NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
A six-month consultancy was carried out in the 738.6 km² Nam Theun Corridor, located in
central Lao PDR, from May to November 2000. The Nam Theun Corridor is one of the
proposed extensions to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA, and was given a protected area status
in June 2000 by the Government of Lao PDR. The Nam Theun Corridor serves as a link
between the 3,532 km² Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and the 1,500 km² Phou Hin Poun NBCA.
This consultancy is one of the three components of the Nam Theun Social and Environmental
Project (Year 2000 Activities). The other two components include a study on rural access and
agricultural extension.
The primary objectives of this consultancy comprised the assessment of movements and
seasonal migration patterns of wildlife in the lower Nam Theun, focussing on the Nam Theun
Corridor; the recommendation of management guidelines for the study area; and the training
of the NBCA staff and other relevant personnel in basic field conservation techniques and in
developing a system for monitoring and protection of biodiversity resources.
Training comprised theory and practical training based at the NBCA’s headquarters; field-
based on-the-job training, gathering actual data; and HQ-based training in data compilation,
analysis, interpretation and presentation of actual data gathered. Trainees comprised three
PAFO staff assigned to the NBCA, one Nakai District Army personnel, one Nakai District
Police personnel, and a Khammouane-based Lao volunteer. The training of NBCA staff and
other relevant personnel focussed on developing their understanding and skills in the field
management of protected areas; in the use of maps and compass; in conducting surveys for
wildlife and key wildlife habitats; in recording and assessing human impacts on wildlife and
habitats; and in data analysis and report writing.
Training met with mixed success. While skills and knowledge could be imparted to most
trainees, yet it is felt that the skills and knowledge obtained would be put to little use as
leadership, motivation and coordination (with relevant stakeholders) are still lacking.
Furthermore, there is very little hope for the conservation and protection of biodiversity
resources when the patrolling and monitoring unit is active only during donor-funded projects
that include related activities. Also, patrolling and monitoring activities cannot be adequately
implemented when there exists a staff of only two to three persons, and when staffing of
NBCA personnel change so often - a common feature with most Lao PDR’s protected areas.
With the exception of the Asian elephant, surveys suggested that most wildlife species in the
Nam Theun Corridor currently exist at low levels. This is primarily due to poaching (for local
use, and for both local and international trade), followed by the loss and disturbance of habitat.
Species of conservation significance that were recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor during
this study include the Asian elephant, gaur, large-antlered muntjac, tiger, dhole, clouded
leopard, douc langur, gibbon sp., Asiatic black bear, sun bear, and hornbills. Surveys also
recorded the presence of mineral licks that were identified as critically important habitats to
herbivores.
The study on wildlife movements and seasonal migration focussed on the Asian elephant.
This is primarily because it is the only animal species in the Nam Theun Corridor having any
significant population size, and it is difficult not to miss evidence of its presence. The study
revealed that there is a resident sub-population of the Asian elephant in the Nam Theun
Corridor; that there is a seasonal shift in range of the Nakai Plateau elephants into the Phou
Hin Poun NBCA during the wet season; that there is a wider distributional range during the
wet season; and that different elephant groups come to gather by a certain area along the
Nam Theun during the peak wet season, probably to socialize and possibly to exchange
genes.
Priority recommendations for wildlife conservation before and after the reservoir fills in include
the need for proactive patrolling and law enforcement activities; the need for transboundary
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cooperation to clamp the further loss of irreplaceable biodiversity resources; the protection
and management of the critical wildlife habitats (mineral licks); the establishment of artificial
mineral licks at suitable locations in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA above the inundation area;
conducting a study on the ecological importance of mineral licks and their influence on the
elephants’ ranging patterns; increasing the availability of fodder by reforestation of degraded
areas in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA above the inundation area; acquiring a team of
experienced experts and training of the support staff for the rescue and release operation; and
the need to consider the elephants’ distributional range and the possible movement of the
displaced elephants when carrying out human resettlement.
Looking at the broader picture, There is an urgent need to establish and maintain a discrete
patrolling and monitoring unit. This unit’s primary objectives are to address the needs of
research, surveys, patrolling, and law enforcement in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and its
extensions, to arrest the rapid decline of the area’s unique biodiversity resources, and to
maintain its integrity as a globally significant ecoregion.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several individuals and agencies have been instrumental in the successful outcome of this
component of the project. Foremost is the Nakai District Governor and members of his
administration. Others and other agencies that deserve mention is the Nakai District Army,
the Nakai District Police, Mr. Bountavi (Khammouane PFS Head), Dr. Bounsalong Southidara
(NTSEP Coordinator, MIH), Mr. Thongphoune Chanphengxay (Deputy Director & Chief of
Cabinet, Khammouane Provincial Committee for Rural Development), Mr. Soukatha Vannalat
(Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA Head), Ms. Latsamay Silavong (Field Manager), Mr. Keo Oudone
(Consultant, Rural Access & Agricultural Extension), Ban Thalang residents, and the staff at
the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and at the IUCN Lao PDR office. Bryan Stuart of WCS Lao
PDR office kindly identified the photographs of reptiles and amphibians. Lastly, but not the
least, the trainees themselves, who discovered the ‘joys’ of field activities (made more
‘exciting’ by project’s timing to coincide with the wet season), and who had to endure the
demands of their ‘instructor’.
Ramesh Boonratana, Ph.D.
a.k.a. Zimbo
November 14, 2000
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GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
amsl above mean sea level

Ban Village/settlement
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora
DAFO District Agricultural and Forestry Office
DFRC Division of Forest Resources Conservation
DoF Department of Forestry
DUDCP District Upland Development and Conservation Project
GPS Global Positioning System
GoL Government of Lao PDR
IDA International Development Association
IUCN The World Conservation Union
Keng Rapids
MIH Ministry of Industry and Handicrafts
Muang District
Nakai - Nam Theun Comprise the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and its extensions.
Conservation Area
Nam River
NBCA National Biodiversity Conservation Area
NTFP Non-timber forest product
NTSEP Nam Theun Social and Environmental Project
PAFO Provincial Agricultural and Forestry Office
PDR People’s Democratic Republic
PFS Provincial Forestry Section
PHRD Population and Human Resources Development
Poung Mineral lick
Sayphou Mountain range
Sop Rivermouth
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
Xe River
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY______________________________________________2
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ______________________________________________4
GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS____________________________5
TABLE OF CONTENTS ______________________________________________6

1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................... 9
1.1 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 9
1.2 OBJECTIVES...................................................................................................... 9
1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE ............................................................................... 10
1.4 STUDY AREA ................................................................................................... 10
Figure 1.1 Location of Nam Theun Corridor ........................................................... 12
Figure 1.2 The Nam Theun Corridor....................................................................... 13
Plate 1.1: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor I..................................................... 14
Plate 1.2: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor II .................................................... 15
Plate 1.3: Access to the Study Area I ..................................................................... 16
Plate 1.4: Access to the Study Area II..................................................................... 17
2. TRAINING .................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 18
2.2 TRAINING & CAPACITY-BUILDING.................................................................. 19
2.2.1 HQ-based Theory Training ............................................................................ 19
2.2.2 On-the-Job Training ....................................................................................... 21
2.2.3 Training in Data Compilation, Analysis, Interpretation and
Presentation............................................................................................................ 22
2.3 OBSERVATIONS AND ASSESSMENT ........................................................... 22
2.4 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................... 24
Table 2.1 Topics of HQ-based Theory Training ..................................................... 26
Table 2.2 Assessment of Trainees’ Performance.................................................. 27
Annex 2.1 Wildlife Data Recording Format ............................................................ 28
Annex 2.2 Wildlife Data Recording Format (in Lao) ............................................... 29
Annex 2.3 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format .................................... 30
Annex 2.4 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format (in Lao)....................... 31
Annex 2.5 Sample Specimen Recording Format................................................... 32
Annex 2.6 Procedures for Making Plaster Casts of Tracks ................................... 33
Annex 2.7 Ethics of Field Surveys and Patrols....................................................... 34
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Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of Camps ................................................... 35

