11 Mechanical engine components

225
The dual-mass flywheel (Fig. 3) consists of Primary flywheel Inner damper Secondary flywheel Outer damper
Primary flywheel Secondary flywheel

11.4 Dual-mass flywheel

This is intended to damp torsional vibrations which are generated by the periodic cycle of the four strokes and the firing order in the crankshaft and a conventional flywheel. At certain rotational speeds torsional vibrations can result in gearbox noises (gearbox rattling) and body droning. The conventional flywheel mass of an internalcombustion engine consists of the crankshaft-drive components, the flywheel and the clutch. In the diagram (Fig. 1) the speed fluctuations of the engine and the gearbox at full load are plotted against time. The vibrations of the engine output and gearbox input have virtually identical amplitudes and frequencies. In the event of superposition (resonant range), this results in gearbox noises and body droning.
50 Speed fluctuation rpm Engine Gearbox

Outer damper

Inner damper

Gearbox input shaft

Fig. 3: Dual-mass flywheel

Operating principle
Dividing the flywheel mass into the primary mass on the engine side and the secondary mass on the gearbox side increases the mass moment of inertia of the rotating gearbox parts. In this way, the resonant range is below the engine's idle speed and thus not in the engine's operating range. The diagram (Fig. 4) shows that the vibration curves of the engine output and gearbox input are clearly far removed from each other. In this way, the torsional vibrations generated by the engine are isolated from the gearbox, and gearbox rattling and body droning no longer occur.
50 Speed fluctuation rpm Engine Gearbox

11

Time

50

Engine speed 800 rpm

Fig. 1:Vibration curves for a conventional flywheel mass

Design (Fig. 2)
The conventional flywheel mass is divided into the primary flywheel mass (crankshaft drive, primary flywheel) and the secondary flywheel mass (secondary flywheel, clutch). A torsional-vibration damper connects the two flywheel masses. The function of this damper is to isolate the flywheel-mass system of the engine from the gearbox and the drivetrain. A clutch disc without a torsion damper can therefore be used for the clutch.
Crankshaft drive Secondary flywheel Variable-speed gearbox

Time

50

Engine speed 800 rpm

Fig. 4:Vibration curves of a dual-mass vibration system

Advantages
Primary flywheel Torsional-vibration damper Clutch

Fig. 2: Dual-mass vibration system

Reduction of gearbox and body noises (rattling, chattering, droning). Protection of power-plant components. Lower synchromesh wear. Clutch disc does not require a torsion damper.

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11 Mechanical engine components

11.5 Engine lubricating systems

The engine lubricating system must supply the engine components with an adequate amount of lubricating oil.The correct pressure must be guaranteed in the process.

Functions
Lubricate in order to reduce energy losses and wear-inducing friction between those parts that slide on or against each other. Cool in order to protect the engine components against overheating because these components cannot give off heat directly to the coolant or to the cooling air. Seal in order to guarantee the precision seal between parts that slide on or against each other (e.g. piston ring against cylinder wall). Clean in order to remove abrasion, deposits and combustion residues or to bind them in the oil so as to render them harmless to the engine. Protect against corrosion. Damp engine noises because the lubricant layer has a noise- and vibration-damping effect.

For this reason, it is necessary to check the oil level at regular intervals and if necessary to top up the oil. Oil changes must be carried out within the framework of vehicle servicing in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations or in accordance with the flexible interval display. Lubricating systems. Two different types of system may be used in four-stroke engines: Forced-feed lubrication Dry-sump lubrication Likewise in two-stroke engines: Mixture lubrication Total-loss lubrication Lubrication points. The following components in an engine must be supplied with oil by the lubricating system: e.g. crankshaft bearings, connecting-rod bearings, gudgeon-pin bearings, tappets, camshaft bearings, cam tracks, rocker arms, timing chain, chain tensioners, cylinder barrel and exhaust-gas turbocharger (Fig. 1).

11.5.1 Forced-feed lubrication

This is the most commonly used system. A pump draws in the supply of oil from the oil pan through an oil strainer and forces it through pipes and lubricating passages to the engine lubrication points. Several oil pressure and suction pumps can be installed in modern-day engines. Filters and occasionally oil coolers as well are connected in-between (Fig. 1).
Oil cooler Bypass valve

11

Stresses and strains of lubricating oil

The lubricating oil is exposed to high thermal, chemical and mechanical stresses and strains in the engine (Fig. 2, Page 204). Mechanical contamination through dust, metal abrasion and combustion residues can be largely eliminated by suitable filters. Reasons for regular oil changes: Oil ageing. Air and combustion gases (blow-by gases) force their way into the crankcase between the piston and the cylinder. This causes the oil to oxidise (age). Acids may be formed in the process. Oil sludging. Separated oleoresins, road sweepings, metallic abrasion and released combustion residues cause oil sludge to form. Sludge formation is further encouraged by condensation water and if necessary coolant. Oil sludge can obstruct the oil circuit. Oil dilution. The high-boiling fuel constituents, which get into the oil particularly when the engine is cold, result in oil dilution. Oil thickening. Heavy oil oxidation, combined with the depositing of soot particles, occasionally cause the oil to thicken, mainly in diesel engines. Oil consumption. Every engine has a certain level of normal oil consumption, which must be compensated. This comes about because the oil gets into the combustion chamber (e.g. oil film on the cylinder wall, valve guides), where it burns.

Oil-return stop

Oil filter

Oil-return stop

Vacuum pump

Oil-pressure switch

Piston with cooling duct Exhaust-gas turbocharger Oil supply of controldrivegear module

Oil spray nozzles (piston cooling) Oil suction pumps Oil separator Intake fitting

Oil-pressure regulating valves

Oilpressure pumps

Oil - without pressure

Oil - with pressure

Fig. 1: Forced-feed lubrication

11 Mechanical engine components The oil trickles off from the lubrication points and flows back to the oil pan. The oil supply can be checked with a dipstick. Electric oil sensors, which enable the oil content and oil quality to be displayed in the instrument panel, are also being increasingly installed. Dry-sump lubrication (Fig. 1). This is a special type of forced-feed lubrication system.
Oil filler neck Full-flow oil filter Oil-temperature gauge Oil-pressure gauge Oil-temperature sensor Oil supply reservoir Oil-pressure sensor Pump drive shaft

227
suction point during cornering, acceleration and braking. The surface of the oil pan also acts as a cooling surface for the oil supply. In small-sized engines, oil pans with cooling fins cast from light-metal alloy are increasingly being replaced by lighter and cheaper-to-manufacture plastic oil pans. The oil pan is sealed by flat gaskets or increasingly by liquid seals with silicone. Two-part crankcase (Fig. 2). This enables the crank space to be sealed downwards against the oil pan. Thus, under the pistons there are changing, enclosed volumes which are connected via special oil return passages with the oil from the oil pan. Advantages: Stiffer crankcase. The combination of the enclosed oil pan and the engine block reinforces the engine, which promotes a further weight reduction. Lower piston slap. In the enclosed crank space under the piston an overpressure is generated during the downward movement of the piston which expands again during the upward movement and thereby stabilises the piston. Reduced foaming of the engine oil caused by socalled blow-by gases.

Oil cooler Thermostatic valve Oil pump Oil strainer Return pump Pressure-limiting valve

Fig.1: Dry-sump lubrication

11

In this lubricating system, the oil returning to the oil pan is directed by a suction pump to a separate oil supply reservoir. A pressurised-oil delivery pump draws the oil off from this reservoir and forces it via a filter and if necessary an oil cooler to the lubrication points. Advantages of dry-sump lubrication: The flat oil pan reduces the height of the engine and thus the vehicle's centre of gravity. Perfect lubrication is guaranteed in the event of large engine inclinations, e.g. offroad vehicles and motorcycles, or on bends/curves taken at high speed, e.g. in sports cars. Better oil cooling is achieved because the oil supply reservoir is isolated from the engine and thus from the heat of the engine. Because dry-sump lubrication is more expensive than forced-feed lubrication, it is usually used only in low sports cars, offroad vehicles and motorcycles.

