOH
t
_) Ca(HCO3)2
`) Be + KOH + H2O .
Z) Na NaH NaOH NaHCO3 Na2CO3 NaOH;
[) K KO2 K2O2 K2O KHSO4 KCl.
H;S:YO:J:DL?JBKLBD: D-WE?F?GLH<
KhihklZ\vl_ baf_g_gb_ Zlhfguo jZ^bmkh\ wg_j]bb bhgbaZpbb b
we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklb we_f_glh\ \ ]eZ\guo b ih[hqguo ih^
]jmiiZo
2. Q_fh[tykgy_lky[ebahklvZlhfguojZ^bmkh\d-we_f_glh\9i_jbh^Zbd-we_f_glh\9,i_jbh^Zh^ghc]jmiiu"
3. JZkkfhljbl_ hkh[_gghklb baf_g_gby hkgh\guo oZjZdl_jbklbd
ZlhfZêyd-we_f_glh\,,,]jmiiu
4. Ihq_fm fgh]b_ ba d-we_f_glh\ ijhy\eyxl i_j_f_ggmx kl_i_gv
hdbke_gby"DZdb_bad-we_f_glh\ijhy\eyxlihklhyggmxkl_i_gv
hdbke_gby"
5. DZd baf_gyxlky mklhcqb\hklv b hdbkebl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z kh_^b
g_gbcd-we_f_glh\\\ukrbokl_i_gyohdbke_gby\ih^]jmiiZo"
6. JZkkfhljbl_hkh[_gghklbobfbbd-we_f_glh\\kjZ\g_gbbkobfb
_cs-bS-we_f_glh\
7. DZdbaf_gyxlkydbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_k\hckl\Z]b^jhdkb^h\h^gh]h
blh]h`_d-we_f_glZ\aZ\bkbfhklbhlkl_i_gbhdbke_gby"
8. DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgu_ k\hckl\Z dbkehl d-we_f_glh\ 9VIII
]jmii\\ukrbokl_i_gyohdbke_gby"
9. Q_fh[mkeh\e_gZ[hevrZykdehgghklvddhfie_dkhh[jZah\Zgbxm
d-we_f_glh\" >ey dZdbo ba d-we_f_glh\ hgZ ijhy\ey_lky \ gZb
[hevr_cgZbf_gvr_ckl_i_gb"
10. JZkkfhljbl_dhhj^bgZpbhggucbhgbaZpbhgguc]b^jZlgucpbkljZgk- b hilbq_kdbc a_jdZevguc lbiu bahf_jbb dhfie_dkguo
kh_^bg_gbc
11. DZdb_dZlbhggu_bebZgbhggu_nhjfu[he__oZjZdl_jguêydwe_f_glh\
Z \ gbarbo kl_i_gyo hdbke_gby [ \ \ukrbo kl_i_gyo hdbke_
gby"
1.
132
D-WE?F?GLU9,,,=JMIU
1. DZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyoZjZdl_jguêy`_e_aZdh[ZevlZbgb
d_ey"Ijb\_^bl_ih^\Zijbf_jZkh_^bg_gbcwlbowe_f_glh\\oZ
jZdl_jguokl_i_gyohdbke_gbybgZah\bl_bo
2. DZd\aZbfh^_ckl\mxl`_e_ahdh[Zevlbgbd_evkZahlghck_jghc
bkheyghcdbkehlZfb"DZdwlbf_lZeeu\aZbfh^_ckl\mxlk\h^hc
k\h^gufbjZkl\hjZfbkhe_c"
3. JZkkfhljbl_ijhp_kkudhjjhabbhpbgdh\Zggh]hbem`_gh]h`_e_
aZ<eby_lebgZdhjjhabxijbkmlkl\b_22b&22\hdjm`Zxs_c
kj_^_"
4. H[tykgbl_agZqbl_evgh_mf_gvr_gb_klZg^Zjlgh]hwe_dljh^gh]h
ihl_gpbZeZkbkl_fu&R3+ + e = Co2+\s_ehqguokj_^ZobjZkl\h
jZokh^_j`Zsbo&1-.
5. Bkihevamy agZq_gby dhgklZgl g_klhcdhklb bhgh\ >&R1+3)6]3+ b
[Co(CN)6]3+hij_^_ebl_\hafh`ghklvijhl_dZgbyijhp_kkZ
[Co(NH3)6]3+ + 6CN- [Co(CN)6]3- + 6NH3
6. JZkkfhljbl_ khklhygb_ bhgh\ )H3+ \ \h^guo jZkl\hjZo ijb jZa
ebqguojG
7. IjhZgZebabjmcl_ ]b^jhebam_fhklv )H6 b )H624 >ey )H624 gZ
ibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyi_j\hcklmi_gb]b^jhebaZ
8. Qlh[hevr_]b^jhebam_lky
Z)H&O3 beb)H&O2;
[) FeCl3 beb K3[Fe(CN)6];
\)H&O3beb.3[Fe(OH)6];
])H&O3beb.2FeO4.
9. IjhZgZebabjmcl_klhqdbaj_gbyl_jfh^bgZfbdbZexfhl_jfbq_
kdbckihkh[ihemq_gby`_e_aZ=^_gZoh^blijbf_g_gb_wlhlkih
kh["Fh`ghebbkihevah\ZlvpbgdbfZ]gbcêy\hkklZgh\e_gby
`_e_aZ"
10. DZdbaf_gy_lkymklhcqb\hklvdhdbke_gbx\jy^m)H,, Co(II)
1L,,"DZdbaf_gy_lkyhdbkebl_evgZykihkh[ghklv\jy^m)H,,,
Co(III) 1L,,," HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ mkeh\by ihemq_gby ]b^jhdkb
^h\0H2+2 b0H2+3 .
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) Fe FeCl2 Fe(OH)2 Fe(OH)3 Na2FeO4 ;
[) Na2FeO4 Fe(OH)3 NaFeO2 Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3 FeO;
\) Fe3O4 Fe FeCl3 FeS Fe(NO3)3.
133
12. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbc
Z) Fe + O2 + H2O
[) Fe(OH)2 + O2 + H2O
\) FeSO4 + O2 + H2O
]) FeSO4 + KBrO3 + H2SO4
^) Fe(OH)3 + HCl
_) Co(OH)3 + HCl
`) Ni(OH)3 + HCl
a) FeCl3 + KI
b)H2+3 + Cl2 + KOH
d)H62 + HNO3dhgp
e) K4[Fe(CN)6] + KMnO4 + H2O
f) K2FeO4 + H2O
g.2FeO4+&Odhgp
h) K2FeO4 + HNO3
13. Ijb\_^bl_oZjZdl_jgu_j_ZdpbbgZbhgu)H2+b)H3+.
14. DZdb_ j_Zdpbb e_`Zl \ hkgh\_^_fhgkljZpbhggh]hhiulZihj_a
jmdbbkp_e_gb_"
15. JZkkfhljbl_kljmdlmjm]_fh]eh[bgZDZdh\ijbgpbi^_ckl\by]_
fh]eh[bgZ\`b\hfhj]Zgbaf_"
D-WE?F?GLU9,,=JMIIU
DZdb_ kl_i_gb hdbke_gby oZjZdl_jgu êy d-we_f_glh\ 9,, ]jmi
iu"Ijb\_^bl_ih^\Zijbf_jZkh_^bg_gbcwlbowe_f_glh\\oZ
jZdl_jguokl_i_gyohdbke_gbybgZah\bl_bo
2. Ijb\_^bl_ ijbf_ju dZlbhgghc b Zgbhgghc nhjf kh_^bg_gbc
fZj]ZgpZ,,,bfZj]ZgpZ,9
3. MdZ`bl_jZaebqby\kljh_gbbZlhfh\we_f_glh\ih^]jmiiufZj
]ZgpZ b ]Zeh]_gh\ < dZdhc kl_i_gb hdbke_gby fZj]Zg_p b oehj
ijhy\eyxlgZb[hevr__koh^kl\h\k\hckl\Zo"Ijb\_^bl_khhl\_l
kl\mxsb_ijbf_ju
4. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \ dhlhjuo kh_^bg_gby fZj]ZgpZ
ijhy\eyxl
Zhdbkebl_evgu_[\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_k\hckl\Z\hdbkebl_ev
gu_ b \hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ h^gh\j_f_ggh DZdb_ kh_^bg_gbyfZj
]ZgpZ fh]ml ijhy\eylv hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgmx ^\hckl
\_gghklv"
1.
134
5. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_iheh`_gb_0Q7F5H\jy^mgZijy`_gbcbbo
hlghr_gb_d\h^_dbkehlZfs_ehqZf
6. IjhZgZebabjmcl_ dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z ]b^jhdkb^h\ hd
kb^h\fZj]ZgpZII, IV, VII).
7. JZkkfhljbl_hdbkebl_evgu_k\hckl\Z.0Q24\jZaebqguokj_^Zo
Qlhij_^klZ\eyxlkh[hcijh^mdlu\hkklZgh\e_gby.0Q24\dbk
euo g_cljZevguo b s_ehqguo kj_^Zo" DZd baf_gy_lky hdjZkdZ
jZkl\hjh\\ijhp_kk_\hkklZgh\e_gby.0Q24?
8. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ \aZbfh^_ckl\b_ kheyghc dbkehlu k hdkb^Zfb
fZj]ZgpZ0Q20Q22, Mn2O7.
9. Qlh[hevr_]b^jhebam_lky
ZMnCl2bebMnCl4;
[K2MnO4bebKMnO4.
10. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_Zdpbcijbihfhsbdhlhjuofh`ghhkm
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) KMnO4 MnO2 MnCl2 HMnO4 KMnO4;
[) KMnO4 MnSO4 MnCO3 MnO Na2MnO4;
\) Na2MnO4 NaMnO4 Na2MnO4 MnO2 Na2MnO4.
11. AZdhgqbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc mdZ`bl_ hdbkebl_ev \hkklZgh\b
l_evblbihdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evghcj_Zdpbb
Z) MnCl2 + Br2 + KOH
[) MnSO4 + NaBiO3 + H2SO4
\) MnO2 + PbO2 + HNO3
]) MnO2 + KI + H2SO4
^) KMnO4 + SO2 + H2SO4
_) KMnO4 + K2S + KOH
`) KMnO4 + FeSO4 + H2O
a) KMnO4 + C3H5(OH)3 + H2SO4
b) KMnO4 + H2O2 + H2SO4
d) KMnO4 + MnCl2 + H2O
t
e) KMnO4
f) K2MnO4 + H2O
12.JZkkfhljbl_ [bheh]bq_kdmx jhev fZj]Zg_pkh^_j`Zsbo kh_^bg_
gbcMdZ`bl_[bheh]bq_kdb_wnn_dlubhgh\Mn2+.
D-WE?F?GLU9,=JMIU
135
1. DZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyoZjZdl_jguêyG-we_f_glh\9,]jmiiu"
Ijb\_^bl_ ih ^\Z ijbf_jZ kh_^bg_gbc wlbo we_f_glh\ \ oZjZd
l_jguokl_i_gyohdbke_gbybgZah\bl_bo
2. KjZ\gbl_ we_dljhggmx kljmdlmjm Zlhfh\ ojhfZ b k_ju DZdb_
kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyj_Zebamxlkyêywlbowe_f_glh\"<dZdhckl_
i_gbhdbke_gbywlbwe_f_gluijhy\eyxlkoh^kl\h\k\hckl\Zo"
3. DZdb_hdkbûh[jZamxlkyijbijhdZeb\ZgbbojhfZfheb[^_gZb
\hevnjZfZgZ\ha^mo_"
4. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_hlghr_gb_ojhfZfheb[^_gZb\hevnjZfZd\h
^_dbkehlZfbs_ehqZfIhq_fmojhfg_jZkl\hjy_lky\\h^_oh
ly(oCr3+/Cr = -0.74 B?
5. DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ k\hckl\Z hdkb^h\ \ jy^m
CrO CrO3" Ijb\_^bl_ j_Zdpbb ihdZau\Zxsb_ Zfnhl_jghklv
]b^jhdkb^ZojhfZ,,,DZd\aZbfh^_ckl\mxlhdkbûojhfZ,,,,,
9,kkheyghcbk_jghcdbkehlZfb"
6. DZdbaf_gyxlkydbkehlgu_k\hckl\Z\jy^m+2CrO4 H2WO4?
7. GZibrbl_dhhj^bgZpbhggu_nhjfmeukh_^bg_gbc
CrCl3.&11+3;
Cr(NO3)31D,1D%U
K2SO3&U2(SO3)3+2O.
GZah\bl_ wlb dhfie_dkgu_ kh_^bg_gby GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby
i_j\bqghcb\lhjbqghcwe_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbbwlbokh
_^bg_gbcGZibrbl_\ujZ`_gb_dhgklZglug_klhcdhklbêybhgZ
[Cr(NO3)3BrI2]3- .
8. < dZdbo nhjfZo gZoh^blky &U3+ \ \h^guo jZkl\hjZo ijb jZaebq
guojG"Ijb\_^bl_bgZah\bl_\hafh`gu_dhfie_dkgu_kh_^bg_
gby&U3+dhlhju_fh]mlijbwlhfh[jZah\u\Zlvky
9. GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gby]b^jhebaZ&U2(SO4)3ihi_j\hcb\lhjhcklm
i_gyfDZdb_mkeh\byg_h[oh^bfhkh[ex^Zlvijbijb]hlh\e_gbb
jZkl\hjh\ khe_c &U3+ qlh[u mf_gvrblv ]b^jhebam_fhklv dZlbh
gZ"Fh`ghebihemqblv\\h^guojZkl\hjZo&U2S3?
10. Ihq_fm \h^gu_ jZkl\hju ^bojhfZlZ s_ehqgh]h f_lZeeZ bf_xl
dbkemxkj_^m"DZdbaf_gblkyhdjZkdZlZdh]hjZkl\hjZijb^h[Z\
e_gbb s_ehqb" Ijhbeexkljbjmcl_ khhl\_lkl\mxsbfb mjZ\g_
gbyfbj_Zdpbckhklhygb_jZ\gh\_kby
Cr2O72- + H2O 2CrO42- +2H+?
11. Ihq_fmijb\aZbfh^_ckl\bbkhe_c[ZjbykjZkl\hjZfbojhfZlZb
^bojhfZlZ dZeby \uiZ^Zxl hkZ^db h^bgZdh\h]h khklZ\Z" JZk
kfhljbl_hdbkebl_evgu_k\hckl\Z.2Cr2O7ijbjZaebqguojGjZk
l\hjh\
136
12. Ijh\_^bl_l_jfh^bgZfbq_kdbcZgZebaj_Zdpbb
(NH4)2Cr2O7 N2 + Cr2O3 + H2O.
IjhZgZebabjmcl_mkeh\byijh\_^_gbywlhcj_Zdpbb
s_kl\blvij_\jZs_gby
Z) Cr(NO3)3 Cr(OH)3 K3[Cr(OH)6] K3CrO3 Cr(H2PO4)3
CrPO4;
[) Cr2O3 K2CrO4 K2Cr2O7 Cr2(SO4)3 K3[Cr(OH)6];
\) Cr SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 K2CrO4 CrO3 Cr2O3.
14. Qlh [hevr_ ih^\_j]Z_lky ]b^jhebam: CrCl2 beb CrCl3; CrCl3 beb
Na3[Cr(OH)6]; CrCl3 beb Cr(CH3COO)3; CrCl3 beb MoCl3; K2CrO4
beb K2WO4.
15. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
Z) K2Cr2O7 + HCl
[) CrCl3 + Na2S + H2O
\0R+123
]) Cr + KClO3 + KOH
^) Cr2(SO4)3 + Cl2 + KOH
_) NaCrO2 + PbO2 + NaOH
`) Cr2O3 + NaNO3 + NaOH
a) K2Cr2O7 + H2S + H2SO4
b) Na2CrO4 + NaBr + HCl
d0R62 + HNO3dhgp
e&U23+&Odhgp
f) K2Cr2O7 + H2O2 + HCl
16. DZdmxjhev\uihegy_lfheb[^_g\khklZ\_fheb[^_gkh^_j`Zsbo
n_jf_glh\"
D-WE?F?GLU,,=JMIU
1.
2.
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_kljh_gb_Zlhfh\d-we_f_glh\II]jmiiuDZdh\u
bo we_dljhggu_ dhgnb]mjZpbb \ hkgh\ghf b \ha[m`^_gghf kh
klhygbyo"DdZdbfwe_dljhggufk_f_ckl\Zffh`ghhlg_klb^Zg
gu_we_f_glubihq_fm"
IjhZgZebabjmcl_oZjZdl_jbaf_g_gbyZlhfguojZ^bmkh\wg_j]bc
bhgbaZpbbkjh^kl\Zdwe_dljhgmwe_dljhhljbpZl_evghklbZlhfh\
\jy^mZn HgQ_fh[mkeh\e_gZg_fhghlhgghklvbaf_g_gbymdZ
aZgguo Zlhfguo oZjZdl_jbklbd" Ihq_fm jZ^bmk ZlhfZ pbgdZ
(Z f_gvr_Zlhfgh]hjZ^bmkZdZevpbyZ = 20)?
137
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
DZdb_hj[blZeb\ZlhfZojZkkfZljb\Z_fuowe_f_glh\fh]mlijb
gbfZlv mqZklb_ \ h[jZah\Zgbb obfbq_kdbo k\ya_c" DZdb_ lbiu
k\ya_coZjZdl_jguêyZn, CdbHg\bokh_^bg_gbyo"
DZdb_agZq_gby\Ze_glghklbbdZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyoZjZdl_j
guêymdZaZgguowe_f_glh\"DZdfh`ghh[tykgblvihq_fmhgb
g_ ijhy\eyxl kl_i_g_c hdbke_gby [hevr_ " Q_fm jZ\gu \Z
e_glghklvbkl_i_gvhdbke_gbyjlmlb\bhgZoHg2)2+bHg3)2+?
DZd baf_gyxlky \hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ f_lZeebq_kdb_ k\hckl\Z
ijhkluo \_s_kl\ \ jy^m Zn Hg" DZdh\u h[sb_ obfbq_kdb_
k\hckl\Zwlbof_lZeeh\b\q_fbojZaebqb_"HoZjZdl_jbamcl_hl
ghr_gb_f_lZeeh\d\h^_jZkl\hjZfdbkehls_ehq_cbkhe_cgZ
ibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
Ihq_fm lZd kbevgh hlebqZxlky agZq_gby klZg^Zjlguo we_dljh^
guo ihl_gpbZeh\ f_^b b pbgdZ ohly \ lZ[ebp_ i_jbh^bq_kdhc
kbkl_fuwe_f_gluCubZnjZkiheh`_gujy^hf"
DZd baf_gyxlky dbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_ b hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z hdkb^h\ b ]b^jhdkb^h\ \ jy^m Zn Hg?
GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc oZjZdl_jbamxsbo Zfnhl_jgu_
k\hckl\Zhdkb^Zb]b^jhdkb^ZpbgdZ
DZd baf_gy_lky l_jfbq_kdZy mklhcqb\hklv hdkb^h\ ]b^jhdkb^h\
bkhe_cdbkehjh^kh^_j`Zsbodbkehl\jy^mZn Hg"GZibrbl_
mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ijhl_dZxsbo ijb ^h[Z\e_gbb ba[uldZ jZk
l\hjZNaOHdjZkl\hjmHg(NO3)2djZkl\hjmHg2(NO3)2.
GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc l_jfbq_kdh]h jZaeh`_gby
Hg(NO3)2; Hg2(NO3)2; HgSO4.
DZdbaf_gy_lkydhfie_dkhh[jZamxsZyZdlb\ghklvdZlbhgh\\jy
^m Zn2+ Hg2+" GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc \aZbfh^_ckl\by
oehjb^h\ pbgdZ dZ^fby b jlmlb I b II k dhgp_gljbjh\Zgguf
jZkl\hjhf ZffbZdZ < dZdbo mkeh\byo h[jZamxlky ZffbZqgu_
dhfie_dkujlmlb"
GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gb_j_Zdpbb\aZbfh^_ckl\byhdkb^ZjlmlbIIk
bh^b^hfdZeby\\h^ghfjZkl\hj_GZah\bl_ihemq_ggh_kh_^bg_
gb_
< q_f aZdexqZ_lky hkh[_gghklv we_dljheblbq_kdhc^bkkhpbZpbb
]Zeh]_gb^h\pbgdZdZ^fbybjlmlbII"Ihq_fmwe_dljhijh\h^b
fhklvjZkl\hjZHgCl2y\ey_lkyhq_gvgbadhc^Z`_\jZa[Z\e_gguo
jZkl\hjZo"
DZdbihq_fmbaf_gy_lkykl_i_gv]b^jhebaZgbljZlh\pbgdZdZ^
fbybjlmlbII\jZkl\hjZokboh^bgZdh\ufbdhgp_gljZpbyfb"
138
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
Ihq_fm ijb ijb]hlh\e_gbb jZkl\hjZ Hg(NO3)2 j_dhf_g^m_lky