Annex 2.9: List of Field Equipment ......................................................................... 36
Annex 2.10 Sample Trip Report of a Sub-team...................................................... 37
Plate 2.1: Training Activities I.................................................................................. 45
Plate 2.2: Training Activities II ................................................................................. 46
Plate 2.3: Training Activities III................................................................................. 47
3. WILDLIFE AND IMPACT SURVEYS .......................................................................... 48
3.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 48
3.2 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 48
3.2.1 Wildlife............................................................................................................ 48
3.2.2 Impacts .......................................................................................................... 50
Table 3.1 List of Wildlife Recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor............................. 54
Table 3.2 List of Wildlife Recorded by Area and Route.......................................... 59
Table 3.3 Frequency of Hunting and Non-hunting Impacts by
Locality .................................................................................................................... 63
Figure 3.1 Location of Key Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats Recorded ...................... 64
Plate 3.1 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor I........................................................ 65
Plate 3.2 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor II....................................................... 66
Plate 3.3 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor III ...................................................... 67
Plate 3.4 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor IV ..................................................... 68
Plate 3.5 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor V...................................................... 69
Plate 3.6 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VI ..................................................... 70
Plate 3.7 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VII..................................................... 71
Plate 3.8 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor I ...................................................... 72
Plate 3.9 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor II...................................................... 73
Plate 3.10 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor III................................................... 74
Plate 3.11 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor IV .................................................. 75
Plate 3.12 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor V................................................... 76
4. WILDLIFE MOVEMENTS/SEASONAL MIGRATION ................................................ 77
4.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 77
4.2 METHODS ........................................................................................................ 77
4.2.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration ............................................. 77
4.2.2 Density Estimation......................................................................................... 78
4.3 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 79
4.3.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration ............................................. 79
4.3.2 Elephant Density Estimate ............................................................................ 80
4.3.3 Ecology and Behavior .................................................................................... 81
4.3.4 Elephant-Human Conflict............................................................................... 82
4.4 DISCUSSION.................................................................................................... 82
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Table 4.1 Elephant Crop Damage Claims of Ban Thalang (Sep. 15,
2000). ...................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 4.1 Location of Elephant Sighting and Signs (Jun-Oct. 2000) .................... 86
Figure 4.2 Distributional Range of Elephants in the Nam Theun
Corridor ................................................................................................................... 87
Figure 4.3 Elephant Movements (Jun-Oct. 2000)................................................... 88
Annex 4.1 The Asian Elephant: A Brief Description................................................ 89
Annex 4.2 Recording Format for Dung Density Transects .................................... 90
Annex 4.3 Recording Format for Dung Decomposition Rate................................. 91
Annex 4.4 Recording Format for Dung Defecation Rate........................................ 92
Plate 4.1 Photographic Summary of Activities I...................................................... 93
Plate 4.2 Photographic Summary of Activities II..................................................... 94
Plate 4.3 Photographic Summary of Activities III .................................................... 95
5. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS........................................ 96
5.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 96
5.2 IMPORTANCE OF THE NAM THEUN CORRIDOR......................................... 97
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 97
5.3.1 Training & Training Needs ............................................................................. 97
5.3.2 Surveys, Monitoring and Research................................................................ 98
5.3.3 Patrolling and Law Enforcement.................................................................... 99
5.3.4 Zonation........................................................................................................ 100
5.3.5 Administration .............................................................................................. 101
5.3.6 Miscellaneous .............................................................................................. 101
5.3.7 Wildlife Conservation and Mitigation Measures ........................................... 102
5.4 STRATEGY FOR THE NAKAI - NAM THEUN CONSERVATION
AREA 104
5.5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................ 105
Figure 5.1 Proposed Extension and Boundary Improvements............................. 107
LITERATURE CITED ______________________________________________108
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND1
A Population and Human Resources Development (PHRD) Grant have been secured by the
government of Lao PDR (GoL) from the International Development Association (IDA) to
support preparations associated with the proposed Nam Theun II Social and Environmental
Project (NTSEP). This grant was used to finance a series of studies and activities related to
the environmental and social interventions linked to the construction and operation of the Nam
Theun II Hydropower Project.
The proposed Nam Theun II Hydropower Project includes the development of:
n a 50 m high dam;
n a 450 km² reservoir on the Nakai Plateau with the capability of storing about half the
annual water inflow;
n a diversion tunnel with a vertical drop of 350 m to a 900 MW powerhouse;
n a 38 km tunnel to channel the diverted water to the Xe Bang Fai;
n and a 140-km transmission line.
The project would also include components designed to protect the environment and water
quality in the dam’s catchment and affected areas downstream, and the resettlement and
rural development in the sub-region.
IUCN had already conducted some wildlife surveys, and initiated some conservation and
development activities in selected communities, as part of other PHRD-funded environmental
and social strategy planning for the area2. On completion of those activities, there exist urgent
needs with respect to the project area, and to the management planning. Requiring timely
attention, these needs comprise:
n concerns for food security in settlements in the upper catchment area;
n improved accessibility to remote settlements;
n unassessed wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam
Theun, particularly the Nam Theun Corridor.
All activities proposed and implemented during this project were accordingly planned in
consultation with the project management unit of the upcoming District Upland Development
and Conservation Project (DUDCP), funded by the World Bank.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
The primary objective of this consultancy is to address one of those urgent needs, while
simultaneously preparing essential information needed towards the management plans:
n To assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration in the lower Nam Theun, in
particular the Nam Theun Corridor, and identifying critical factors affecting them.
Hence, working closely with the staff of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA to:
n assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam Theun,
focusing on the Nam Theun Corridor;
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Background, objectives, and terms of reference as per contract between MIH and IUCN.
2
This is with reference to the Environmental and Social Management Plan for Nakai - Nam Theun, and earlier
field activities in the project area.
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n train the NBCA staff to conduct similar studies, and establish regular monitoring of
critical factors;
n and recommend management guidelines for the lower Nam Theun, in particular the
Nam Theun Corridor.
1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE

The terms of reference for the wildlife biologist consultant require that the consultant carry out
the following tasks:
1. Training on biophysical assessment and environmental monitoring:
n Design and plan a training program for the NBCA and other relevant personnel on
biophysical assessment and environmental monitoring;
n Conduct and evaluate the training.
2. Conduct a wildlife field study:
n Assess wildlife movements and seasonal migration patterns in the lower Nam Theun,
in particular the Nam Theun Corridor;
n Study critical factors affecting these movements and seasonal migration patterns
such as habitat loss, water availability, poaching, etc.
3. Establish a wildlife monitoring system in the study area:
n Assist the NBCA staff to establish a system for regular monitoring of critical factors in
the study area.
4. Analysis and management planning:
n Analyze the habitats, wildlife movements, and critical factors and recommend
management guidelines for the lower Nam Theun, in particular Nam Theun Corridor;
n Provide a summary report upon completion of these activities.
1.4 STUDY AREA