Air cushion Collector duct Oil return Bulkhead Oil deflector (baffle plate)

Fig. 2:Two-part crankcase

Oil pumps
These must ensure an adequate oil pressure in combination with a high delivery flow (approx. 250 l /h to 350 l /h). They deliver the oil, e.g. in tooth spaces, from the suction side to the pressure side.

11.5.2 Engine-lubrication components

Oil pan Oil pump Pressure-limiting valve Oil filter Oil-pressure gauge Ventilation Overflow valve Oil cooler Oil pan/sump. This holds the oil supply for the engine. The lowest point of the oil pan is frequently equipped with antirolling walls (baffle plates), which prevent the oil from flowing away from the

Pressure chamber

Suction chamber

Fig. 3: Gear pump

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Gear pump
In this type of pump, the oil is carried in the tooth spaces and delivered along the inner pump wall to the other side. The meshing of the teeth of the two gears prevents the oil from flowing back. A vacuum pressure and an overpressure are generated on the suction side and the pressure side respectively. Crescent pump (Fig. 1). This is a special type of gear pump. Its inner gear is usually seated directly on the engine crankshaft. An outer gear mounted in the pump housing is arranged eccentrically to the inner gear. This creates a suction chamber and a pressure chamber, which are separated from each other by a crescent-shaped spacer. The oil is delivered in the tooth spaces along both the upper and lower sides of the crescent-shaped spacer. Advantage of a crescent pump over a conventional gear pump: Higher delivery rate, especially at low engine speeds
Outer gear Pressure side

11 Mechanical engine components The chambers on the pressure side decrease in size and the oil is forced into the pressure line. The oil is simultaneously forced by several narrowing pump cells into the pressure line so that the rotor pump operates uniformly. It is able to generate high pressures with a high delivery flow.

Regulated rotor pump

Design. This has an additional control ring between the rotor ring and the pump housing which is turned depending on the oil pressure and the control spring (Fig. 3). This pump enables the oil pressure to be kept constant irrespective of the engine operating conditions. This results in constant lubricating conditions at all the lubrication points.
Oil pressure below 3.5 bar Oil pressure above 3.5 bar Outer rotor Pressure Suction side To oil circuit (regulation) side

a)
Control ring Control spring

b)
Inner rotor From oil pan

11
Crescentshaped spacer Suction side

Fig. 3: Regulated rotor pump

Inner gear Pressure relief valve

Fig. 1: Crescent pump

Rotor pump (Fig. 2). This consists of an internally toothed outer rotor and an externally toothed inner rotor. The inner rotor has one less tooth than the outer rotor and is connected to the drive shaft.
Suction chamber Transport chamber (delivery chamber)

Oil pressure too low. If the oil pressure drops below the limit pressure of for example 3.5 bar, the control spring can turn the control ring against the oil pressure (Fig. 3a). This results in an increase in chamber size between the inner and outer rotors. In this way, more oil is delivered from the suction side to the pressure side and the oil pressure rises. Oil pressure too high. If the oil pressure rises above the limit value, the oil pressure presses against the control ring and the control spring is compressed (Fig. 3b). This results in a decrease in chamber size between the inner and outer rotors. In this way, less oil is delivered from the suction side to the pressure side and the oil pressure drops.

Oil-pressure gauge, oil-pressure telltale lamp

E Pressure side

Inner gear Outer gear Suction side E: Eccentricity Pressure chamber

Fig. 2: Operating principle, rotor pump

The toothing of the inner rotor is shaped in such a way that each tooth touches the outer rotor and largely seals the chambers created. As the rotors rotate, the pump chambers on the suction side continually increase in size and the pump draws in oil.

These components serve to monitor the oil pressure. Both are installed between the oil pump and the bearings. Oil-pressure gauge. This allows the current oil pressure to be read off directly. A pressure sensor is required in the pressure line after the oil pump for pressure measurement. Oil-pressure telltale lamp. This goes out during engine operation and indicates to the driver whether there is sufficient oil pressure available in the system. If oil from the pressure line presses on the switching-contact body, the earth/ground contact for the oil-pressure telltale lamp is interrupted and the lamp goes out (Fig. 1, Page 229).

11 Mechanical engine components

Driving switch Oil-pressure telltale lamp Diaphragm Contacts Engine block Pressure oil
Closed Open

229
Overflow valve (Fig. 3). If the filter is clogged, the oil can flow unfiltered through the overflow valve past the filter to the lubrication points.
Overflow valve

Adjusting screw

Compression spring

Fig. 3: Overflow valve

Fig. 1: Oil-pressure switch for oil telltale lamp

Pressure-limiting valve
This is connected downstream of the oil pump and prevents excessive oil pressure (> approx. 5 bar). A high oil pressure is not always proof of good lubrication. When the engine is cold, for example, lubrication is worse in spite of a high oil pressure than it is when the oil pressure is low in an engine which is at normal operating temperature. Oil pressure will also be high but lubrication poor when an oil line or a filter is clogged. An excessively high oil pressure poses a risk to seals, oil lines and oil tubes to the oil cooler and oil filter.

Return check valves (Fig. 4). These can additionally be installed in the filter inlet and outlet lines to prevent the full-flow oil filter from running dry when the engine is stopped.
Engine stopped: return valve closed Engine running: return valve open

Fig. 4: Return check valve

Oil filters
These are installed to prevent premature deterioration of the lubricating oil caused by solid impurities, e.g. metal abrasion, soot, dust particles (see Chapter 1.6). Oil filters, however, are unable to remove liquid contaminants or contaminants dissolved in the oil. Neither do they have any effect on chemical or physical changes to the oil during engine operation, e.g. caused by ageing.Two different types of oil filter are used, depending on where they are located in the oil flow: full-flow and partial-flow oil filters. Full-flow oil filter (Fig. 2). Full-flow oil filtering ensures that no unfiltered oil can reach the lubrication points. In order to facilitate an adequate throughput of oil, it is important that the flow resistance of the filter (pore size) not be too high. This would limit the filter effect. Tiny contaminants would not be filtered out of the oil.
Overflow valve Pressure gauge

Partial-flow oil filter (Fig. 5). This filter is arranged in a branch (partial flow) running parallel to the full flow. Thus only part of the oil delivery (5 % to 10 %) passes through this filter. In this way, only partially filtered oil reaches the lubrication points. The pore size of the filter can be reduced to such an extent that even tiny contaminants can be filtered out of the partial flow.
Pressure gauge Restrictor Partial-flow oil filter Pressure relief valve
Engine lubrication points

11

Fig. 5: Partial-flow oil filter

Full-flow oil filter Pressure relief valve

Engine lubrication points

Combination of full-flow and partial-flow filters. This combination delivers the best filter effect. They are used, for example, in construction-site vehicles. For cost reasons, however, predominantly full-flow oil filters are used in passenger cars. Crankcase ventilation. Spark-ignition engines and in particular turbocharged diesel engines are subject to blow-by gases which enter the crankcase from the combustion chamber. This gas, which is contaminated by superfine oil droplets, fuel residues, water vapour and soot, is returned to the engine intake air via an oil separator.

Oil pump

Oil pan/sump

Fig. 2: Oil filter in full flow

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11 Mechanical engine components

Outer capacitor Inner capacitor

Intercooler
max.

Cyclone oil separator

min. Temperature sensor Oil pan/ sump

Engine oil Oil-condition sensor

Blow-by gases

Fig. 2: Oil sensor

Valve plunger Return flow Crankcase ventilation

Fig. 1: Crankcase ventilation

11

In order to lower oil consumption, protect sensitive engine components against contamination and thereby reduce emissions, it is essential for this gas to be filtered prior to recirculation. This operation is performed by an oil separator, e.g. labyrinth, cyclone or centrifugal oil separator (Fig. 1). Oil sensor. A sensor can be installed in the oil pan for accurate recording of the engine-oil level, oil temperature and engine-oil condition (Fig. 2). WORKSHOP NOTES Oil-level check and oil change Oil-level check with the dipstick. The fill level should be between the Max. and Min. marks on the dipstick (Fig. 3). The vehicle must be parked on a level, horizontal surface during this check.