\ghkblvkhev\aZjZg__ih^dbke_ggmx\h^m"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gby
khhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc]b^jhebaZ
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_[bheh]bq_kdmxjhevkh_^bg_gbcpbgdZdZ^fby
b jlmlb DZdb_ f_ju ij_^hklhjh`ghklb g_h[oh^bfh kh[ex^Zlv
ijbjZ[hl_khjlmlvxb__kh_^bg_gbyfb"DZdb_kihkh[u^_aZdlb
\Zpbbjlmlb<uagZ_l_"DZdb_j_Zdpbbe_`Zl\bohkgh\_"
=^_ bkihevamxlky kh_^bg_gby pbgdZ dZ^fby b jlmlb" DZdb_ ba
gbogZoh^ylijbf_g_gb_\f_^bpbg_"QlhlZdh_kme_fZQdZQehf_ev
dbQgh\Zjv" DZdh_ ba wlbo \_s_kl\ qj_a\uqZcgh y^h\blh Z dZdh_
kh\_jr_gghg_y^h\blh"Q_fwlhfh`ghh[tykgblv"
Kf_kvhdkb^Zbkmevnb^ZpbgdZh[s_cfZkkhc]ihf_klbeb
\jZkl\hjfZkkhc]kh^_j`Zsbcba[ulhdGKlIhke_hdhgqZ
gby j_Zdpbc h[jZah\Zeky jZkl\hj \ dhlhjhf fZkkh\Zy^heykheb
pbgdZjZ\gZ<uqbkeblvagZq_gbyfZkkh\uo^he_ckh_^b
g_gbcpbgdZ\bkoh^ghckf_kb
Kf_kv pbgdZ b dZ^fby jZa^_ebeb gZ jZ\gu_ qZklb I_j\mx ba
gbo h[jZ[hlZeb ba[uldhf jZkl\hjZ HCl\j_amevlZl_q_]h\u^_
ebeky]Zah[t_fhfegm<lhjmxqZklvkf_kbihf_klbeb\
]hjyqbcjZkl\hjkh^_j`Zsbcba[ulhdDHGIjbwlhf\u^_ebeky
]Zah[t_fhfegmJZkkqblZlvh[t_f\ha^moZgmg_h[oh
^bfh]hêyihegh]hk]hjZgbybkoh^ghckf_kbf_lZeeh\
AZdhgqblvmjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcjZkklZ\blvdhwnnbpb_glu
ZZn + KOH + H2O :
[Zn + NaOHjZkieZ\ :
t
\) ZnO + K2CO3
]) ZnO + H2O + Ba(OH)2 :
^) K2[Zn(OH)4] + CO2 :
_) Na2ZnO2 + H2SO4 (ba[ulhd) :
`) Zn + HNO3 (hq. jZa[.) :
a) Zn(OH)2 + NH3(ba[ulhd) :
b) Zn(OH)2 + Zn(NO3)2 :
d) ZnSO4 + NH3 + H2O :
e) Na2[Zn(OH)4] + ZnSO4 :
f) ZnSO4 + K2CO3 + H2O :
t
gCd(NO3)2
t
hCd + H2SO dhgp

