30 The preservation of food

P h i l i p W. C o x a n d Deborah Kendale

INTRODUCTION ost foods intended for h!"an # o n s ! " p t i o n a r e of biolo$i#al ori$in% apart f r o " t h e o b v i o ! s e x # e p t i o n s o f s a l t % & a t e r% et#.% and it is i"portant that this basi# fa#t is not for$otten. 'iolo$i#al s(ste"s a re seldo" inert) d!rin$ the #o!rse of life% the "etabolis" of the livin$ or$anis" #ha n$es to #re ate the end prod!#t of the a d ! l t a n i " a l % o r # o n t i n ! o ! s l ( p r o d ! #e s t h e l e a ve s % t ! b e r s % b ! d s a n d se e d s o f t h e p l a n t . Pi#* an apple% net a herrin$ or pod a pe a% and (o! &ill halt the "etaboli# p r o # e s s e s . Th e a n i " a l o r p l a n t & i l l d ie a n d s o #e a se t o $ r o &. D ! r i n $ i t s l i f e % i t possessed a #o"pli#ated and hi$hl( effi#ient "e#hanis" of prote#tion fro" ba#teria% (easts and "o!lds. With death% this "e#hanis" no lon$er operates. The #ondition of the livin$ plant or ani"al &ill # h a n $ e o v e r t i " e b!t % afte r dea th% #ha n$es o##!r that are li*e l( to be # ! " ! l a t i v e % irreversible and lar$el( deteriorative !nless steps are ta*en to halt the". It has al&a(s been one of the pri"ar( ob+e#tives of resear#h in the food ind !st r( to develop a n d p e r f e # t t e # h n i, ! e s f o r a r re st i n $ t h e se #h a n $ e s d ! rin $ t h e n e # e s s a r ( p e r i o d s o f distrib!tion and stora$e. -ood #an be preserved in a n!"ber of &a(s% for exa" . ple% dr(in$% #annin$ and free/in$. Other " e t h o d s s! #h a s s" o * in $ % p i# *l in $ a n d t h e ! se o f sa lt % o i ls % s ! $ a r o r s ( r ! p s a lt e r t h e

#h a r a # t e r i s t i # s p re s e r v e i t .

of

the

food

in

o rd e r

to

ICRO'I01 -OOD 2POI1034 -oods are not stable #o""odities% and &hen the( h a v e t o b e i " p o r t e d o r t r a n s p o r t e d o v e r l o n $ distan #es% as "!#h of o! r food is% it "a ( deteriorate v e r ( , ! i # * l (. T h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o n i s b r o ! $ h t abo!t b( a #o"bination of ph(si#al da"a$e% #he"i#al brea*do&n or # o n t a " i n a t i o n % i n s e # t o r r o d e n t a # t i v i t (% e n / ( " e b re a *d o & n o r s p o i l a $ e #a ! se d b ( "i#ro.or$anis"s% &hose a##ess is aided b ( " a n ( o f t h e se # h a n $ e s . Ch a n $ e s i n t a s t e % s " e l l % # o l o ! r% t e x t ! r e a n d a p p e a r a n # e a r e t h e " a i n f e a t ! r e s o f "i#robial spoila$e. 2o"e of these #han$es are ver( d i s t i n # t % s ! # h as the 5s!lph!r stin*er5 spoila$e of #an n ed foods% or the prod!#tion of 5ropiness5 in bread. The "ain a$ents of spoila$e are s h o & n i n Table 30.6.
Table 30.1 The "ain a$ents of food spoila$e and the t(pes of food the( affe#t Food type Agent of spoilage

Canned foods 'a#teria or "o!lds Dried $oods o!lds or (easts odified at"osphere 0 n a e r o b i # 7 " i # r o a e r o p h i l i # pa#*ed $oods ba#teria Preserved foods Resista nt "i#ro. or$a nis"s Chilled foods 'a#teria% e.$. Pseudomonas -ro/en foods 4n/("es

Microbial food spoilage 541

The abilit( of all t(pes of or$anis"s to adapt in order to be able to $ro& on food sho!ld never be ! nd e re sti"a te d% a lth o !$ h a differentiation needs to be "ade bet&een those or$anis"s that affe#t f o o d ,!alit( b( spoila$e% and those that have p!bli# health #onse,!en#es. In so"e #ases $ro&th of spoila$e or$anis"s "a( even be tolerated% for e xa " p l e % t h e $ ro & t h o f f ! n $ i o n the s! rfa #e of other&ise perfe#tl( a##eptable +a" or #heese. In so"e #ases% the $ro&th of forei$n or$anis"s is e n # o ! r a $ e d o r p ro " o t e d in o rd e r t o d e v e l o p taste% te x t! r e o r a p p e a ra n #e % e xa " p l e s o f th is in #l! de 2tilton or -ren#h #heeses. The pattern of spoila$e &ill depend on the " i # r o b i a l l o a d o f t h e p a r t i #! l a r f o o d s t ! f f % and is $overned to a lar$e de$ree b( the t(pe of food and its ori$in. 4ven so% the l o a d & i l l still be s!b+e#t to #han$e as a res!lt of the stora$e% h a n d l i n $ a n d p r o # e s s i n $ o f the food% th!s allo&in$ sele#ted #ate$ories of or$anis"s to be#o"e do"inant. -or exa"ple% d!rin$ the p r o # e s s o f p ast e! r i/at io n % h ea t .sen sit ive b a#t e ria % (e a st s an d " o ! l d s " a ( b e d e s t r o ( e d % b ! t h e a t . r e s i s t a n t sp o i l a $ e or$anis"s re"ain) and &hile storin$ food !nder #hilled #onditions inhibits the $ r o & t h o f "esophiles% it is still possible for ps(#hrophiles to $ro& !nhindered. T ( p i # a l l (% " o s t p r e s e r v a t i o n " e t h o d s r e l ( on red!#in$ the a"o!nt of &ater available for "i#robial $ro&th to prod!#e their effe#ts. -or instan#e% the addition of sol!tes to &ater red!#es its availabilit( for $ r o & t h o r & i t h f r e e / in $ & h e r e i # e # r ( s t a l s a r e f o r " e d a n d s o f re e & a t e r i s r e " o v e d . T h i s " a ( b e e x p r e s se d b ( e , ! a t io n 6 b e lo & a & = P7 P 0 869

s(ste"% the val!e of a& falls. 'roadl( spea*in$% the "ore traditional "ethods of food preservation t(pi#all( affe#t the #hara#teristi#s of the foods in this &a(% for instan#e% s " o * i n $ % p i # * l i n $ o r s a l t i n $ % &hereas% "ore "ode rn "eth ods atte "p t to pre serve the fre shne ss and ,!alit( of t h e f o o d % f o r e x a " p l e % f r e e / i n $ o r #hillin$. 0s &ell as spoila$e% &hi#h renders the food !nfit for #ons!"ption% preservation is also re,!ired to p re ve n t t h e e n ! "e ra t io n o f p a t h o $ e n s t h a t # a n #a!se a variet( of% so"eti"es ver( severe% food poi sonin$s% for exa"ple% 1isterosis or ampylobacter infe#tion. -ood poisonin$ falls into t&o #a"ps : first% there is infe#tion fro" or$anis"s present in the food % &hi#h e n ! " e r a t e i n t h e $ ! t a n d # a ! s e their s ( " p t o " s % a n d se # o n d % i f le f t t o $ r o & b e f o r e preservation is #arried o!t% toxins "a( r e s i s t t h e p r e se r v i n $ t r e a t " e n t % & h i # h e f f i # i e n t l ( * i l l s ve $ e t a t ive #e lls% a nd st ill en te r t he $ !t to #a ! se po ison in $% f o r exa"ple% bot!lis". ;en#e food p r e s e r v a t i o n t e #h n i , ! e s n e e d t o b e t i" e l ( a s &e l l a s e ff e #t i ve .
Food spoilage organisms

&here P is the partial press!re of the sol!tion and P0 the partial press!re of p!re & a t e r 8 a & o f p ! r e &ater = 69. 2o% as the #on#entration of sol!tes in#rease or "ore &ater is re"oved fro" a

The "ain $ro!ps of or$anis"s i n v o l v e d i n food spoila$e are "o!lds% (easts and ba#teria 8 Ta b l e 30.69. 3 e n e r a l l (% m o u l d s a f f e # t t h e s ! r f a # e o f foodst!ffs &hen their spores are able to $er"inate. The( prod!#e a "(#eli!"% &hi#h $rad!all( p e n e t r a t e s t h e f o o d % prod!#in$ the fa"iliar fl!ff( &his*ers an d e v en t !a ll( t he d is t in # t l( #olo!red spores. The food "a( also event!all( b e # o " e " ! s t (% s o f t e r a n d s t i # * ( o r s l i " (. 0s &ell as spoilin$ the "ore #o""on perishable foods% the( are parti#!larl( #a p ab l e o f a ff e# t i n $ f oo d s &ith a hi$h s!$ar and salt #ontent% and 5dr(5 foods that have be#o"e da"p as a res!lt of bad stora$e% f o r e x a " p l e % t h e # o l o n i / a t i o n o f t h e s ! r f a # e o f + a " % # h e e se o r d r ( b re a d .

<a r i o ! s s t r a i n s o f y e a s t & i l l $ r o & i n anaerobi# as &ell as aerobi# #onditions% that is% &ith or &ith o!t ox($en 8O= 9% and a l s o i n a # i d a n d h i $ h s ! $ a r so l! t io n s. Th e ( " a ( a lso b e t h e f e r" e n t a t i ve t (p e % & h i # h brea* do&n s!$ars to prod!#e al#ohols% #arbon dioxide 8CO= 9 and a#ids% or the oxidative t(pe% &hi#h oxidi/e s!$ars% o r $ a n i # a # id s a n d a l #o ho l% ra isin$ t he p ; in

th e p ro #e ss. 2 o "e os"o p h ili# ( e a s t s 8 a n d x e r o p h i l i # " o ! l d s 9 # a n s p o i l d r i e d f r! it s a n d #o n #e n t ra t e d f r ! i t +! i# e s% a s t h e ( a r e a b le t o t o l e r a t e # o n d i t i o n s o f l o & a & 80.>=9% &hile others #an tolerate a hi$h salt #ontent and "a( #ontrib!te to the s p o i l a $ e o f f o o d s p r e s e r v e d b ( saltin$. 0 l t h o ! $ h b a c t e r i a a re s i " p l e % s in $ l e . # e l l o r$ a n i s " s t h a t o # # ! r & i d e l ( a n d # a ! s e spoila$e !nder

! T"e preser#ation of food

"an( #onditions% the( #annot $ro& &ith an a& belo& 0.?6 and do not feat!re in the spoila$e of d r i e d f o o d s . ; o & e v e r% i n o t h e r f o o d s t h a t p r o v i d e a s!itable n!trient environ"ent% the( are able to brin$ abo!t several t(pes of spoila$e. 'a#teria readil( $ro& on the "oist s!rfa#es of "eat% fish and ve$etables and &ill not onl( prod!#e taints and odo!rs% b!t #an also brin$ abo!t a de$enera . tion of the food to prod!#e sli"es% &hi#h% in t!rn% "a( prod!#e pi$"ents #apable of brin$in$ ab o! t #o lo ! r #ha n$ e s% fo r e xa "p le % P se u d o m o n as fluorescens 8fl!ores#ent $reen9 and $erratia marcescens 8red9. 0 & i d e v a r i e t ( o f o r$ a n i s " s a re # a p a b le o f p r o . d!#in$ a vis#o!s "aterial 8rope9% &hi#h #an affe#t "il*% soft drin*s% &ine% vine$ar and bread% for exa"ple% % aci ll us sub ti li s . an ( spo ila$e ba#te ria possess the abilit( to fer"ent #arboh(drates. ;o"ofer"entative la#ti# a#id ba#teria pri"aril( prod!#e la#ti# a#id% &hile heterofer"entative ba#teria prod!#e b!t(ri# and propioni# a#id in a d d i t io n t o t h e $ a s e s s! # h a s C O = a n d o t h e r% f r e . ,!entl( noxio!s $asses. -oods that have been i"properl( pro#essed and pa#*a$ed to $ive anaer . obi# #onditions "a( be tainted &ith h(dro$en s!lphide% a""onia% a"ines or other fo!l.s"ellin$ prod!#ts prod!#ed as a res!lt of p!trefa#tion b( the anaerobi# de#o"position of protein. While aerobi# h(drol(sis of proteins "a( prod!#e bitter f l a v o ! r s . ; o & e v e r% i n s o " e # a s e s t h e s e " a ( enhan#e the palatabilit( of #ertain foods and are therefore not al&a(s detri"ental. 3ro&th #an be sl o &e d o r a rr e s t e d b ( *i ll i n $ t h e b a #t e ri a 8b ( s t e r . ili/ation as in #annin$9% deprivin$ the ba#teria of t h e &a t e r t h a t is e sse n t i a l f o r t h e i r "e t a b o l i# a #t iv . ities 8as in dr(in$ and free/in$9% alterin$ the p; 8as in a#id pi#*lin$ or fer"entation9% deprivin$ the ba#teria of available &ater b( in#reasin$ the os"oti# press!re of the s!rro!ndin$ "edi!" 8e.$. b( the addition of s!$ar in +a" "a*in$9% b( pla# . in$ anti"i#robial #o"po!nds at the food s!rfa#e 8e.$. s"o*in$9 or b( sharpl( red!#in$ the te"pera . t!re belo& that at &hi#h ba#teria #an $ro& and "!ltipl( 8as in #hillin$9. The "ethods of food preservation "entioned here are dis#!ssed in $reater detail in the follo&in$ se#tions. 0ltho!$h these treat"ents are desi$ned to a#hieve a #o"plete #essation of the biolo$i#al a # t i v i t (% l i " i t e d e n / ( " a t i # a # t i v i t ( i s i n e v i t a b l e

and% over lon$ periods% &ill #a!se deteriorative # h a n $ e s . ; o & e v e r% & i t h e f f i # i e n t p r e s e r v a t i o n i t "a( ta*e (ears before these deteriorative #han$es #an be re#o$ni/ed b( taste or appearan#e. '!t &hen dried foods be#o"e "oist% #anned foods are p!n#t!red% or ,!i#*.fro/en foods 8@--9 raised in te"perat!re% the fa"iliar pattern of spoila$e reasserts itself.

D 4 ; A D R 0T I O N Dr(in$ deprives ba#teria of the "oist!re ne#essar( for their $ro&th and reprod!#tion% and also has the advanta$e of red!#in$ the a#tivit( of the en/("es that #a!se foodst!ffs to ripen and% !lti . "atel(% to rot. The preservation of food b( dr(in$ $oes ba#* tho!sands of (ears% and fr!it% fish% "eat% et#. are still dried in the s!n and eaten b( "illions of peo . p le . ; o &e ve r% s! n .d ri e d f o o d s a r e s! b +e # t t o #o n t . a "i n a t i o n b ( in s e #t s% b ir d s a n d a i rb o rn e i n f e #t i o n . 'e#a!se of the li"itation of this traditional "ethod% "ost foods are no& dried b( artifi#ial "ethods.

%ed drying for solid foods

To d a (% 5 s o l i d 5 f o o d s ! s ! a l l ( ! n d e r $ o s o " e t r e a t . "ent prior to deh(dration% for exa"ple% ve$eta . bles are !s!all( blan#hed b( stea" or hot &ater to ina#tivate en/("es% hot al*aline dips are !sed to re"ove &ax fro" the s!rfa#e of fr!its and "eat% and fish and po!ltr( are !s!all( pre . #oo*ed% b!t this #annot be relied !pon to re"ove patho$ens. 0n essential of the deh(dration pro#ess is effi . # i e n t #o n t a # t b e t &e e n t h e p r o d ! # t a n d t h e h o t a ir% to$ether &ith the ,!i#* re"oval of "oist!re. <a r i o ! s t e #h n i , ! e s a r e ! s e d . Th e f l! id i/e d b ed d r(e r is a #o " "on t(p e of d r(e r t ha t h a s p ro ve d ! se f ! l f o r d r(in $ ve $ et a b le s. It #o n . sists of a series of perforated bed s &ith fans !nde r . neath. The food% for exa"ple% peas% is held in s! spen sio n b( the !p&a rd b last of the hot air% &h i#h also provides the effi#ient "ixin$. 0s the prod!#t d r o p s f r o " o n e b e d t o a n o t h e r% t h e t e " p e r a t ! r e i s

&e"ydration 543

in#reased 8fro" B0 C to a "axi"!" of C C C a t the end9 and the "oist!re #ontent i s r e d ! # e d f r o " D 0 E t o C 0 E. The peas are then s!b+e#ted to a f!rther for" of treat"ent in another t(pe of dr(er F a hot air bed &here "oist!re falls to approxi"atel( =0E. The hot air bed dr(er is a #ha"ber in &hi#h the prod!#t is pla#ed on perforated tra(s% t h r o ! $ h &h i#h h ot air is pa sse d f ro " be lo&% b !t th e re is n o f l ! i d i / a t i o n . P e a s t h e n re#eive a f!rther treat"ent i n d r ( e r s ! n t i l the "oist!re #ontent falls to approxi"atel( CE. These hot air s(ste"s #an #a!se !ndesirable effe#ts as a res!lt of the rea#tivation of en/("es. 0n alternative is va#!!" dr(in$. $pray drying for li'uid foods 1i,!id foods are !s!all( dried b( one of t h e f o l lo &in $ "e t ho d s.