This study focused on the corridor linking the 3,532 km² Nakai - Nam Theun3 NBCA with the
1,500 km² Phou Hin Poun NBCA, located in the lower Nam Theun between 17°46’N and
18°10’N, and between 104°47’E and 105°7’E (fig. 1.1). Earlier proposals gave the area of the
Nam Theun Corridor as 640 km² (Berkmuller et al., 1995), and as 668 km² (IUCN, 1998),
However, its subsequent revision that included part of a proposed extension recommended
by this study (section 5.3.7), it now covers an area of 738.6 km² (fig. 1.2). Part of this corridor
(365.5 km²) is located within the Bolikhamxay Province, and the remainder (373.1 km²) is
located within the Khammouane Province. Albeit yet to be gazetted, the Nam Theun Corridor
was declared an extension to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA in June 2000, and plans are
underway to post signboards demarcating its boundaries. The Nam Theun Corridor, the Nakai
- Nam Theun NBCA and the proposed extensions to the NBCA form a contiguous area
conventionally referred to as the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area.
Much of the Nam Theun Corridor forms part of the Nakai Plateau (1,300 km²), and has an
altitudinal range from 500 to 600 m amsl. This plateau lies in the catchment area of the Nam
Theun and its tributaries. This plateau forms a synclinical basin between Sayphou Loung to
the north and Sayphou Ak in the south (IUCN, 1997b).
The Nam Theun Corridor lies within the Annam Sub-Unit 5B of the South Indochina and
Annam biogeographic unit (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Berkmuller et al., (1995)
described the vegetation of the Nam Theun Corridor primarily comprising a mosaic of
evergreen forest mostly in the hills (60%), followed by pine forest in the flatter areas (14%),
3
The latest revised boundary demarcation as of August 29, 2000 gave this figure as the area covered by the
Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA.
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and deciduous forest in some areas. Much of this vegetation has changed since then, as a
direct result of logging activities. Nevertheless, there still remains some fragmented stands of
evergreen, pine, bamboo, and riverine forest, and open grasslands/rocky flats.
There are only three settlements located within the Nam Theun Corridor (fig. 1.2): Ban
Thalang (50 households; predominantly Lao Loum), Ban Sopnian4 (53 households;
predominantly Meuy5 ethnic group) and Ban Namnian (18 households; predominantly Meuy
ethnic group). However, some residents from these three villages are found practicing
swidden agriculture scattered along parts of the lower Nam Theun and its tributaries.
A seasonal road, Route 8B, runs through the Nam Theun Corridor. Hence, the Nam Theun
Corridor can be accessed through the towns of Lak Sao in the north, and Nakai in the south.
This route is usually inaccessible to motored vehicles during the wet season due to the soft
muddy condition of the road, landslides, bridges being washed away by swollen tributaries of
the Nam Theun, and floods.
4
Previously known as Ban Sophia, i.e., before settling to its current location.
5
A distinctive ethnic group of the Tai linguistic family.
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Figure 1.1 Location of Nam Theun Corridor
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Figure 1.2 The Nam Theun Corridor
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Plate 1.1: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor I
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Plate 1.2: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor II
15
Plate 1.3: Access to the Study Area I
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Plate 1.4: Access to the Study Area II
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2. TRAINING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The long-term goals of any protected area can only be realized through an effective
management plan, which incorporates the management of its wildlife, habitat, and the people
who uses it. Surveys, patrols, monitoring and law enforcement are some of the more
important field-based management activities that must be carried out by the protected area
staff to ensure the conservation, protection, and sustainability of the natural resources within
that protected area. Thus, as part of the long-term objective to strengthen the management of
Nakai – Nam Theun NBCA, it is important to impart training in field conservation techniques to
the NBCA staff and other relevant personnel.
Training and capacity building of protected area staff are recognized as two important primary
steps towards protected area management - needed for proper implementation of its
management plans and activities. For every protected area, it is essential to obtain
information on:
n the presence, distribution and abundance of the fauna and flora present;
n the habitat types and key wildlife habitats found;
n the threats to the wildlife and habitats;
n the statuses of people living in and adjacent to it, how they use it, and their impacts on
wildlife and the habitats.
This information will then assist the protected area managers/staff to effectively plan and/or
develop:
n a program for biodiversity resource monitoring;
n a program for protected area patrolling;
n effective and practicable zones for the protected area;
Hence, training and capacity building of protected area staff in gathering, interpreting, and
using this information are important steps and contributions towards making wise
management decisions in the conservation and protection of natural resources.
Bearing this in mind, six trainees were trained in basic skills needed to accomplish the said
objectives. The trainees comprised:
1. Mr. Somlor Vonglampanh (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician)
2. Mr. Phaymany Phimmasan (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician)
3. Mr. Bounthanh Suvannahong (Khammouane PAFO Forestry Technician)
4. Sgt. Phongsavath ‘Lon’ Chundala (Nakai District Police)
5. 2nd. Lt. Teh-Noy Maekhruawan (Nakai District Military)
6. Mr. Chanthala Nyannasai (Volunteer & Field Assistant)
Training was carried out over a period of five months, both in the ‘classroom’, and while ‘on-
the-job’ - carrying out actual surveys and patrols for wildlife presence and human activities.
Both theory and on-the-job training were designed to provide the most basic of field
techniques; easily understood and easy to implement, yet essential for protected area
management. Furthermore, these techniques require a minimal of monetary input. Topics
and instructions were adapted to satisfy the individual trainee’s aptitude, and to suit the needs
of the NBCA and objectives of the project. With this training, it is expected that the staff will be
able to organize and plan field trips, orient themselves in the field, indicate important
locations/evidence on a map, record significant data, and provide a legible and
comprehensible summary report for every field trip.
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Training was conducted in the Lao language, and primarily focused on developing the trainees
skills in:
n map reading, compass and GPS use, and orienteering;
n conducting field surveys for wildlife and key wildlife habitats, including village-based
interviews;
n observing, recording and assessing impacts on wildlife and habitats;
n mapping trails and recording locations of wildlife, and evidence of human impacts;
n compiling, analyzing, and presenting the information gathered.
2.2 TRAINING & CAPACITY-BUILDING

The activities related to training and capacity building of the NBCA staff and relevant
personnel can be divided into three major phases:
n HQ-based theory training;
n On-the-job training;
n Training in data compilation, analysis, interpretation, and presentation.
2.2.1 HQ-based Theory Training

Theory training was carried out at the NBCA headquarters in Muang Nakai for a week, and
began with an introduction to the basics of conservation and protected areas. Topics that
followed included the use of maps and compass, surveys for wildlife and impacts, camping
and field equipment, note-taking and recording techniques, and report writing (table 2.1). In
summary, the training was designed to assist the patrolling and monitoring staff in planning
their field trips efficiently, to make accurate observations and record these accurately, and to
clearly report their findings in a simple but detailed format. The theory training topics comprise
the following:
Basics of Conservation
These included brief lectures and discussions on the concept of protected areas and
protected area management, conservation of natural resources, conservation biology, and
wildlife ecology and behavior. This was to give the trainees a better understanding the
objectives of the protected area and their responsibilities, and the need of reliable and relevant
information towards effectively managing species and habitats. This topic also served to
generate interest and provided some insight to the necessity and purpose of acquiring the
basic skills in field techniques. In addition, a fundamental understanding of wildlife ecology and
behavior was to assist them in recording observations in the field properly.
Map, Compass and GPS

This was followed by lessons in the use of topographic maps and compasses. Lessons in
map reading included detailed understanding of the map’s description, details, directions,
distances, and designations. Lessons in compass use were mainly on taking accurate
bearings and determining back-bearings, followed by the use of compass together with maps.
Trainees were also given indoor and outdoor exercises and assignments to improve their
map and compass skills. Basic use of GPS was also explained.
Note-taking and Recording Techniques

Lessons in making observations and recording evidence in the field, including identifying
tracks and other wildlife signs were then imparted to the trainees. Detailed note taking was
emphasized throughout the training. Trainees were given instructions in sketching of
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unidentified wildlife species, tracks, etc., and measuring or estimating their sizes in the case
of wildlife species sighting. This was to assist them in species identification. All wildlife
species and human activities observed were to be recorded onto data sheets (annexes 2.1 -
2.4). These data recording sheets or their adaptations are currently in use at Dong Hua Sao,
Phou Xiang Thong, Phou Xang He and Nam Poui NBCAs (Boonratana, 1998a & b; 1999b).
There was also an emphasis on the collection of specimens whenever opportunity arose
(annex 2.5). This included collection of scats for later analysis, hair samples, skulls from dead
animals and making plaster casts of tracks (annex 2.6). Specimens collected would serve as
important references, and as displays to impart conservation education and public
awareness.
Wildlife Surveys and Observations