The sensor consists of two cylinder capacitors, one arranged on top of the other. The oil quality is evaluated in the lower section and the engine-oil level is determined in the upper section. Measurement principle: If the condition of the oil changes as a result of wear and breakdown of additives, the capacitance of the oil-filled capacitor changes. The capacitance value is processed in the integrated electronic evaluation circuit into a digital signal and communicated to the engine control unit. The engine control unit processes this signal in order to calculate the next oil-change service. The driver is alerted to the oil level by means of a display. Oil temperature. A temperature sensor (NTC) is integrated in the oil sensor to measure the oil temperature. Oil-level check via vehicle display: If the vehicle is equipped with an oil sensor, the current fill level must be determined in the display under the "Engine oil menu item. This display also shows the remaining mileage until the next prescribed oil change. Oil consumption Normal oil consumption. This is the case if no more than 0.1 1.0 l oil is consumed over a distance of 1,000 km. New vehicles may be subject to higher oil consumption during running in. Increased oil consumption. If increased oil consumption is constantly registered, there must be a mechanical fault: Valve-stem seals faulty. Oil gets into the inlet or exhaust port here. Blue smoke is created when the oil is burned. Axial clearance between piston ring and ring groove. The clearance between these two components may increase as a result of wear.The piston ring moves back and forth in the ring groove as the piston moves up and down the cylinder. This reciprocal motion causes oil to be "pumped" into the combustion chamber (Fig. 1, Page 231).

MAX
Fig. 3: Dipstick

MIN

Oil level too low: Oil must be topped up. Make sure in so doing that the Max. mark on the dipstick is not exceeded. The fill-quantity difference between the two marks is usually 1 litre in passenger cars. Oil level too high: Vehicles which are frequently used for short journeys can be subject to oil dilution and as a result to a high oil level. In this case, the measurement must be repeated after extended vehicle operation with the engine at normal operating temperature. If an excessively high fill level is still recorded when the measurement is repeated, oil must be drained or drawn off.

Oil-level sensor

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231

Piston Cylinder wall Piston rings Route of oil Oil

Fig. 1: "Pumping piston rings

The oil passes into the combustion chamber, where it burns. The piston rings seize as a result of coked piston-ring grooves. This results in the creation of heavy blue smoke. Damaged engine seals. These result in the loss of oil even when the engine is stopped. Patches of oil on the ground or oil fouling on the engine point to this fault.

Fig. 2: Releasing a box-type filter; clamping bands

Oil change
Vehicle manufacturers recommend an oil change at specific intervals. This change can be performed by draining or drawing off engine oil with the engine at normal operating temperature. Draining engine oil. Here the oil flows almost completely out of the oil drain hole in the oil pan into the oil-collecting tray. The seal of the oil drain plug must be replaced. If the oil drain plug incorporates a magnetic separator, the metal abrasion sticking to the separator must be removed. Drawing off engine oil. Here a suction probe is inserted into the oil pan and draws off the oil within 5 10 mins. Roughly 0.5 litres of the old oil is left in the oil pan. This must be taken into account when the prescribed quantity of new oil is added, otherwise the oil level will be too high. If the probe cannot reach the lowest point of the oil pan, the contaminants that have collected there will not be drawn off. Oil-filter replacement. As with changing the oil, oil-filter replacement at specific intervals is also recommended by the vehicle manufacturer. Box-type oil filters. These filters must be released with the aid of special oil-filter wrenches (Fig. 2). Observe the following when installing box-type filters: Apply a light coating of oil to the O-ring seal of the new oil filter so that the O-ring does not stick to the sealing surface during removal. Tighten the box-type filter by hand. REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 List the advantages of dry-sump lubrication. 2 What different types of oil pump are there?

Throwaway oil filters. The cover of the filter module must be opened here. Make sure when inserting the new filter cartridge that it is correctly seated. The Oring of the filter-module cover must be replaced. Oil filling. Use only the manufacturer-approved oil grades. Carry out an oil-level check after adding the prescribed amount of oil. Check for leaks while the engine is running. Used oil and used filters. These must be stored and disposed of in an environmentally compatible manner.

Oil-pressure check
Here the function of the oil-pressure switch and the oil pressure at a specific engine speed are checked. The oil-pressure switch is screwed into a test adapter.This adapter is screwed in in place of the oilpressure switch. A test lamp is connected between the oil-pressure switch and the battery (Fig. 3).
Pressure gauge

11

Oil filter

Test adapter Test hose

bar

Fig. 3: Checking oil-pressure switch and oil pressure

The lamp must light up when the engine is stopped. It should go out if the pressure gauge indicates an oil pressure of 0.3 0.6 bar when the engine is running. The oil-pressure switch must be replaced in the event of a negative result. The oil pressure should be at least 2 bar at an engine speed of 2,000 rpm and an oil temperature of 80 C.
3 List two advantages of regulated oil pumps. 4 What different types of oil filter are there? 5 Which measured values can be recorded by an oil sensor? Explain their operating principle.

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11 Mechanical engine components

11.6 Engine timing gear

The engine timing gear controls the moment and the duration of the intake of fresh gases and the moment and the duration of the discharge of exhaust gases. The moments are given as opening and closing points of the valves in crankshaft-angle degrees, e.g. Io 15 before TDC, Ic 42 after BDC (see timing diagram, Page 192).

Overhead-valve engine (Figs. 2 to 5). The valves are closed in the direction of TDC. Engines of this type have overhead valves. Arrangement of camshaft. The following different arrangements are possible in overhead-valve engines: OHV engine (OverHead Valves). Inverted valves in the cylinder head; the camshaft is located in the cylinder block or in the crankcase (Fig. 2). OHC Engine (OverHead Camshaft). The camshaft is located above the cylinder head (Fig. 3).
Camshaft Finger-type rocker Rocker arm Camshaft

11.6.1

Design of engine timing gear

11

The engine timing gear is driven from the crankshaft via toothed belt, roller chain or gears to the camshaft. The camshaft cams open the inlet and exhaust valves against the spring force of the valve springs via transfer elements, e.g. tappets.The valves are closed again by the spring force of the valve springs. Because one power cycle stretches over four strokes, i.e. two crankshaft revolutions, and the valves are only actuated once in the process, the camshaft must rotate at half the speed of the crankshaft. The crankshaft gear therefore has half as many teeth as the camshaft gear. The speed ratio between crankshaft and camshaft is 2 : 1. Arrangement of valves. The following different arrangements may be used: Side-valve engine (Fig. 1), SV engine. The valves are closed in the direction of BDC. The valves are side-mounted in this type of engine. Engines of this type are not used in motor vehicles because of the unfavourable shape of their combustion chambers.
Rocker arm Valve spring Valve Push rod

Fig. 3: OHC engine

DOHC engine (Double OverHead Camshaft). Two camshafts are located above the cylinder head (Fig. 4). CIH engine (Camshaft In Head). The camshaft is located in the cylinder head (Fig. 5).

Camshaft Barrel tappet

Rocker arm

Valve tappet Camshaft

Camshaft

Crankshaft gear

Camshaft gear

Tappet Timing chain Crankshaft gear

Camshaft gear

Fig. 1: Side-valve engine

Fig. 2: Overhead-valve engine

Fig. 4: DOHC engine

Fig. 5: CIH engine

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233

11.6.2 Multiple-valve technology

In the interests of further improving the gas exchange in the cylinder, engines are also equipped with two or three inlet valves together with one or two exhaust valves. Three-valve version (Fig. 1). Two inlet valves are arranged opposite one larger exhaust valve. If it is not possible to position the spark plug centrally, dual ignition with two off-centre spark plugs is used. This brings about improved burning of the mixture in the vicinity of the piston edge and at the fire land. A common camshaft controls the valves.

