CONCEPTS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 1.

Teaching a) b) c) d) Teaching as a process Teaching as a form of communication Teaching as a scientific activity Teaching as an artistic activity

1. Learning a) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Model of Gagne

Motivation Apprehension Acquisition Retention Recall Generalization Performance Feedback b) Gagnes taxonomy of learning

1. Signal learning the individual learns to make a general response to a signal 2. Stimulus-response learning the learner acquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus 3. Learning through chaining a chain of two or more stimulus-response connections is acquired 4. Learning through verbal association the learning of chains that are verbal 5. Learning through multiple discriminations the individual learns to make different responses to different stimuli 6. Concept learning the learner makes a common response to a class of stimuli 7. Principle learning a rule of chain of two or more concepts 8. Problem-solving learning requires thinking c) Ewells Principles of Learning

1. Active involvement the learner is not a receptacle of knowledge, but rather creates hits or her learning actively and uniquely 2. Patterns & Connections the cognitive process of creating linkages among concepts, skill elements, people and experiences 3. Informal learning implicit learning. Learning is derived from direct interaction and a range of cues given by peers and instructors 4. Direct experience built-in opportunities for active engagement in a learning environment which shape individual understandings

5. Reflection a mental process which challenges students to use critical thinking to examine presented information 6. Compelling situation combines elements from direct experience and motivational readiness 7. Frequent feedback provides opportunities for students to practice what they have previously learned 8. Enjoyable setting a cultural and interpersonal context that provides interactions, individual personal support and creates learning opportunities

THEORIES OF LEARNING Behaviourism 1. Pavlovs Classical Conditioning a) b) c) d) e) f) Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Higher-order conditioning

1. Watsons Conditioning Theory people normally inherit three different kinds of emotions (fear, anger and love). Human emotions can be learned through the process of conditioning 2. B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning a) The behaviour is followed by a consequence, and the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms tendency to repeat the behaviour in the future b) Dependent Variables (measure of learning) 1. Acquisition Rate how rapidly an animal can be trained to a new operant behaviour as a function of reinforcement 2. Rate of Response a measure of correct responses throughout a testing schedule including the times when reinforcement is not provided after a correct response 3. Extinction Rate the rate at which an operant response disappears following the withdrawal of reinforcement c) Types of reinforcement

1. Primary reinforcement instinctive behaviours lead to satisfaction of basic survival needs such as food, water, sex, shelter. No learning takes place because the behaviours emerge spontaneously 2. Second reinforcement the reinforce is not reinforcing by itself, but becomes reinforcing when paired with a primary reinforce (pairing a sound or a light with food) 3. Generalized reinforcement stimuli become reinforcing through repeated pairing with primary or secondary reinforcers (wealth, power, fame and intelligence are valued in many cultures)

4. Pleasant (positive reinforcement) Reward. Increases the probability of the same response occurring again 5. Noxious (punishment) administering a painful or unpleasant reinforce after an unwanted response. Decreases the probability of the same response occurring again 6. Pleasant (punishment) decreases the probability of the same response occurring again (punishing a teenager by taking away his cell phone) 7. Noxious (negative reinforcement) removing or decreasing an unpleasant situation after a desirable response is produced d) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement given every time the animal gives the desired response Intermittent reinforcement given only part of the times Ratio reinforcement a pre-determined proportion of responses will be reinforced Fixed ratio reinforcement given on a regular ratio (every fifth time the desired behaviour is produced) Variable (random) fixed reinforcement given for a predetermined proportion of responses, but randomly instead of on a fixed schedule Interval reinforcement given after a predetermined period of time Fixed interval reinforcement given on a regular schedule (every five minutes) Variable interval reinforcement given after random amounts of time have passed E.L. Thorndike a) Law of effect if an association is followed by a satisfying state of affairs, it will be strengthened. If it is followed by annoying state of affairs, it will be weakened b) Law of exercise

1. Law of use the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes 2. Law of disuse the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes c) Law of readiness a quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to act (eating has a higher degree of readiness than vomiting). Learning is influenced by the readiness of responses Socialism 1. Banduras Social Cognitive Theory a) Individuals knowledge acquisition is related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (replication of the action of others) b) Identification learning will most likely occur if there is a close identification between the observer and the model c) Self-efficacy a set of proximal determinants of human motivation, affect and action through intervening processes d) Vicarious learning with the achievement of simple tasks, more complex objectives are introduced

e) f) g) 1. 2. 3. 4.

Moral competence the ability to perform a moral behaviour Moral performance following ones idea of moral behaviour in a specific situation Learning process through observation

Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation h) Types of modeling

1. Direct imitation the same act is reproduced 2. Indirect imitation the same class of acts is reproduced 3. Direct counter-imitation imitation that is reproduced when necessary in certain situations (yelling in the field VS yelling in the classroom) 4. Indirect counter-imitation imitation of acts which are applicable in all situations (being polite to teachers) 5. Eliciting effect the observer performs a behaviour to the model but still somewhat different 6. Vygotsky Theory a) Cultural mediation and internalization

1. Internalization the knowing how. The mastery of skills occurs through the activity of the child within society. Guided participation takes place when thinkers interact with a knowledgeable person 2. Psychology of Play through play, the child develops abstract meaning separate from the objects in the world a critical feature in developing higher mental functions 3. Thought and Language speaking develops along the line of social communication and the line of inner speech (semiotics the meaningful signs) 4. Zone of Proximal Development the range of tasks that a child can complete. The lower limit the child works independently. The upper limit the child works with the assistance of a more capable instructor Humanism 1. Carl Rogers Personality Theory a) Actualizing tendency the human organism aims to develop all capacities in ways that maintain or enhance it towards autonomy (tension, need, drive reductions, pleasureseeking). Each person wants to fulfill their potential b) Self - develops through interactions with others and involves awareness of being and functioning c) Self-Actualizing tendency the need for positive regard from others and the need for positive self-regard 1. Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

a) b) c) d) e)