Only a single method of wildlife survey was introduced. This method primarily emphasized on
diurnal surveys along existing trails. It yields information on species presence through actual
sighting and indirect evidence (tracks, scats, etc.). Using existing trails have been observed to
be effective in covering large areas in tropical rainforests (Boonratana, 1997a). The chances
of encountering an animal or its signs are higher when patrols are carried out along existing
animal trails. The method is practical - simple to understand and carry out, and less time-
consuming than others. More importantly, it is one method that staff is not reluctant to carry
out (as opposed to night surveys). To improve the quality of data collected during wildlife
surveys, trainees were taught how to identify species and their signs, and cross-refer them to
field guides to mammal and bird identification and mammal track identification. Mammal
identifications were referred to Lekagul & McNeely (1977), and bird identifications were
referred to Lekagul & Round (1991) and King et al., (1991). Track identification was referred to
van Strien (1983) and Suwannakerd (1998). Although most trainees could not read in English,
they nevertheless found the illustrations useful. Ethics of fieldwork were also discussed
(annex 2.7).
Camping and Field Equipment

Individual responsibilities, preparation and location of campsites (annex 2.8), essential field
equipment (annex 2.9) and suggested food items for the field were discussed. Without proper
planning and adequate preparation, much field time can be wasted. Equipment care and
maintenance were discussed in detail. Experiences have shown that there is little regard
amongst protected area staff in Lao PDR for equipment and vehicle care and maintenance.
Reporting
The process and format of reporting were explained. The report comprised a one to two
page(s) written summary highlighting significant finds, a summarized table of wildlife
recorded, a summarized table of impacts observed, map/maps for locations of key wildlife,
wildlife habitats, significant impacts, and routes traveled, and the data recording sheets
(annex 2.10). Four other protected areas in Lao PDR are currently using this format
(Boonratana, 1998a & b; 1999b).
Monitoring
The concept and purpose of monitoring was explained. Repeated surveys and patrols for an
area were emphasized to the trainees. Once initial data is collected, there should be a
program of continuous collection of data to see changes, if any, in terms of wildlife presence
and relative abundance, habitat changes, and human activity. This comprised steps and
methods to summarize and evaluate information that primarily include key species, impacts,
and effort. Discussions were made on what constitutes the base line information, then on
how to detect changes or trends, followed by the interpretation and use of the monitoring
results. Monitoring is an important component for making management decisions. A
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discussion was also held on the criteria to assist the trainees in identifying key species for
monitoring purposes.
2.2.2 On-the-Job Training

Five ‘on-the-job’ field trips were carried out from June to October 2000. Field training primarily
focused on developing the staff’s capacity and capability in:
n field surveys for wildlife and key wildlife habitats;
n observing and assessing human impacts on wildlife and habitats;
n mapping trails and recording locations of key wildlife, and evidence of human/habitat
impacts;
n note-taking, recording and reporting information correctly;
n patrolling;
n field craft.
Following the field trips, the trainees were required to prepare a trip report immediately after
every field trip. Activities carried out in relation to the on-the-job training comprised:
Logistics Preparations and Allocation of Responsibilities

Participants were divided into two teams of three participants to each team. Team
membership changed on every field trip, to promote cooperation between agencies and
individuals, with emphasis on teamwork. Care was taken to ascertain that teams were of
similar, if not equal, strengths. Pre- and post-survey briefings were held before and after the
field trips. Responsibilities were issued and objectives were clarified during the pre-survey
briefing. Supply coordinators were responsible for purchasing, preparing, and maintaining
food and equipment. Team leaders were responsible for the team’s and team members’
equipment, and planning survey routes, submission of trip reports.
Daily Trip Preparations

Survey routes were pre-determined from 1:25,000 topographic maps and verbal information
(through village-based interviews), and focussed on existing logging tracks and wildlife trails.
Routes normally took the shape of irregular loops, originating and terminating at campsites.
On a rotational basis, one to two team member(s) stayed back at camp and was/were given
the tasks of maintaining the camp, preparing food, gathering firewood, etc.
Observations and Recording

Wildlife presence was recorded based on sightings and other evidence (tracks, scats,
vocalizations, etc.). No trapping was carried out. Surveys were carried out on foot, mainly
along existing trails and logging tracks Team members would simultaneously search for
evidence of wildlife and impact. Speed of travel when carrying out surveys was maintained
between 40 to 60 minutes for every kilometer, with regular pauses of at least a minute, to
observe the general surroundings. This was to avoid missing cryptic animals or animal signs.
Thus, at least between ten to twelve kilometers per day was covered on each route by each
team. Surveys usually began between 0700h to 0730h and teams returned to camp between
1630h to 1800h. The type of evidence was recorded, along with date, time, species, and
location. Evidence such as tracks and scats were aged, described, sketched and measured.
Locations of key wildlife evidence and habitats, and impacts were determined using maps
and compass, and where feasible, a GPS unit was used. Data gathered on wildlife and
impacts were then transferred onto data recording sheets (annexes 2.1-2.4).
21
Daily Debriefing
Debriefing was carried out nightly after meals. This served to review the day’s findings and
plan surveys for the next day. Teams would report the results of surveys, highlighting their
main findings. Team members would alternate on a daily basis in reporting their findings, to
encourage participation by all. Comments and suggestions were offered to improve their field
performance and skills. Discussions were also held on issues raised by the trainees and by
the instructor, hence encouraging analytical thinking.
Trip Report
At the end of every field trip, each team was given three days to submit their trip reports.
Constant guidance and corrections were made before the reports were accepted. The
reports comprised brief notes describing the trip, significant finds, obstacles, etc. The trip
reports are also accompanied by a table summarizing the wildlife recorded, a table
summarizing the impacts recorded, a map showing the routes taken and location of
significant finds (annex 2.10). A senior member of the NBCA staff was also required to submit
a copy of every trip report to the head of the Khammouane Provincial Forestry Section6
(PFS), on the completion of the report. This practice has never before been carried out by the
protected area staff of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and many other protected areas in Lao
PDR.
2.2.3 Training in Data Compilation, Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation

This phase forms the final part of the training and capacity-building component of the project,
and was important in allowing the trainees to synthesize the training they received and the
data they collected. Thus, this phase allowed the trainees to observe and appreciate the
outcome of their work, thereby allowing them to fully understand the processes and efforts
needed in making plausible conservation management recommendations. The steps involved
in this phase of the training included:
n Compilation of all wildlife recorded during the field trips into a single table composed of
the species list against the areas where they were recorded, plus the evidence(s)
observed;
n Compilation of all impacts on wildlife and habitats recorded during the field trips into a
table composed of hunting and non-hunting activities against the areas where they
were observed;
n Preparing a table summarizing the frequency of records of the various hunting and
non-hunting activities by the areas surveyed;
n Compilation onto 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 topographic maps, all the survey routes
taken during the field trips;
n Compilation onto 1:25,000 and 1:100,000 topographic maps, locations of sightings
and other evidences of key wildlife species;
n Analyzing and interpreting the compilation of information and maps;
n A report7 describing the various activities undertaken by the trainees during the
project, significant finds and observations, strengths and weaknesses, and a list of
recommendations based on their assessment.
2.3 OBSERVATIONS AND ASSESSMENT