iCdCl2 + NH4Iba[ulhd :
jHg + HNO dhgp + HCl dhgp :
139
kHgCl2 + NH3 :
l) Hg2Cl2 + NH3 :
t
m) Hg(NO3)2
n) Hg(NO3)2 + KOH :
o) Hg2(NO3)2 + NaOH :
p) HgO + KI + H2O :
ZZn(OH)2 :Zn :Zn(OH)NO3 :K2ZnO2 :Zn(OH)2;
[Na2[Zn(OH)4] :ZnO :>Zn(OH)]2SO4 :Zn :Na2ZnO2;
\) CdSO4 :&G:>&G1+3)6]SO4 :&G6:&G2+2;
]) HgO :+J2Cl2 :+J123)2 :+J&O2 :.2[HgI4] :+J6
D-WE?F?GLU,=JMIIU
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ kljh_gb_ Zlhfh\ d-we_f_glh\ I ]jmiiu DZdh\Z
we_dljhggZydhgnb]mjZpbyboij_^\g_rgbob\g_rgbowg_j]_lb
q_kdbomjh\g_c\hkgh\ghfkhklhygbb"DZdb_hj[blZeb\ZlhfZo
f_^bk_j_[jZbahehlZy\eyxlky\Ze_glgufb"
2. JZkkfhljbl_ baf_g_gb_ Zlhfguo jZ^bmkh\ wg_j]bc bhgbaZpbb
kjh^kl\Z d we_dljhgm b we_dljhhljbpZl_evghklb \ jy^m Cu Au.
Ihq_fm jZ^bmk ZlhfZ f_^b Z f_gvr_ jZ^bmkZ ZlhfZ dZeby
(Z " Ihq_fm jZ^bmku Zlhfh\ k_j_[jZ Z b ahehlZ Z=79)
ijZdlbq_kdbh^bgZdh\u"
3. DZdb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyba\_klguêyZlhfh\jZkkfZljb\Z_fuo
we_f_glh\"DZdb_bagbogZb[he__oZjZdl_jguêyf_^bêyk_
j_[jZêyahehlZ"
4. Hp_gbl_ \hkklZgh\bl_evgu_ k\hckl\Z ijhkluo \_s_kl\ DZd hgb
baf_gyxlky\jy^mCu Au?
5. DZdb_k\hckl\ZahehlZiha\heyxlhlghkblv_]hd[eZ]hjh^guff_
lZeeZf" JZkkfhljbl_ hlghr_gb_ mdZaZgguo f_lZeeh\ d dbkehjh
^m]Zeh]_gZfk_j_
6. H[tykgbl_ ihq_fm f_^v g_ j_Z]bjm_l k qbklhc \h^hc gh \ul_k
gy_l\h^hjh^ba\h^gh]hjZkl\hjZpbZgb^ZdZeby"Ihq_fmk_j_[jh
bahehlhjZkl\hjyxlky\\h^guojZkl\hjZopbZgb^h\ebrv\ijb
kmlkl\bbhdbkebl_e_cgZijbf_jdbkehjh^Z"DZdh_ijZdlbq_kdh_
ijbf_g_gb_gZoh^blwlhk\hckl\hahehlZ"
7. HoZjZdl_jbamcl_hlghr_gb_f_^bk_j_[jZbahehlZdjZa[Z\e_g
gufbdhgp_gljbjh\ZggufjZkl\hjZfdbkehldjZkl\hjZfs_eh
1.
140
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
q_c b khe_c GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby khhl\_lkl\mxsbo j_Zdpbc