11.6.3 Timing-gear components

Valves
Two different types are used: inlet and exhaust valves. The diameters of the valve heads and the valve lift must be sufficiently large as to facilitate as much as possible an unhindered gas exchange. The exhaust valve often has a smaller diameter than the inlet valve because the still high pressure of the exhaust gases when the exhaust valve opens ensures that the combustion chamber is quickly emptied. Design (Fig. 4). A valve consists of a valve head and a valve stem. The valve head must in conjunction with the valve seat in the cylinder head seal the combustion chamber gas-tight. At the end of the valve stem is a recess or one or more grooves, with which the valve cones engage. The valve cones are pressed by the valve spring retainer into the recess or into the grooves of the valve stem. Stresses and strains. The valves are exposed to extremely high stress. They are raised roughly 4,000 times per minute and driven by the valve springs back onto the valve seats. The valve stem and the end of the stem are subject to friction wear. Inlet valves (Fig. 4) may be permanently cooled by the fresh gases, but can still reach temperatures of up to approx. 500 C.

EV

EV

EV

IV IV IV IV

IV

Fig. 1:Three-valve version

Fig. 2: Five-valve version

11

Four-valve version (Fig. 3). This is the most common multiple-valve-technology engine. Two frequently larger inlet valves are arranged opposite two exhaust valves. The spark plug can be positioned almost centrally. The inlet valves and the exhaust valves each require a separate camshaft.

Recess

Valve head

Valve seat

Valve cones

Valve stem

Fig. 4: Inlet valve

Inlet valves are usually single-metal valves. The valve seat, valve stem, recess for the valve cones and end face at the end of the stem can be hardened in order to reduce wear. Exhaust valves (Fig. 1, Page 234). These are subjected to thermal load by the hot combustion gases (on the valve head up to approx. 900 C) and to chemical corrosion. Exhaust valves are therefore usually manufactured as bimetal valves. Creep-, corrosion- and scale-resistant steel is used for the valve head and the lower part of the valve stem, which above all are exposed to the combustion gases. Such steels are not heat-treatable, have poor sliding properties, tend to seize in the valve guide and are poor conductors of heat.

Fig. 3: Four-valve version

Five-valve version (Fig. 2). Three inlet valves and two exhaust valves offer the maximum throughflow cross-section. The spark plug can usually be positioned centrally.The inlet camshaft actuates the three inlet valves and the exhaust camshaft actuates the two exhaust valves.

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The upper part of the stem is made from heat-treatable steel with good thermal conductivity. Both parts are connected to each other, for example by friction welding.
Sodium filling Valve cone Weld seam Scraper edge Armour plating

11 Mechanical engine components Adjustment of valve clearance. There are different ways of adjusting the valve clearance, depending on the engine type and make. It can be carried out when the engine is cold or even when it is hot, or when the engine is stopped or even when it is running at low speed. In the case of an overhead camshaft and rocker arms, the valve clearance can be adjusted with an adjusting screw and a lock nut or, as shown in Fig. 2, by adjusting the ball-pressure pin in the self-locking thread on the bearing of the finger-type rocker. The valve clearance is checked at the gap between the cam base circle and the finger-type rocker. In the case of an overhead camshaft and barrel tappets (Fig. 2), hardened adjusting shims of varying thicknesses are placed in the tappet in order to adjust the correct valve clearance, which can be checked directly at the gap between the cam base circle and the adjusting shim.
Hexagon socket
Valve clearance

Fig. 1: Exhaust valve

Hollow-stem valves (Fig. 1). These are exhaust valves which in order to improve heat dissipation have a cavity which is filled by up to 60 % with sodium. Sodium melts at roughly 97 C and has good thermal conductivity. The sloshing movement of the liquid sodium causes the heat to be dissipated more quickly from the valve head to the valve stem, thereby reducing the temperature of the valve head by roughly 100 C. The valves are frequently armour-plated at the valve seat (Fig. 1), e.g. with hard metal, in order to reduce wear and to prevent the seat from breaking on the valve head.

Adjusting shim

Valve clearance

11

Valve clearance. Inlet and exhaust valves expand during operation, depending on the temperature increase and material used. Linear deformations caused by wear also occur in the transfer elements of the timing gear. Clearance between the transfer elements is provided for so that the inlet and exhaust valves can close perfectly in all operating states. The valve clearance is generally greater when the engine is cold than when it is hot. The clearance of the exhaust valves is usually greater than that of the inlet valves because the former are subject to hotter temperatures. Valve clearance too small. The valve opens earlier and closes later. The exhaust valve can become too hot because not enough heat can be dissipated from the valve head to the valve seat due to the shortened closing time. When the valve clearance is to small, there is also the danger that the exhaust valve or the inlet valve will no longer open when the engine is hot. In this situation, exhaust gas is drawn in through the gap in the exhaust valve and flames flash back through the gap in the inlet valve. This results in gas losses and power losses. The valves are overheated by the hot exhaust gases constantly flowing past, and this burns the valve head and valve seats. Valve clearance too large. The valve opens too late and closes too early. This results in shorter opening times and smaller opening cross-sections, which in turn diminish charge and power. The mechanical stress on the valve and valve noises increase.

Ball-pressure pin Adjustment with ball-pressure pin Adjustment with adjusting shim

Fig. 2: Adjusting valve clearance

Depending on the manufacturer's specifications, the valve clearance is roughly 0.1 mm to 0.3 mm. If it is not correctly adjusted, the opening and closing times of the valves will be shifted or deferred.

Hydraulic valve-clearance compensation

It is no longer necessary to adjust the valve clearance on engines which are equipped with a hydraulic valve-clearance compensation facility. Such a facility uses hydraulically actuated transfer elements to compensate linear deformations of the components. In this way, the valve clearance is kept at zero while the engine is running. Design. The clearance-compensation element is located in the barrel tappet. The valves are actuated directly by the overhead camshaft via barrel tappets (Fig. 1, Page 235). The hydraulic barrel tappet (Fig. 1, Page 235) is connected to the engine's oil circuit. Oil is supplied through a side bore in the tappet into the valve-tappet chamber and from there via the opening in the tappet base into the supply chamber via the pressure pin.

11 Mechanical engine components

Cam Annular orifice Tappet shell Supply chamber Pressure pin Valve-tappet chamber Working chamber Ball valve Compensating spring Guide sleeve

235
If, on the other hand, the valves are actuated by the camshaft via finger-type rockers, the compensating element is installed in the rocker bearing (Fig. 2). The operating principle is the same as in the barrel tappet. Valve guide (Fig. 3) Special valve guides with good sliding properties are pressed into cylinder heads made of AI alloys. These guides are usually made of cast bronze or special cast iron. The valve-stem seal at the top end of the valve guide must guarantee an adequate film of oil in the valve guide; however, it must prevent engine oil from getting through the valve guide into the intake or exhaust port. This would result in high oil consumption and oil-carbon deposits on the valve stem and even the effect of the catalytic converter could be impaired.

Fig. 1: Barrel tappet with hydraulic valve-clearance compensation

Operating principle
Trailing cam. The pressure pin is not subjected to load. The compensating spring forces the pressure pin upwards until the barrel tappet touches the cam or the cam base circle. As a result of the enlarged space below the pressure pin, oil flows from the supply chamber through the ball valve into the working chamber. Leading cam. The pressure pin is subjected to load, the ball valve closes and the oil in the working chamber acts like a "rigid connection". The inlet or exhaust valve is opened via the guide sleeve. Excess oil can escape through the annular orifice between the pressure pin and the guide sleeve, e.g. in the event of thermal expansion of the timing-gear parts.

Valve spring retainer

Cone Valve spring

11
Valve-stem seal

Cylinder head

Valve guide

Valve-seat insert

Valve

Finger-type rocker Ball-pressure pin Sealing cap Guide sleeve Filling chamber Ball valve Working chamber Compensating spring

Fig. 3: Valve guide

Table 1: Possible faults in hydraulic valve-clearance compensation. Chattering noises as a result of excessive valve clearance Compensating element runs dry because of excessive wear at the annular orifice. Oil restraint valve in the engine lubricating circuit faulty. No valve-clearance compensation Faulty valve-clearance compensating element. Air in the valve-clearance compensating element caused by foaming oil due to an excessively high oil level.