Skills in field techniques, knowledge concerning protected areas and conservation of natural
resources varied considerably among the trainees. This was a reflection of their background
6
At the provincial level, NBCAs are responsible to the PFS.
7
This report (not for circulation) has now been submitted to the head of the Khammouane PFS.
22
and qualification, and their interest and attitude. During the HQ-based theory training session,
the trainees initially did not participate in the discussions and were reluctant to ask questions.
This changed when the trainees became familiar with one another and with the instructor.
More interest was observed on the field trips, when trainees started applying skills acquired
during the first training phase. In the field, most trainees worked together quite well, showing
good cooperation and division of labor. Briefings carried out every night in the field improved
their performance. Having the instructor with the different teams on a rotational basis served
to reinforce their training. In addition, it allowed doubts and questions that usually arose during
the surveys to be immediately resolved. Furthermore, several field techniques such as
detecting and correctly identifying and/or measuring wildlife signs, and orienteering could only
be clarified under field conditions. Initially, most trainees had several fears of camping out in
the forest. With time and exposure, most overcame some of those fears. Findings made
during the ‘on-the-job’ training are presented in sections 3 and 4.
Individual assessment of each trainee is presented in table 2.2. All trainees, but one, made
tremendous achievements when compared to the initial state. The one trainee that did not
make any progress was primarily due to his lack of interest and commitment. Negligible
improvements were made in spite of major efforts by the instructor and other trainees. Two
non-NBCA staff trainees made remarkable progress and achievements throughout the
training. This was mainly attributed to their interest in the subject matter and in acquiring new
skills and their commitment to project’s objectives. General observations and assessment
made during the three training and capacity-building phases can briefly be described as
follows:
Basics of Conservation
Initially, almost all trainees did not truly understand the objectives and concepts of protected
areas, protected area management and conservation of natural resources. All, however,
knew that ‘conservation was future generations’ as often aired by the media, but never
understanding what that phrase actually meant. Unfortunately, this lack of understanding is
prevalent amongst the relevant government agencies throughout the country. Hence, basics
of conservation were emphasized throughout the training exercise, beginning with
discussions at the start of the training and regularly discussing them during daily debriefings
in the field; thereby reinforcing their understanding based on actual field experience.
Understanding gradually improved with time, and by the end of the training, most trainees
fairly understood the basic concept of protected area and conservation of natural resources.
Thus, are much clearer with the tasks and responsibilities that lay ahead of them. In general,
trainees were not entirely clear about wildlife ecology, but found it much easier to comprehend
wildlife behavior.
Map and Compass

Similarly, map and compass ability were initially almost non-existent. Not all aspects of map
and compass use were, however, covered. Only skills needed for them to perform their tasks
well were imparted. In the first training phase, lessons in map and compass were continued
until the trainees were ready to move on to different topics. The better trainees were placed
besides the weaker ones to provide more practice for the former and provide better attention
to the latter. Thus, simultaneously encouraging teamwork. By the end of the HQ-based
training, most trainees were fairly skilled in the use of map and compass, and were able to
distinguish vegetation types and drainage features. However, distinguishing landform features
was still limited, hence a major handicap in selecting the best routes of travel and survey
routes. Under field conditions, skills at the use of map and compass were limited to only a few
trainees.
23
Wildlife and Wildlife Signs

Most trainees could identify key wildlife genus, if not species, but were unable to distinguish
similar-looking mammals and birds. Track and scat identifications were still limited only to
major taxonomic groups. Wildlife identification based on direct and indirect observations did,
however, improve with time. The non-NBCA staff were generally better at detecting and
identifying wildlife and wildlife signs.
Note-taking and Data Recording

Initially, none were adept at correctly recording information, making observations on wildlife
and human impacts, analyzing data and writing reports. Skills at wildlife observation and
correct recording of information could only be achieved under constant guidance, by having
the instructor accompanying the survey teams daily. Daily debriefings further reinforce their
recording skills. Most became fairly adept at observing wildlife and its signs with time. Use of
field guides for identification purposes was weak in most. Note taking, sketching and
measuring specimens improved with time, although sometimes lacking in important details.
Report Write-up
To familiarize the trainees and give them the much-needed practice in data compilation,
analysis, and interpretation, each team had to prepare a trip report for every field trip carried
out. Guidance was offered and several corrections were made before the reports were finally
accepted. The quality of the reports progressed with each field trip. The major weaknesses
observed were in data analyzing and interpretation. As observed during the final training
phase, that even under guidance, the trainees had difficulty in making inferences and
correlation from the compiled data.
Equipment Care
Care and maintenance of equipment was generally weak among the trainees, particularly the
NBCA staff. Trainees would need to be repeatedly instructed to care and maintain the
equipment issued. Damp or wet binoculars, tents, and sleeping bags were usually kept in
their cases until the next field trip.
2.4 DISCUSSION
Prolonged and repeated on-the-job field training is possibly the only way to equip protected
area and relevant personnel with the basic skills and experience required to implement field
management activities (Boonratana, 1997b; 1998a, b & c; 1999a & b). An important feature of
all training programs, be it in field techniques, extension work or participatory conservation,
must be followed up with on-the-job training, actually carrying out activities. It is only in this
manner that one can hope to build the capacity of the protected area staff.
Observations made during this training exercise and earlier ones (Boonratana, 1997b; 1998a,
b; & c; 1999a & b) showed that training and capacity building of protected area staff can only
be achieved through intensive long-term on-the-job training. Such training and capacity
building are likely to be significantly more effective when provided systematically over a period
of several years within each protected area, rather than delivered in a centralized ‘one-off’
training event, which may not be adequately absorbed or acted on. However, given the short
duration of this project, it now depends on the head of the NBCA to provide the necessary
leadership and motivation. Likewise, it is equally important that the trainees translate the skills
acquired into meaningful activities, carrying forward the processes initiated during this project.
Past experiences have shown that interest is the greatest motivation for learning and fulfilling
ascribed responsibilities. Reasons for failure in achieving the desired results in capacity
building of protected area staff is primarily due to the lack of interest in fieldwork. This in turn
24
is partly because of the hardship involved and because it is unrewarding8. In addition, staff
change frequently, hence the PA is frequently staffed with inexperienced and unqualified
individuals, a feature frequently seen in other protected areas (Boonratana, 1998a). Much of
this is most likely because protection, conservation, and sustainable management of natural
resources do not rank high in the list of GoL’s priorities for the country. Thus, it is not an
uncommon practice for the staff lacking in capacity and capability (including those not favored
by their superiors), to be assigned to protected areas. There must be a change of attitude, to
safeguard and to arrest the rapid decline of Lao PDR’s rich biodiversity. Otherwise plans to
establish Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area as an ‘international class conservation area’
will merely remain an unrealized vision, even with sufficient funds.
8
NBCA staff from both the patrolling/monitoring and extension units receive equal per diems, in spite the
former having to camp outdoors, hike several kilometers a day (frequently in bad weather), consume limited
and low quality foods, and risk life and limbs to achieve the objectives. Furthermore, there is usually a
preference for the Forestry staff to be assigned duties related to timber extraction, where additional benefits
are assured.
25
Table 2.1 Topics of HQ-based Theory Training
MAJOR TOPICS SKILLS/SUB-TOPICS