mdZ`bl_mkeh\bybohkms_kl\e_gby
DZdb_ j_Zdpbb ijhl_dZxl ijb jZkl\hj_gbb ahehlZ \ pZjkdhc
\h^d_\dhgp_gljbjh\Zgghckheyghcdbkehl_gZkus_gghcoeh
jhf\k_e_gh\hcdbkehl_"
Q_fh[tykgy_lkyh[jZah\Zgb_a_e_gh]hgZe_lZgZf_^guoba^_ebyob
ihq_jg_gb_k_j_[jyguoij_^f_lh\ijbêbl_evghfij_[u\Zgbbbo
gZ\ha^mo_"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
<\b^_dZdboqZklbpfh]mlgZoh^blvky\\h^guojZkl\hjZof_^v
k_j_[jh b ahehlh" OZjZdl_jgh eb êy ahehlZ III h[jZah\Zgb_
]b^jZlbjh\ZgguodZlbhgh\"
KjZ\gbl_hdbkebl_evgu_k\hckl\ZdZlbhgh\Cu2+bAg+\\h^guo
jZkl\hjZo DZdhc ba gbo \hkklZgZ\eb\Z_lky gZ dZlh^_ ijb we_d
ljheba_\i_j\mxhq_j_^v"
DZdh\h\ebygb_kl_i_gbhdbke_gbyf_lZeeZgZdbkehlgh-hkgh\gu_
k\hckl\Zhdkb^h\b]b^jhdkb^h\f_^bbahehlZ"DZdb_bagboh[
eZ^ZxlZfnhl_jgufbk\hckl\Zfb"MdZdh]h]b^jhdkb^Z Cu(OH)2
beb Au(OH)3 kbevg__ \ujZ`_gu dbkehlgu_ k\hckl\Z" DZdh_ kh
_^bg_gb_ahehlZgZau\Z_lkyahehlZydbkehlZ"GZibrbl_mjZ\g_
gbyj_Zdpbcijhl_dZxsboijbjZkl\hj_gbbmdZaZgguo]b^jhdkb
^h\\ba[uld_jZkl\hjZHCl\ba[uld_jZkl\hjZDHG
Ihq_fm \eZ`guc hdkb^ k_j_[jZ I hdjZrb\Z_l n_ghenlZe_bg \
jhah\ucp\_l"
DZdh\Zkj_^Z\h^guojZkl\hjh\AgNO3, Cu(NO3)2bK[Au(OH)4]?
GZibrbl_mjZ\g_gbykhhl\_lkl\mxsboj_Zdpbc
KjZ\gbl_dhgklZglug_klhcdhklbdhfie_dkguobhgh\>Ag(NH3)2]+
b >Cu(NH3)4]2+b hp_gbl_ dhfie_dkhh[jZamxsmx kihkh[ghklv dZ
lbhgh\Ag+bCu2+H[hkgmcl_<Zrb\u\hû
JZkkfhljbl_ l_jfbq_kdmx mklhcqb\hklv hdkb^h\ ]b^jhdkb^h\ b
dbkehjh^kh^_j`Zsbo khe_c f_^b k_j_[jZ b ahehlZ GZibrbl_
mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc l_jfbq_kdh]h jZaeh`_gby Ag2O, AgNO3,
Ag2SO4, CuO, CuSO4, Cu(NO3)2, Au(OH)3, AuCl3.
HoZjZdl_jbamcl_ [bheh]bq_kdmx jhev f_^b \ ijhp_kkZo `bag_
^_yl_evghklb
=^_ \ hj]ZgbafZo `b\hlguo b q_eh\_dZ dhgp_gljbjmxlky jZk
kfZljb\Z_fu_d-we_f_glu"
DZdb_ kh_^bg_gby d-we_f_glh\ I ]jmiiu gZoh^yl ijbf_g_gb_ \
f_^bpbg_"
F_^gmxieZklbgdmfZkkhc]himklbeb\jZkl\hjfZkkhc]k
fZkkh\hc^he_cgbljZlZ`_e_aZIIIQ_j_ag_dhlhjh_\j_fy
141
fZkkh\u_ ^heb gbljZlh\ `_e_aZ II b `_e_aZ III \ h[jZah\Z\

r_fky jZkl\hj_ hdZaZebkv jZ\gufb JZkkqblZlv fZkkm f_^ghc
ieZklbgdbihke_j_Zdpbb
21. Kf_kvgbljZlh\f_^bIIbk_j_[jZh[s_cfZkkhc]ijhdZeb
eb ^h hdhgqZgby j_Zdpbb H[jZah\Z\rmxky kf_kv l\_jûo \_
s_kl\h[jZ[hlZebba[uldhfdhgp_gljbjh\Zgghck_jghcdbkehlu
\j_amevlZl_q_]h\u^_ebeky]Zah[t_fhfeJZkkqblZlvh[t
_f]Zah\gm\u^_eb\rbokyijbijhdZeb\Zgbbbkoh^ghckf_kb
22. AZdhgqbl_mjZ\g_gbyj_ZdpbcjZkklZ\vl_dhwnnbpb_glu
ZKu + HCl + O2 :
[Cu + HNO3 (jZa[ :
t
\Cu + H2SOdhgp