Free(e drying Th i s i s t h e " o s t a d v a n # e d t e #h n i , ! e f o r e l i " i n a t i n $ t h e & a t e r # o n t a in e d i n f o o d st ! ff . Th e p r o d ! # t t o b e d r i e d i s f i r s t f r o / e n a n d then exposed to a va#!!" of not less than 6 torr 86 "";$9. The &ater #on tained in the prod!#t in the for" of i#e is dire#tl( s ! b l i " a t e d i n t o v a p o ! r% a v o i d i n $ t h e l i , ! i d phase. C o n d e n s e r s t h e n e l i " i n a t e t h e v a p o ! r. -r ee/e dr(in$ is also des#ribed as dr(in$ b( s!bli"ation% or the "ore "i#robiolo$i#al ter" l(pholi/ation. The shape% #olo!r and taste of the ori$inal prod !#t are preserved% and free/e.dried foodst!ffs are e asil( re .h (d ra ted % in sta ntl( re$ainin$ their ori$i nal properties% even & h e n a d d i n $ # o l d & a t e r. T h e p r o # e s s i s #arried o!t in either steel #abinets or lon$% ins!lated t!nnels fitted &ith va#!!" lo#*s and $ates for #ontin!o!s o p e r a t i o n . I t s h o ! l d be noted that a variet( of "i#ro.or$anis"s &o!ld & it h st a n d l(ophili/ation and "a( be #apable of $ro&th post re.h(dration. D!e to the develop"ent of "ore effi#ient " e t h o d s o f h e a t t r a n s f e r% a # # e l e r a t e d f r e e / e d r ( i n $ 80-D9 &as developed% &hi#h h a s $ i v e n r i s e t o t h e Gin sta n t "ea l5 #o n sist in$ of pre .#o o *e d f ree /e .d rie d f o o d s to &hi#h hot &ater is added abo!t =.6C "in!tes before servin$. -oods dried b( this "ethod do not distort b!t ta*e the for" of a spon$( "ass tha t #an be ,!i#*l( re #onstit!ted . It is !sed to d r( a v a r i e t ( o f f o o d s i n # l! d i n $ " e a t % p o ! l t r (% f i sh % s h e l l f ish % ve $ e t a b le s% n o o d le s a n d f r! it . -ree/e.dried foods are stable at roo" te"perat!res b!t sho!ld be refri$erated for lon$ stora$e. The( are !s!all( va#!!" p a # * e d o r p a # * e d & i t h i n a n ine rt $a s 8G ga s f lus" in g 9 t o p re ven t o xid a t ion .
5

1. 2 p r a ( i n $ a t h i n f i l " o f t h e l i , ! i d f o o d
on to heated rollers% for exa"ple% p o t a t o f l a * e s % t o "at o pa ste % in sta n t b rea *f a st #e re a ls an d an i "al foods. The food is s#raped fro" the rollers in f l a * e s and is then po&dered. Dr!".dried foods a re $e ne ra ll( n ot a s sa t isf a #t o r( a s sp ra (.d ried f o o d s a s t h e ( p o sse ss a " o r e #o o *e d # h a r a #t e r a n d d o n o t r e # o n s t i t ! t e as &ell.

2. 2 p r a ( d r ( i n $ t h e l i , ! i d f o o d t h r o ! $ h a n
a t o " i / e r i n t o a h e a t e d # h a " b e r% f o r e x a " p l e % " i l * % e $$ p rod ! #t s% t ea a nd #off ee po &de rs. 0 de ve l o p " e n t o f t h i s involves the in+e#tion of a $as into the feed line% &hi#h prod!#es a foa" that d r i e s " o r e r a p i d l (. 2 in #e t he se p ro d! #t s a re h (d ro s#o p i#% it is e sse n t ia l t h a t t h e ( a r e * e p t d r ( a n d #orre#tl( pa#*a$ed to prevent #onta"ination.

)nfra*red drying This is a s(ste " that !se s hi$h .po&e red

so! r#es of r a d i a t i o n 8 h e a t 9 . I t h a s b e e n ! s e d i n t h e d e h ( d r a t io n o f f r ! i t % v e $ e t a b l e s % "eat% fish and #ereals. +se of sol#ents

Ae t a n o t h e r " e t h o d o f d e h ( d ra t i o n i s t h e ! se of a solvent s!#h as eth(l a#etate% &hi#h for"s a lo& b o i l i n $ p o i n t " i x t ! r e & i t h & a t e r t h a t # a n b e r e " o ve d b ( d i s t i l l a t i o n %

t h e r e s i d ! a l so l v e n t b e i n $ r e " o v e d b ( v a # ! ! " d r( in $ . 1 i, ! i d C O = i s # o " "onl( r e p l a # i n $ o r $ a n i # s o l v e n t s i n t h i s p ro # e s s a s t h e li , ! i d C O = is e a s il ( d ist il l e d o ff a n d le a ve s n o d e t e # t a b l e r e s i d ! e . T h i s p r o # e s s i s a l s o ! s e d t o p ro d ! # e d e #a ff e i n a t e d #o f f e e % a s #a f f e i n e i s so l ! b le in the CO = . With all dr(in$ "ethods% it is i"portant to re"e"ber that the "i#robiolo$i#al load in the

11 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d p ro d ! #t & il l d e p e n d ! p o n th e in it ia l lo a d b e fo r e d e h ( d r a t i o n % a n d t h a t & h e n & a t e r i s a d d e d t o effe#t re#onstit!tion% the or$anis"s be$in to $ro& a$a in. 4ven & it h 0 -D "eth ods% fe& ba#te ri a a re *illed% and f o o d " ! s t t h e r e f o r e b e p ro # e s s e d ! n d e r s t r i # t h ( $ i e n i # # o n d i t i o n s .

R 4 - R I 3 4 R 0T I O N Refri$eration has lon$ been !sed for the preserva tion of food. There are three basi# #ate$ories of re f r i$ e ra t e d f o o d : #h i l le d f o o d % f ro /e n f o o d a n d ,!i#*.fro/en food 8@--9. Chilled food is held at a te"perat!re sli$htl( above 0 C &here no i#e #r(st a l s f o r " i n t h e f o o d . 4 x a " p le s o f t h i s i n # l ! d e : &e t f i s h ) b a # o n % p i e s a n d s a ! s a $ e s s o l d f r o " a r e f ri $ e r a t e d d isp la ( #a b in e t ) ve $ e t a b l e s a re h (d r o . #oo led b( i""ersion in an i#e .&ate r sl!sh and spra( t a n * b e t & e e n p i # * i n $ a n d t r a n s p o r t t o " a r * e t . I n i t i a l l (% r e f r i $ e r a t i o n # o n # e n t r a t e d o n # h i l l i n $ f o o d % n o t o n t h e a # t ! a l t e " p e r a t ! r e o f t h e f o o d st!ffs. The in #reased soph isti#a tion of refri$eration e , ! i p " e n t % a l o n $ & i t h i " p r o v e " e n t s i n " o n i t o r in $ t e #h n o lo $ (% h a ve e x t e n d e d st o ra $ e t i" e s &h il e " a i n t a i n i n $ f o o d , ! a l i t (. I n a #o "" e r #i a l o r in d ! st ri a l f o o d s it ! a t i o n % i t i s i " p o r t a n t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t & e e n p r o d ! # t # h i l l i n $ a n d "aintenan#e of te"perat!re.#ontrollin$ s(s t e " s . 0 h o t e l f r i d $ e " a ( b e #a p a b l e o f #h i l l i n $ s"all ,!antities of food and dealin$ &ith the #on s e , ! e n t & a t e r v a p o ! r% b ! t i t # a n n o t d e a l & i t h la r$e r +o int s o f " e a t o r o t h e r f o o d & i t h o ! t # o " p r o " i s i n $ o p e r a t i n $ t e " p e r a t ! r e s a n d t h e r e f o r e food safet(. R a p i d # h i l l i n $ o f f o o d t o t h e h o l d i n $ t e " p e r a t ! r e i s v i t a l f o r f o o d s a f e t (. ' a # t e r i a " a ( s ! r v i v e # o o * i n $ a s s p o r e s % s o " ! l t i p l i # a t i o n i s p o s s i b l e i f t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e t & e e n #o o * i n $ a n d t h e #h i l l e d t e " p e r a t ! r e i s t o o l o n $ . C o o l i n $ o f f o o d f r o " t h e # o o * i n $ t o t h e #h i l le d t e "p e ra t ! re n e e d s #o n s id e r a b l e #a r e . Th i s i s p a r t i # ! l a r l ( t r! e o f l a r $ e , ! a n t i t i e s o f f o o d & h e r e # o r e t e " p e r a t ! r e s " a ( t a * e a # o n s i d e r a b l e a " o ! n t o f t i " e t o r e a # h 0 . C C . T h e e , ! i p " e n t ! se d in #o ""e r#ia l o r in d! st ria l sit !a t ion s "! st be # a p a b l e o f r a p i d #h il lin $ an d d isp e rsa l o f &a te r vapo!r &itho!t ex#essivel( deh(dratin$ the food. 'last #hillers are # a p a b l e o f t h i s % & i t h a r e d ! # t i o n i n f o o d t e " p e r a t ! r e s t o b e l o & 3 C & i t h i n ? 0 " i n ! te s o r le ss de pe nd in$ on t he lo a d in $ o f t he e ,! ip " e n t . T h i s i s a # h i e v e d b ( b l o & i n $ h i $ h v e l o # i t ( # o l d a i r o v e r t h e f o o d . I t i s i"portant to re"e"ber that the for"ation of lar$e i#e #r(stals fro" slo& f r e e / in $ s h o! l d b e av o i de d o r f o o d , ! a l i t ( & i l l s!ffer. 0 f t e r b l a s t # h i l l i n $ % f o o d " ! s t b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o te "p e rat ! re "a in te n an #e s(st e "s a s soo n a s p ossi ble. These are desi$ned to hold food at stead( te" p e r a t ! r e s % ! s ! a l l ( & i t h l o & e n e r $ ( i n p ! t s . T h i s e , ! i p " e n t has sophisti#ated "onitorin$ e,!ip"ent that #he#*s either /ones or la(ers of the holdin$ area. C i r # ! l a t i o n s ( st e " s e n s! r e t h a t t h e # h i l l e d a i r i s e v e n l ( d i s t r i b ! t e d & i t h o ! t # a ! s i n $ e x # e s s i v e deh(dration of the foods.
Temperature control and enforcement

4 n f o r # i n $ t h e t e " p e r a t ! r e r e , ! i r e " e n t s o f f o o d l e $ i s l a t i o n 8 s e e p a $ e s C 6 0 a n d C B H 9 i s " a d e d i f f i #!lt be#a!se:

t h e r e # a n b e ! p t o H C d i f f e r e n # e b e t & e e n in#o"in$ air and o!t$oin$ air in frid$es and #hill #abinets there is a = ho!r dero$ation on shop stora$e not in a #oolin$ s(ste" there #an be lar$e variations in te"perat!re a#ross displa( #abinets and holdin$ roo"s food #o!ld have +!st been p!t in the frid$e i t # a n a l & a ( s b e a r $ ! e d t h a t t h e f r i d $ e i s i n a defrost #(#le.

Th e e n f o r # e " e n t o f f i #e r " ! s t e n s ! r e t h a t t h e r " o " e t e r s a r e p r o p e r l ( a n d r e $ ! l a r l ( # a l i b r a t e d . 0 t l e a s t " o n t h l (% o r " o r e r e $ ! l a r l ( i f p o s s i b l e % t h e r " o " e t e r s s h o ! l d b e # h e # * e d a $ a i n s t a r e f e r e n # e t h e r " o " e t e r h e l d i n t h e d e p a r t " e n t . R e # o r d s sh o ! ld b e * e p t o f e a # h i n s t r! " e n t so t h a t d r i f t s i n # a l i b r a t i o n # a n b e s p o t t e d r a p i d l ( a n d t h e i n s t r ! " e n t r e " o v e d f r o " s e r v i # e . T h e r e f e r e n # e t h e r "o "et er 8and the off i#er5s as

1, T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d ne#e ssa r(9 sho!ld be r e #a li b r a t e d a t le a st a n n ! a ll (. W h i le f o ll o & in $ t h i s p ro #ed ! re % so "e de pa rt "e n t s a lso se n d t he ir th e r " o " e t e r s a & a ( f o r # h e # * i n $ i f o f f i # e r s h a v e ! s e d t h e " i n i n v e s t i $ a t i o n s o r i n s p e # t i o n s t h a t & i l l l e a d t o le $ a l p ro # e e d i n $ s .

13 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d

"illing
Th i s i s a n i " p r e # i s e t e r " % t h e " e a n i n $ o f &h i # h i n t e r " s o f t e " p e r a t ! r e t e n d s t o v a r ( & i t h t h e p r o d ! # t . Therefore% it #an "ean an( red!#tion in nor "al te"perat!re. The i"pre#ise definition is !sed b e#a ! se d iffe re n t f oo d s d et e rio ra te a t d iff e ren t te"perat!res% for exa"ple% fr!it 8apples &ill still bro&n if the t e " p e r a t ! r e i s l o & d ! e t o e n / ( " a t i # a#tivit(9. R e f r i $ e r a t i o n t e " p e ra t ! r e i s ! s ! a l l ( t a *e n t o b e b e lo & C - C% an d is t he te "p e ra t ! re t ha t in h ib it s th e $ r o & t h o f p a t h o $ e n s % a l t h o ! $ h t h e ( s t i l l r e " a i n v i a b l e o f # o ! r s e . lostridium botulinum & i l l $ r o & a n d prod!#e toxin bet&een 3 - C and B- C% so te"perat!res are best *ept at bet&een 0 - C and 3 - C. 0 # o d e o f p r a # t i # e e x i s t s t o $ o v e r n t h e ! s e o f # h i l l i n $ a n d # a n b e s e e n i n 5 Te " p e r a t ! r e C o n t r o l R e , ! i r e " e n t s 5 8 n o . 6 0 I 2 ' N 0 . 66 . 3 = 6 B C > . 0 9 o r advi#e #an be $ained fro" relevant resear#h asso#i a t i o n s % f o r e x a " p l e % C a " p d e n a n d C h o r l e ( & o o d - o o d R e s e a r # h 0 s s o # i a t i o n 8 C C - R 0 9 i n C h i p p i n $ C a " p d e n 3 lo ! #e s t e r s h i r e . e t h n i # f o o d s a n d d i f f e r e n t p a # * i n $ f o r " s a n d #oo*in$ "ethods% s!#h as "i#ro&ave ovens% has &i d e n e d t h e t e #h n o lo $ i# a l b a s e o f t h e #o n ve n i e n #e f o o d s a v a i l a b l e f o r # o n s ! " e r s . The re"oval of preservatives fro" a &ide ran$e of prod!#ts has in#reased the ris* of pre"at!re (east and "o!ld proble"s for "an!fa#t!rers% as & e l l as i n # r ea s i n $ th e p ot en t i a l fo r pa th o$ e n $ro&th. 0n in#reasin$ e"phasis on pro#ess #on trol% pa#* inte$rit( and #hill #hain #ontrol "!st for" a p a r t o f f o o d " a n ! f a # t ! r e r s 5 p o l i # (. T h e C h i l l e d -o o d 0 s so # i a t i o n h a s i s s ! e d $ ! i d e l i n e s f o r $ o o d h ( $ i e n i # p r a # t i # e i n t h e " a n ! f a # t ! r e o f #hilled foods other than those prod!#ed b( #ater in$ o p e ra ti o n s I6 J . - o ! r #a te $ o ri e s o f p re p a re d #hilled food are #overed:

1. 2. 3. 4.

those prepared fro" ra& #o"ponents t h o s e p r e p a r e d f r o " # o o * e d a n d r a & # o " p o n e n t s p ro #e sse d t o e xt e n d t h e sa f e sh e l f li f e those prepared fro" onl( #oo*ed #o"ponents t h o s e # o o * e d i n t h e i r o & n p a # * a $ i n $ p r i o r t o distrib!tion.

Free(ing 14

1 5 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od

oo.*c"ill
0 "a+or trend in food pro#essin$ has b e e n t h e d e ve lo p " e n t o f #o n ve n i e n #e f o o d s. Th is h a s le d t o # o o * . # h i l l r e a d ( " e a l s a n d a h!$e $ro&th in sand&i#h sales% to$e ther &ith #ontin!in$ develop"ent o f d a i r ( prod!#ts% parti#!larl( desserts and $atea!xs% and "an( other prod!#ts that b!s( #ons ! " e r s & o ! l d p re f e r to b !( r a th e r t ha n "a *e at ho"e. The develop"ent of hi$h. , ! a l i t ( n ! t r i t i o ! s sn a # *s h a s r e s! lt e d in p e o p le e a t i n $ f e &e r re $ ! la r " e a l s a n d a de#rease in for"al fa"il( eatin$. The desire for 5additive free5 or 5nat!ral5 f o o d s h a s r e s ! l t e d i n in # r e a se d p re s s ! r e o n f o o d " a n ! f a # t ! r e r s t o r e d ! #e o r e l i" in a t e p re se rv a t ive s% s (n t h e t i # #olo!rs and an(thin$ else asso#iated &ith 545 n!"bers. In#reased p!bli# *no&led$e a b o ! t n !t rit io n iss! e s h as ra ise d t he p ro f ile o f fo od #o " p o n e n t s s ! # h a s s a l t % s ! $ a r% #holesterol% fats and fibre% and has res!lted in the develop"ent of an in#reasin$ n!"ber of prod!#ts &ith spe#ifi# # l a i " s in t he se a re a s. 0 s pa rt of t he in #re a se d n !t rit io n a l a & a r e n e s s % l o & . f a t prod!#ts in the dair( se#tor have

flo!rished. 0n in#rease in the pop!larit( of Th e $! ide lin e s a re in t en de d to en s! re t ha t th e #o o * i n $ p r o # e s s e s a r e s ! f f i # i e n t t o destro( ve$etative patho$ens% parti#!larl( /isteria monocytogenes . The dis#!ssion of #oo*.#hill foods is #ontin!ed in the se#tion detailin$ the t h e r " a l p a s t e ! r i / a t i o n of foods.

-R44KIN3

-ro/en food is "aintained at a te"perat!re of at least 0 6- C% and this in#l!des "ost of the "eat sold in the United Kin$do". @-- pass thro!$h the / o n e of "axi"!" #r(stal for"ation 80- C to 0 C- C9 &ithin a ver( short ti"e% &hi#h is never "ore than 3 ho!rs% and are held at a t e " p e r a t ! r e o f 0 6 D - C% a lth o !$ h so "e se n sit ive f oo d s% s! #h a s f i s h 8 i f s t o r e d f o r a l o n $ t i " e 9 % s h o ! l d b e " a i n tained at 0 = ? - C o r e ve n lo &e r i f t h e t e xt ! re is n o t t o b e d a " a $ e d . T( p i # a l l (% t h e s ! p p l ( # h a i n b e t& e e n "a n ! fa #t! r e % d is tr ib ! to r% retailer and #ons!"er &ill tr( to ens!re t h a t f r o / e n f o o d i s "aintained at 0 6D - C.