Conservation Basics - protected areas & protected area management;
- conservation of natural resources;
- conservation biology;
- wildlife ecology & animal behavior.
Map, Compass & - types and purposes of maps;
GPS - topographic maps;
- information from maps: description, details, directions, distances &
designations;
- description: map no., edition & location;
- details: colors, man-made, vegetation, landform & drainage
features;
- directions: bearings & location determination;
- distances: map scale, linear & non-linear distances;
- areas: grid & dots
- designations: names & significance;
- contours: relief representation & landform;
- best routes of travel & feasible camp locations;
- types & purposes of compasses;
- magnetic declination;
- taking compass bearings & determining back-bearings;
- using compass with topographic maps;
- altimeter & GPS use;
- assignments & exercises.
Recording - note-taking, sketches & measurements;
Techniques - wildlife & human activity data recording sheets;
- hunter/villager interviews;
- photography;
- specimen collection: plaster-casting, scat, skull & skin collection,
specimen record book;
- assignments & exercises.
Wildlife Observation - presence/absence;
- survey routes;
- identifying species & using field guides;
- indirect evidence: tracks & scat (sketch & measure), vocalization,
scrapes, etc.;
- speed of travel & precautionary measures.
Camping & Field - ideal locations & set-up;
Equipment - field equipment list & significance;
- equipment care & maintenance;
- pre-survey preparations.
Data compilation & - tabulation of human activities & wildlife data;
Report-writing - maps for routes traveled, important sightings: wildlife, human
activities, mineral licks, etc.
- highlights of significant finds.
Monitoring - purpose & methods;
- focus on key species and habitats;
- analysis & interpretation of results.
26
Table 2.2 Assessment of Trainees’ Performance
Categories:
1. Map & Compass (theory) 8. Field Craft & Ethics
2. Map & Compass (field) 9. Interest & Attitude
3. Wildlife & Impact Surveys 10. Teamwork & Leadership
4. Wildlife Observations & Identification 11. Commitment & Diligence
5. Note-taking & Data Recording 12. Written test (map & compass, landform,
6. Use of Field Guides track identification, wildlife identification)
7. Data Analysis & Report-writing
Assessment:
Trainees/Skills 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 GPA
Somlor A A A B A B A B+ A A+ A+ B+ 3.33
Vonglampanh
Phaymany B+ B B+ B+ B+ B B+ B+ B+ A A B+ 3.00
Phimmasan
Bounthanh D D C D D D C D D D D C+ 1.17
Suvannahong
Phongsavath C C+ B+ B+ B+ B B B+ B+ A A B 2.75
Chundala
Teh-Noy A B+ A B+ A B B+ B+ A A A B+ 3.21
Maekhruawan
Chanthala A A+ A B+ A B+ A A A+ A A+ A 3.54
Nyannasai
GPA: Grade Point Average
Grade & Points:

A+ 4 Excellent C+ 2 Fair
A 3.5 Very Good C 1.5 Weak
B+ 3 Good D 1 Poor
B 2.5 Average
27
Annex 2.1 Wildlife Data Recording Format
Personnel:....................................................……................….......…………..................……
Location:...........................………………….......................................... Date:…………….......
Time Start:….......….....…… Time End:........................... Distance Covered:.....................km
Evidence: 5.Nests
1.Sighting (including live, dead, trophies or 6.Scrapes/Claw Marks
captive animals) 7.Feeding Signs
2.Tracks 8.Other (e.g., wallows, bathing pools, mud
3.Vocalization smears, and antler/horn marks
4.Scat/Dung 9.Reliable Report
Time Species Location Evidence Remarks
28
Annex 2.2 Wildlife Data Recording Format (in Lao)
29
Annex 2.3 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format
Personnel:.......................................................................….………………..................………
Location:...........................…………………….................................……… Date:…….............
Time Start:………........Time End:......................….. Distance Covered:.............................km
A: Hunting Activities B: Non-Hunting Activities
1. Traps/Snares 5. Camps 1. Forest clearance 5. Livestock grazing
2. Guns/Crossbows 6. Wildlife (live/dead 2. Timber-cutting 6. House construction
3. Fishing gear 7. Other 3. Huts 7. Other
4. Hunting dogs 4. NTFP9 collection
Time Activity Location Active/Inactive Remarks
9NTFP = Non-timber forest product
30
Annex 2.4 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format (in Lao)
31
Annex 2.5 Sample Specimen Recording Format
No.: specimen number as entered into the record book

Date: date of collection
Specimen: specimen type (hair, skin, bones, casts, traps, etc.), and species if known.
Location: location where specimen was collected
Personnel: names of personnel who made the collection
Remarks: to include relevant information associated with the specimen (age, sex, habitat,
amount, etc.)
No. Date Specimen Location Personnel Remarks

1
2
3
4
5
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32
Annex 2.6 Procedures for Making Plaster Casts of Tracks
Equipment needed:
• Plaster of Paris
• Bowl or mug
• Stirrer (any thin stick or bamboo measuring about 20 cm long)
• Water
• Old newspapers
Procedure:
• Clear track of fallen leaves, twigs, or stones.
• Repair track, if necessary, by slowly pressing index finger to the loose soil in and around
the track.
• Place four sticks around the track, to neatly contain the plaster. Sticks should measure at
least 1 cm in diameter, to maintain a cast thick enough that it won’t easily break.
• Add water to a bowl containing some Plaster of Paris, while simultaneously stirring the
mixture. The mixture should be of correct viscosity. Note: if the mixture is too thick, it will
harden too quickly and not enter the crevices, therefore losing much of the details; if the
mixture is too thin, it will take too long to harden.
• Slowly pour the mixture along the stirrer into the track, starting with the deeper recesses
first.
• Pour the mixture until it overflows the track. (Make more plaster of Paris mixture if
insufficient).
• Scratch a code onto the plaster cast before it finally hardens.
• Once harden, wrap the cast in several layers of newspaper to prevent it from breaking
during transportation back to the field station.
• At the field station, clean the soil off the cast by using a toothbrush.
• Once cleaned, the track-cast should be lacquered, labeled and recorded into the
specimen record book maintained at the field station
33
Annex 2.7 Ethics of Field Surveys and Patrols
The following ethics are strongly recommended when conducting surveys and patrols:
• A patrolling/monitoring team should comprise not more than three persons per survey
route. Fewer persons mean less noise produced.
• Cigarette smoking should be totally avoided when conducting survey patrols, and be
allowed only at camps. In dense primary forest, the smell of cigarette smoke can linger for
up to three days, and be detected up to a radius of 500 meters.
• Team members should maintain a distance of at least three meters from each other, and
travel at a speed of an hour to a kilometer (or at least not less than 40 minutes to a
kilometer). Frequent pauses of at least a minute should be made every 25-30 m to
observe the general surroundings for cryptic animals and/or wildlife signs.
• Clothing and daypack should be dull-colored and inconspicuous.
• Radios at camp should be just audible to the immediate listener and not too loud as to
scare away animals or ‘drown’ wildlife vocalizations that could otherwise be heard.
• Establish camps at least 800 m away from key wildlife habitats such as mineral licks,
lakes, etc.
• Do not disturb active nests (birds, for example do not return to disturbed nests)
• Do not unnecessarily handle or corner wildlife. Traumatized and cornered animals can
easily die of shock or attack the source of threat.
34
Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of Camps
An ideal campsite should have the following criteria:

• Campsites should be approximately centrally located within the study area, to allow
adequate coverage of the area.
• Campsites should be in a relatively flat area and close to a water source, to allow a
comfortable and convenient campsite.
• Campsites should be checked for dead standing trees before setting up camps, to prevent
injury/injuries, if the tree/trees should fall.
• Campsites should not be less than 800 m from key wildlife habitats (for example, mineral
licks, water pools, etc.), to avoid disturbing the animals.
Preparations and maintenance of campsites:

• Campsites should preferably be established by 1630 h, to prevent chaos once it gets dark
or at the worst, when it rains. Hence, campsites should be reached by 1500 h to allow
adequate time for establishing campsites. The distance and the terrain from the point of
hike to the proposed campsite should be considered when planning the time at the start of
the hike. [Note: speed of travel with a full backpack along forest trails ranges from 2-3
km/hr.]
• On arrival at campsites, team members should first prepare the ‘kitchen’. These include
having two fireplaces (to speed up cooking, therefore preventing loss of field time), a rack
for storage of edibles, and a tarpaulin over the kitchen area to ensure the kitchen and
supplies remain dry in case of sudden rains.
• Water for drinking should immediately be boiled.
• Pit toilets should be prepared, and some soil should be thrown into the pit after every
‘visitation’. Toilets should be closed and buried at the end of the trip.
• Rubbish at camps should be burnt and buried, and campsites should be thoroughly
checked for any leftover litter before campsites are abandoned.
35
Annex 2.9: List of Field Equipment
For each Participant:

• Backpack & daypack
• Sleeping bag or light blanket
• Tent or mosquito net & tarpaulin (5 x 5 m)
• Binoculars
• Compass
• Global Positioning System unit*
• Altimeter*
• 35 mm autofocus camera* & ASA 200 films
• Watch
• Flashlight (with spare batteries & bulbs)
• Machete
• Notebooks (1 pocket size for the field & 1 regular size for camp)
• Ball-point pens & pencils
• Measuring tape (2-3 m)
• Dull-colored field clothes, cap, & jacket/vest
• Light canvas shoes with studded soles & slippers
• Insect repellent & leech socks
• Water canteen
• Lighters
• Whistle (for emergencies)
• Mug, spoon & bowl
• Personal medication
• Personal toiletries
For each Survey Team:

• Global Positioning System*
• Walkie-talkies*
• Altimeter*
• Camera (35 mm with ASA 200 films)*
• Flare-gun & flares* (for emergencies)
• First-aid kit
• Topographic maps & photocopies of proposed survey areas
• Data recording sheets
• Cooking pots, rice baskets, etc.
• Sharpening stone
• Plastic string (2 rolls)
• Plastic pails (for soaking glutinous rice and storing boiled drinking water)
• Candles (approximately two 20 cm candles per night)
• Plastic bags (various sizes) & rubber bands
• Small spade
• Tarpaulins (5 x 5 m) - shelter for food and essential equipment
* if available
Note: all items except those in italics should be issued by the protected area
36
Annex 2.10 Sample Trip Report of a Sub-team
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Plate 2.1: Training Activities I
45
Plate 2.2: Training Activities II
46
Plate 2.3: Training Activities III
47
3. WILDLIFE AND IMPACT SURVEYS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Although previous surveys have provided some information on the fauna and flora in the Nam
Theun Corridor (WCS, 1996 & 1997), a general wildlife survey based on direct observations
and indirect evidence was nevertheless carried out. This was carried out in conjunction with a
training program in the Nam Theun Corridor to provide ‘hands-on’ experience and ‘on-the-job’
training to the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA staff and other relevant personnel (section 2), and in
conjunction with a study on wildlife movements/seasonal migration (section 4). Surveys were
not limited only to wildlife, but included recording signs and evidence of human activities in the
Nam Theun Corridor. The latter information was used to assess the impacts of human on
wildlife and habitats in the Nam Theun Corridor, hence identifying threats to the long-term
viability of the area and its denizens.
Survey methodology follows that as described in section 2.2.2. Wildlife surveys focused
mainly on mammals and birds. Information on reptiles and amphibians were opportunistically
gathered. No trapping was carried out. Information on human activities in the area was
recorded simultaneously while carrying out wildlife surveys.
3.2 RESULTS
Including replicated routes, both intensive and extensive surveys for wildlife and impacts
covered a total distance of approximately 1,350 km. Of this total distance, approximately 705
km was covered while conducting foot surveys, 420 km while conducting boat surveys, and
225 km using a slow-moving terrestrial vehicle. This total distance was achieved in
approximately 350 man-days or in approximately 3,150 man-hours.
3.2.1 Wildlife
With the exception of a few species, the wildlife density in the Nam Theun Corridor is
generally low. Wildlife recorded in and around the Nam Theun Corridor during this component
of the project listed 52 mammals and 85 birds (table 3.1). Of these, 22 species are
recognized as globally threatened. It must be emphasized that this list is far from exhaustive.
There are more species present in the area than recorded as the team:
n did not carry out any form of trapping or collection;
n did not focus on bats;
n did not focus on small mammals (except opportunistically recording the more
common ones);
n recorded the presence of birds, reptiles, and amphibians opportunistically;
n primarily focused on the project’s main objectives.
Table 3.2 gives the localities where various wildlife species were recorded. Apparently, most
wildlife records were from the Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee and the Nam Gnalong areas.
Significant Finds
Observations on species of conservation significance (figure 3.1) and significant observations
of some common species are briefly described:
n Macaques: Four species of macaques, comprising rhesus macaque, Assamese
macaque, pig-tailed macaque, and bear macaque are found the study area. The
species commonly sighted is the rhesus macaque, usually along the Nam Theun and
its major tributaries, with most encounters in the middle reaches of Nam Xot.
48
Assamese macaques were sighted only once, in the lower Nam Xot. Captive pig-tailed
macaques were observed at Ban Bocho and in the Nakai township. Captive rhesus
macaques were observed in Ban Sopnian and Ban Namnian, and a captive bear
macaque was observed in Thakhek town.
n Douc langur: Only one group of douc langur was observed throughout the survey, and
this was at Keng Non, close to the proposed Nam Theun II hydropower site. Reports
suggest that this species are found in the hilly areas to the east and west of the
proposed hydropower site.
n Francois’s langur: Albeit none was encountered during surveys, yet there were
consistent reports of this species occurring along the Sayphou Ak.
n White/yellow-cheeked crested gibbon: Gibbons were heard at two locations, one in the
Nam Gnalong area and one in the Nam Xot area (within the Nakai - Nam Theun
NBCA). The species could not be confirmed from the vocalizations.
n Dhole: Albeit not occurring at high densities, the dhole is probably the main top
predator in the areas surveyed. Several signs mainly in the form of tracks and scats
were observed in Nam Xot, the middle reaches of Nam Gnalong, Nam Gnala, and
around the mineral licks Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee. Several signs observed in the
rocky flats and in other areas could not be confirmed as that belonging to the dhole.
This was because there were several human and domestic dog signs in the same
areas. Scats when analyzed revealed that their diet during this study primarily
comprised rodent species, and occasionally muntjac.
n Bears: Both the Asiatic black bear and the sun bear occur in the area. This was
confirmed from fresh tracks observed. Fresh tracks of the Asiatic black bear was
observed in the Nam Gnala area, and that of the sun bear observed in the middle
reaches of Nam Gnalong. Indistinguishable bear scat, feeding signs and claw marks,
both old and recent were observed at several places, with a major concentration in the
Kouangten area.
n Clouded leopard: One set of fresh prints was observed in an ecotone (pine forest and
evergreen forest) close to a rocky flat (Thong Heen Kon), almost halfway between
Poung Phai and Nam Gnalong.
n Tiger: Two sets of fresh tiger tracks were observed on an abandoned logging track
between Ban Thalang and Poung Phai. The two sets, although of slightly different
measurements, probably belong to the same tiger, as they were made on the same
day but on different substrates.
n Elephant: The most distinguishable species recorded in the area, as their signs are
the most apparent and not easily obliterated. Details of the Asian elephant are given in
section 4.
n Eurasian wild pig: Albeit not a threatened species (by IUCN threatened species
categorization), the wild pig is an important prey base to most large predators
(including humans), therefore a species of conservation significance. This species is
widely distributed but not occurring at high densities. A significant observation made
during this study was the widespread presence of pigs' breeding nests in many areas,
particularly in Kouangten and Nam Gnalong, in late July and early August, implying a
breeding season for the species.
n Sambar: Similarly as above, this species is not designated a threatened category, but
because of its rarity (most likely as a result of human persecution), this species
deserve special consideration. Signs of sambar were mainly observed in the
Kouangten area.
n Muntjacs: Two muntjac species are confirmed from the area, the common muntjac
and the large-antlered muntjac. The common muntjac, although widespread, does not
exist at high densities. The distribution of the large-antlered muntjac appears to be
49
more localized, with concentrations in areas close to the mineral licks, Poung Phai,
and Poung Ta-ee. Trophies of both species can be seen in some homes. Villagers
reported finding two freshly killed large-antlered muntjacs (by dholes). One at Poung
Phai on June 28, and the other at Poung Ta-ee on June 29.
n Gaur: Evidences of gaur, otherwise rare, were observed at five locations. Close to
Ban Thalang where a lone bull was seen by some villagers close to the Nam Theun