]Cu + CuCl2 :
t
^) KuCl + H2SO4 (dhgp)
_) Cu2S + O2
t
`) Cu2S + HNO3 (dhgp)

t
a) CuO + NH3
b) CuCl + O2 + H2O :
d) Cu + FeCl3 :
e) CuCl2 + KI :
f) Ag + HNO3 (jZa[) :
gAgNO3 + KOH :
t
hAgNO3
i) AgNO3 + SnCl2 :
j) Ag2O + NH3 + H2O :
k) [Ag(NH3)2]Cl + H2S :
l) Au + NaCl + Cl2 :
mAuCl3 + KI :
n) AuCl3 + FeSO4 :
t
oAu2O3
ZCu2S :CuSO4 :CuO :CuCl :>Cu(NH3)4]Cl2;
[Ku(OH)2 :>Cu(NH3)2]Cl :CuO :Cu2O :CuSO4;
\) Ag :$J2O :>:g(NH3)2]OH :$J2S :$J2SO4;
]) Au :$X&O3 :$X2O3 :1D$uO2 :$X:$X&O
142
LZ[ebpZ
KlZg^Zjlgu_wglZevibbh[jZah\Zgbyfo298
bwgljhibbSo298g_dhlhjuo\_s_kl\ijbDDK
<_s_kl\h
Al2O3
C]jZnbl
KH4
C2H4
C2H6
C6H6
C2H5OH
K6G12H6
CO
CO2
CCl4
CaCO3
CaO
Ca(OH)2
Cl2
Cr2O3
CuO
Fe
FeO
F2O3
Fe3O4
Ni
H2
HBr
HCl
HF
HI
H2O
H2O
G2S
KCl
KClO3
Kh
klhygb_
dj
dj
]
]
]
`
`
dj
]
]
`
dj
dj
dj
]
dj
dj
dj
dj
dj
dj
dj
]
]
]
]
]
]
`
]
dj
dj
fo298
d>`fhev
-1673,7
0
-74,9
52,3
-89,7
82,9
-277,6
-1273,0
-110,5
-393,5
-132,8
-1207,0
-635,1
-985,0
0
-1140,6
-162,0
0
-264,8
-822,2
-1117,1
0
0
-36,3
-92,2
-270,7
26,6
-241,8
-285,6
-20,2
-435,6
-390,8
So298
>`
fhevD
51
5,7
186,2
219,4
229,5
269,2
160,7
197,5
213,7
216,2
88,7
38,1
83,4
222,9
81,2
42,6
27,2
60,8
87,4
146,2
29,76
130,5
198,6
186,8
178,7
206,5
188,7
70,1
205,5
82,4
142,8
143
<_s_kl\h
KClO4
MgO
MgCO3
NaCl
N2
NH3
NH4Cl
N2O
NO
N2O3
NO2
N2O4
N2O5
NH4NO2
NH4NO3
O2
PH3
P4O6
J4H10
Pb
PbO
S
SO2
SO3
SiH4
SiOd\Zjp
SiCl4
Ti
G2H
H2O2
TiO2
ZnO
Kh
klhy
gb_
dj
dj
dj
dj
]
]
dj
]
]
]
]
]
dj
dj
dj
]
]
dj
dj
dj
dj
dj
]
]
]
dj
`
dj
dj
`
dj
dj
fo298
d>`fhev
So298
>`
fhevD
-433,1 150,9
-601,8 27,1
-1096,0 65,1
-412,2 72,7
0
191,5
-46,2
192,6
-314,2 96,0
82,0
219,9
90,2
210,6
83,6
33,5
240,2
9,6
303,8
-42,7
178
-256,2
-365,4 151,0
0
205,0
17,1
210,2
-1097,0 142,0
-1546,6 135,9
0
64,8
-219,0 67,7
0
31,9
-296,9 248,1
-395,8 256,7
34,73
204,6
-910,9 41,8
-687,9 239,7
0
30,6
-286,1 44,1
-187,9 109,6
-943,9 50,3
-348,1 43,5
DhgklZglu^bkkhpbZpbbg_dhlhjuokeZ[uowe_dljheblh\
\\h^guojZkl\hjZoijbDK
GZa\Zgb_ we_dljheblZ
NhjfmeZ
:ab^h\h^hjh^gZydbkehlZ
:ahlbklZydbkehlZ
:ffbZdZjZkl\hj
;hjgZydbkehlZ
;jhfgh\ZlbklZydbkehlZ
<h^Z
F_lZdj_fgb_\ZydbkehlZ
HN3
HNO2
NH3H2O
H3BO3
HBrO
H2O
H2SiO3
Hjlhdj_fgb_\ZydbkehlZ
FmjZ\vbgZydbkehlZ
Furvydh\ZydbkehlZ
H4SiO4
HCOOH
H3AsO4
Furvydh\bklZydbkehlZ
K_e_gbklZydbkehlZ
H3AsO3
H2SeO3
K_e_gh\ZydbkehlZ
K_e_gh\h^hjh^gZydbkehlZ
H2SeO4
H2Se
K_jgZydbkehlZ
K_jgbklZydbkehlZ
H2SO4
H2SO3
K_jh\h^hjh^gZydbkehlZ
H2S
M]hevgZydbkehlZ
H2CO3
MdkmkgZydbkehlZ
Oehjgh\ZlbklZydbkehlZ
NhknhjgZydbkehlZ
CH3COOH
HClO
H3PO4
Nlhjh\h^hjh^gZydbkehlZ
PbZgh\h^hjh^gZydbkehlZ
SZ\_e_\ZydbkehlZ
HF
HCN
H2C2O4
144
KlZ^by
1
2
1
1
2
3
1
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
LZ[ebpZ
, ^bkkhpbZpbb