Physiological health, food, sleep Safety shelter, removal from danger Belonging love, affection, being part of groups Esteem self-esteem and esteem from others Self-actualization achieving individual potential

Cognitivism 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Kohler insight helps individuals solve their problem Tolman learning is not a reckless action but a desire to achieve a certain objective Piaget Schema information used to represent a certain concept Adaptation and Equilibration use schemas as basic form of action Assimilation and Accommodation the use of experiences that complements the new experience. The changing of cognitive structure 4. Jerome Bruner conjunctive concept, disjunctive concept, relational concept 5. David Ausubel derivative subsumption, correlative subsumption, deductive learning, inductive learning Constructivism 1. Piagets Cognitive Constructivism Theory a) b) c) d) e) f) g) Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation Operation Conservation Classification Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

1. Skills and knowledge are meaningfully constructed by individuals own effort

concept of learning envrnmnt 1. physical-condusive classromm, teaching-learning aids, facilities insede & outside classroom 2. Psychosocial-safety, cleanliness, sense of belonging, ppls need to feel secured-away from danger -classroom managment concern all aspect of life in school-ppls personalities -tcr craft & attitude -physical facilities in classroom

condusive learning envrnment

1.physical factor-physical arrangement in the classroom -ppls seating arrangement -functional arrangement which provides comfortable space for activities & movement 2.social factor-classroom rules & regulation 3.Emotional factor-different leadership style of tcr e.g democratic...autocratic...laisez-faire play -intrinsically motivated -must be freely choosen by ppls, not being forced -must be pleasure & enjoyable -must be actively engaged by the ppls -divided into two -social play -cognitive play

? play
-in general, promotes physical, intellectual&social-emotional development -H.Spencer=to discharge the energy of the body -Piaget=to facilitate general cognitive development, to consolidate previous learning, while allowing new learning -to form abstract concept, laws & principles e.g principles of conservation&floatation,

through 'playing with object games'

-to develop social skills (communication with other childrens) -to enhance children reading & writing skills through participation in 'language games' -to consolidate counting skills through 'mathematical games'

Learning through play

-T&L activity which suitable for preschool & primary school children -children enjoyed to participate, play freely in an organized activity -no restricted schedule to be followed -children allowed to play & solve problem according to their own ideas

Social play
1.solitary - the lowest level of social play - playing in their own respective imaginary world, even when they are surrounded with other children 2.onlooker -children is involves as a spectator, not as an active participant

3.parallel -children play separately & independently with the same type of activity, same place & time -they aware of the presence of other children 4.Associative -similar to parallel play -except, children engaged a considerable amount of sharing, lending, taking turns, communicating -e.g. two children using sand to build their own castle side by side. They may have discussion & sharing materials or lending a helping hands 5.co-operative -considered as the highest level in social play -two 0r more children are engaged in a certain play that has a common goal -e.g. a group of children may use sand to build a villa. Two of them may assign to construct the building, the others may help to gather building material etc.

Cognitive play
1.games&rules -involves competition between two or more players -with rules & regulations agreed in advanced by the players -it can be an outdoor game -e.g. chess game, checkers, marble, hide & seek, polis sentri 2.constructive -e.g. children play with blocks of various sizes & shapes. With the blocks, children construct a variety of building project 3.functional -children use motor sensor & body to do the activity e.g. hoop, jump 4.fantasy -children use their imagination & role play to create new activity according to their creativity & imagination -e.g. using a box as a car 5.sociodramatic -verbal interaction between the children

STORY TELLING -the content should be interesting -suitable to d age & experience -tcr has to memorize certain important part of the story -tcr use effective communicative skills especially variation of intonation -tcr can insert question during ST -follow up activities e.g. discussion, story-wriitng, role-play PLANNING&ORGANIZATION-->STORY TELLING SESSION-->CLOSURE DISCUSSION -involved conversation between tcr&ppls or among ppls themselves -exchanging opinions or ideas under tcr supervision -e.g. debate, seminar, forum PLANNING-->INTRODUCTION-->DISCUSSION-->WIND UP-->CONCLUSION

BRAINSTORMING -useful for problem-solving -every ppls allowed to express opinion on the issue -usually organized in the form of buzz session PRELIMINARY-->DISCUSSION-->EVALUATION&CONCLUSION DEMONSTRATING -inform ppls what the aim&focus activity -demonstrate/show the way or steps to perform certain activity -tcr face ppls -use questioning techniques -request ppls to demonstrate PROBLEM SOLVING -reqiures ppls to make use of relevent skills, principles or theories which they have learned -use cognitive skill -should be given as soon as they acquired relevent knowledge&skills -problem should be prepared according to ppls ability -tcr should avoid 'demonstrating method' Dewey's IDENTIFY PROBLEM-->LOOK 4 INFORMATION/CLUES-->SET UP HYPOTHESIS-->TEST HYPOTHESIS-->ANALYZE/INTERPRET/EVALUATE/RECORD Polya's UNDERSTAND PROBLEM-->PLAN THE PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY-->IMPLEMENT PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY-->CHECK THE SOLUTION