Free(ing 11
2uic. free(ing

The #onventional "ethod of ,!i#* free/in$ is b( plate frosters. ;ere the prod!#t is pre.pa#*ed in pa#*a$es that are as sli" as is pra#ti#al% and is held in #onta#t !nder press!re bet&een the !pper and lo&er free/in$ plates% thro!$h both of &hi#h a refri$erant is #ir#!lated. The plates are on a h(dra!li# ra" that allo&s #onta#t to be "ain . tained d!rin$ the inevitable expansion d!rin$ free/in$. 0t the end of the free/in$ ti"e% the prod . !#t is re"oved fro" #onta#t &ith the plates and pla#ed in #old store. This "ethod is s!itable for prod!#ts that ta*e a lon$ ti"e to free/e% for exa" . p le % " e a t a n d f i sh . 0 "ethod of ,!i#* free/in$ that has $ained a##eptan#e% parti#!larl( for a free.flo&in$ prod!#t s!#h as peas% is that of air blast free/in$. This "ethod #an be #ontin!o!s% as opposed to the bat#h pro#ess of plate free/in$% and #onsists of #as#adin$ the prod!#t on to a belt that "oves thro!$h a free/in$ t!nnel. 4ither air is #ir#!lated in the t!nnel aro!nd and a#ross the belt% or the belt is dispensed &ith and an !p&ard flo&in$ #!shion of refri$erated air #arries the prod!#t !p and for&ard in a 5fl!id bed5 te#hni,!e. This "ethod is s!itable for free/in$ ve$etables in#l!d . in$ p ea s an d b ea n s. 0nother "ethod F cr yogenic f ree(ing involves brin$in$ the food into #onta#t &ith a non.toxi# refri$erant s!#h as li,!id nitro$en 8N = 9 or 0= . -ree/in$ in this #ase #an be a##o"plished in se# . onds rather than ho!rs% and this #an $ive ,!alit( advanta$es to deli#atel( text!red prod!#ts. ost free/ers !sed #o""er#iall( for this "ethod are spra( free/ers% &hi#h #onsist of an open.ended ins!lated free/in$ t!nnel thro!$h &hi#h the food p a s s e s o n a b e l t #o n v e (o r. 0 t t h e e x i t o f t h e t ! n n e l are the li,!id N= spra(s. Passin$ thro!$h the t!nnel% &hi#h ta*es abo!t > "in!tes% brin$s the prod!#t #lose to its free/in$ point% and the spra(s effe#t free/in$ in 6F6 = 6 "in!tes. 1i,!id N = boils at 6?> C and boilin$ o##!rs &hen the food is i " " e r s e d a s a r e s ! l t o f r a p i d h e a t t r a n s f e r. T h e "e t h o d i s ! se d f o r f o o d s s! #h a s s t ra &b e rr i e s a n d raspberries. In the p!lse "ethod of free/in$% the &rapped food is pla#ed in an ins!lated #hest i n t o & h i # h l i , ! i d N = i s s p r a ( e d i n t e r " i t t e n t l (% t h e te"perat!re of the food bein$ allo&ed to e,!ilibrate bet&een ea#h p!lse. o r e r e # e n t l (%
F 3 4

freon has been approved in the United 2tates for d i r e # t # o n t a # t f r e e / i n $ o f f o o d . -o o d s " a ( a l so b e ,!i#* fro/en b( i""ersin$ the" in ver( #old fl!ids s!#h as invert s!$ar sol!tions or brine. In addition to the "aintenan#e of the #orre#t t e " p e r a t ! r e 8 6 D C 9 o f @ - -% i t i s a l s o i " p o r t a n t that the ori$inal pa#*a$in$ of the food is *ept inta#t as a barrier to "oist!re vapo!r and 0 = . Intense ill!"ination sho!ld also be avoided for lon$ pe rio ds &here $re en ve$e tables in t ransl! #ent &rappin$s are #on#erned% as this "a( lead to loss of #olo!r. In +!d$in$ the fitness of @-- for h!"an #on . s!"ption% it is i"portant to distin$!ish bet&een a loss in ,!alit( and a ha/ard to health. @-- that h a v e b e e n a l l o &e d t o t h a & a re n o t n e # e s sa r i l ( ! n f i t for h!"an #ons!"ption% and sho!ld therefore be +!d$ed on the sa"e basis as an( other perishable foods. 0ltho!$h "i#robiolo$i#al $ro&th virt!all( #eases at te"perat!res belo& 60 C% and free/in$ "a( destro( a per#enta$e of ve$etative #ells% it #annot be relied !pon to prevent food poisonin$% as on#e the food is tha&ed the "i#ro.or$anis"s & i l l $ r o &. - r e e / i n $ h a s l i t t l e e ff e # t o n s p o r e s a n d vir!ses% and toxins are stable in this #ondition. There is even a spe#ies of (east that &ill $ro& at te"perat!res as lo& as 3B C. N!tritional loss% b ( p r o t e i n d e n a t ! r a t i o n a n d r a n # i d i t (% a s & e l l a s deh(dration b( s!bli"ation% #an o##!r at lo&er te"perat!res. -i$!re 30.6% sho&s the rate of loss of vita"in C 8as#orbi# a#id9% the vita"in "ost sen sitive to hi$h sto ra$e te"p era t!res. -i$!re 30.= ill!strates the te"perat!re ran$e of the $ro&th of food poisonin$ and ps(#hrotrophi# or$anis"s. 'oth of these fi$!res de"onstrate the i"por . tan#e of "aintainin$ @-- at 6D C at all ti"es. It follo&s that in assessin$ the fitness of @-- that have s!ffered te"perat!re fl!#t!ations% both the period and the de$ree of fl!#t!ation are vital fa#tors. W h i le t h e lo ss o f , ! a l it ( "a ( n o t n e #e s sa r i l( b e e v id e n t t o t h e e (e o r b ( t a st e % t h e p h ( si #a l a p p e a r . a n # e o f a , ! i #* . f r o /e n p ro d ! #t #a n so " e t i" e s in d i . #a t e &h e t h e r i t h a s b e e n s! b + e # t e d t o t e "p e ra t ! re fl!#t!ation. 1oss of #olo!r in $reen ve$etables%
3 4 3 4 3 4 3 4

1 ! T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od

!5 50

Retention (%)

01!.!,5 01,.,01.1311 0 100

51

1,,

,44

&ays of storage

F i g . 3 0 . 1 4ffe#ts of te"perat!re on as#orbi# a#id

r et e n t i o n i n p e a s .

T"e 2uic. Fro(en Foodstuff 5egulations 1660 These re$!lations i"ple"ent 4!ropean Union 84U9 Dire#tive D?760D744C 86??D9. @-- are per . #eived to be of a hi$her ,!alit( than ordinar( f ro /e n f o o d s% h e n #e t h e r e a so n f o r t h e 4 U d i re #t i ve and the re$!lations. 4nviron"ental health offi#ers a n d t r a d i n $ s t a n d a r d s o f f i # e r s a r e r e s p o n s i b le f o r enfor#e"ent. These re$!lations appl( to food that has !nder$one 5,!i#* free/in$5 &hereb( the /one of "axi"!" #r(stalli/ation is #rossed as rapidl( as possib le. Prod! #t s "!st be s!itab l( pre .pa #*a$ed so as to prote#t the" fro" "i#robial and other #onta"ination and deh(dration% and "!st re"ain s o p a # *a $ e d ! n t i l s a l e . 0 p ro d! #t a va ila b le fo r sa le "! st b e lab e lle d &ith :

Free(ing 17

1 6 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od 3! 10 ,., 67 31 3, ,0 14 0 0 01.!

-F
50

& h i #h & i l l o # #! r " o r e rapidl( &here per"eable or defe#tive pa#*a$in$ "a te ria ls a re !sed .

1. a n i n d i # a t i o n o f t h e d a t e o f " i n i " ! "

d!rabilit(

2. a n i n d i # a t i o n o f t h e " a x i " ! "

a d v i s a b l e s t o r a$e ti"e

3. a n i n d i # a t i o n o f t h e t e " p e r a t ! r e a t
10 17

Food poisoning organisms 5apid gro8t" rate $lo8 gro8t" of some types 9o gro8t" 5apid gro8t" rate $lo8 gro8t" of some types :one of slo8 spoilage 8it"out danger to "ealt" 9o gro8t" $lo8 deat"; rarely complete

01-

4. 5.

& h i # h a n d t he e ,! ip "en t in &h i#h it is ad visab le t o st o re it a bat#h referen#e a #lear noti#e not to refree/e after defrostin$.

Psyc"rotrop"ic o r g a n i s m s

Fig.

3 0 . , The

te"per at!r e ran$e for $ro&th of food p o i s o n i n $ o r $ a n i s " s and ps(#hotropi# or$anis"s.

a d a r * e n i n $ o f t h e s! r f a # e a r e a o n p o ! l t r (% and a li$htenin$ of the s!rfa#e area of other "eat prod !#ts #an all indi#ate that te"perat!re fl!#t!ations "a( have o##!rred. While these are $enerali/a . tions% the( #an be !sef!l indi#ators. It is i"portant t o re a li / e t h a t # h a n $ e s # a ! s e d b( te"perat!re fl!#t!ations are i r r e v e r s i b l e a n d # ! " ! l a t i v e . 2!##essive lar$e fl!#t!ations lead to s!bli"ation of "oist!re fro" the food and "a( &ell% o ve r a lon$ period% $ive rise to a loss of & e i $ h t a s & e l l a s a l o s s o f , ! a l i t (% a l l o f

@-- "!st be stored at or belo& 6DC. Provisions #ontrollin$ the "onitorin$ of te"perat ! r e d!rin$ transport% and for sa"plin$ and anal(sin$ the te"perat!re of ,!i#*.fro/en fo o d st!ffs have been applied as a res!lt of the @!i#* -ro/en -oodst!ffs Re$!lations 86??09. o d e o f P ra ct ice 9o. 1, 8re vised -e b r! a r( 6 ?? B 9 I =J !n de r t h e - o o d 2afet( 0#t 6??0 provides advi#e on the division of enfor#e"ent responsibilities bet&een envi ron"ental health offi#ers a n d t r a d i n $ s t a n d a rd s off i#e rs f o r t he se re$ ! la t io n s. Th e #od e a lso " a * e s i t # l e a r that the te"perat!re "onitorin$ of @-sho!ld not be a hi$h priorit( for food a!thorities sin#e the prin#ipal ob+e#tive of "an!fa#t!rers is to prod!#e hi$h ,!alit( prod!#ts% and te"pera t! re pa ra "e te rs are #on#erned &ith food ,!alit( not food s a f e t (. ost "onitorin$ is li*el( to be #arried o!t b( the ho"e a!thorit( on o ! t $ o i n $ p r o d ! # t s a t t h e f a # t o r (% o r a t the distrib!tion &areho!ses of ha!la$e #o"panies% and re t a i l store. @-te"perat!re #he#*s &ill "ainl( o##!r d!rin$ the #o!rse of pro$ra""ed visits or as a res!lt of #o"plaints. These #he#*s are not onl(

,0 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d # o n # e r n e d & i t h a # t ! a l r e # o r d e d t e " p e r a t ! r e s % b!t &ith the positionin$ and operation of "an! . fa # t ! re rs 5 a nd d is t rib! t o rs 5 o &n te "p e ra t! re . "onitorin$ e,!ip"ent and re#ords.
abinet "ygiene

The proper and effi#ient !se of retail #abinets #an onl( be a#hieved b( follo&in$ the prin#iples l a i d do&n in the $!idan#e iss!ed b( the UK 0s so #ia ti on of - ro /en -ood Pro d!#e rs I3 J. 4ver(one # o n # e r n e d & i t h t h e h a n d l i n $ o f @ - - sho!ld st!d( this #ode.

C O 1 D C ; 0 I N < 4 ; I C 1 4 D I 2 T R I ' U T I O N Temperature*controlled #e"icles The #o ld #hain is the "aintenan #e of an inte$ ra ted t e " p e r a t ! r e t h r o ! $ h o ! t t h e p r o # e s s e s o f p r o d ! # t i o n a n d d i s t r i b ! t i o n . Te " p e r a t ! r e . # o n t r o l l e d v e h i # l e s a re a v i t a l p a r t o f t h i s . Th e r e a r e s e ve r a l t ( p e s o f vehi#les desi$ned and b!ilt to maintain t e " p e r a t ! r e % n o t t o # h a n $ e t h e t e " p e r a t ! r e o f e i t h e r # h i l l e d o r f r o / e n f o o d s . I n t h e U n i t e d Kin$do"% as in so"e other 4U #o!ntries% there is no le$islation to #ontrol the ther"al effi#ien#( of i n s! l a t i o n o t h e r th a n o n i n t e rn a t i o n a l + o ! r n e ( s % &here the #arria$e of foodst!ffs #o"es !nder the In te r n a ti o n a l Ca rr i a $ e o f P e r ish a b le -o o d st! ff s Re $! la tion s 6? DC 8a s a " e n d e d 6 ? ? > a n d 6 ? ? H 9 . Th e s e l a ( d o & n " i n i " ! " v a l ! e s o f i n s ! l a t io n e ff i #ien#( and are onl( valid for a #ertain period% d!rin$ & h i # h t h e # o n t a i n e r r e , ! i r e s # e r t i f i # a t i o n . The vario!s refri$eration s(ste"s e"plo(ed in vehi#les in#l!de the follo&in$.

1. <ater 2. To t a l

ice s ys te ms &ith te "pe rat !re para "e ters o f 3 . 6 0 - C 8 v e r ( f e & s ! # h s ( s t e " s a r e # ! r r e n t l ( in

operation9.
l o ss s ys t e m s !se e ith e r CO = 8d r( i#e 9 o r l i , ! i d N = . T h e f o r " e r s * i p s t h e l i , ! i d p h a s e a l t o $ e t h e r% a n d b ( a p r o # e s s o f s ! b l i " a t i o n v a p o r i / e s d i r e # t l ( f r o " t h e s o l i d s t a t e . 9 , % # a r r i e d i n v a # ! ! " . i n s ! l a t e d t a n * s o n t h e ve h i# le % b o il s a t via solenoid valves% is piped into the

3. / i ' u i d

0 6 ? > - C.

It is the $as & h i # h %

# o n t a i n e r t h r o ! $ h a n ! " b e r o f s p r a ( h e a d s . Th i s s( st e " i s s il e n t % h a s a h i$ h d e $ re e o f r e l ia b i l i t ( a n d h a s t h e a b i l i t ( t o p ! l l d o & n t h e # o n t a i n e r t e " p e r a t ! r e v e r ( r a p i d l (. ; o & e v e r% l o # a l a r e a s o f ! n d e r . # o o l i n $ # a n s t i l l o # # ! r.

1.

= u t e c t i c s y s t e m s ! s e r o o f . " o ! n t e d t ! b e s o r p la t e s% &h i#h a re f it te d to t he f ron t b! l*he a d o r s i d e & a l l s

of the vehi#le and are filled &ith a brine sol!tion that is #ooled b( freon passin$ t h r o ! $ h p i p e s & i t h i n t h e p l a t e s o r t ! b e s . 2 i " i l a r t o t h e N = s ( s t e " % t h i s s ( s t e " d o e s n o t h a ve f o r# e d a i r #i r# ! l a t io n . Co o li n $ #a n b e p ro v i d e d f o r a f i n i t e p e r i o d o n l ( % t h a t i s % ! n t i l a l l t h e e ! t e # t i # h a s " e l t e d . T h e s ( s t e " i s v e r ( i n f l e x i b l e % p r o v i d i n $ e i t h e r f r o / e n o n l ( o r #hill onl(.

2.

C o " " o n l ( *no&n as "e#hani#al refri$eration% this s(ste" is d r i v e n b ( h ( d r a ! l i # " o t o r s % e l e # t r i # " o t o r s o r d ie se l e n $ in e s. I t is ve r ( f le xi b l e % a n d #a p a b l e o f

>a p o u r c o m p r e s s i o n s y s t e m
.

"a in t a in in $ t e "p e ra t ! r e s a t b e t & e e n ? = 0 - C and 0 30 - C. Its flexible te"perat!re #apabilit( #o ! p le d &ith the t(pe of drive !nit "a*es it the " o s t # o " " o n t r a n s p o r t r e f r i $ e r a t i o n ! n i t . I t #an s&it#h bet&een heatin$ and #oolin$ a!to "ati#all( in response to the ther"ostat in order to "ainta in p rese nt l o a d s p a # e t e " p e r a t ! r e % ir r e sp e #t iv e o f &h e t h e r t h e o ! t s id e is a t a h i$ h e r o r l o & e r t e " p e r a t ! r e . <e h i # l e s a r e n o & b e i n $ d e s i $ n e d f o r t h e # a r r i a $ e o f " ! l t i . t e " p e r a t ! r e p e r i s h a b l e f o o d s t ! f f s . T h e s e h a v e t h e a b i l i t ( t o d i v i d e f ro / e n p ro d ! #t s f ro " #hilled% and also to #ontrol the #hilled prod!#t air te"perat!res and split #ertain #hilled prod!#ts into t&o different te"perat!re bands. Position s & i t # h e s a r e a # # e s s i b l e t o t h e d r i v e r s o t h a t ea#h te"perat!re position #an be preset and then l o # * e d . Te " p e r a t ! r e s # a n b e p r e s e t t o & h a t e v e r p a r a " e t e r s t h e r e t a i l # ! s t o " e r s r e , ! i r e t h e f o o d s t o b e delivered at. Te " p e r a t ! r e " o n i t o r i n $ e , ! i p " e n t i s n o & a n e s se n t ia l #o " p o n e n t o f s! #h ve h i #l e s . 2 e n so r s a r e

,1 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d p o s i t i o n e d i n t h e & a r " e s t p a r t o f t h e # o n t a i n e r. 4 l e # t r o n i # d a t a # o l l e # t i o n # o ! p l e d & i t h o n . b o a r d printers and displa(s are no& #o""on IBJ. These p ro vide va l! a b le in f o r"a t io n fo r #o "p a rison &it h the food offi#er5s o&n te"perat!re readin$s.