2,6 10-5
4,0 10-4
1,8 10-5
5,8 10-10
2,1 10-9
1,8 10-16
2,2 10-10
1,6 10-12
1,3 10-10
1,8 10-4
5,6 10-3
8,3 10-8
3,0 10-12
5,7 10-10
3,5 10-3
5,0 10-8
8,9 10-3
1,7 10-4
1,0 10-11
1,2 10-2
1,6 10-2
6,3 10-8
9,0 10-8
1,0 10-14
4,5 10-7
4,7 10-11
1,8 10-5
5,0 10-8
7,5 10-3
6,3 10-8
1,3 10-12
6,6 10-4
7,9 10-10
5,4 10-2
5,4 10-5
LZ[ebpZ 3
Ijhba\_^_gbyjZkl\hjbfhklbg_dhlhjuo
fZehjZkl\hjbfuowe_dljheblh\ijb DK
We_dljhebl
Ag3AsO4
AgBr
AgCN
AgSCN
AgCH3COO
Ag2CO3
AgCl
Ag2CrO4
Ag2Cr2O7
AgI
AgIO3
AgNO2
Ag2OH2O
Ag3PO4
Ag2S
Ag2SO4
Al(OH)3
AlAsO4
AlPO4
BaCO3
BaC2O4
BaCrO4
BaSO4
BaSO3
Be(OH)2
BiI3
CaCO3
CaC2O4
CaF2
Ca(OH)2
Ca3(PO4)2
CaSO4
CdS
IJ
We_dljhebl
1,1 10-22
5,3 10-13
1,4 10-16
1,1 10-12
4,4 10-3
1,2 10-12
1,8 10-10
1,1 10-12
1,0 10-10
8,3 10-17
3,0 10-8
6,0 10-4
1,6 10-8
1,3 10-20
6,0 10 50
1,6 10-5
1,1 10-32
1,6 10-16
5,8 10-19
4,0 10-10
1,1 10-7
1,2 10-10
1,1 10-10
8,0 10-7
2,0 10-14
8,1 10-19
3,8 10-9
2,3 10-9
4,0 10-11
1,4 10-4
2,0 10-29
2,5 10-5
1,6 10-28
Cr(OH)3
CrPO4
CuCl
CuS
Cu(OH)2
FeCO3
Fe(OH)3
FeS
FePO4
HgS
MgCO3
Mg(OH)2
Mg3(PO4)2
MnCO3
Mn(OH)2
MnS
NiCO3
Ni(OH)2
NiS
PbBr2
PbCO3
PbCrO4
PbCl2
PbI2
Pb(OH)2
PbS
PbSO4
Sb2S3
SnS
SrCO3
SrSO4
Zn(OH)2
ZnS
145
IJ
6,3 10-31
1,0 10-17
1,2 10-6
6,3 10-36
2,2 10-20
3,5 10-11
6,3 10-38
5,0 10-18
1,3 10-22
1,6 10-52
2,1 10-5
7,1 10-12
1,0 10-13
1,8 10-11
1,9 10-13
2,5 10-10
1,3 10-7
2,0 10-15
2,0 10-26
9,1 10-6
7,5 10-14
1,8 10-14
1,6 10-5
1,1 10-9
7,9 10-16
2,5 10-27
1,6 10-8
2,9 10-59
2,5 10-27
1,1 10-10
3,2 10-7
1,2 10-17
1,6 10-24
DhgklZglug_klhcdhklbdhfie_dkguobhgh\
ijbl_fi_jZlmj_DK
NhjfmeZ
[Ag(NH3)2]+
[Ag(CN)2][Ag(CN)4]3[Ag(SCN)2][Ag(SCN)4]3[Ag(SO4)2]3[AgCl2][AgBr2][Ag(NO2)2][AgI4]3[Ag(S2O3)2]3[Ag(SO3)2]3[AlF6]3[AlF4][Au(CN)2][Au(SCN)2][Au(SCN)4][AuCl4][AuBr2][Cd(NH3)4]2+
[Cd(NH3)6]2+
[Cd(CN)4]2[Cd(SCN)6]4[CdCl4]2[CdCl6]4[CdBr4]2[CdI4]2[Co(NH3)6]2+
[Co(NH3)6]3+
[Co(CN)6]3[Co(CN)6]4[Co(SCN)4]2-
,g_kl
9,31 10-8
8,0 10-22
2,1 10-21
2,7 10-8
1,3 10 11
5,9 10-1
1,8 10-5
7,8 10-8
1,8 10-3
1,8 10-14
2,5 10-14
4,5 10-8
1,4 10-20
1,8 10-18
5,0 10-39
1,0 10-23
1,0 10-42
5,0 10-22
4,0 10-13
7,6 10-8
7,3 10-6
1,4 10-19
1,033
9,3 10-3
2,6 10-3
2,0 10-4
8,0 10-7
7,8 10-6
3,1 10-33
1,0 10-64
1,0 10-19
5,5 10-3
NhjfmeZ
[Cu(NH3)2]+
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
[Cu(CN)2][Cu(CN)4]3[Cu(CN)4]2[CuCl4]2[CuI2][Cu(OH)4]2[Cu(SO3)2]3[Fe(CN)6]4[Fe(CN)6]3[Fe(C2O4)3]3[Fe(SO4)2][Hg(CN)4]2[HgCl4]2[HgBr4]2[HgI4]2[Hg(SCN)4]2[Hg(S2O3)2]2[Mg(NH3)4]2+
[Mg(NH3)6]2+
[Ni(NH3)4]2+
[Ni(NH3)6]2+
[Ni(CN)4]2[Zn(NH3)4]2+
[Zn(CN)4]2[Zn(SCN)4]2[Zn(OH)4]2[Zn(H2O)6]2+
[ZnCl4]2[ZnBr3][ZnI4]2-
146
LZ[ebpZ
,g_kl
2,2 10-8
2,1 10-13
1,0 10-24
5,0 10-31
5,0 10-28
6,3 10-6
1,8 10-9
7,6 10-17
3,1 10-9
1,0 10-24
1,0 10-31
6,3 10-21
1,1 10-3
4,0 10-42
8,5 10-16
2,0 10-22
1,5 10-30
5,9 10-22
3,6 10-30
1,1 101
2,0 103
1,1 10-8
1,9 10-9
1,8 10-14
3,5 10-10
1,3 10-17
5,0 10-2
3,6 10-16
2,5 10-10
1
50
220
KlZg^Zjlgu_we_dljh^gu_ihl_gpbZeu?
\\h^guojZkl\hjZoijbhK
WE?
F?GL
LZ[ebpZ
WE?DLJH>GUC IJHP?KK
Ag
Ag+:$J
Al
Al :$O
?h, B
0,80
3+
1,66
Br
Br2(`):%U
Cd
Cd :&G
Cl
Cl2:&O
1,07
2+
0,40
HClO + H :&O + H2O

+
1,36
1,49
Co
Co :&R
Cr
Cr :&U
3+
2+
1,808
3+
Cr :&U
3+
2+
CrO42 + 4H22:&U2+3 + 5OH

Cr2O7 + 14H :&U + 7H2O
2
3+

0,407

1,33
Cu
Cu :&X
2+
Cu + I :&X,
2+
0,15
Cu :&X
0,86
2+
0,34
F
F2:)
Fe
Fe :)H
2,87
2+
Fe :)H
3+
2+
147

WE?
F?GL
WE?DLJH>GUC IJHP?KK
?h, B
0,77
Fe :)H
3+

0
2H :+2
Hg22+:+J
+
H
Hg
0,79
Hg :+J
2+
0,85
I2(d):,
0,54
HIO + H :, + H2O

+
2IO3 + 12H :I2(d) + 6H2O
0,99
1,19
IO3 + 6H :, + 3H2O
1,08
IO3 + 5H :+,2+2O
2IO3 + 6H22:,2 + 12OH
1,14
IO3 + 3H22:, + 6OH
0,21
0,26
Li
Li :/L
Mn
MnO4:0Q24
Mn :0Q

0,56
2+
1,179
3+
Mn +:0Q
2+
MnO4+22:0Q22 + 4OH
MnO2 +4H :0Q + 2H2O
+
0,60
2+
MnO4+ :0Q + 4H2O

+
1,23
2+
MnO4 + 4H :0Q22 + 2H2O

2
1,51
148
1,51
WE?
F?GL
WE?DLJH>GUC IJHP?KK
?h, B
MnO2 + 2H22:0Q2+2 + 2OH
2,26
0,50
NO3 + 10H :1+4 + 3H2O
0,87
NO3 + 2H :122 + H2O
NO3 + 3H :+122 + H2O
0,80
0,94
NO3 + 4H :12+2O
NO3 + H22:122 + 2OH
0,957
NO3 + 2H22:122+
0,10
NO2 + H22:122+
0,14
0,46
Na
Na :1D
Ni
Ni :Ni
O2 + 2H :+2O2

2+

0,68
O2 + 4H :+2O
+
1,23
O2 + 2H22:2+
0,40
O2 + 2H :+2O2
+
0,68
O3 + 2H :22 + H2O
+
O3 + H22:22 + 2OH
2,07
H2O2 + 2H :+2O
1,24
1,78
P
H3PO4 + 2H :+3PO3 + H2O