Fig. 2: Finger-type rocker bearing with hydraulic valveclearance compensation

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Valve seat in cylinder head
The valve seats in the cylinder head (Fig. 1) usually have the same cone angle as the valve heads. The seat angle is 45. Correction angles. These are 15 and 75. The correction angles improve the flow behaviour and serve to correct the valve-seat width. Valve-seat width. This provides for a good combustion-chamber seal. It is approximately 1.5 mm for the inlet valve and approximately 2 mm for the exhaust valve in order to improve heat dissipation. Occasionally the seat angles on the valve head and in the cylinder head are slightly different, e.g. 44 on the valve head and 45 in the cylinder head. This creates a narrow sealing edge to the combustion chamber which increases in size during operation to the normal seat width.
Correction angle

11 Mechanical engine components

Fig. 2: Cast camshaft

Built-up camshafts (Fig. 3). Here the cams are manufactured individually from case-hardening, tempering or nitriding steel. The cams are then shrunk onto a steel tube.
Cam Steel tube

Fig. 3: Built-up camshaft

75

45

11
Correction angle

Seat angle

Valve-seat insert

Fig. 1:Valve seat in cylinder head

Cam shapes (Fig. 4). As the valves are opened and closed, these determine the Opening duration Height of the valve lift Lifting speed Sequence of movements Pointed cam. The valve is slowly raised and closed and remains fully open for a short time only. Asymmetrical cam. The flatter leading cam face effects a slower opening and the steeper trailing face a longer opening of the valve and a faster closing. Steep (sharp) cam. The valve is quickly opened and closed and remains fully open for a longer time.

Valve-seat inserts. These increase the strength of the valve seats in cylinder heads made from AI alloys and occasionally those made from cast iron. Valve-seat inserts are creep-, wear- and scale-resistant and are made from high-alloy steels or special cast iron. They are pressed or shrunk into the cylinder head.

15

Valve spring
This closes the valve at the end of the induction or exhaust stroke. Helical springs are used here. In the interests of avoiding a spring fracture caused by natural oscillation at high engine speeds, valve springs can be wound with a variable uphill gradient, in a tapered shape or with a decreasing wire diameter. Occasionally even two valve springs are arranged inside each other.
Leading Cam lift in mm Trailing

0 Trailing face

90 Leading face

180

Camshaft
This must execute the lifting movement of the valves at the correct time and in the correct sequence and facilitate closing of the valves by the valve springs. Cast camshafts (Fig. 2). These are manufactured from alloyed flake-graphite or nodular-graphite cast iron as clear chill castings.
Pointed cam Asymmetrical cam Steep cam

Fig. 4: Cam shapes and cam lift

11 Mechanical engine components

237

Camshaft drives
Toothed-belt drive
Toothed belt, main drive Toothed belt, coupling drive Tension pulley for coupling drive Idler pulley Toothedbelt gear, crankshaft Camshaft gear

Chain drive
Camshaft gear Sliding rail Timing chain Sliding rail

Spur-gear drive
Aligning-bearing lever Camshaft gear Idler gear (for camshaft drive)
High-pressure pump for common-rail injection systems

Crankshaft idler gear

Idler gear Tensioning rail Hydr. chain tensioner Crankshaft gear

Idler pulley Pulley, coolant pump

Coolant pump

Tandem pump (hydraulic and vacuum pumps) Idler gear Crankshaft gear

Camshaft idler gear

Tension pulley, main drive

Gear-drive housing

Plastic belts are used. The tension member in back of the belt usually consists of a Glascord insert. It transmits the tensile forces and limits elongation. The toothed belt is prevented from lateral movement on the toothed-belt pulley by a guide.

This is used when larger forces are to be transmitted and the timing has to be adhered to precisely. A constant chain tension is achieved by a chain tensioner. In the interests of damping chain noises, the chain can be guided in plastic sliding rails and the crankshaft gear can also be rubber-coated.

The rotary motion of the crankshaft is transmitted via a set of gears to the camshaft arranged in the cylinder head. The gears have helical teeth for noise-damping purposes. Advantages: High drive torques can be transmitted with great precision and the overall length can be reduced by narrow gears.

11
Features of a toothed belt:
Low mass. Silent operation. Low production costs. Requires only minimal initial tension. Requires no lubrication. Must be kept free from oil. Must not be kinked. Manufacturer's instructions must be observed when the belt is replaced.
Camshaft Hydraulic valve-clearance compensating element Cam roller (needle bearing) Roller cam follower Valve

Finger-type rockers, rocker arms

If the valves are not actuated directly by the camshaft via barrel tappets, they are opened by the camshaft via finger-type rockers or rocker arms. Finger-type rockers are one-arm levers which rest at one end on a ball pin. At the other end they transmit the lifting movement of the cam to the valve. The friction between the cam and the rocker can be greatly reduced by using a roller cam follower (Fig. 1). Rocker arms are two-arm levers.The camshaft is situated below the rocker arm. The lifting movement of the camshaft is diverted by the rocker arm to the valve stem. The friction between the cam and the rocker arm can also be reduced here by using a roller cam follower.
Fig. 1: Roller cam follower

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What do you understand by an overhead-valve engine? 2 What are the functions of camshafts? 3 Why is the speed of the camshaft only half as much as that of the crankshaft? 4 Why are the camshaft cams often asymmetrical? 5 What different types of camshaft drive are there? 6 Which faults may occur if the valve clearance is too small 7 How is clearance-free and self-adjusting valve control achieved?

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11 Mechanical engine components

11.7 Charge optimisation

In the case of charge optimisation, the charge of the cylinders with fresh gases is improved by variable engine timing and/or supercharging within as wide a speed range as possible.

The following different systems may be used: Camshaft adjustment (changing the timing) Variable valve gear (changing the timing, valve lift and valve-opening speed)

Camshaft adjustment
This system can be used to change the position of the inlet camshaft and if necessary of the exhaust camshaft in relation to the crankshaft. Fig. 2 shows the opening and closing times of the valves of an engine with camshaft adjustment. A changed valve overlap is produced depending on how the opening and closing times are shifted in relation to the crankshaft.
mm
Advance Retard Exhaustvalve lift Advance Inletvalve lift Retard

Advantages (Fig. 1)
Greater power Improved torque curve over a specific speed range Reduced pollutants in the exhaust gas Lower fuel consumption thanks to better mixture formation
Charge-optimised Not charge-optimised

kW 130 120 110 100 90 80 Power 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 280 Nm 210 Nm Peff beff

110 kW

Valve lift

150

142 kW

BDC

11

TDC Crankshaft angle

CA

BDC

370 g/kWh 350 330 310 290 270 250

Fig. 2:Valve-lift curve

Map-controlled camshaft adjustment

The camshafts are adjusted as a function of load and speed using program maps which are stored in the engine control unit. The engine temperature, for example, can be used as the correction variable (Fig. 3, Table 1, Page 239). Thus, timing advance or retardation is possible for example at a mean speed depending on the load.
Full-load curve

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 rpm Engine speed

7,000

300 Nm 260 240 220 200 180 160

Torque

beff

Mean speed

Fig. 1: Engine performance curves

11.7.1 Variable engine timing

In internal-combustion engines with conventional valve gears, the cylinder charge is only optimal within a specific speed range. The engine develops its greatest torque in this speed range. If the speed is further increased, the power does increase to a maximum value but the torque decreases due to the worsening cylinder charge. Extending the opening time of the inlet valve improves the cylinder charge at high speeds. Torque and power increase. At low speeds the large valve overlap results in large scavenging losses and erratic engine operation. The pollutants in the exhaust gas also increase. These drawbacks can be prevented by variable engine timing.
Load

Part load (advance)

Full load (retardation)

Idle (retardation)

Rotational speed

Fig. 3: Operating states during timing advance and retardation of inlet camshaft

The camshafts can be adjusted in different ways, for example by an adjustable chain tensioner, e.g. VarioCam. variable camshaft control, e.g. VANOS, vanetype adjuster (VaneCam).