%iotec"nology and genetic modification 546

- 4 R 4 N T0 T I O N The pi#*lin$ of ve$etables has lon$ b ee n pe r for"ed #o""er#iall( and in the ho"e. ;ere vine$ a r is ad de d t o th e fo od in sealed #ontainers% !s!all( after s a l t i n $ t o d e h ( d r a t e t h e f o o d % t o lo&er the p; and so preserve the #ontents as &ell and p rod! #in$ the di st in #t ta ste. ; o &e ve r% t h e pro#ess of anaerobi# respiration% or fer"entation% #an be !sed to preserve several t(pes of food and to prod!#e "an( others. This is done b( allo&in$ the a##!"!lation of nat!ral o r $ a n i # a # id s a s a res!lt of the $ro&th of or$anis"s 8t(pi#all( ba#te r i a 9 that prod!#e la#ti# a#id. Pi#*led #abba$e 8sa!er*ra!t9 and olives are exa"ples of f o o d s p r e s e r v e d i n t h i s & a (. P r o d ! # t s s!#h as te"peh 8fer"ented so(beans9 so( sa!#e and "iso 8fer"ented ri#e9 rel( on f!n$al fer"entations &ithin the hi$h salt #ontainin$ foodst!ffs to perfor" the sa"e r o l e . - i n a l l (% a l # o h o l i # d r i n * s h a v e a l & a ( s been prod!#ed b( the fer"entation of (e a st to #onvert s!$ar to al#ohol.

that prod!#e fer"ented foods% in#l!din$ those involved in bread and beer prod!#tion. -or exa"ple% the prod!#tion of a "ore effi#ient s(ste" for " e t a b o l i / i n $ " a l t o se # a n r e d ! # e t h e t i " e i t t a *e s t o " a * e b r e a d . I n t h e d a i r ( i n d ! s t r (% l a # t i # a # i d p r o d ! # i n $ b a # t e r i a #an be $eneti#all( "odified to prod!#e s t r a i n s &ith i"proved pha$e resistan#e or ba#terio#in or flavo!r prod!#tion. 2o"e hi$her f!n$i% in#l!din$ s o " e e d i b l e spe#ies% #an be !sed to #onvert li$no#ell!lose or other #heap #arbon so!r#es dire#tl( into f!n$al protein s! i t a b le f o r h ! "a n #ons!"ption. 2in$le. #ell 8ba#teria l or f!n$a l9 pro tein has been d e ve lo p e d a s a so ! r #e o f h ! " a n a n d a n i " a l f o o d % f o r e x a " p l e % t h e o r $ a n i s " Fusarium #enenatum i s $ r o & n o n h ( d r o l ( s e d s t a r # h t o prod!#e "eat analo$!es for lo&.fat diets. Individ!al "i#robial prod!#ts "a( also be exploited. Rennet is the #o""on "il* #lottin$ preparation !sed to prod!#e #heese and other dair( prod!#ts and is b( far the lar$est sin$le ! s e o f e n / ( " e s b ( t h e d a i r ( i n d ! s t r (. 4 x t r a # e l l ! l a r f!n$al proteinases #an serve a s r e n n e t s ! b s t i t ! t e s a n d t h e p ro d ! # t i o n o f 5 ve $ e t a r ia n 5 #h e e se i s n o & a " a r * e t e d sellin$ point for s!#h prod!#ts. '( exploitin$ "i#ro.or$anis"s% hi$her ,!alit( foods have been prod!#ed% &hi#h re,!ire less f!rther pro#essin$ for their preparation and stora$e. 0s ba#teria% v i r ! s e s % f ! n $ i % n e " a t o d e s a n d i n s e # t s #a n a l l b e ! se d a s b io lo $ i #a l #o n t ro l a $ e n t s i n p e st # o n t r o l 8 e . $ . %acillus t"uringiensis a s an inse#ti#ide9. an( vir!ses that are patho$eni# to inse#ts are no& bein$ developed #o""er#iall( and f!n$al in se #t i#id e s ha ve b ee n ! se d s! ##e ssf! ll( sin #e th e b e $ i n n i n $ o f t h e t & e n t i e t h # e n t ! r (. T h e a p p l i # a t i o n o f b i o t e # h n o l o $ ( has also res!lted in the develop " e n t o f rapid and sensitive anal(ti#al "ethods that "a( have "an( appli#ations in food

'IOT4C;NO1O3A 0ND 3 4 N 4 T I C O D I - I C 0T I O N 'iote#hnolo$( has been !sed in food p r o d ! # t i o n and pro#essin$ for tho!sands of (ears. 0l"ost ever( in$redient !sed in the p rod!#tion of food has as it s s o ! r # e a l i v i n $ an i"al% plant o r "i#ro.o r$anis". The food so!r#es available to earl( h!"ans% both plant and ani"al% evolved thro!$h the pro#ess of nat!ral sele#tion. 3eneti# d i v e r s i t ( a r i s i n $ f r o " spontaneo!s $eneti# #han$es &as first exploited 8i.e. t h e ! se o f b i o t e # h n o l o $ ( 9 & h e n f a r " e r s s a ve d t h e seeds fro" their best #rops for later s o & i n $ s a n d !se d t he ir be st an i"a ls f o r b ree d in$ . 3 e n e t i # " o d i f i #a t io n t e #h n i, ! e s h a ve lon$ been applied to the "i#ro.or$anis"s

anal(sis. -or exa"ple% the !se of DN0 probes and i""!no a s s a ( " e t h o d s i s exp e#te d to p rove !sef! l i n i"provin$ t h e d e t e # t i o n o f f o o d # o n t a " i n a n t s a n d to dete#t the !se of !nde#lared $eneti#all( "odified o r $ a n i s " s 8 3 O 9 f o o d s i n p r o d ! # t for"!lations. The -ood and 0$ri#!lt!re Or$ani/ation 8 -0 O 9 a n d th e Wo rl d ;e a lth O r$ a n i/a ti o n 8 W ; O 9 h a v e e xa " i n e d t h e s a f e t ( o f f o o d s p ro d ! # e d b ( b io t e #h n o l o $ (. T h e p r i " e #onsideration is to ens!re that patho$ens sho!ld not be introd!#ed into foods b( the

pro#ess. In the eval!ation of foods p r o d ! # e d b ( b i o t e # h n o l o $ (% d a t a b a s e s a r e re,!ired on:

1. t h e n ! t r i e n t a n d t o x i # a n t # o n t e n t s o f
food

2. t h e " o l e # ! l a r a n a l ( s i s o f o r $ a n i s " s
! s e d i n food prod!#tion

3. t h e " o l e # ! l a r n ! t r i t i o n a l a n d t o x i # a n t
#ontent of $eneti#all( "odified or$anis"s intended for !se in food prod!#tion.

,5 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d - 0 O a n d W ; O a l s o r e # o " " e n d t h e n e e d f o r #o n s ! "e rs t o b e p ro vi d e d &i t h so ! n d s #ie n t i f i #a ll ( b a s e d i n f o r " a t i o n o n b i o t e # h n o l o $ ( i n f o o d p rod ! #t ion I CJ . Re#ent advan#es in $eneti# en$ineerin$ have allo&ed for ne& develop"ents. 0s stated initiall( b io t e #h n o l o $ ( h a s b e e n a h ! "a n a # t i v i t ( f o r t h o ! s a n d s o f ( e a r s 8 i . e . b r e a d a n d b e e r " a * i n $ 9 . ; o & e v e r% t h e t e # h n o l o $ ( n o & e x i s t s t o p e r f o r " t a r $ e t e d " ! t a $ e n i s i s o n t h e o r $ a n i s " s 8 " i # r o b e % p l a n t o r a n i " a l 9 & h i # h $ o o n t o b e # o " e f o o d s t ! ff s . I n e s se n #e % t h i s is t h e sa "e a s a s e le #t iv e b r e e d i n $ p r o $ r a " " e t o e n h a n # e p r o d ! # t t r a i t s % b ! t & i t h o ! t t h e t r i a l a n d e r r o r a s s o # i a t e d & i t h t h e traditional "ethods. Pri"e exa"ples of this are the i n t r o d ! # t i o n o f h e r b i # i d e r e s i s t a n t s o ( a b e a n s o r t o " a t o e s & i t h e x t e n d e d s h e l f l i v e s . W h i l e t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e n o & & i t h i n e a s ( r e a # h o f f o o d "an ! fa #t ! re rs% #o n s! "e r re sist an #e t o s! #h in t ro d!#tions has been vehe"ent. The !se of $eneti#all( "od if ied foods has been seen b( "an ( to be in ter f e r e n # e & i t h t h e 5 n a t ! r a l o r d e r 5 . 2 ! # h # o n s ! " e r f e e l i n $ f o l l o & s # l o s e o n t h e heels of the re+e#tion o f f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n % n a t i o n a l # o n # e r n o v e r fo od p o iso n in$ o !t.b rea *s% ' o v i n e 2 p o n $ i f o r " 4 n # e p h a l o p a t h ( 8 ' 2 4 9 a n d f o o t a n d " o ! t h d i s e ase s in "e a t an d a $e ne ra l s&in $ a &a ( f ro " fo od additives and preservatives to "ini"all( pro#essed% n ! t r i t i o ! s f o o d s . 0 s a f o o t n o t e i t s h o ! l d b e n o t e d th a t th e Un it ed K in $d o " pla #ed t he "o st st rin$ e nt l e $ i s l a t i v e # o n s t r a i n t s ! p o n 3 O r e s e a r # h o f a l " o s t a n ( # o ! n t r (. C ! r r e n t l (% 3 O l e $ i s l a t ! r e i n t h e U n i t e d K i n $ d o " i s $ r a d ! a l l ( r e l a x i n $ t o & o r * ab le safe li"its) &he rea s% other #o!nt ries are t i$ht e n i n $ t h e i r #o n t r o l s . Detailed belo& is the $overnin$ le$islat!re for the !se of $eneti#all( "odified or$anis"s and foods in the United Kin$do". T"e 9o#el Foods and 9o#el Food )ngredients 5egulations 166! Th e s e r e $ ! la t i o n s " a * e p ro v i s i o n f o r t h e e n f o r # e " e n t o f 4 U C o ! n # i l R e $ ! l a t i o n = C D 7 ? H 8 O L 1 B 3 o f 6 B - e b r ! a r ( 6 ? ? H 9 a n d d e s i $ n a t e t h e - o o d 2tandards 0$en#( as the #o"petent food assess"ent b o d (. T h e 4 U r e $ ! l a t i o n r e , ! i r e s t h a t b e f o r e novel foods and novel food in$redients are pla#ed o n t h e " a r * e t t h e ( b e s ! b + e # t e d t o a p r e . " a r * e t safet( assess"ent. T"e 9o#el Foods and 9o#el Food )ngredients @FeesA 5egulations 166! These re$!lations provide for #har$in$ for assess "ent of novel foods and novel food in$redients. T"e Benetically Modified Crganisms @&eliberate 5eleaseA 5egulations 166, @as amended 1663; 1665 and 1661A The se re$! lat ion s i"ple "en t 4U Co!n #il Re$! la tio n ? 0 7 = = 0 7 4 4 C 8 O L 1 6 6 H o f D a( 6??09 on the deliberate release into the environ"ent of 3 Os. T h e ( p r o v i d e t h e # i r # ! " s t a n # e s ! n d e r & h i # h 3 Os re,!ire #onsent for release into the envi ron"ent and% in the #ase of p!ttin$ #rops on the "ar*et% "ar*etin$ #onsent. Do "e s t i # re $ ! la t io n s t o i" p l e " e n t Co ! n #i l R e $ ! l a t i o n 4 C N o . 66 3 ? 7 ? D d e a l i n $ & i t h t h e labellin$ of #ertain foods prod!#ed fro" $eneti #all( "odified or$anis"s #a"e into operation on 6? a r # h 6 ? ? ? . T h e r e i s a $ r e a t d e a l o f p ! b l i # % professional and "edia interest at present in iss!es s ! r r o ! n d i n $ $ e n e t i # a l l ( " o d i f i e d 8 3 9 f o o d . 2o"e have #alled for a ban on 3 foods% &hile others #all for a "oratori!" on $ro&in$ 3 #rops i n the U ni ted Kin$do ". The re ader i s re fer re d to the follo&in$ re#ent literat!re: The Ro(a l 2o #ie t( 8-ebr!ar( =00= 9 Benet ically Mod if ied P lant s f or Food +se . An +pdate % The R o ( a l 2 o # i e t (% 1 o n d o n .

- O O D I R R 0 D I 0T I O N The pro#ess of food irradiation involves the expo s!re of food to ioni/in$ radiations s!#h as $a""a r a ( s %

,1 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d M . r a ( s o r e l e # t r o n s I > J . 3 a " " a r a ( s a n d M . r a ( s a r e f o r " s o f r a d i a n t e n e r $ ( l i * e s ! n l i $ h t o r rad io &a ve s% b! t on l( th e h i$ h en e r$ ( f o r"s of ra d i a t i o n a r e i o n i / i n $ . I o n i / i n $ r a d i a t i o n i n t e r a # t s & i t h t h e " a t e r i a l bein$ irradiated b( transferrin$ so"e of its ener$( to parti#les in the "ole#!les of the "aterial% p r o d ! # i n $ e l e # t r i # a l l ( # h a r $ e d p a r t i # l e s #alle d ions. The ene r$( t ransfer #a!se s disr!p tion of

, ! T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od Food irradiation 551

, 7 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od "i#robial DN0 and so *ills the or$anis"s. These rea#tions destro( or prevent o r $ a n i s " s s ! # h a s s p e # i e s o f $almonella fro" "!ltipl(in$. The te#h ni,!e of irradiatin$ food has been patented in the United K in$do" sin#e 6?0C% and is ! sed in =6 #o! nt r i e s i n # l ! d i n $ ' e l $ i ! " % - r a n # e % t h e N e t h e r l a n d s an d t he Un it ed 2 ta t e s. I n t he Un it e d K in $ do "% irra diation has no& been !sed for "an( de#ades to ster i l i / e "edi#al e , ! ip " e n t % # e r t a in phar"a#e!ti#als% #os"eti#s and p a # * a $ i n $ . I r r a d i a t i o n " a ( a l s o b e ! se d to stop the over.ripenin$ of fr!its% or the spro!tin$ of ve$etables or $rains. Irradiation #ann o t " a * e b a d f o o d $ o o d % and it #annot i"prove the appearan#e o r t a s t e o f t h e f o o d % o r " a s * !npleasant odo!rs. The "ain !se of irradiation is li*el( to re"ain the red!#tion in the n!"ber of har"f!l ba#teria% s! # h as s pe # i e s o f $almonella; /isteria and ampylobacter t ha t #an be p re se n t in #e rt a in h i$h . r i s * f o o d s % s ! # h a s p o ! l t r (% pra&ns or shri"ps. This is parti#!larl( t r ! e f o r o r $ a n i s " s s ! # h a s /isteria monocytogenes &h i #h h a s a lo & i n f e #t i ve dose 8tho!$ht to be a lo& as a sin$le #ell) this is in # o n t r a s t t o 2 a l " o n e l l a & h o s e i n f e # t i v e d o s e i s aro!nd 60 > #ells per "l9. -or prod!#e s!#h as dried h e r b s a n d spi#es% irradiation #o!ld be !sed to d est ro ( in se #t s% pe st s an d b a #t e ria in pla #e o f th e e x i s t i n $ # h e " i # a l f ! " i $ a t i o n " e t h o d . ; o & e v e r% i r r a d i a t i o n i s n o t s!itable for !se on all foods F so"e fr!its% for exa"ple% are softened b( i r r a d i a tion% and so"e fatt( foods develop a ran#id flavo!r. I r r a d i a t i o n o f f o o d i n i t i a l l ( s ! f f e r e d # o n s ! " e r re+e#tion b!t is li*el( t o r e . e n t e r t h e " a r * e t p l a # e a s #on #e rn s o ve r fo od saf e t ( ha ve "o ved t o n e &e r a r e a s 8e.$. 3 Os9 and this for$otten te#hnolo$( "a( res!rfa#e. 0ll foods #arr( a lo& level of nat!ral r a d i o a # t i v i t (% a n d t h e r e s h o ! l d b e n o

" e a s ! r a b l e in # r e a se i n t h e l e v e l o f r a d i o a # t i v i t ( a f t e r f o o d i s i r r a d i a t e d !n de r ap p ro ve d #on d it ion s. O ve r t he pa st B 0 (e a rs% f o o d i r r a d i a t i o n h a s b e e n s t ! d i e d "ore than an( other pro#ess. The UK 0d v i s o r ( C o " " i t t e e o n Irradiated and N o v e l - o o d s % W ; O % t h e -0 O L o i n t 4 x p e r t Co""ittee on -ood Irradiation% and the 4U 2#ientifi# Co""ittee for -ood have a l l # o n # l! d e d t h a t t h e re i s n o h a /a rd a sso #i a t e d & it h f o o d t h a t h a s b e e n e x p o s e d to doses of ioni/in$ radia tion !p to an overall avera$e dose of 60 *ilo$ra(s 860 *3( is the a"o!nt of ener$( re,!ired to raise the te"perat!re of 6 *$ of &ater b( = . B C 9 % a n d i r r a d i a t io n i n t r o d ! #e s n o si$nifi#ant n!tritional or "i# robiolo$i#al proble"s. -ollo&in$ the $overn"ent5s de#ision to pro#eed &ith "a*in$ irradiation an a##eptable pro#ess of food treat"ent in the United Kin$do"% the proposals for le$islation follo& those re#o""ended b( the COD4M 0li"entari!s Co""ission% a + o i n t W ; O 7 -0 O b o d ( s e t ! p t o p r e p a r e international food standards. In 6?D3% the #o""ission adopted both a $eneral standard for irradiated food and a #ode of pra#ti#e for the operation of food irradia . tion fa#ilities. This is the basis of the #ontrols adopted in the United Kin$do". T h e i " p o r t a n t ele"ents in#l!de:

1. a " a x i " ! " l i " i t o n t h e i r r a d i a t i o n

d o s e t h a t "a( be applied

2. l i # e n s i n $ o n a p r o d ! # t . b ( . p r o d ! # t a n d
irradiation plant.b(.plant basis

3. r e $ ! l a r i n s p e # t i o n s o f i r r a d i a t i o n
plan ts b( expert #entral $overn"ent staff

4. " i # r o b i o l o $ i # a l t e s t i n $ t o e n s ! r e t h a t
onl( food of nor"al so!nd ,!alit( is irradiated

5. #o n t r o l s o v e r i " p o r t e d i r r a d i a t e d f o o d
t h r o ! $ h o ff i # i a l verifi#ation that the

, 6 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od #ontrols and stand a r d s a # h i e v e d b ( exportin$ #o!ntries are e,!ivalent to those in the United Kin$do"

6. f ! l l l a b e l l i n $ o f i r r a d i a t e d f o o d s s o
that #ons!"ers #an "a*e a #hoi#e abo!t &hether to b!( irradiated or non.irradiated food. These prin#iples are e"bodied in the - o o d 8Control of Irradiation9 Re$!lations 6??0 and the -ood 1abellin$ 80"end"ent9 8Irradiated -ood9 Re$!lations 6??0% &hi#h #a"e into

e f f e # t o n 6 L a n ! a r ( 6 ? ? 6 . T h e $ o ve r n " e n t h a s # o " " i s s i o n e d re sea r#h in t o t he de ve lo p "en t of s! it ab le d et e #t ion t e st s f o r ir r a d i a t e d f o o d . W ;O h a s re # o $ n i /e d t h e benefits of irradiatin$ food to red!#e the n ! " b e r of b a#t e ria in f oo d s an d h as re #o ""e n de d IH J th a t #o n s ! "e rs sh o ! l d se l e # t i r ra d ia t e d f re sh o r f ro /e n p o ! l t r ( &herever possible. The $eneral #on#l!sion is that food ir r adi a tion is a safe pro#ess% b!t #onsiderable p!bli# #on#ern on the "atter re"ains despite offi#ial reass!ran#es.