+
149

WE?
F?GL
WE?DLJH>GUC IJHP?KK
?h, B
Pb2+:3E
Pb
Pb :3E
4+

2+
1,694
PbO2 + 4H :3E + 2H2O

+
2+
PbO2 + SO4 + 4H :3E624 + 2H2O

2
1,449
1,685
PbO2 + H22:3E22+
0,28
6:6
0,48
S + 2H :+2S
+
0,17
SO3 + 6H :6 + 3H2O

2
0,231
SO4 + 10H :+2S + 4H2O

2
0,311
SO4 + 8H :6 + 4H2O

2
0,15
SO4 + 4H :+2SO3 + H2O

2
SO4 + 2H22:623 + 2OH

2
H2SO3 + 4H :6+2O
0,17
0,93
0,45
Sn
Sn :6Q
4+
2+
Sn :Sn
0,15
2+
Ti
Ti :7L
Zn
Zn2+:=Q
4+
150
3+

0,04

EBL?J:LMJ:
1. RbfZgh\bq B ? IZ\eh\bq F E LbdZ\uc < N FZeZrdh I
FH[sZyobfby\nhjfmeZohij_^_e_gbyoko_fZoFgMgb
\_jkbl_lkdh_
2. =ebgdZGEH[sZyobfbyE7.
3. :of_lh\ G K H[sZy b g_hj]Zgbq_kdZy obfby F <ukrZy
rdheZ
4. Ex[bfh\ZG;<hijhkubaZ^Zqbihh[s_cbg_hj]Zgbq_kdhc
obfbbF<ukrZyrdheZ
5. =ebgdZGEAZ^ZqbbmijZ`g_gbyihh[s_cobfbbEObfby
1986.
6. K\bjb^h\<<Ihidh\bq=:<Zkbev_\Z=BAZ^Zqb\hijhku
bmijZ`g_gbyihh[s_cbg_hj]Zgbq_kdhcobfbbFgMgb\_j
kbl_lkdh_
7. Dgya_\ > : KfZju]bg K G G_hj]Zgbq_kdZy obfby F <uk
rZyrdheZ
8. Km\hjh\:<., Gbdhevkdbc:;H[sZyobfbyKI[Obfby
151
H=E:<E?GB?
IH;S:YOBFBY
=eZ\ZI.
:lhfgh-fhe_dmeyjgh_mq_gb_
Hkgh\gu_ihgylbybaZdhguobfbb . . . . . . . . . . 3
=eZ\ZII.
Hkgh\gu_deZkkug_hj]Zgbq_kdbo
kh_^bg_gbc
=eZ\ZIII.
Wg_j]_lbdZobfbq_kdboj_Zdpbc
=eZ\ZIV.
Hkgh\uobfbq_kdhcdbg_lbdb
Obfbq_kdh_jZ\gh\_kb_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
=eZ\ZV.
Dhebq_kl\_gguckhklZ\jZkl\hjh\
=eZ\ZVI.
JZ\gh\_kby\jZkl\hjZowe_dljheblh\
=eZ\ZVII. Kljh_gb_ZlhfZbi_jbh^bq_kdbcaZdhg
=eZ\ZVIII. Obfbq_kdZyk\yavbf_`fhe_dmeyjgh_
\aZbfh^_ckl\b_
=eZ\ZIX.
Hdbkebl_evgh-\hkklZgh\bl_evgu_
j_Zdpbb
=eZ\ZX.
Dhhj^bgZpbhggu_kh_^bg_gby
107
IIG?HJ=:GBQ?KD:YOBFBY
j we_f_gluVII]jmiiu . . . 117
j we_f_gluVI]jmiiu
j we_f_gluV]jmiiu
j we_f_gluIV]jmiiu
j we_f_gluIII]jmiiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
s we_f_gluIbII]jmii
d we_f_gluVIII]jmiiu
d we_f_gluVII]jmiiu
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
d we_f_gluVI]jmiiu
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
d we_f_gluII]jmiiu
d we_f_gluI]jmiiu
Ijbeh`_gb_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Ebl_jZlmjZ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
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M>D   

Fhe_dmeZ f_evqZcrZy kihkh[gZy d kZfhklhyl_evghfm kms_

gylb_ fhe_dmeZ <f_klh g_]h bkihevam_lky ihgylb_ nhjfmevgZy

w(O) = 100 % 2,1 % 29,8 % = 68,1 % .

^mxsbfh[jZahf ( X ) ]^_z* qbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklb

gh]h fhey wd\b\Ze_glZ ]Zahh[jZagh]h \_s_kl\Z O ?^bgbpZ baf_j_gby efhevbebf3fhev

Ijbf_j  Hij_^_eblv qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb nZdlhj wd\b\Z

hldm^Z o  AgZqbl qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb ]b^jhdkb^Z ojhfZ z* \

< khhl\_lkl\bb k aZdhghf wd\b\Ze_glh\ obfbq_kdh_ dhebq_kl\h

A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ\klmib\r_]h\j_Zdpbx

 Ih^klZ\bf qbkeh\u_ agZq_gby \_ebqbg \ \ujZ`_gb_ aZdhgZ

e_gby\kh_^bg_gbbIhkdhevdmM(Me) = M * (Me) z*lhijb

H^gh\Ze_glgh]h f_lZeeZ k fheyjghc fZkkhc  ]fhev b ^\mo\Z

A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ

^_l\ujZ`ZlvkyM(Me) = M * (Me) z*,

IhkdhevdmM(Me) = M * (Me) z*,

]^_ z* kl_i_gv hdbke_gby f_lZeeZ \ kh_^bg_gbb lh ijb

 Hlghkbl_evgZy iehlghklv ]ZaZ O ih ]Zam Y Dy(X) [_ajZa

Kj_^g_cfheyjghcfZkkhc]Zah\hckf_kb Fkj gZau\ZxlfZkkmkf_

gZy hlghr_gbx h[t_fZ ]ZaZ O d h[t_fm kf_kb DZd b fZkkh\Zy^hey

p1V1 98,5 10,4

5. Q_f hlebqZxlky \_s_kl\Z fhe_dmeyjgh]h kljh_gby hl \_s_kl\

21. <uqbkeblvagZq_gb_h[t_fZ gm wd\bfheyjghckf_kb\h^hjh^Z

71. Ijbl_jfbq_kdhfjZaeh`_gbbhdkb^ZfZj]ZgpZ IV fZkkhc]

aZl_f \ihjy^d_mf_gvr_gbykl_i_g_chdbke_gby [_aijbklZ\dbkmnnbdk-Zl:

LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ kj_^g_c kheb

LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ dbkehlu

LjZ^bpbhggh_ gZa\Zgb_ kj_^g_c kheb

U2 U1= Qj p(V2 V1),

Qp = (U2+ pV2) (U1+ pV1).

K ]jZnbl H ] KH ] ; G 0298 = d>`

K ]jZnbl H ] KH ] d>`

G 0298 j-pbb f G 0298 (CO2) + 0) (2fG 0298 (N2O) + 0),

Ke_^h\Zl_evghf G 0298 (N22  d>`fhev

Ijbf_j . Ihevamykv kijZ\hqgufb ^Zggufb mklZgh\blv \ha

7. Fh]ml eb [ulv wdahl_jfbqgufb ijhp_kku ^bkkhpbZpbb fhe_dme

109. DZdbf mjZ\g_gb_f hij_^_ey_lky wglZeviby b __ baf_g_gb_" DZ

]^_ k : bk < fheyjgu_dhgp_gljZpbbj_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\:b<

]^_ vT2 b vT1 kdhjhklbj_Zdpbbkhhl\_lkl\_gghijbl_fi_jZlmjZoL2b

Ijbf_j . L_fi_jZlmjguc dhwnnbpb_gl kdhjhklb obfbq_kdhc

Ijbf_qZgb_ ?keb m <Zr_]h dZevdmeylhjZ hlkmlkl\m_l dghidZ

JZkkqblZcl_ baf_g_gb_ ^Z\e_gby \ kbkl_f_ ih kjZ\g_gbxki_j\hgZ

17. DZdh\h \ebygb_ \_ebqbgu wg_j]bb Zdlb\Zpbb gZ l_fi_jZlmjguc

143. Ijb hKdhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kbykbkl_fu)H2 d + CO ] <)H d +

< debgbq_kdhc ijZdlbd_ g_j_^dh \ujZ`Zxl fZkkh\mx dhgp_g

gZy dhgp_gljZpby k * ( X ) \ujZ`Z_lky \ fheve fhev^f3,

Dhwnnbpb_gl jZkl\hjbfhklb \_s_kl\Z s fZdkbfZevgZy

Ijbf_j . Dhwnnbpb_glu jZkl\hjbfhklb gbljZlZ dZeby ijb

154. DfejZkl\hjZ ]kf3 kmevnZlZgZljbykwd\b\Ze_gl

c(H + ) c(CH 3COO )

Kl_i_gvx ^bkkhpbZpbb . we_dljheblZ gZau\Z_lky ^hey _]h fh

= 2,15  l_2 + 0,15 =  Hlkx^Zk ++) = 1,4 102LZddZdkhey

Mkeh\by ID  IJKnAm fh`gh ^hklb]gmlv ijbeb\Zy ^hklZlhqgh

k(Ca2+) k(SO42) = 0,0005 0,0005 = 2,5107qlhagZqbl_evghf_gvr_

ijbf_j&O, Br, NO 3 mg_dhlhjuo^\moaZjy^guogZijbf_j62 24 Ih

=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm. Ih dZlbhgmbZgbhgm]b^jheb