11 Mechanical engine components Table 1: Adjustment of inlet camshaft as a function of operating state, Fig. 3, Page 238
Operating range Idle Opening time IV Retard Effect Valve overlap small, IV closes long after BDC no overflow of fresh gases into the exhaust port and exhaust gases into the inlet port, better combustion development higher torque at idle, idle speed can be reduced. Valve overlap large, IV closes shortly after BDC fresh gases are not forced back into the inlet port, exhaust gases flow into the inlet port and are drawn in with the fresh gases, temperature of the combustion process decreases NOx percentile decreases. Valve overlap small, IV closes long after BDC, fresh gases continue to flow into the cylinder in spite of an upward-moving piston boost effect improves cylinder charge and torque.
Advance setting

239

Part load

Advance

Full load

Retard

Adjustable chain tensioner (VarioCam, Fig. 1). The exhaust camshaft drives the inlet camshaft via a chain drive. Chain tension. This is generated by spring force. Camshaft adjustment. In the normal setting the hydraulic cylinder of the chain tensioner is in the upper position and the inlet camshaft is in the retard setting. For the advance setting the hydraulic piston is displaced into the lower position; the lower chain section is lengthened and the upper chain section is shortened, which rotates the inlet camshaft into the advance setting.
Valve for camshaft adjustment Hydraulic cylinder Exhaust camshaft Inlet camshaft

Hydraulic adjuster

Retard setting

Hydraulic piston Sprocket Splined-shaft gear with internal helical teeth

Mechanical adjuster

11
Retard duct

Advance duct

Solenoid valve

Fig. 2: Design of camshaft adjustment

Camshaft adjuster with integrated chain tensioner

Adjustment of inlet camshaft in "Advance" direction (Fig. 3). Here the engine oil pressure is directed through the advance duct. The hydraulic piston in the hydraulic adjuster is axially displaced to the right. The rotating splined-shaft gear mounted in the hydraulic piston rotates the inlet camshaft in the "Advance" direction in the opposite direction to the sprocket.
Hydraulic adjuster Sprocket Camshaft with splined-shaft gear
Adjustment in "Advance" direction

Fig. 1: Adjustable chain tensioner

Engine load

Coolant temperature

Engine speed

Variable camshaft control (VANOS, Fig. 2). The system consists of the following components: Hydraulic adjuster Mechanical adjuster Solenoid valve for hydraulic actuation Operating principle. With this system the inlet camshaft is rotated in the opposite direction to the camshaft gear. Depending on the position of the solenoid valve, the hydraulic piston is displaced to the left or right. The axial movement of the hydraulic piston causes a camshaft adjustment in the "Advance" or "Retard" direction in the mechanical adjuster by means of the helical teeth. Adjustment can be performed steplessly.

Adjustment in "Retard" direction Hydraulic piston with mechanical adjuster and internal helical teeth

ECU

Advance duct

Retard duct

Solenoid valve
(4/2 directional control valve)

Oil pressure from engine Return flow

Fig. 3: Camshaft adjustment

240
Systems with adjustment of inlet and exhaust camshafts
Double VANOS. Additional adjustment of the exhaust camshaft brings about an increase in torque in the lower to middle speed range as well as in the middle to upper speed range. Vane-type adjuster (VaneCam, Fig. 1). The outer rotor and the inner rotor are permanently connected to the sprocket and to the camshaft respectively. The outer rotor and inner rotor can be rotated in opposing directions. The oil pressure in the respective oil chamber is variably controlled by the hydraulic valves. The camshafts are adjusted in this way. The maximum turning angle of the inner rotor to the outer rotor is, for example, 52 CA for the inlet camshaft and 22 CA for the exhaust camshaft.
Sprocket Inlet camshaft Timing case Inner rotor Exhaust camshaft

11 Mechanical engine components inner rocker. This enables the following variables to be varied at the valve gear: Valve overlap Valve-opening time Opening speed Valve lift
Camshaft Cam profile for high speeds Middle cam follower Cam profile for low speeds Secondary cam follower End stop with return spring Shutoff slide B Primary cam follower Support element Exhaust valve Inlet valve Shutoff slide A Camshaft

Fig. 3: Design of a variable valve gear

11

Oil chamber Valve for adjusting inlet camshaft Outer rotor Valve for adjusting exhaust camshaft

Valve actuation (Fig. 4)

Position 1. The rockers are released. The return spring holds the two shutoff slides A and B in the released position. The valves are actuated by the two outer rockers. This produces a small valve lift and a shorter valve-opening time. This position is ideal for small to low speeds.
Cam profile for low speeds Oil pressure Cam profile for high speeds Resetting element Return spring Shutoff slide A Cam follower in operation
Engine speed Load status

Fig. 1:Vane-type adjuster

Variable valve gear

Valve-opening times and valve-opening crosssection are adapted to the engine operating state. The valve-opening time is changed by the shape of the cam, while the valve-opening cross-section is changed by the height of the cam (Fig. 2).
High speed Exhaust valve Valve lift TDC Low speed Inlet valve

Shutoff slide B ECU Solenoid valve From oil pump

(2/2 directional control valve)

Vehicle speed Coolant temperature

Fig. 2: Valve-lift curves at low and high speeds

Fig. 4: Changeover from one cam shape to another

It is possible to switch from one cam shape to another, for example, by blocking the rockers.

Blocking of rockers (VTec)

Three rockers (cam followers) are arranged on both the inlet and the exhaust sides. Each rocker is controlled via a separate cam (Fig. 3). The cam profile which actuates the two outer rockers differs from the cam profile which actuates the

Position 2. At the changeover point the solenoid valve opens on a signal from the engine control unit. The engine-oil pressure acts on shutoff slide A. The two shutoff slides A and B are displaced to the right against the force of the return spring and lock the three rockers positively to each other. The valves are actuated in this position by the middle cam with the largest valve lift and the longest valveopening time.

11 Mechanical engine components

241
Supercharging limits
Spark-ignition engines. Excessively high volumetric efficiency causes an excessively high final compression pressure and knocking combustion in supercharged spark-ignition engines. This in turn may cause damage, for example, to the pistons and bearings. For this reason, supercharged spark-ignition engines have lower geometric compression ratios than their naturally aspirated counterparts. Diesel engines. Diesel engines can be subjected to such high mechanical loads by excessively high final combustion pressures on account of the high freshair percentage and the possible greater injected fuel quantity that the engines will be destroyed. Internal-combustion engines differentiate between a geometric and an effective compression ratio. In this case, in order to prevent engine damage, it is essential not to exceed specific limit values. Boost-pressure limitations are therefore necessary in supercharged engines. Geometric compression ratio geo. This is the ratio of the largest combustion chamber to the smallest combustion chamber. Vh + VC geo = VC Effective compression ratio eff. This can be calculated from the geometric compression ratio and the volumetric efficiency. eff geo volumetric efficiency

Fully variable electromechanical valve gear

Valve lift and valve-opening angle are steplessly changed. The camshaft acts on the intermediate lever. The angled underside of the intermediate lever actuates the rocker, which opens the valve. The intermediate lever reciprocates between the cam and the return spring as the camshaft rotates. The position of the pivot determines the extent of the reciprocating motion and thus the size of the valve lift (Fig. 1). Large reciprocating motion large valve lift Small reciprocating motion small valve lift Adjustment range: 0.3 mm to 9.85 mm Advantage. Charge adjustment is performed via the valve-opening cross-section. There is no need for a throttle valve. There are therefore no throttling losses caused by a throttle valve.The valve-opening time is VANOS-controlled.
Eccentric shaft Fulcrum Servo-motor Return spring Inlet camshaft Intermediate lever Fulcrum

11

Maximum valve lift 9.7 mm

Minimum valve lift 0.3 mm

Fig. 1: Fully variable electromechanical valve gear

Supercharging systems
The following different systems may be used: Dynamic supercharging Independent supercharging