PROC4224D 0ND PR424R<4D -OOD2 The ter" 5pro#essed food5 is $enerall( ta*en to "ean foods that have been preserved 8or their shelf life extended9 b( heat 8ther"al9 treat"ent. Ther"al treat"ent of food is probabl( the "ost #o""on for" of preservation !sed in #o""er#ial food "an!fa#t!re. Not onl( does ther"al pro#ess . in$ extend shelf life b!t also prod!#es desirable #han$es to "ost prod!#ts. 4,!all( so"e !ndesir . a b l e # h a n $ e s " a ( a l s o o # # ! r. D e s i r a b l e # h a n $ e s ! s! a ll ( " e a n t h e d e ve l o p " e n t o f t e xt ! re a n d t a s t e % for exa"ple% the #oo*in$ of "eats or p!lses. ;ere the ther"al pro#ess #han$es the str!#t!re of the fo od % t ha t is% #o o *s th e "e a t to $ ive t e xt ! re o r so f t . en s t he p! lse s b ( en t r( of &a te r) a s &e ll a s st e rili/ . i n $ o r p a s t e ! r i / i n $ t h e f o o d . ; o & e v e r% t h e r " a l treat"ent "a( adversel( affe#t the vita"in or o r$ a n o l e p t i # #o n t e n t o f t h e f o o d a n d s o o ve r p r o . #e ssin $ "i$h t a ff e#t , !a lit (. In so "e n ot a b le #a se s over pro#essin$ of food "i$ht be a desirable trait and to add to the ,!alit( of the food% for exa"ple% the "ore #oo*in$ to"ato p!ree re#eives the stron$er the taste% or the "ore pro#essin$ ba*ed beans or 5"!sh(5 peas re#eived the softer the beans b e # o "e a n d so h a v e a h i $ h e r # o n s ! " e r va l ! e . Ther"al pro#essin$ falls broadl( into t&o #a " p s : f i rs t % st e ri l i/ e d f o o d s% f o r e xa " p l e % #a n n e d $oods% that have re#eived eno!$h heat 8!s!all( perfor"ed at 6=6.6 C9 for s!ffi#ient periods of t i " e t o e n s ! r e t h e t o t a l * i l l o f a l l ve $ e t a t i v e " i # r o . bial #ells and the spores of i"portant food patho$ens 8!s!all( based !pon the death *ineti#s of . botulinum 9. 2e #ond% pa ste! ri/a tio n% a "ilde r t r e a t " e n t r e $ i "e % i s ! se d t o *i l l ve $ e t a t i ve #e ll s so that foods have a lon$er shelf life% espe#iall( in #oo*.#hill prod!#ts &here ve$etative "i#robial #e l l s a re d e s t r o ( e d a n d t h e s ! b se , ! e n t $ r o & t h o f spores is arrested 8or at least slo&ed9 b( stora$e at refri$eration te"perat!res. It sho!ld be noted that foods pro#essed in anaerobi# environ"ents present an ideal "edi!" for the $ro&th of ba#teria if the heat pro#ess is i n a d e , ! a t e t o d e s t r o ( a l l p a t h o $ e n s a n d sp o i l a $ e or$anis"s &ithin the pa#*. 0lso if the #los!re of the #an or pa#* is not effe#tive in stoppin$ the entr( of "i#ro.or$anis"s. -!rther ha/ards "a( arise fro" i"proper handlin$ of prod!#ts d!rin$ p ro # e s s i n $ % & h i # h # a ! se s d a " a $ e a n d s ! b s e , ! e n t #onta"ination of the internal #ontents of the #an

or pa#*.

2T4RI1IK4D -OOD2 The "ost #o""on for" of sterili/ed food avail . able is #anned $oods. ;ere it is the ai" of #anned f o o d "a n ! f a # t ! r e r s t o p ro d ! #e a n e n #a se d 5 st e r i le 5 prod!#t) one in &hi#h all "i#ro.or$anis"s and "i#robial spores are destro(ed b( the ther"al treat"ent. The rob!st and i"pervio!s pa#*a$in$ &ith a do!ble.folded "e#hani#al seal then "a*es re.infe#tion i"possible and prote#ts the food d ! r i n $ h a n d l i n $ a n d p r o l o n $ e d s t o r a $ e . ; o & e v e r% i n s o " e i n s t a n # e s i t i s n o t p r a # t i # a l t o a # h i e ve t h i s a n d % i n t h e s e s i t ! a t i o n s % t h e s t o r a $ e t e "p e r a t ! r e o r the a#idit( of the #ontents are relied !pon to be s!ffi#ientl( adverse to the s"all n!"ber of heat.resistant spores that re"ain to prevent their $ro&th. The food is then #onsidered #o""er#iall( sterile. 0 s " i# r o . o r$ a n i s" s t h a t a re #a p a b le o f # a ! s in $ spoila$e at a p; lo&er than B.C are $enerall( of lo& heat resistan#e% a#id and hi$h.a#id #anned food s are s!b +e #ted to a le ss se vere heat trea t"ent pro#ess than the "edi!". or lo&.a#id #anned foods. It is essential that the latter t&o #ate$ories b e h e a t e d s! ff i# ie n t l ( t o d e st ro ( t h e h e a t . re s is t a n t spores of . botulinum . W h e r e l o & . a # i d # a n n e d foods% for exa"ple% #anned "eats% in#orporate #!rin$ salts% &hi#h are also "i#robial inhibitors% t he ( #an b e $ iven "ild e r h ea t t re a t "en t s. Th e h ea t treat"ent $iven is s!ffi#ient to destro( ve$etative #ells and li"it the n!"ber of heat.resistant spores to no "ore than 60 0007$. In vie& of their li"ited treat"ent% s!#h prod!#ts sho!ld be stored !nder refri$eration. . botulinum r e p r e s e n t s t h e " a + o r ris* to s!#h foods be#a!se of its heat resistan#e b!t the ba#teri!" &ill not $ro& belo& a p; of B.C. D ! e t o . botulinumDs i n a b i l i t ( t o $ r o & a t r e d ! # e d p; a#id foods% s!#h as fr!it #onserve% onl( re#eive a r e la t i v e l ( l o & h e a t p r o # e s s. ; o & e ve r% " e a t s a n d ve$etables stored &itho!t added salt% &ith a "!#h hi$her p;% are $iven a pro#ess *no&n as a bot! . lin!" #oo* to render the" #o""er#iall( sterile. Pro#ess ti"e and te"perat!re is deter"ined for

3 1 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od $terili(ed foods 553

3 , T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od ea#h pa#*% and &ill depend on s!#h thin$s as #o"position% &ei$ht% h e a d s p a # e % t h e v i s # o s i t ( o f the #ontents% the presen#e of preservatives and the intended stora$e #onditions. 2#hed!led pro#esses fo r a ll lo &. a#id p rod ! #t s h ave been established and "!st be adhered to b( #anned food "an!fa# t!rers IDJ. The( "!st be s!ffi#ient to ens!re the d est r! #t ion o r ina #t iva t ion of a ll pa th o $e n s. Ce rt a in heat.resistant spore.for"in$ spoila$e or$anis"s that "a ( be p re se n t% fo r exa "p le % %acillus stearot"ermop"ilus % are "ore resistant than . botulinum % the " o s t h e a t . r e s i s t a n t t o x i n . p r o d ! # i n $ p a t h o $ e n ) so b ( e n s! r in $ t h e d e st r! #t io n o f sp o r e s o f t h e for" e r t h e l a t t e r i s a l so d e s t r o (e d a n d t h e f o o d i s "ade safe. The food ind!str( defines heat. tre at"e n t pro#esses b( the appli#ation o f p r o # e s s v a l ! e s to ther"all( treated #ontainers) the ter" !sed to des#ribe this i s 5 in t e $ r a t e d l e t h a l i t ( 5 . T h e p ro # e s s v a l ! e s are defined b( e,!ation = belo& and relate t h e #e n t r e t e " p e r a t ! r e o f a p r o d ! # t d ! r i n $ h e a t i n $ a n d t h e h o ld i n $ t i " e a t a t a r $ e t t e " p e r a t ! re . Th i s $ ive s an est i"at e of sterilit(% that is% an inte$ rat ed "eas! re "en t of te"pe ra t!re7t i"e of the pro #e ss is prod!#ed.

t o a n ( va l! e t h a t # o r r e s p o n d s t o a t a r $ e t spoila$e or$anis". Or indeed ( "i$ht be set to sho& the deterioration of an( tar$et attrib!te% for exa"ple% vita"in destr!#tion. In all ther"al pro#esses% a statisti#al approa#h to 5ens!red sterilit(5 is ass!"ed. Treat"ents are based a r o ! n d a 5 6 = D 5 # o o * & h e r e th e p ro # e s s e n s! r e s 6= de#i"al red!#tions in "i#robial n!"bers. 2!#h ass!"ptions are to ens!re that the " a + o r i t ( 8 a l "o st 6 0 0 E9 o f #a n s i s s t e r il e a n d o n l ( t h e s "a ll e s t p r o b a b i l i t ( t h a t ! n s t e r i l e # a n s r e "a i n . I n " o s t #ases% #onta"inated #ans are $enerall( fo!nd to be #a!sed b( poor pro#essin$ and handlin$% rather than fro" the statisti#al probabilit( o f " i # r o b i a l $ro&th. 0fter the heat.treat"ent pro#ess% $reat #are is e x e r # i s e d t o e n s ! r e t h a t p ro d! #t s a re n ot re . #onta"inated &ith patho$ens or spoila$e or$an is"s. The entr( of food poisonin$ or$anis"s is prevented b( ens!rin$% for exa"ple% that there is no h!"an handlin$ &hile seals are &et% rapid dr(in $ of #ontainers% disinfe#tion of all &et post.p ro #e s s in $ handlin$ e,!ip"ent and that the d i s i n f e # t i o n o f # o o l i n $ & a t e r% b ( t h e addition of #hlorine% is ade,!ate. There have been o!tbrea*s of food poisonin$ asso#iated &ith #anned "eats and fish &here #onta"ination of the prod!#t has a risen d ! rin$ th e #oo lin $ p ro #e ss b( &a ( of #o n ta " i n a n t s i n # o o l i n $ &a t e r a n d t h e #a n n in $ e n v i r o n " e n t f i n d i n $ a & a ( thro!$h the sea"s d!rin$ expansion7#ontra#tion. The ba#teria i n v o l v e d have in #l!ded $tap"ylococcus aureus; $almonella typ"i and . botulinum . C C - R 0 p ! b l i s h a # o " . prehensive ran$e of "an!als #overin$ all a s p e # t s of the #annin$ and heat treat"ent pro#esses F see & & &. #a " p d e n . #o . ! * $poilage of canned foods

F=

60 8 T T r e f 9 7 ( d t
*

8=9

&here F is the pro#e ss val!e 8"in!te s9% T the "ea s! r e d t e "p e ra t ! re o f t h e f o o d % T r e f t h e r e f e r e n # e t e "pe ra t ! re f o r th e p ro #e ss 8in th e #a se of #a nn ed $ o o d s t h i s i s 6=6.6 C9 and ( is the slope of the le t ha lit ( # ! rv e 8 E9 th a t is % th e t e " p e r a t ! re re,!ired to a#hieve a 6 lo$ r e d ! # t i o n i n s p o r e n ! "b e r s a n d t t h e p ro #e ss t i "e . T h e ( va l ! e s a re ! s! a ll ( se t t o 6 0 K f o r "o st p ro #e s se s a s t h is " i " i # s the ther"al death *ineti#s of . botulinum sp o re s. ;o &e ve r% ( " i$ h t b e se t

3 3 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od In #anned foods% spoila$e is $enerall( indi#ated b( a 5 b l o & n 5 # o n d i t i o n o f t h e # a n s . T h e # o n t e n t s of #ans in this #ondition are "ore or less de#o" p o s e d and are !nfit for h!"an #ons!"ption. 0 s s t a t e d e a rl ie r% t h e p ri n # ip le s o f s t e r i li /a t i o n a re n o & s o & e l l ! n d e r s t o o d that fa!lt( #ans% rather than !nder sterili/ation% are the "ost fre,!ent #a! se of spo ila $ e. Cans of #ertain fr!its% notabl( pl!"s%

#herries% raspberries% lo$anberries and bla#*#!rrants% #an have a b lo &n a p p e a r a n #e t h a t " a *e s t h e " ! n "a r * e t a b l e % even tho!$h the fr!it itself is both so!nd and sterile. The $as prod!#in$ the press!re that blo &s the #an s is fo!nd on a n a l (s is to #o n si st lar$el( of h(dro$en. In # o n s e , ! e n # e % t h i s t ( p e o f fa il!re has #o"e to be *no &n as 5 "ydrogen s8ell T h e #a!se of the tro!ble is prin#ipall( the a#tion
5 .

of the fr!it a#ids on the tin.plate. In the #o!rse of ti"e% the a#tion res!lts in perforation of the #an. T h e a # t i o n o # #! r s p r i n # ip a l l ( a lo n $ t h e s e a " s a n d o t h e r p a rt s o f t h e #a n t h a t a re s! b +e #t e d t o se v e re strain d!rin$ "an!fa#t!re% and &here the prote# . tive la#,!er #oatin$ is defe#tive. Cans la#,!ered after "an!fa#t!re are rarel( affe#ted. ;(dro$en s&ell o##!rs onl( in #ans #ontainin$ fr!it% and is !n li*e l( to o##!r in #a ns tha t have been sealed fo r periods of less than 6= "onths. Ta in t s a n d # a t t ( o d o ! r s% so #a l le d b e #a ! se t h e ( rese"ble the odo!r of #ats5 !rine% onion or $arli#% have o##asionall( pla$!ed the food ind!str( in several #o!ntries. 2!#h ob+e#tionable odo!rs a n d f l a v o ! r s ! s ! a l l ( a ff e # t # a n n e d " e a t a n d v e $ . etables and obvio!sl( "a*e the food !na##ept . a b l e t o t h e # o n s ! " e r. I n v e s t i $ a t i o n s # a r r i e d o ! t b( 'ritish -ood an!fa#t!rin$ Ind!stries Resear#h 0sso#iation de"onstrated that #onta" . ination of the food b( "esit(l oxide% an !nsat! . rated *etone% #o!ld $ive rise to these odo!rs% p a rt i#! la rl( &h e re it is ab le t o rea #t &ith h(d ro$ e n s!lphide.
=Famination of canned foods

C a n s a re a n e x #e l l e n t a n d d ! ra b l e # o n t a i n e r. ; o & e v e r% t h e ( a r e p o t e n t i a l l ( d a n $ e r o ! s i f t h e ( have been pro#e ssed in#orre #t l( or the #an fa ils in stora$e. Dan$ers arise fro" #anned $oods as a res!lt of #han$es in the #ontents% defe#ts in the #an . n in$ % i"p ! rit ie s f ro " th e #a n % o r t he ! se of p re se r . vatives and #olo!rin$ a$ents. 2!perfi#iall( #ans are inspe#ted:

Cans that are dented as a res!lt of ro!$h han . dlin$ are al&a(s s!spe#t% parti#!larl( if the da" . a$e is on a sea" as this "a( res!lt in its openin$ a n d a i r b e i n $ a d " i t t e d t o t h e # a n . O # # a s i o n a l l (% end sea " defe #t s s! #h as fa lse sea "s and irre$! lar . ities s!#h as &rin*les and pleats 8&here the "etal folds ba#* over itself d!rin$ the first operation of sea"in$9 &ill be#o"e apparent d!rin$ inspe#tion% Unifor"% li$ht.#olo!red r!st spots on the labels s e l d o " i n d i # a t e l e a * a $ e . ; o & e v e r% i f a n ( o f t h e spots have a dar*er inner area% the #an "a( be perforated. Th e in sp e # t i o n o f #a n n e d $ o o d h a s $ e n e ra t e d i t s o&n vo#ab!lar( of des#riptors &ith &hi#h to des#ribe possible fail!res in the #annin$ pro#ess. P h r a s e s s ! # h a s D flipperD; DspringerD and s8ell r e f e r to $ as $ en e ra t io n in sid e t he sea le d #a n s) eit he r b( "i#rob ia l or en/("ati# a#t ion . 5 $oursD and Dstin.ersD des#ribe !npleasant odo!rs and flavo!rs and inedi . ble food% &hi#h have not prod!#ed $ases) "ost n o t a b l e o f t h e s e i s t h e 5 sulp"ur stin.erD i n & h i # h h(dro$en s!lphide has been for"ed to $ive the !n"ista*able 5rotten e$$5 or 5stin* bo"b5 s"ell. -inall(% #ans "i$ht be stained% b ( the p rod!#tion of s! l p h i d e s % o r #o r ro d e d t o $ ive le a *i n $ #a n s . Cans of sal"on and other seafoods are so"e . t i "e s f o ! n d t o #o n t a in #r (s t a l s t h a t r e se "b le $ la s s. The( are% in fa#t% #r(stals of "a$nesi!" a""o . n i! " p h o sp h a t e % a n o r " a l p ro d ! #t o f t h e d i$ e s t i ve s(ste" of the fish and are ,!ite har"less. Cr(stals of #al#i!" tartrate have been reported in #anned #herries% and #r(stals of potassi!" h(dro$en tar . t r a t e in #a n n e d $ ra p e s . 0 l l t h e se # r( st a l s% & it h t h e ex#eption of potassi!" h(dro$en tartrate% &ill d isso lve in vin e $a r.