< khhl\_lkl\bb k ijbgpbihf E_ RZl_ev_ ]b^jheba ih dZlbhgm

1. DZdh_ khklhygb_ j_Zdpbhgghc kbkl_fu gZau\Z_lky obfbq_kdbf

46. QlhgZau\Z_lkyijhba\_^_gb_fjZkl\hjbfhklb IJ "

181. Kl_i_gv we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb +122 \ F \h^ghf

195. JZkkqblZcl_k(H+ \`_em^hqghfkhd_b\djh\bq_eh\_dZ_kebS+

kl_i_gvhdbke_gbyhl^_evguoZlhfh\ &2&22, N2O, NO2, N2O5,

[ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z baf_gb\rbo kl_i_gv

M>D

Fhe_dmeZ f_evqZcrZy kihkh[gZy d kZfhklhyl_evghfm kms_

gylb_ fhe_dmeZ <f_klh g_]h bkihevam_lky ihgylb_ nhjfmevgZy

^mxsbfh[jZahf ( X ) ]^_z* qbkehwd\b\Ze_glghklb

gh]h fhey wd\b\Ze_glZ ]Zahh[jZagh]h \_s_kl\Z O ?^bgbpZ baf_j_gby efhevbebf3fhev

Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb nZdlhj wd\b\Z

hldm^Z o AgZqbl qbkeh wd\b\Ze_glghklb ]b^jhdkb^Z ojhfZ z* \

A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ\klmib\r_]h\j_Zdpbx

Ih^klZ\bf qbkeh\u_ agZq_gby \_ebqbg \ \ujZ`_gb_ aZdhgZ

e_gby\kh_^bg_gbbIhkdhevdmM(Me) = M * (Me) z*lhijb

H^gh\Ze_glgh]h f_lZeeZ k fheyjghc fZkkhc ]fhev b ^\mo\Z

A^_kv m(Me) fZkkZf_lZeeZ

^_l\ujZ`ZlvkyM(Me) = M * (Me) z*,

]^_ z* kl_i_gv hdbke_gby f_lZeeZ \ kh_^bg_gbb lh ijb

Hlghkbl_evgZy iehlghklv ]ZaZ O ih ]Zam Y Dy(X) [_ajZa

Kj_^g_cfheyjghcfZkkhc]Zah\hckf_kbFkjgZau\ZxlfZkkmkf_

gZy hlghr_gbx h[t_fZ ]ZaZ O d h[t_fm kf_kb DZd b fZkkh\Zy^hey

21. <uqbkeblvagZq_gb_h[t_fZgmwd\bfheyjghckf_kb\h^hjh^Z

71. Ijbl_jfbq_kdhfjZaeh`_gbbhdkb^ZfZj]ZgpZIVfZkkhc]

aZl_f\ihjy^d_mf_gvr_gbykl_i_g_chdbke_gby[_aijbklZ\dbkmnnbdk-Zl:

K]jZnblH] KH]; G 0298 = d>`

K]jZnblH] KH]d>`

Ke_^h\Zl_evghf G 0298 (N22 d>`fhev

Ijbf_j . Ihevamykv kijZ\hqgufb ^Zggufb mklZgh\blv \ha

109. DZdbf mjZ\g_gb_f hij_^_ey_lky wglZeviby b __ baf_g_gb_" DZ

]^_ k:bk< fheyjgu_dhgp_gljZpbbj_Z]bjmxsbo\_s_kl\:b<

Ijbf_j . L_fi_jZlmjguc dhwnnbpb_gl kdhjhklb obfbq_kdhc

Ijbf_qZgb_ ?keb m <Zr_]h dZevdmeylhjZ hlkmlkl\m_l dghidZ

JZkkqblZcl_ baf_g_gb_ ^Z\e_gby \ kbkl_f_ ih kjZ\g_gbxki_j\hgZ

143. Ijb hKdhgklZglZjZ\gh\_kbykbkl_fu)H2d + CO] <)Hd +

< debgbq_kdhc ijZdlbd_ g_j_^dh \ujZ`Zxl fZkkh\mx dhgp_g

gZy dhgp_gljZpby k * ( X ) \ujZ`Z_lky \ fheve fhev^f3,

Ijbf_j . Dhwnnbpb_glu jZkl\hjbfhklb gbljZlZ dZeby ijb

154. DfejZkl\hjZ ]kf3kmevnZlZgZljbykwd\b\Ze_gl

Kl_i_gvx ^bkkhpbZpbb . we_dljheblZ gZau\Z_lky ^hey _]h fh

= 2,15 l_2 + 0,15 = Hlkx^Zk++) = 1,4 102LZddZdkhey

Mkeh\by ID IJKnAm fh`gh ^hklb]gmlv ijbeb\Zy ^hklZlhqgh

k(Ca2+) k(SO42) = 0,0005 0,0005 = 2,5107qlhagZqbl_evghf_gvr_

ijbf_j&O, Br, NO 3 mg_dhlhjuo^\moaZjy^guogZijbf_j62 24 Ih

=b^jheba ih dZlbhgm b Zgbhgm. Ih dZlbhgmbZgbhgm]b^jheb

< khhl\_lkl\bb k ijbgpbihf E_ RZl_ev_ ]b^jheba ih dZlbhgm

46. QlhgZau\Z_lkyijhba\_^_gb_fjZkl\hjbfhklbIJ"

181. Kl_i_gv we_dljheblbq_kdhc ^bkkhpbZpbb +122 \ F \h^ghf

195. JZkkqblZcl_k(H+\`_em^hqghfkhd_b\djh\bq_eh\_dZ_kebS+

kl_i_gvhdbke_gbyhl^_evguoZlhfh\&2&22, N2O, NO2, N2O5,

[ mjZ\gb\Z_f qbkeZ Zlhfh\ dbkehjh^Z baf_gb\rbo kl_i_gv

= 0,77 B [ EI00

GZoh^bf gZb[he__ kbevguc \hkklZgh\bl_evIhkdhevdmkZfh_

Ijbf_j Hij_^_eblv fh`gh eb bkihevah\Zlv \ klZg^Zjlguo

\IO 3 + 5H+:HIO + 2H2O, E0 = 1,14 <;

= 1,51 < 0,77 < = 0,74 <

Ihkdhevdm ijb jG jZ\ghf ihl_gpbZe ihemj_Zdpbb Z f_gvr_

JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZk_j_[jZ\^Zg

JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZk_j_[jZ\^Zg

JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZ EHg 2+

JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ ihl_gpbZeZ E2H +

^himklb\ qlh dhg

JZkkqblZ_f agZq_gb_ jZ\gh\_kgh]h ihl_gpbZeZ EHg 2+

Hij_^_ebf gZijZ\e_gb_ ijhl_dZgby j_Zdpbb [ Ihkdhevdm \

219. < dZdhf gZijZ\e_gbb ijhl_dZxl mdZaZggu_ j_Zdpbb \klZg^Zjl

227. We_dljh^guc ihl_gpbZe pbgdZ ihf_s_ggh]h \ jZkl\hj gbljZlZ

pbhgguf hlghkbeb \k_ gh\u_ lbiu kh_^bg_gbc klZgh\behkv \k_

Ijhba\_^_gb_ qZklguo dhgklZgl g_klhcdhklb ^Z_l h[smx dhg

jZy lhevdh k gbljZlhf k_j_[jZ GZibrbl_ dhhj^bgZpbhggu_

[>&U+2O)6] + OH ba[ :

5. DZd baf_gyxlky l_fi_jZlmju ieZ\e_gbydbi_gbybl_jfbq_kdZy

31. GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby j_Zdpbc ijb ihfhsb dhlhjuo fh`gh hkm

\u^_ebeZkvkf_kv]Zah\h[t_fhfegmIjbijhimkdZgbb

\h^hjh^Z \ayluc \ ba[uld_ \u^_ebeZkv kf_kv ]Zah\ h[t_fhf

2. DZd \ ]jmiiZo V-we_f_glh\ baf_gyxlky jZ^bmku Zlhfh\ wg_j]by

hCd + H2SO dhgp

q_c b khe_c GZibrbl_ mjZ\g_gby khhl\_lkl\mxsbo j_Zdpbc

fZkkh\u_ ^heb gbljZlh\ `_e_aZ II b `_e_aZ III \ h[jZah\Z\

\Cu + H2SOdhgp

HClO + H :&O + H2O

CrO42 + 4H22:&U2+3 + 5OH

HIO + H :, + H2O

2IO3 + 12H :I2(d) + 6H2O

IO3 + 6H :, + 3H2O

2IO3 + 6H22:,2 + 12OH