11.7.2 Supercharging (charge adjustment)

The extent of power output and the torque of an engine are significantly determined by the fresh-air percentage of a cylinder charge during induction. This is expressed by the volumetric efficiency. The volumetric efficiency specifies the ratio between the fresh-gas charge present in the cylinder and the theoretically possible fresh-gas charge of a cylinder for each power cycle. Table 1: Volumetric efficiency of naturally aspirated engines and supercharged engines
Engine type Nat. asp. engines, 4-stroke principle Nat. asp. engines, 2-stroke principle Supercharged engines Volum. efficiency 0.7 to 0.9 0.5 to 0.7 1.2 to 1.6

11.7.2.1 Dynamic supercharging

The fresh gases flowing in the intake manifold have kinetic energy. A returning pressure wave is triggered when the inlet valve is opened. The fresh gases flow back at the speed of sound and meet the static air at the open end of the intake manifold. There the pressure wave is reflected again and returns in the direction of the inlet valve. If the returning pressure wave reaches the inlet valve when the latter is just open, this brings about an improvement in the cylinder charge. A supercharging effect is created. The frequency of the vibration created is dependent on the intake-manifold length, intake-manifold cross-section and engine speed. The following different systems are used, depending on the layout of the intake manifold and the associated supercharging: Ram-effect supercharging Tuned-intake pressure charging Both systems can be combined with each other.

The volumetric efficiency can be increased with the aid of supercharging systems. In this way, a greater mass of air is admitted into the combustion chamber so that more fuel can be burned.

242
Ram-effect supercharging. Each cylinder has an intake manifold of a specific length. The gas-column vibration is excited by the induction work of the piston. The vibration is influenced by an appropriate choice of intake-manifold length in such a way that the pressure wave passes through the opened inlet valve and effects a better charge. Long intake manifolds with small cross-sections have proven efficacious in the lower speed range while short intake manifolds with large cross-sections are favoured in the upper speed range (Fig. 1).
Short intake manifold Large crosssection 110 kW 90 80 70 Power 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0

11 Mechanical engine components

200 Nm 150 125 Torque curve with switch-over intake manifold Simple intake manifold Power curve with switch-over intake manifold Simple intake manifold 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 Rotational speed rpm 100 Torque

7,000

Long intake manifold

Intake-manifold length

Small cross-section

Fig. 3:Torque and engine power as a function of intake-manifold length

For low speeds

For high speeds

1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 rpm Rotational speed

7,000

Infinitely variable induction system (Fig. 4). A rotor ring which changes the opening of a manifold volume is rotated as a function of speed and thereby the effective intake-manifold length is adapted to the speed. The ring is rotated by a stepping motor.
Infinitely variable rotor ring
Manifold volume

Fig. 1: Connection between ram-tube length and speed

Ram-tube systems

11

The following different types of intake-manifold system may be used: Switch-over intake manifolds Infinitely variable induction systems Switch-over intake manifolds (Fig. 2). Short and long intake manifolds are combined here. Air flows through long ram tubes. The short induction passages are sealed by flaps or by rotating slides.

Shortest intake-manifold length

Manifold volume

Infinitely variable rotor ring

Maximum intake-manifold length

Fig. 4: Infinitely variable induction system

Tuned-intake pressure (resonance) charging. The frequency of the vibrating gas column is influenced by the valve-opening frequency (Table 1). Table 1:Valve-opening frequency and frequency of vibrating gas column
Long intake manifold with closed changeover flaps, speed below 4,100 rpm Short intake manifold with open changeover flaps, speed over 4,100 rpm

Speed High Low

Valve-opening frequency High Low

Frequency of gas column High Low

Fig. 2: Ram-tube systems

At high speeds the flaps are electropneumatically or electrically opened; all the cylinders thus draw in air through short intake manifolds. Fig. 3 shows that a higher and more uniform torque combined with greater power is achieved in the speed range up to 4,100 rpm with an engine with a switch-over intake manifold.

Resonance occurs when the valve-opening frequency of the timing gear coincides with the frequency of the gas-column vibrations. Resonance. This is the amplified natural oscillation of an oscillatory system. The natural oscillation of a system is dependent on the magnitude of its vibrating mass. Large masses cause low-frequency, long vibrations while small masses cause high-frequency, short vibrations.

11 Mechanical engine components If a further mass is cut in to the vibrating gas column in an intake manifold by the opening of a resonance valve (Fig. 1), its vibrating mass is increased and the frequency reduced. At low speeds this results in supercharging and thus a better charge as a result of the sympathetic (resonant) vibration.
Gas column in intake manifold m2 m1 Resonance valve closed Resonance chamber m1 + m 2 m1 + m2

243
Changeover flap closed Changeover flap open

180 Nm Torque M 140 120 100 80 60

Gain through tuned-intake pressure charging

Gain through ram-effect supercharging

+ m1

m2

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 rpm 7,000 Rotational speed n

Resonance valve open

Fig. 3:Torque with combined tuned-intake pressure/rameffect supercharging

11.7.2.2 Independent supercharging

As large a quantity as possible of fresh gas is delivered by a charger to the cylinder during the induction stroke. In addition, the fuel-air mixture or the air is precompressed completely or partially outside the cylinder. The following different types of charger are used: Charger without mechanical drive, e.g. exhaustgas turbocharger (Fig. 4) Charger with mechanical drive, e.g. Roots blower, compressor, spiral-type charger, sliding-vane charger Pressure-wave charger, e.g. Comprex charger

Fig. 1:Tuned-intake pressure charging

Tuned-intake pressure and ram-tube system (Fig. 2). Tuned-intake pressure and ram-tube systems are combined with each other so that the supercharging effects of the individual systems can be exploited. An improved charge is achieved, for example, in the lower to middle speed range by tuned-intake pressure charging and in the upper speed range by rameffect supercharging (Fig. 3). For this purpose, a flap is electrically or electropneumatically opened or closed in the intake-manifold system depending on the speed. Example: Tuned-intake pressure charging in the lower to middle speed range, changeover flap closed. When, for example, cylinder no. 2 draws in air, the chamber of cylinder bank 4, 5, 6 acts as an additional resonance chamber. In this way, the frequency of the vibrating mass is reduced and the valveopening frequency is adapted.
Tuned-intake pressure charging e.g. 2,300 rpm to 4,500 rpm

11

Charger without mechanical drive

Compressor wheel Air inlet Rotor assembly Boost-pressure control valve

Air outlet

Changeover flap closed

Mass resonates

Compressor Bearing Turbine wheel housing housing Turbine housing

Exhaustgas outlet Exhaust-gas inlet

Fig. 4: Design of an exhaust-gas turbocharger

1
Ram-effect supercharging e.g. from 4,800 rpm Changeover flap open

Exhaust-gas turbocharger.
Here the energy of the exhaust gas is used to deliver the fresh gases to the cylinders (Fig. 4, Fig. 1, Page 244). A significant boost effect is only achieved at middle to high speeds. Furthermore, these chargers respond with a slight delay to rapid changes in the accelerator-pedal position because the exhaust gases cannot follow the rapid load changes on account of mass inertia (turbo lag). These chargers operate virtually without any losses since they do not require any drive power from the crankshaft.