(a) b ( l o o * i n $ f o r d e n t s % r ! s t h o l e s % b l o & n a n d (b)

lea*in$ #an s) sta ined #a ses often de "onstrate lea*in$ #ans) b( palpation% that is% pressin$ the ends of a #an &it h t he f in $ e rs% &il l d et e #t f lip pe rs% sp rin $ e rs% a n d so f t a n d h a rd s &e ll s 8 se e la t e r 9) sho ! ld p ro d! #e a d ! ll no te ) a d r! ". li*e so !n d indi#ates the presen#e of $as) an( #an fail . in$ to $ive a d!ll note all over sho!ld be re+e#ted) and OT;4R 4T;OD2

(c) p e r # ! s s i o n t h a t i s t a p p i n $ & i t h t h e f i n $ e r

1i,!id food% for exa"ple% "il* "a( be sterili/ed in a #ontin!o!s "ode b( !sin$ the ;T2T 8hi$h. te"perat!re short ti"e9 or U;T 8!ltra.hi$h te"perat!re pro#esses. Paste!ri/ed "il* is t(pi . #a l l ( h e ld a t > 3 C f o r n o t l e s s t h a n 3 0 " i n ! t e s % o r H= C fo r n ot le s s th an 6 > s e #o n d s. ;o &e ve r% &ith U;T or ;T2T the holdin$ te"perat!re is in#reased to 630.6B0 C &ith a fe& se#onds hold . in$ ti"e to ens!re sterilit( &hile not si$nifi#antl( a f f e # t i n $ , ! a l i t (. o r e r e # e n t l (% " i l * p r o d ! # t s

(d) sha*in$ F "eat that is in an advan#ed state of

de#o"p osit ion li, !efies% allo &in$ eas( ide ntifi . #ation !sin$ this "ethod.

3 5 T" e p re se r #a t ion of f o od h a v e b e e n p r o d ! #e d & h i # h h a v e r e # e i v e d n o h e a t treat"ent% b!t instead have been filtered to the ex#l!sion of all "i#robes and therefore retain G$ re en "il*5 #h a ra #t e rist i#s. T"e so!s.vide system for preparing c"illed meals 555 P0 2 T 4 U R I K 0T I O N Convenien#e foods% s!#h as #oo*.#hill prod!#ts a nd sous*#ide pa #*e d fo od s 8se e ne xt se #t ion 9 n o & for" a "a+or part of the "odern diet. The "ain ro!te for preservation and extended shelf life for these prod!#ts is to paste!ri/e the" before dis . t rib ! t ion . ;e re t he th e r"a l t re a t "en t d est ro (s ve $ . e ta t ive "i#ro b ia l #e lls an d so he at . re sista n t sp o re s "i$ht s!rvive the pro#ess) it is therefore the "ainte . nan#e of the #hilled stora$e te"perat!res that prevents spore $er"ination and en!"eration. T ( p i # a l l (% t h e s e t r e a t " e n t s a r e p e r f o r " e d b ( i " "e rs io n in h o t &a t e r b a t h s o r p a ss in $ t h e f o o d s t h ro ! $ h #o n t i n ! o ! s t ! n n e l o ve n s o r p a st e ! ri /e rs . I n the paste! ri/e rs heated &ate r rains do&n onto pre . pa#*ed prod!#ts as the( pass thro!$h the t!nnel on # o n v e ( e r b e l t s. T h e re f o r e % i t i s t h e r a t e o f p a s sa $ e 8i.e. belt speed9 that defines the residen#e ti"e in the ove n) and the the r"al t rea t"ent applied . 4 ven hi$h . a#id foods 8e.$. pi#*les9 &ill ro!tinel( re#eive a pas . te!ri/ation #(#le d!rin$ "an!fa#t!re to ens!re a "ini"al "i#robial load before distrib!tion. The "ilder ther"al treat"ents en#o!ntered in paste!ri/ation #an e,!all( be des#ribed b( the inte$rated lethalit( e,!ation sho&n in e,!ation =. 4x#ept that here the referen#e te"perat!res are $enerall( lo&er and the F val!e has no& be#o"e a P va l!e o r p ro #e ss va l!e 8st i ll ret a in in$ th e !n it of " in ! t e s 9. 0 s a b a se l in e P va l! e % f o o d s sh o ! l d b e p ro #e sse d t o t h e e , ! iv a le n t o f = " in ! t e s a t H 0 C . ; o & e v e r% t h i s b a s e l i " i t i s r a r e l ( a p p r o a # h e d a s pro#essors ta*e $reat #are in ens!rin$ that all p r o d ! # t s a re a s s a f e 8 l o & " i # r o b i a l l o a d 9 a s p o s s i . b l e a n d e xp e n d l a r $ e a " o ! n t s o f e n e r$ ( a n d p ro . #essin$ ti"e ens!rin$ all prod!#ts are "ore that ade,!atel( paste!ri/ed. T ; 4 $ C +$ * > ) & = 2 A 2 T 4 - O R P R 4 P0 R I N 3 C ; I 1 1 4 D 4 0 1 2 This s(ste" involves a va#!!".pa#*ed prod!#t desi$ned to retain the ,!alit( of the food &hile at t h e sa " e t i" e o ff e r in $ a n i" p r o ve d sh e l f l if e f o r a #hilled prod!#t. The s(ste" is parti#!larl( s!itable f o r t h e h o t e l a n d r e s t a ! r a n t se #t o r o f t h e #a t e r in $ i n d ! s t r (% a n d & a s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e " i d . 6 ? H 0 s i n -ran#e. It is no& !sed in h!ndreds of resta!rants in -ran#e and the rest of 4!rope and is t(pi#all( ! s e d f o r r e a s o n a b l ( h i$ h va l ! e p r o d ! # t s & i t h #o " . plex for"!lations or expensive in$redients. In its s i " p l e s t f o r " % t h e s ( s t e " in v o l v e s :

1. t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f h i $ h , ! a l i t ( r a & i n $ r e d i e n t s 2. p re . #o o *in$ % fo r e xa "p le % b ro &n in $ % if n e#e ssa r( 3. pla#in$ the food into spe#ial heat.stable air and
"oist!re barrier plasti# ba$s or po!#hes

4. # r e a t i n $ a v a # ! ! " a n d s e a l i n $ t h e p o ! # h 5. either stea" #oo*in$ at spe#ifi# ti"es and te" .

perat!res to ens!re paste!ri/ation of the food% o r #o o * i n $ t h e f o o d f o r i " " e d i a t e # o n s ! " p t i o n

6. rapid #hillin$ to red!#e the te"perat!re to 0F3 - C

&ithin ?0 "in!tes of the end of #oo*in$)

7. l a b e l l i n $ a n d # o n t r o l l e d r e f r i $ e r a t e d s t o r a $ e
&ithin this te"perat!re ran$e !ntil re,!ired for #ons!"ption &ithin C da(s of date of prod!#tion. It is #lai"ed that the aro"a% flavo!r and text!re of t h e f o o d i s p r e se r v e d a n d " a x i " i / e d a s a r e s! l t o f the #onstr!#tion of the po!#h. No nat!ral flavo!rs a re l o s t % b ! t t h e p r o d ! # t d o e s r e l ( o n h i$ h , ! a l i t ( ori$inal ra& in$redients. $ous*#ide pa#*s are $ener . all( ,!ite lar$e and so #are "!st be ta*en to ens!re their proper paste!ri/ation d!rin$ pro#essin$. Onl( s"all re$eneration *it#hens are ne#essar( to reheat the food F "ini"al e,!ip"ent and less s*illed "anpo&er are re,!ired #o"pared &ith a #onventional resta!rant. The proble" &ith the s(ste" is that the #re . ation of the anaerobi# environ"ent inside the po!#h in#reases the ris* of food poisonin$ fro" . botulinum; . perfringens and othe r anae rob i# patho$ens. The &hole s(ste" depends heavil( on t h e in t e $ r it ( o f t h e p ro #e ss a n d t h e le v e l o f *n o &l . ed$e of all the operatives involved in ens!rin$ sa f e t (. I n t e r n a l t e " p e r a t ! r e # h e # * s b ( t h e r " o #o ! . p le s o r th e r"ist o rs #an #he #* t he #o re t e "pe ra t ! re s o f f o o d b e f o r e v a # ! ! " i / a t i o n . Te " p e r a t ! r e " o n i . torin$ devi#es sho!ld be independent of the oven to enable the prod!#t sa"ple to be "onitored t h r o ! $ h o ! t i t s # o o * i n $ a n d # h i l l i n $ # ( # l e . I d e a l l (%

te"perat!re printo!ts of #oo*in$% #hillin$ and s t o r a $ e # ( # l e s sh o ! ld b e " a d e I ? J . The $ous*>ide 0dviso r( Co""it tee 82<0C9 has prod!#ed a #ode of pra#ti#e on the !se of the s(ste" I60J.

If there &as an( do!bt% the #o"panies &ere as*ed to obtain an expert eval!ation of their pro#ess and t o s! b " i t i t & i t h o ! t a n ( d e l a ( t o t h e l o # a l e n v i r o n . "ental health depart"ent. 0 list of or$ani/ations expert in food safet( assess"ent that #o"panies #o! ld b e re fe r red t o &a s $ ive n in t he a nn e xe t o t he D e p a r t " e n t o f ; e a l t h l e t t e r.
Anaerobic process inspection

0 N 0 4 R O ' I C - O O D P0 C K 2 0s "entioned in the previo!s se#tion anaerobi# pa#*s present an ideal $ro&th environ"ent for i"portant food poisonin$ and spoila$e or$anis"s and so sho!ld re#eive spe#ial attention. -ollo&in$ t h e o ! t b re a * o f . b o t u li n u m f ro " (o $ h ! r t i n t h e north.&est of 4n$land in the s!""er of 6?D?% t h e De p a r t " e n t o f ; e a l t h s e n t a l e t t e r t o a l l #h i e f e n v i r o n " e n t a l h e a l t h o f f i # e r s I 66 J a s * i n $ f o r appropriate #he#*s to be "ade on "an!fa#t!rers o f f o o d s p ro d ! #e d in a n a e ro b i# e n vi ro n " e n t s . Th e in #r e a s in $ ! s e o f va #! ! " p a # *s in s "a ll "a n ! f a # . t!rin$ and retail pre"ises to preserve the ,!alit( a n d sh e l f l if e o f f o o d s d o e s re p re se n t a s! b s t a n t ia l r i s * f a # t o r% a n d t h e D e p a r t " e n t o f ; e a l t h l e t t e r re,!ested #hief environ"ental health offi#ers to identif( other food prod!#ers that "a( be !sin$ pro#esses that have not been s!b+e#ted to a ha/ard anal(sis. In the vie& of the Depart"ent of ;ealth% it &as li*el( that #o"panies in this #ate$or( &o!ld be the s"aller "an!fa#t!rers% parti#!larl( those t h a t h a d b e $ ! n f o o d " a n ! f a # t ! r e r e # e n t l (% o r t h a t had "ade #han$es to their prod!#ts7pro#esses &itho!t expert advi#e. Develop"ents in food pro#essin$ that #o!ld introd!#e ha/ards are the in#reasin$ !se of va#!!" pa#*in$% a red!#tion in the !se of preservatives 8pa rt i#! la rl( sa lt a nd nit rit e s9% a red ! #t io n in s! $a r #ontent to prod!#e a lo&er #alorie prod!#t% and th e t en de n #( t o ! se lo &e r #o o *in$ te "p e ra t ! re s t o r e d ! #e l o s s o f , ! a l i t ( a n d i " p r o v e t h e #o l o ! r a n d text!re of prod!#ts. 4nviron"ental health offi#ers &ere as*ed as a "atter of !r$en#( to #arr( o!t an assess"ent of the safet( of all t(pes of food pro#esses !nderta*en &ithin their distri#ts &here the foods prod!#ed &ere pa#*a$ed anaerobi#all(. These in#l!ded heat. treated% #!red% s"o*ed or fer"ented prod!#ts in "etal en#los!res or va#!!" pa#*s% or other for"s of pa#*a$in$. The food "an!fa#t!rers #on#erned &e re as*e d to s! pp l( e vid e n #e o f t he s#ie n t if i# a nd te#hni#al eval!ation of the safet( of their pro#ess.

In #arr(in$ o!t an assess"ent of food pro#esses% the follo&in$ ,!estions are i"portant. The ans&ers sho!ld enable food offi#ers to +!d$e &hether potential ha/ards exist.

1. W h a t i s t h e r a n $ e o f p r o d ! # t s p r o d ! # e d % t h e
pa#* si/e and the n!"ber of different variations in ea#h prod!#tN

2. 0 r e t e # h n i # a l p e r s o n n e l e " p l o ( e d o r r e t a i n e d
b ( t h e # o " p a n (% a n d & h a t i s t h e t r a i n i n $ a n d ba#*$ro!nd of those peopleN

3. W h a t a r e t h e p ; % s a l t a n d s ! $ a r l e v e l s o f t h e
p ro d ! # t s a n d t h e i r &a t e r a #t i vi t ( N 8I f t h e p ro #e s . so r i s ! n a b le t o p ro vi d e sa t is f a # t o r ( a n s& e r s t o these ,!estions and see"s !na&are of their s i $ n i f i # a n # e i n r e l a t i o n t o p r o d ! # t s a f e t (% t h i s s h o ! l d a l e r t f o o d o ff i # e r s t o p o t e n t i a l d e f e # t s i n the pro#ess.9

4. W h a t i s t h e t o t a l p r o d ! # t l i f e o f a l l p r o d ! # t s N
W h a t a r e t h e s t o r a $ e t e "p e r a t ! r e s re , ! i r e d t o a #h i e v e t h e p r e s # r i b e d p r o d ! # t l i f e a n d h o & h a s the life been te#hni#all( deter"inedN

5. ; o & i s t h e p r o d ! # t p a # * a $ e d a n d & h a t s t e p s
a r e b e in $ t a * e n t o e n s! r e #o n t a i n e r 7 p a # * a $ i n $ inte$rit(N

6. To & h o " a r e t h e p r o d ! # t s s ! p p l i e d a n d f o r
&hat p!rpose 8i.e. retail sales or as in$redients for other "an!fa#t!red prod!#ts9N What advi#e i s $ i ve n t o # ! st o " e r s a b o ! t t h e s t o r a $ e a n d ! se of the prod!#tsN

7. W h a t e v a l ! a t i o n h a s b e e n " a d e o f r a & " a t e r i .

a ls a n d t h e i r s ! p p l ie rs N ;o & i s t h e sa f e t ( o f t h e ra& "aterials deter"inedN

8. W h a t r e # o r d s a r e * e p t a n d & h a t i s t h e s ( s t e "
for the tra#in$ of prod!#ts and re#all pro#e . d ! re s N W h a t # o d e s a re a p p l i e d N

9. W h a t i s t h e s ( s t e " f o r a # t i o n i n t h e e v e n t o f
pro#ess deviations fro" prod!#tion s#hed!lesN

(b) a p ; of C o r le ss th ro !$ h o! t th e fo od a nd
0D<I2ORA CO ITT44 ON T;4 ICRO'IO1O3IC01 20-4TA O- -OOD
Ad#isory ommittee on t"e Microbiological $afety of Food 55!

thro!$ho!t all #o"ponents of #o"plex foods

(c) a "ini"!" salt level of 3.CE in the a,!eo!s

p h a se t h r o ! $ h o ! t t h e f o o d a n d t h r o ! $ h o ! t a l l #o " p o n e n t s o f # o " p l e x f o o d s

The 0dvisor( Co""ittee on the i#robiolo$i#al 2afet( of -ood 80C 2-9 held an initial revie& of the "i#robiolo$i#al aspe#ts of the safet( of va#!!".pa#*ed and other her"eti#all( sealed foods in L!ne 6??6. It #on#l!ded that a #aref!l assess"ent &as needed of the a#tion that "i$ht be re,!ired to prote#t the p!bli# fro" an( ris* of bot!lis" or other dan$ers. 0 &or*in$ $ro!p &as set !p to #arr( o!t a detailed investi$ation. It presented its report to the 0C 2- in Lan!ar( 6??3 I6=%63J. 0"on$ the i"portant re# . o""endations #ontained in the report &ere the follo&in$.

(d) a n

a& o f 0 . ? H o r l o & e r t h r o ! $ h o ! t t h e food and thro!$ho!t all #o"ponents of #o"plex foods

(e) a #o "b in at io n o f he a t p re se rva t ive fa #t o rs

t h a t # a n b e # o n s i s t e n t l ( sh o & n t o p re v e n t the $ro&th of and toxin prod!#tion b( p s ( # h r o t r o p h i # . botulinum .

6. T h e r i s * o f

. botulinum h a / a r d i n # h i l l e d

1. -ood "an!fa#t!rers sho!ld #rit i#all( assess all

ne & food p ro#e ss pro #ed! res to ens! re eli"i . nation of the ris* of bot!lis".

food "!st be addressed b( "an!fa#t!rers% #aterers and retailers. 4xa"ples of at.ris* foods in#l!de s"o*ed sal"on and tro!t #!i . s i n e % sous*#ide p r o d ! # t s a n d " o d i f ie d a t " o s . p h e re p a # * a $ e d sa n d & i # h e s .

7. -ood "an!fa#t!rers and #aterers sho!ld ens!re

that the( have a thoro!$h !nderstandin$ of the o p e ra t i o n a l #a p a b i l i t i e s o f va # ! ! " p a # * a $ i n $ "a#hines% that the appropriate po!#h or tra( "aterials are !sed% and that the "a#hiner( !sed f o r e s t a b l i s h i n $ t h e v a #! ! " f ! n # t i o n i s " a i n . t a i n e d a t t h e r e , ! i re d sp e #i f i #a t i o n .

2. T h e # o " " e r # i a l ! s e o f h o " e p r e s e r v a t i o n

"ethods% for exa"ple% ho"e #annin$ or bot . t l i n $ o f l o & . a # i d p ro d ! #t s s! # h a s v e $ e t a b l e s and "eats and ho"e va#!!" pa#*a$in$ 8ex#ept for fro/en prod!#ts9 sho!ld be a#tivel( dis#o!ra$ed.

8. <a # ! ! " p a # * a $ i n $ " a # h i n e " a n ! f a # t ! r e r s

sho!ld alert !sers to food safet( ha/ards and t h e r i s * f r o " o r$ a n i s " s s ! #h a s . botulinum .

3. I n a d d i t i o n t o # h i l l e d t e " p e r a t ! r e s o f 6 0 C %
prepared #hilled foods &ith an assi$ned shelf life of "ore than 60 da(s sho!ld #ontain one o r "o re #o n t ro llin $ fa #t o rs a t le ve ls t o p re ve nt the $ro&th of and toxin for"ation b( strains o f p s ( # h r o t r o p h i # . botulinum .

9. T h e # o o * i n $ o f

4. T h e # o o * i n $ o r r e h e a t i n $ o f f o o d s h o ! l d n o t
a lo n e b e r e l ie d ! p o n t o d e s t ro ( a n ( b o t ! l in ! s t o xin p re se nt . Ot he r #on t ro l fa #to rs sho ! ld be !sed in foods s!s#eptible to the $ro&th of ps( . # h r o t r o p h i # . botulinum i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t its s!rvival.

sous*#ide p r o d ! # t s s h o ! l d n o t be ! nd e rta *e n !n le ss o pe ra to rs ha ve t he t e #h . ni#al expertise to ens!re that paste!ri/ation e , ! ip "e n t a n d o p e ra t in $ p ro #e d ! r e s a re a d e . ,!atel( desi$ned and tested to $ive a !nifor" and *no&n heat load to all #ontainers d!rin$ ea#h #(#le.

10. I n f o r " a t i o n s h o ! l d b e " a d e a va i l a b l e t o # o n .

s!"ers abo!t the #orre#t handlin$ and #oo* . i n $ p r a #t i # e s o f v a #! ! " " o d i f i e d a t "o s p h e r e pa#*a$ed foods.

5. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e " a i n t e n a n # e o f # h i l l e d
te"perat!res thro!$ho!t the #hilled #hain% the f o ll o & in $ #o n t ro l f a #t o rs sh o ! l d b e ! se d si n $ l ( or in #o"bination to prevent the $ro&th of and toxin prod!#tion b( ps(#hrotrophi# . botulinum i n p r e p a r e d # h i l l e d f o o d s & i t h a s h e l f l i f e o f " o r e t h a n 6 0 d a ( s: 8a9 a heat treat"ent of ?0 C for 60 "in!tes or e,!ivalent lethalit(

11. - o o d s s e n t b ( " a i l o r d e r s h o ! l d b e
s!b+e#t to #ontrol fa#tors in addition to te"perat!re to prevent the $ro&th of patho$eni# "i#ro.or$anis"s in#l!din$ p ( s # h r o t r o p h i # . botulinum .

12. Th e re sh o ! ld b e a #o " p r e h e n s iv e a n d a ! t h o r .
itative #ode of pra#ti#e for the "an!fa# . t!re of va#!!" and "odified at"osphere

37 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d p a # * e d # h i l l e d f o o d s & i t h p a r t i # ! l a r r e $ a r d t o t h e r i s * s o f b o t ! l i s " . I t s h o ! l d i n # l ! d e $!idan#e on:

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

ra& "aterial spe#ifi#ations a&areness and !se of ha/ard anal(sis and # r i t i # a l # o n t r o l p o i n t s 8 ; 0 C C P 9 p r o # e s s e s t a b l i s h " e n t a n d v a l i d a t i o n 8in#l!din$ ther"al pro#ess9 pa#*a$in$ re,!ire"ents te"perat!re #ontrol thro!$ho!t prod!# tion% distrib!tion and retail f a # t o r ( a ! d i t in $ a n d , ! a l i t ( " a n a $ e " e n t s (s t e " s 8i n # l! d in $ a & a re n e s s a n d ! se o f ;0CCP9 t h o r o ! $ h ! n d e r s t a n d i n $ o f t h e r e , ! i r e "e n t s t o e st a b li sh a sa f e sh e lf l if e t h o r o ! $ h ! n d e r s t a n d i n $ o f t h e # o n t r o l f a #to rs n e#e ssa r( to p re ve n t t he $ ro &th o f a n d t o x i n p r o d ! # t i o n b ( p s ( # h r o t r o p h i # . bo tu lin um in #h il led f oo d s

(i) a p p l i # a t i o n o f # h a l l e n $ e t e s t i n $ (j) e,!ip"ent spe#ifi#ations% parti#!larl( &ith r e $ a r d t o h e a t i n $ a n d r e f r i $ e r a t i o n (k) t r a i n i n $ .

-OOD 0DDITI<42 0dditives are #he"i#als that do not for" a nat!ral part of the food. Th e ( a re ! se d to : a n ( o f t h e s e a r e n o & s ( n t h e si/e d .

"aintain or enhan#e the n!tritional ,!alit( "aintain or enhan#e stabilit( i"prove appearan#e provide an aid to food pro#essin$.

2 e e a l s o t h e i s # e l l a n e o ! s - o o d 0 d d i t i v e s Re$!lations =006 a"ended =003. Certain #he"i#als have been fo!nd to interfere &ith the prin#ipal a$ents that #a!se deterioration i n f o o d . T h e ( p o s s e s s t h e a b i li t ( t o s l o & o r arrest "i#robial $ro&th b( interferin$ &ith #ell p e r " e a b i l i t (% e n / ( " e a # t i v i t (% o r t h e i r $ e n e t i # "e#hanis". 2!bstan#es s!#h as salt or s!$ar% &hi#h have tra d it i o n a l l( b e e n i n ! se f o r t h o ! sa n d s o f (e a r s% e xe r t a preservative effe#t b( dissolvin$ in the &ater of the food and for"in$ a #on#entrated sol!tion that sp o i l a $ e o r $ a n i s " s a r e ! n a b l e t o l i v e in . T h e #o n #en trated a,!eo!s so l! tio n is able to exe rt a stron$ o s " o t i # p r e s s ! r e % a n d t h e # e l l s a r e # o n s e , ! e n t l ( d e p r i v e d o f & a t e r. ' r i n e s ! t i l i / e s a l t t o p r e s e r v e " e a t s % & h e r e a s s ! $ a r a # t s a s a p r e s e r v a t i v e i n p r o d ! # t s s ! # h a s + a " % s ( r ! p a n d h o n e (. an( per"itted preservatives% s!#h as s!lph!r dioxide and proprioni#% ben/oi# and sorbi# a#ids% exert their effe#t b( virt!e of their a#idit( and are also i"portant "o!ld inhibitors. 2o"e preserva tives o##!r n a t ! r a l l (% s ! # h a s b e n / o i # a # i d 8 f o ! n d in #ranbe rries9% and these tend to be "ore effe#tive a $ a i n s t " o ! l d s and (easts. In addition to exertin$ a preservative effe#t% so"e #he"i#als "a( also be of benefit in h e l p i n $ t o " a i n t a i n # o l o ! r i n i n $ r e d i e n t s t h a t a re $ o in $ t o b e p ro # e s se d . /abelling of additi#es Th e - o o d 1 a b e l l i n $ R e $ ! l a t i o n s 6 ? ? > 8 a s a " e n d e d 6 ? ? D 9 r e , ! i r e t h a t a $ e n e r a l d e s # r i p t i o n o f t h e additives !sed as in$redients in pre.pa#*ed food sho!ld appear on the label. 0dditives perfor"in$ #ertain f ! n # t i o n s " ! s t b e d e # l a r e d b ( t h e a p p r o p r i a t e n a " e # a t e $ o r ( f o l l o & e d b ( t h e i r s p e # i f i # n a " e o r se r i a l n ! " b e r. Th e #a t e $ o r i e s a re :

36 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d

G antifoa"in$ a$ent G a n t io x i d a n t G b ! l*in $ a$ en t G h! "e #ta n t e "! lsif ie r G "odified star#h e "! l s i f ( i n $ sa l t s G preservative fir"in$ a$ent G p ro pe lla n t $a s f la v o ! r e n h a n #e r G raisin$ a$ent flo!r treat"ent a$ent G stabili/er $e llin $ a$ en t G s&eetener $ la /in $ a $e n t G thi#*ener.
a#id a#idit( re$!lator a n t i # a * in $ a $ e n t #o lo ! r

-lavo! rin$ s "a ( be de#la red si"p l( as 5fla vo!r in$5% or b( a "o re sp e#ifi# na"e . If an add itive serves "ore than one f!n#tion% the #ate$or( na"e t h a t r e p r e se n t s i t s p r in # i p a l f ! n # t i o n s h o ! l d b e ! se d . Th e re are exe "p tion s for non .p re. pa# *ed f o o d s a n d f o o d s p a # * e d o n p r e " i s e s t h a t a r e exe"pted b( the re$!lations.

Pac.agin g of food 40 P0 C K 0 3 I N 3 O - - O O D If the "ethods of preservation des#ribed in the previo!s se#tion are s!##essf!l then the #orre#t pa#*a$in$ of the "i#robiall( free foods is i"pera tive to prevent re.infe#tion. Pa#*s "a( be si"ple b a r ri e r s% s! #h a s p a p e r% t o e n #a se st a b le f o o d s% o r t h e ( " a ( p r o v i d e a h e r " e t i # s e a l a n d b a r r i e r f o r s! s # e p t i b l e p ro d ! #t s s ! #h a s " e a t . The a t e r i a l s a n d 0 r t i # l e s i n C o n t a # t & i t h -ood Re$!lations 6?DH i"ple"ent re,!ire"ents in 4 C D i r e # t i v e D 3 7 = = ? 7 4 4 C & i t h r e $ a r d t o " a t e ria ls a nd a rt i#le s t ha t #o "e in t o #o n ta #t &ith fo od % i n # l ! d i n $ pa#*a$in$. Th e e s s e n t i a l r e , ! i r e " e n t s o f a p a # *a $ i n $ " a t e r i a l a r e t h a t i t s h o ! l d :

b e i n e r t % t h a t i s % i t s h o ! l d n o t t r a n s f e r i t s #onstit!ents to the food prod!#t p r o t e # t t h e p r o d ! # t f r o " a d v e r s e e n v i r o n " e n tal #onditions p r e s e n t t h e p r o d ! # t t o t h e # o n s ! " e r i n a n appealin$ "anner be eas( for the #ons!"er to !se. a t e r i a l s a n d 0 r t i # l e s i n C o n t a # t & i t h - o o d 8 0 " e n d " e n t 9 R e $ ! l a t i o n s 6 ? ? B d e a l &ith:

The

p!rit( standards for re$enerated #ell!lose fil" resid!es "i$ratin$ into foodst!ffs a d " i n i s t r a t i v e a " e n d " e n t s t o b r i n $ t h e 6 ? D H r e $ ! l a t i o n s i n t o l i n e & i t h t h e s i n $ l e 4 ! r o p e a n "ar*et.
The Plasti# aterials and 0rti#les in Conta#t &ith -o o d R e $ ! l a t io n s 6 ? ? D i "p le " e n t Co " " is s io n Dire#tive ?H7BD74C. These re$!lations:

se t o ve r a l l " i $ r a t i o n l i " i t s f o r a l l f o o d # o n t a # t plasti#s establish 5positive lists5 of "ono"ers and startin$ s ! b s t a n # e s p e r " i t t e d f o r ! s e i n t h e " a n ! f a # t ! r e o f f o o d
#onta#t plasti#s

la( do&n r!les for #he#*in$ #o"plian#e &ith

the re$!lations% for exa"ple% test ti"es et#. "oice of pac.aging T h e t ( p e o f p a # * a $ i n $ # h o s e n f o r a p a r t i # ! l a r foodst!ff depends on a n!"ber of fa#tors% not the least i " p o r t a n t o f & h i # h i s t h e n a t ! r e o f t h e $ o o d s t o b e p a # * a $ e d % e s p e # i a l l ( i f t h e ( a r e " o i s t o r $ re a s (. D r ( $ o o d s % s ! #h a s f lo ! r o r s! $ a r% #a n b e pa#*ed in si"p le "ate rials s!#h as paper% b!t food s s!#h as #offee or bis#!its% &hi#h are s!s#eptible to h ! " i d i t ( # h a n $ e s % " ! s t b e p a # * e d i n " o i s t ! r e . p r o o f p a # * a $ e s t o * e e p t h e " i n a s a l e a b l e # o n d i t i o n . 3 r e a s ( f o o d s r e , ! i r e $ re a s e p r o o f p a # * a $ in $ % a n d " o i s t $ o o d s n e e d " o i s t ! r e . p r o o f p a # * a $ e s . 0 ## o rd in $ t o t h e n a t ! re o f t h e $ o o d s% a n ! "b e r o f p a # * a $ i n $ " a t e r i a l s " a ( b e s! i t a b le . Th e f in a l #hoi#e &ill be based on the ph (si#a l re, !ire "en ts of the pa#* in order for it to be stored and distrib!ted in $o od #on d ition . W h e n # o " p a r i n $ t h e a v a i l a b i l i t ( o f " a t e r i a l s % o n e o f t h e " a i n # o n s i d e r a t i o n s 8 a p a r t f ro " # o s t 9 i s that of #o "pat ib ilit(. There a re also s!b tle #on sid e r a t i o n s s ! # h a s t h e e l i " i n a t i o n o f o d o ! r% d ( e o r so lven t #o n ta "in a t ion % a nd th e "a t t e r of a est he t i# appeal.

Paper
T h i s i s p r o b a b l ( o n e o f t h e o l d e s t a n d " o s t # o " " o n p a # * a $ i n $ " a t e r i a l s . N o t o n l ( i s i t #h e a p a n d e a s i l ( d i s p o s e d o f % b ! t a l s o i t i s e a s i l ( p r i n t e d o n a n d i s p e r " i t t e d t o # o " e i n t o # o n t a # t & i t h f o o d . ;o &e ve r% it is

Pac.agin g of food 41 #lea r t ha t in it s !s!a l f o r" it is o n l( s ! i t a b l e f o r d r ( $ o o d s o r a s a n o ! t e r & r a p p e r f o r #onfe#tioner(.

<aFed paper
This has been fo!nd s!itable for &rappin$ bread an d p ro t e # t in $ s l i # e d l o a ve s f ro " d i s i n te $ r a t io n and lo ss o f "o is t ! r e . ; o &e ve r% it is n o t p o s si b l e t o & r a p b r e a d i n a # o " p l e t e l ( & a t e r p r o o f " a t e r i a l a s t h i s " a * e s i t l i a b l e t o b e # o " e s o $ $ ( a n d " o ! l d (. ' re a d is t h e re f o r e #o o l e d 8 t o re d ! #e #o n d e n sa t io n 9 a n d &rapped in &axed paper &ith the ends heat.sealed. The seal is 5loose5 eno!$h to allo& so"e "oist!re to es#ape% $ives the sli#ed loaf a "ore a##e ptab le shelf life % and *eep s it #lean. Waxed

Pac.agin g of food 4, paper or li$ht $a!$e #ard is fa"iliar as a "aterial for for"in$ disposable #artons for li,!ids s!#h as "il*. It is also extensivel( !sed for fro/en prod . !#ts% &here it $ives "e#hani#al prote#tion to the #ontents. Blass 3lass% in the for" of +ars or bottles &ith her"eti . #all( sealed #overs% "a*es a "ost s!itable food p r e s e r v a t i o n # o n t a i n e r. T h e " a t e r i a l p o s s e s s e s ad van t a$ e s ove r t inp la te in th a t th e re is n o ris* of "e ta lli# po ison in $ % it is a l&a (s po ssib le t o se e th e #ondition of the #ontents and the #ostl( va#!!" sealin$ "a#hiner( ne#essar( for #ans is not needed. On the other hand% it #an easil( be bro*en or splintered and is "ore expensive. 'e#a!se of the dan$er of brea*a$e% lo&er te"perat!res and lo n $ e r e xp o s! r e s a re n e #e s sa r ( &h e n t re a t in $ t h e #ontents) #are "!st also be ta*en &hen transfer . r i n $ $ la s s #o n t a i n e r s f r o " h e a t i n $ r e $ i " e s t o #o o l . in$ baths as the ther"al sho#* #an shatter the $ la ss. T(p i#a ll(% $la ss +a rs et #. &ill e it h e r be lef t t o #ool slo&l( at a"bient te"perat!res or &ill !nder$o a t&o. or even three.sta$e #oolin$ #(#le a s t h e ( a r e t ra n sf e rr e d f r o " #o o li n $ b a t h s o f p r o . $ressivel( lo&er te"perat!re. lingfilms Plasti# pa#*a$in$ "aterials s!#h as #lin$fil"s offe r "an ( be ne fits. In pa rti#! la r% th e ( h e lp to prevent #onta"ination of food b( "i#ro . or$anis"s. Clin$fil"s are also ver( #onvenient f o r # o n s ! " e r s . ; o & e v e r% i n t h e 6 ? D 0 s i t b e # a " e *no&n that% !nder #ertain #ir#!"stan#es% s"all a"o!nts of #he"i#als #o!ld be transferred fro" ti$htl( &rapped #lin$fil"s on to foods. There is no eviden#e to s!$$est that these have #a!sed an( har" to health% and #lin$fil"s re"ain s!it . able for "ost food !ses 8see follo&in$ se#tion9. N e v e r t h e l e s s % a s a r e s ! l t o f t h i s d i s # o v e r (% # l i n $ . fil"s have been the s!b+e#t of "!#h $overn"ent resear#h and advi#e. In 6?D>% the $overn"ent iss!ed $eneral advi#e abo!t the !se of #lin$fil"s in #oo*in$. -!rther &or*% dis#!ssed in a report iss!ed in 6??0 I6BJ% sh o & e d t h a t #h e " i # a l s i n # l i n $ f i l " t e n d t o t r a n sf e r "ost readil( on to hi$h.fat foods s!#h as #heese. 3overn"ent experts therefore advised that #lin$. fil"s sho!ld not be !sed to &rap food of this t(pe. Their advi#e to #ons!"ers is as follo&s.

1. D o n o t ! s e # l i n $ f i l " s i n # o n v e n t i o n a l o v e n s . 2. I n a " i # r o & a v e o v e n % ! se # l i n $ f i l " s f o r d e f r o s t .

in$ or reheatin$ foods) &hen #oo*in$% !se the" to #over #ontainers% b!t do not allo& the" to #o "e in t o #o n t a #t &i t h f o o d o r ! se t h e " t o li n e dishes.