Fig. 2:Tuned-intake pressure and ram-tube system

244
Exhaust-gas turbocharger Compressor wheel Air inlet Turbine wheel
Exhaustgas outlet

11 Mechanical engine components Boost-pressure control. In addition to the danger of the engine being destroyed by excessively high boost pressures, the size of the turbocharger is established in such a way that a supercharging effect is also achieved at middle speeds and low exhaustgas flows. The upshot of this is that at high engine speeds and with large exhaust-gas quantities either the turbocharger boost pressure becomes unacceptably high or the charger is operated in unacceptably high speed ranges. The boost pressure must therefore be regulated. The following different types of boost-pressure control may be used: Mechanical-pneumatic boost-pressure control Electronic boost-pressure control Boost-pressure control with adjustable guide vanes Mechanical-pneumatic boost-pressure control (Fig. 1). Here a diaphragm pretensioned with a helical spring is pressurised with the boost pressure in a boost-pressure control valve (Fig. 3). The valve opens as soon as the boost pressure overcomes the initial spring tension. The exhaust gases flow in the bypass line past the turbine into the exhaust pipe.
To turbine To silencer Exhaust manifold Boost pressure Helical Diaphragm spring

Bypass line Air outlet

Boostpressure control valve

Intercooler Exhaust-gas inlet Inlet valve Exhaust valve

Fig. 1: Diagram of an engine with exhaust-gas turbocharger

Rotor assembly (Fig. 2). This consists of a turbine wheel with shaft and a compressor wheel. Depending on the charger design, the rotor reaches continuous speeds of 50,000 rpm to 400,000 rpm.
Compressor wheel Turbine wheel

11
Shaft

Fig. 2: Exhaust-gas-turbocharger rotor assembly

Operating principle. The exhaust gases from the engine drive the turbine wheel in the turbine, which drives the compressor wheel via the shaft. The compressor draws in the fresh gases and supplies the engine with a precompressed fresh-gas charge. The charge air is heated by precompression by up to 180 C. Charge-air cooling and boost pressures. The heated air precompressed by the charger can be cooled by means of charge-air cooling before entering the cylinders. This increases the air density of the freshgas charge. The greater air mass allows a greater quantity of fuel to be injected. Engine power is increased. The boost pressures with and without charge-air cooling are set out in Table 1. Table 1: Boost pressures as a function of chargeair cooling
Supercharged engines Without charge-air cooling With charge-air cooling Overpressure in bar 0.2 to 1.8 0.5 to 2.2

From engine

Fig. 3: Boost-pressure control valve

The boost-pressure control valve can be situated at any point in the exhaust system before the exhaustgas turbine. A bypass flap can also be integrated in place of the boost-pressure control valve (Fig. 4).
Spring Boost-pressure control valve Control linkage Air outlet Exhaust-gas inlet Bypass line Diaphragm Air inlet Bypass flap

Exhaustgas outlet

The boost pressures of an engine supercharged by an exhaust-gas turbocharger must not exceed the boost pressures stipulated by the manufacturer as this would destroy the engine.

Compressor wheel Turbine wheel Compressor housing Shaft Turbine housing

Fig. 4: Boost-pressure control with bypass flap

11 Mechanical engine components Here the flap, which opens and closes the bypass by way of a linkage, is connected to the control capsule, which is usually mounted on the compressor. Because the control capsule is located at a greater distance from the hot components, the thermal load of the plastic diaphragm is not as high, thereby minimising the risk of failure. A high dynamic pressure is generated at the compressor in overrunning mode and when the throttle valve is closed.This pressure brakes the compressor wheel in such a way that deceleration occurs in the event of a sudden load change. In order to facilitate unrestricted continued operation of the compressor wheel in overrunning mode, it is possible for boostpressure control systems to be equipped with an intake-manifold-pressure-controlled circulating-air valve (wastegate, Fig. 1). When the throttle valve is closed, the wastegate enables the precompressed air to be repumped from the compressor side to the intake side of the compressor.
Exhaust gases
Intercooler

245
intake manifold. The boost pressure in the control line rises. The boost-pressure control valve opens and the exhaust-gas flow to the turbine is reduced.
Fuel injection

Ignition
Intake-air temp. Engine temperature Engine speed Reference-mark s. Battery voltage Height sensor

Engine-ECU

Boostpressure control ECU

CAN-bus Throttle-valve angle Knock sensor Cycle valve

Boost pressure

Air-mass sensor

Idle switch
Boostpressure control valve

Air cleaner Compressor side

Turbine Intake side Circulating-air valve

11

Engine throttle valve

Fig. 2: Electronic boost-pressure control

Fig. 1: Circulating-air valve

Electronic boost-pressure control (Fig. 2). The optimal boost pressure is calculated by a boost-pressure ECU as a function of throttle-valve position and knock tendency. Intake-air temperature, engine temperature and rotational speed, for example, serve as the correction variables. Air-pressure fluctuations, e.g. when driving at high altitudes, are compensated because a height sensor in the engine control unit constantly measures the ambient-air pressure and takes it into account when calculating the boost pressure. Operating principle A pressure sensor records the boost pressure and the boost-pressure ECU activates a cycle valve (Fig. 2). The duty factor controls the opening cross-section. Boost pressure low. The cycle valve opens the connection between the pressure pipe and the suction side. A low boost pressure acts on the boost-pressure control valve, which remains closed. The turbine is driven by the entire exhaust-gas flow. Boost pressure high. The boost-pressure sensor signals an excessively high boost pressure to the boost-pressure control ECU. The cycle valve closes the connection between the pressure pipe and the

"Overboost". This refers to a brief excessive increase in boost pressure for accelerating. When the accelerator pedal is quickly pressed to the floor (kickdown), the boost-pressure control valve is controlled by the cycle valve. The entire exhaust-gas flow is routed through the turbine and the boost pressure increases suddenly. The standard control operation is resumed after the desired driving speed has been reached. Advantages of electronic boost-pressure control over mechanical-pneumatic boost-pressure control: Better response. Constant power output because it is air-pressure-dependent (absolute-pressure control). Variable boost pressure which can be increased up to the knock limit.

Boost-pressure control with variable turbine geometry (VTG) (Fig. 1, Page 246)
In the case of this charger, the boost pressure is regulated by variable guide vanes. Regulation is performed irrespectively of the exhaust-gas flow determined by the engine speed.

246
Turbine wheel Guide pin, guide vane Exhaust gases to turbine wheel Compressor housing

11 Mechanical engine components lease the largest inlet cross-section, and boost pressure and engine power output are reduced. Guide-vane adjustment (Fig. 1) This is performed by means of a control linkage whose guide pin engages the adjusting ring. In this way, the adjusting ring can be rotated. This rotary motion is transmitted via the guide pin and the shaft to the guide vanes. All the guide vanes supported in the carrier ring are simultaneously and uniformly rotated into the desired setting. The guide vanes are adjusted electropneumatically.

Compressor inlet

Guide pin, control linkage Exhaustgas outlet Guide vane with shaft Turbine housing Adjusting ring
Compressor outlet

Control linkage, charge-pressure actuator

Charger with mechanical drive

Screw-type supercharger (Roots blower, Fig. 3). The charger is driven by the engine via a magnetic clutch. The charger can be cut out for example at idle and cut in during acceleration and at full load via the magnetic clutch. Advantages over an exhaust-gas turbocharger: No intervention in the engine's exhaust system. Rapid build-up of boost pressure. High torque, even at low speeds. However, some of the additionally yielded engine power (up to 50 kW) must be utilised to drive the charger, depending on boost pressure and speed. Thus, engines with Roots blowers are less fuel-efficient than engines with exhaust-gas turbochargers.

Fig. 1: Boost-pressure control with VTG

Operating principle
Engine speed low (Fig. 2). A high boost pressure is desired in order to have a high torque available even at low speeds. The guide vanes are set to a narrow inlet cross-section for this purpose. This constriction increases the speed of the exhaust-gas flow. At the same time the exhaust-gas flow acts on the outer area of the turbine vanes (large lever arm).The turbine speed and thereby the boost pressure increase. Engine speed high. The guide vanes release a larger inlet cross-section in order to be able to accommodate the large exhaust-gas quantity at high speeds. In this way, the necessary boost pressure is reached but not exceeded. The exhaust-gas flow acts on the middle area of the turbine vanes.
Engine speed: low Engine speed: high Inlet cross-section A: small Inlet cross-section A: large

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Exhaustgas flow

Fig. 2: Guide-vane setting

The change in the inlet cross-section can be used, for example, to achieve an additional, short-term increase in boost pressure at high speeds (overboost). There is no need for a bypass because the optimal boost pressure can be set for each operating state by adjusting the guide vanes. When the ECU signals engine limp-home operation, the guide vanes are controlled in such a way as to re-

Exhaustgas flow

A
Rotary piston Magnetic clutch

Fig. 3: Roots blower with magnetic clutch