3. D o n o t ! s e t h e " i n a & a ( t h a t " a * e s t h e "

#o"e into #onta#t &ith hi$h.fat food. If in do!bt% !se an alternative &rappin$ "aterial F there are "an( to #hoose fro". an!fa#t!rers are re#o""ended to label pa#*s alon$ these lines% and retailers are re#o""ended t o f o l l o & t h e a d v i # e $ i v e n i n t h e f i n a l p o i n t e a r l i e r. The -ood 2afet( Dire#torate of the then inistr( of 0$ri#!lt!re% -isheries and -ood 8 0 - -% n o & D 4 - R 0 9 i s s ! e d f ! r t h e r a d v i # e i n Nove"ber 6??0 I6CJ follo&in$ "edia interest and p ! b l i # #o n # e r n o v e r t h e ! se o f # l i n $ f i l " s & i t h f o o d . T h e a d v i # e # o v e r e d all plastic f o o d & r a p p i n $ f i l " s t h a t h a v e a 5 # l i n $ 5 p r o p e r t (% & h a t e v e r t h e i r #o"position and &hether !sed in the ho"e or in s h o p s . T h e a d v i #e d o e s n o t #o v e r t h e t h i # * e r% n o n . #lin$ plasti# &rappin$ often !sed b( retailers and "an!fa#t!rers. T"e Tetra Pa. This is a fa"iliar t(pe of pa#* !sed to #ontain U;T "il* and other li,!ids. It is for"ed fro" a p a p e r b a s e a n d p o l ( t h e n e l i n e r. - i l l i n $ a n d s e a l i n $ i s a #o n t i n ! o ! s a n d a s e p t i # p ro # e s s % & h i # h # a n # r e . a t e a va r i e t ( o f p a # * a $ e t (p e s a n d $ e o " e t r i e s . Polyt"ene 'ein$ "oist!re.proof b!t not entirel( vapo!r. proof% pol(thene is p!t to inn!"erable !ses. 'ein$ a ther"oplasti# it is !sef!l for heat sealin$ and "a( be overprin ted to a de$ ree. Its "a in !se is as a #heap b!l* pa#*a$e and shrin*.&rap "aterial for f r ! i t a n d ve $ e t a b l e s . P o l ( t h e n e p a # * e d " e a t s % s ! # h as ha"s and lar$e #!ts of ba#on% "a( be s#alded

43 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d after pa#*in$ to shrin* the pa#*a$in$ "aterial into inti"ate #onta#t &ith the s!rfa#e. This &ill *ill heat.sensitive s!rfa#e or$anis"s b!t% even &ith hi$hl( salted foods% ba#terial $ro&th "a( #ontin!e at a slo& rate !nless the prod!#ts are refri$erated. Polystyrene 0ltho!$h brittle% pol(st(rene #an be extr!ded and this "a*es it s!itable for for"in$ #ontainers for #rea"% (o$h!rt% "il*% et#. In its foa"ed for" it is ext en sive l( !se d fo r "ea t t ra (s% in s! la te d #!p s an d e$$ #ontainers. Plio film This is a #hlorine r!bber prod!#t% si"ilar in appearan#e to pol(thene. It is &idel( !sed for "eat pa#*a$in$ as it is heat shrin*able and "oist!re. p ro o f . I t is a lso p e r"ea b le t o 0 = % &h i#h a llo &s th e s!rfa#e of pa#*ed "eats to sta( fresh and red. 9ylon and P> These are !s!all( !sed in #o"bination &ith Cellophane to prod!#e va#!!".pa#* envelopes. The la(ers of the s!bstan#es are bonded to$ether &ith adhesives% and a ther"oplasti# la(er is pla#ed internall( to allo& the pa#* to be heat.sealed. These #ontainers are s!itable for #onditions &here it is essential that no air or "oist!re $ets into the p a #* a n d n o $ re a s e $ e t s o ! t . Cr i sp s "a ( b e p a #* e d in this &a( &ith an inert at"osphere of dr( N = to * e e p t h e " # r i s p a n d p r e v e n t r a n # i d i t (. N = p a # * s are also !sed for prod!#ts s!#h as dried "il* and #offee and deh(drated $oods. ellulose Cell!lose !sed in #o"bination &ith other "aterials is another for" of transparent pa#*a$in$% b!t "a( not be "oist!re. or $as.proof% altho!$h it #an be reasonabl( $reaseproof. It is ideal for pa#*a$in$ b re a d % #o n f e #t io n e r(% sa ! sa $ e s% " e a t s a n d #h e e se and% altho!$h not ther"oplasti# and therefore not h e a t se a la b le % it a l lo & s " o i st ! re t o e va p o ra t e &i t h . o!t #ondensin$ and en#o!ra$in$ "o!ld $ro&th. This has the disadvanta$e of bein$ expensive% opa,!e and not heat sealable% b!t as a "etal it is both "oist!re. and $as.proof and has $ood heat. re f le #t ive , !a lit ie s. I t is an id e a l pa #*a $ in$ "a t e ria l for dair( $oods% s!#h as #heese% and bein$ "alleable "a*e s idea l tops fo r "il* bott les% +a" +ars% (o$h!rt #on tainers% et#. Used as a la"ina te% it is !sef! l fo r s a #h e t i n $ l i , ! i d s a n d d e h ( d r a t e d f o o d s a n d i s ! s e d in N= pa#*ed $oods as it $ives $reat stren$th and l o n $ . t e r" $ a s p e r "a n e n #e t o t h e p a # *a $ e . Tin plate and /ac'uered plate Tin plate #ans have been dis#!ssed extensivel( earlier. 5etortable pouc"es 0 ne& "ethod of en#a sin$ food fo r sterili/ation and resale has be#o"e prevalent on the "odern "ar*et. Re to rt a b le po ! #h e s h ave n o & be #o "e fa "i lia r fo r a ver( lar$e variet( of foodst!ffs. The va#!!".sealed p o ! #h e s a re #o "p o se d o f "e t a l f o i l l a " in a t e d i n t o plasti# fil"% &hi#h are extre"el( d!rable and #an be retorted. The red!#tion in the "etal #ontent and their in#reased handlin$ properties "a*e the" ideal r e p l a #e " e n t f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l " e t a l #a n .
=n#ironmental responsibility

0n#e "ore% this is an area in &hi#h the #ons!"er has "ade% reasonable% de"ands !pon the food p r o # e s s i n $ i n d ! s t r (. C o n s ! " e r s h a v e i n d i # a t e d t h a t t h e ( & i s h t o se e l e s s p a # *a $ i n $ ! se d i n f o o d &rappin$. 0lso the pa#*a$in$ that is !sed sho!ld b e e n v i r o n " e n t a l l ( f r i e n d l (% t h a t i s % r e # ( # l a b l e % a n d sh o ! ld b e e a s ( t o o p e n .
Bas or controlled atmosp"ere pac.ing

an( foodst!ffs are so sensitive to 0 = that the onl( &a( to ens!re an ade,!ate shelf life is the # o " p l e t e r e " o v a l o r e x # l ! s i o n o f t h e 0 = . Wa ( s o f d o in $ t h i s a r e t o : Aluminium

pa#* the #ontainer so ti$htl( that there is little ro o " fo r air

44 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d

eva#!ate the air 8va#!!" pa#*in$9 re"ove the air and repla#e it &ith a non.oxidi/in$ $a s 8$a s f l! sh in $ 9.
I t i s n o & p o s s i b l e t o p a # * f o o d s i n a t " o s p h e r e s * n o & n t o i n h i b i t d e t e r i o r a t i v e # h a n $ e s . T h e t e # h ni,!e has been !sed s!##essf!ll( for "eats% ve$eta b l e s a n d d a i r ( p r o d ! # t s % a n d i s a l s o e f f e # t i v e f o r f i sh . I t i s n e #e ssa r( t o d e t e r" i n e t h e o p t i" ! " " ix t ! r e o f $ a s e s f o r e a # h t ( p e o f f o o d . T h ! s % f o r " e a t i t i s n e # e s s a r ( t o i n # r e a s e t h e le v e l o f O = t o " a i n t a i n t h e d e s i r a b l e r e d # o l o ! r % b ! t f o r n ! t s % O = s h o ! l d b e e x # l ! d e d t o p r e v e n t o x i d a t i v e r a n # i d i t (. W i t h f i s h % t h e r a t e o f b a # t e r i a l s p o i l a $ e # a n b e s l o & e d d o & n b ( i n # r e a s i n $ the level of CO= . T h e r e , ! i r e d a t " o s p h e r e i s # a r e f ! l l ( # o n t r o l l e d a t t h e t i " e o f p a # * in $ % h e n # e t h e n a "e #o n t r o l l e d a t " o s p h e r e p a # * a $ i n $ 8 C 0 P 9 . 0 n a l t e r n a t i v e des#ription for the sa"e pro#ess is "odified at"os p h e r e p a # * a $ i n $ 8 0 P 9 % a s t h e a t " o s p h e r e & i t h i n t h e p a # * & il l #h a n $ e d ! r in $ s t o r a $ e . I t i s n e #e ssa r( to distin$!ish bet &een this te#hn i,!e and the "o re # o " p l i # a t e d s ( s t e " o f #o n t ro l l e d a t " o s p h e r e s t o r a $ e % i n &hi#h the individ!al $ases of the at"os phere are "onitored #ontin!o!sl( and "aintained at predeter"ined levels thro!$ho!t stora$e. 0 n ! " b e r o f " a # h i n e s p r o v i d i n $ d i f f e r e n t d e $ r e e s o f s o p h i s t i # a t i o n a r e n o & a v a i l a b l e f o r C 0 P. W i t h t h e s i " p l e s t " a # h i n e s % t h e p r o d ! # t i s p l a # e d i n a p l a s t i # s l e e v e % f l ! s h e d & i t h a $ a s " i x t!re and then sealed. o re soph isti#a ted "a #hines p r o v i d e a n i n t e $ r a t e d p a # * a $ i n $ s ( s t e " . T h e s e " a # h i n e s & i l l ther"ofor" base tra(s fro" a roll of plasti# fil" into &hi#h the prod!#t is pla#ed. The loaded tra(s pass alon$ the "a#hine to be eva#!ated and are then filled &ith the re,!ired "ixt!re of $ases. 0 se #o nd ro ll o f f il" is he at . sealed to the top ed$es of the tra(s% and the fin ished pa#*s pass o!t of the "a#hine. T h e a d v a n t a $ e s o f t h e s e p a # * s i n # l ! d e : a n e xte nd e d sh e lf life if st o red !n de r #a re f! ll( #h il led # o n d i t i o n s ) t h e # o n t a i n " e n t o f o d o ! r a n d d r i p o f prod!#ts s!#h as fish) the pa#*s #an be attra#tivel( l a b e l l e d ) a n d a & i d e v a r i e t ( o f p r o d ! # t s # a n b e d i s p l a (e d b ( r e t a i l e r s & i t h o ! t t h e n e e d f o r sp e # i a l ist s*ills. The $ases CO= % N= and O= are #o""onl( !sed i n C 0 P f o r f i s h % & h o s e a ! t o l ( t i # e n / ( " e s a n d s! b s e , ! e n t b a # t e r ia l in f e #t io n #a n se ve r e l ( re d ! #e sh e l f l i f e . 4 x t e n s i v e t r i a l s sh o & t h a t C O = i n h ib i t s b a # t e r i a l a # t i v i t (% b ! t a ! t o l ( t i # # h a n $ e s p r o # e e d . N = i s a n i n e r t $ a s t h a t i s i n # l ! d e d i n t h e $ a s " i x t ! r e t o offset the adverse effe#ts of hi$h levels of C O = b ( " a i n t a i n i n $ t h e s h a p e o f t h e p a # * . O x ( $ e n a p p e a r s t o r e d ! # e t h e a " o ! n t o f d r i p fro" &hite fish% b!t this $as "a( be benefi#iall( o"itted fro" p a # * s o f f a t t ( f i s h t o d e l a ( t h e o n s e t o f o x i d a t i v e r a n # i d i t (. I n # l ! s i o n o f O = d o e s n o t o v e r # o " e t h e p o t e n t i a l h a / a r d o f t o x i n p r o d ! # tion b( . botulinum . Tho ro!$h ba#te ri ol o$i #a l te sti n$ has sho& n that toxin prod!#tion is pri"aril( dependent on te"perat!re and that "aintainin$ the fish at B C or belo& is the best preventive "eas!re. Th!s% pa#*in$ fish in a #ontrolled at"osphere presents no "ore dan$er than other for"s of fish pa#*a$ in$ &ith re$ard to a potential bot!lino$eni# ha/ ard% providin$ that #hill te"perat!re stora$e is "aintained. To o b t a i n t h e " a x i " ! " b e n e f i t f r o " p a # * i n $ i n a # o n t r o l l e d a t " o s p h e r e % i t i s r e # o " "ended that the te"perat!re of pa#*s is a##!ratel( " a i n t a i n e d a t 0 . = C t h r o ! $ h o ! t p r o d ! # t i o n % d i s t r i b ! t i o n a n d r e t a i l i n $ I6>J.
$mart pac.aging tec"nology

N e & p a # *a $ i n $ t e #h n o l o $ i e s a r e n o & e n t e r i n $ t h e "a r*et pla #e. These 5so.#alle d5 s"art pa#*s offer a r a n $ e of enhan#e"ents be(ond si"ple barriers to "i#robes% "oist!re% et#. and are desi$ned to add ,!alit( as &ell as prote#tion. The !se of +ar lids that indi#ate if a seal has been bro*en are no& fa"iliar to a & i d e r a n $ e o f p r o d ! # t l i n e s . ; o & e ve r% b e ( o n d t h i s a &h o l e n e & v i s t a o f o p p o r t ! n i t ( i s a v a i l a b l e . P r o d ! # t s t h a t i n # o r p o r a t e a n t i " i # r o b i a l l a ( e r s i n t h e i r s t r ! # t ! r e a r e n o & b e in $ p r o d ! #e d . C a r b o n a t e d d r i n * s a r e #o " " o n l ( s!pp lied in ine xpensive plasti# bott le s tha t are $as i " p e r v i o ! s . I n d i # a t o r s o f sh e l f l i f e % be(ond si"ple datin$% are bein$ applied to stored prod!#ts. 0nd " e t a l l i # f i l " s a r e b e i n $ i n # o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e pa#*a$in$ of "i#ro&aveable prod!#ts so that the "i#ro&ave ene r$ ( #an be ! sed to b ro&n food a s & e l l a s + ! st h e a t i t .

45 T"e p re se r#a t io n of f oo d 0 n o t h e r f a " i l i a r t e # h n o l o $ (% & h i # h i s ! s e d t o l a b e l h i $ h v a l ! e p r o d ! # t s % a r e a n t i . t h e f t l a b e l s .

5ef erences 513

These ta$s are interro$ated b( radio fre,!en#ies and so!nd alar"s &hen passed thro!$h dete#tors. 0ltho!$h of li"ited !sed for lo& !nit #ost foods t h e r ad i o fr e , ! e n # ( i d en t i f i # a t i o n 8 R- I D 9 t e # h n o l . o$ ( i s e xp e# ted to be ! se d to pro d! #e s"ar t p a# * that #an 8a9 pass heatin$ instr!#tions dire#tl( to the "i#ro&ave ovens% so that #orre#t #oo*in$ proto . #ols are !sed) and 8b9 be interro$ated b( 5intelli . $ent5 frid$es so that 5!se b( dates5 are fla$$ed !p b( the frid$e if a food is stored for ex#essive periods of ti"e &itho!t !se.

1. 2. 3. 1. 4.

R4-4R4NC42

1. C h i l l e d -o o d 0 s s o # i a t i o n 86 ? ? D 9 B u i d e l i n e s
for Bood Hygie nic P ractice in t"e Manu * f a ct u re o f " il le d Fo o d s % 3r d edn % Ch il le d

5.

-o o d s 0 s s o # i a t i o n % 1o n d o n . 2. - o o d 2 a f e t ( 0 # t 6 ? ? 0 8 6 ? ? 0 % r e v i s e d 6 ? ? B 9 ode of Practice 9o. 1,I 2uic. Fro(en Foodstuffs. &i#ision of =nforcement 5esponsibilitiesI =nforcement of Temperature Monitoring and Temperature Measurement % ; 2 O % 1 o n d on .

6.

3. The UK 0sso#iation of -ro/en -ood Prod!#ers

86??B9 Buide to t"e $torage and Handling of Fro (e n Fo o d % UK 0--P% 1ondon. 4. 2lo#!"% P. 86??09 Cold #hain distrib!tion and other transport "atters. Paper $iven at the 1eatherhead -ood R0 2("posi!" on -ood 2afet( 1e$islative 0spe#ts% H Nove"ber. 5. -0O7W;O 86??=9 $trategies for Assessing t"e $afety of Foods Produced by %iotec"nologyI 5eport of a Joint FACK< HC onsultation % Wo r l d ; e a l t h O r $ a n i / a t i o n % 3 e n e v a . 6. i n i s t r ( o f 0 $ r i # ! l t ! r e % - i s h e r i e s a n d - o o d 86? ?09 Fo o d ) rr a d i a t i o n ; $ o m e 2 u e st i o n s Ans8ered% 0-- -ood 2afet( Dire#torate

7.

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9.

Infor"ation Iss!e No. =% ; 2O% 1ondon. World ;ealth Or$ani/ation 8!ndated9 Bo lden 5ules for $afe Food Preparation % W;O% 3eneva. D ep art "en t of ;e al th 86 ?? B9 B u id e l in e s f o r t"e $afe Production of Heat Preser#ed Foods % ; 2O% 1ondon. 2#hafheitle% L. . 86??09 The sous*#ide s(ste" for preparin$ #hilled "eat. %ritis" Food Journal % 9 2 8C9% =3.H. $ o u s * >i d e 0 d v i s o r ( C o " " i t t ee 86 ? ? 6 9 o d e of Practice For 2o!s.<ide atering $ystems % 2<0C% Tetb!r(% 3lo!#estershire. D e p a r t "e n t o f ; e a l t h 8 6 ? D ?9 B u i d a n ce f o r =n#ironmental Healt" &epartments on t"e Pre#ention of %otulism % letter to C4;Os and #hief post health inspe#tors% 41 8D?9% P6BC. 0 d v i s o r ( C o " " i tt e e O n Th e i#robiolo$i#al 2 a f e t ( O f - o o d 8 6? ? 3 9 5e p o r t C n >a c u u m Pac.aging And Associated Processes % ; 2O% 1ondon. inistr( of 0$ri#!lt!re% -isheries and -ood 86??=9 Ad#isory ommittee on t"e Microbiological $afety of Food 5eport on >acuum Pac.aging And Associated ProcessesI 5ecommendations and Bo#ernmentDs 5esponse% 0--% 1ondon. inistr( of 0$ri#!lt!re% -isheries and -ood 86??09 Plastici(ersI ontinuing $ur#eillance % 0-- -ood 2!rveillan#e Paper No. 30% ; 2O% 1ondon. inistr( of 0$ri#!lt!re% -isheries and -ood 86??09 ling Film% 0-- -ood 2afet( Dire#torate Infor"ation% Iss!e No. H.6% spe#ial e d n % ; 2 O % 1 o n d o n. 2eafish Ind!str( 0!thorit( 86?DC9 Bu ide lin e s for t"e Handling of Fis" Pac.ed in a ontrolled Atmosp"ere % 2-I0% 4dinb!r$h.