on June 22. Also at Poung Phai, Nam Gnalong and Nam Xot. At one location near
Nam Gnalong and at Nam Xot, tracks showed the presence of at least an adult and a
young gaur, possibly a mother-juvenile pair. On June 19, villagers reported seeing two
gaurs at Poung Ta-ee.
n Southern serow: No evidence was observed, but there were consistent reports of this
species occurring in parts of the Sayphou Ak.
n Hornbills: Four hornbill species were recorded in the area, the great hornbill, wreathed
hornbill, brown hornbill, and pied hornbill. The great hornbill and wreathed hornbill
might not be resident to the area, as they were seen coming and returning in the
direction of the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA. Captive brown hornbills were observed at
Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Sopnian.
n Indochinese water dragon: This species was commonly observed along the Nam
Theun between the rivermouth of Nam Xot to Ban Sopphaen, and along the Nam Xot.
n Snakes: The two commonly observed snake species in the study area was the green
cat snake and the checkered keelback. The green cat snake was commonly observed
coiled on bamboo overhanging the river, particularly along the Nam Theun, between
Ban Thalang and Nam Gnalong. Checkered keelback was usually observed along the
logging tracks.
n Caecilian: A caecilian of indeterminate species was observed along the road close to
Ban Bocho (on the road from Muang Nakai). Although this area was outside the study
area, this taxonomic group nevertheless deserved mention, as it is rarely reported.
3.2.2 Impacts
All the impacts on wildlife and habitat observed in the Nam Theun Corridor during this study
are human-induced. They can broadly be categorized into hunting and non-hunting activities,
although most of these activities overlapped one another and are interlinked. Impacts
observed in the area are significantly high. Table 3.3 shows the frequency of impact records
by area. This can be summarized as below:
n the Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala area rates the highest in terms of overall impact,
followed by Tham On/Nam Xot area, Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee area, and
Nam Gnalong/Huai Chike area;
n hunting activities follow the same order as above;
n snaring is high in the Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala and Kouangten area;
n gunshots were heard most often in Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee area, followed
by Nam Gnalong/Huai Chike area, and Keng Kung Gnai/Nam Gnala area;
n non-hunting activities, primarily forest clearance for swidden agriculture was observed
in the middle reaches of Nam Gnala;
n livestock grazing was highest around Thalang/Poung Phai/Poung Ta-ee.
Significant Finds
Observations made on the direct and indirect impacts on wildlife and habitats through hunting
and non-hunting activities include:
50
n Snares: Two main types of snares were observed in the Nam Theun Corridor. The
more common one using nylon strings are meant for small terrestrial mammals and
birds. These snarelines usually range from 400 to 500 m long, and each snare is
placed a meter apart along a ‘fence’ that comprised branches and sapling. The use of
these snares is widespread throughout the area, and is effective in reducing the prey
base population. The other snare type observed was the use of cables, ranging from
motorcycle brake wires to truck winches. These cable snares were observed at two
localities, on both sides of the Nam Theun in the Kouangten area. These cable snares
are effective for large mammals that include bear, tiger, sambar, muntjac, and gaur.
These cable snares are placed in a similar manner as the nylon snares, although the
‘fence’ is more than a meter high, and comprise branches, saplings, and small trees.
One of these cable snarelines apparently coincided with an area that showed the
highest density of bear and sambar signs. Another newly ‘fenced’ area, very likely for
the use with cable snares was observed in the Nam Gnala area. The fencing here
resemble an enclosure and covered an area almost a square kilometer. Snares when
encountered were removed10.
n Guns: Gunshots from modern firearms (CKC, AKA, & K44) and muzzle-loading guns
were frequently heard throughout the study, although the frequency of gunshots from
modern firearms was much higher. Most modern firearms are government-issued,
primarily to the army and the village militia, although it was reported that there are
some hunters from Khamkeut District in Bolikhamxay Province frequently seen
similarly using these modern firearms. It was reported that some members of the
army and the village militia often lend their firearms to relatives and friends for hunting
purposes. It was also reported that bullets can be purchased without much difficulty
for USD 0.06 a bullet. Most disturbing was the frequency of gunshots heard in the
forest close to the NBCA’s headquarters. These shots were fired by members of the
District Military. Some of the hunted animals are sold at the Nakai District market (e.g.,
wild pig, muntjac, and civet). On August 20, some army personnel from Ban Bocho
were observed with a freshly shot rhesus macaque close to Poung Phai. In the fourth
week of September, several gunshots by army personnel (from Ban Bocho) were
heard in the Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee area11.
n Hunting Parties: There are frequent reports of hunting parties (with modern and
muzzle-loading guns, and hunting dogs) traversing the Nam Theun Corridor into the
Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA, carrying out hunting in both the corridor and the NBCA.
These hunting parties are mainly from Khamkeut District. On July 27, three men with
hunting dogs were observed in the Nam Xot area of the NBCA. There were apparently
collecting palm fronds to make temporary shelters. Their objective was to collect
NTFPs that may include wildlife (through snaring). On July 30, in the Nam Xot area of
the corridor, a party of six to seven men with muzzle-loading guns and hunting dogs
immediately ran away upon encounter with a survey sub-team. Apparently, this route
serves as the main access into the NBCA. On August 12, a sub-team encountered
three armed men and a boy in the Kouangten area. No other information could be
obtained as the sub-team feared the hunting party. On August 18, three armed men in
military uniforms were observed travelling up the Nam Gnalong.
n Elephant: Bones of elephants were observed at two sites. Although the cause of death
could not be determined, it was nevertheless reported the elephants may have been
killed for their ivory. Resident villagers and other informants reported that there have
been several incidences of elephant poaching in the past. They further reported that
some of these poachers are professional hunters from within the region, and some
were from across the border, while the others are opportunistic hunters involved in
10
This was done only when the consultant happened to encounter the snares (and other trapping devices),
otherwise the trainees felt that it was not in their interest to remove the snares for fear of repercussions.
Similarly, trainees dare not record particulars when encountering poachers in the forest.
11
They were later requested to refrain from hunting in the area, which they complied, at least during the
presence of the wildlife team.
51
logging activities. WCS (1997), based on the information they gathered, suggested
that at least 30 elephants from the Nakai Plateau have been killed by poachers since
early 1990s.
n Mineral licks: Three important mineral licks, Poung Phai, Poung Ta-ee, and Poung
Mak Pat, in the Ban Thalang area are severely disturbed by the permanent presence
of green pigeon catchers (from Ban Thalang, Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Nakai Nua). The
licks are covered with branches to prevent the pigeons from landing at any other spot
other than where a trap (spring-net) is. Evidence shows regular use of licks by
elephants, ungulates and occasionally by top predators. These mineral licks are also
regularly used by domestic buffaloes. Hence, activities related to the trapping of green
pigeons severely interrupt the ecological needs of wildlife, in particular herbivores. In
addition, contagious diseases from domestic buffaloes could easily spread to wildlife
with disastrous effects.
n Wildlife trade: Wildlife traders, primarily from Lak Sao township (Bolikhamxay
Province) regularly and frequently visit Ban Sopnian, Ban Namnian, Ban Thalang and
other villages in the Nabon-Nathon area (in Phou Hin Poun NBCA), and other
settlements along the road from Ban Thalang to Muang Nakai township to purchase
wildlife and wildlife parts. Wildlife purchased was resold to other middlemen in
Vietnam. The main species sought by the traders is the pangolin, usually bought from
the villagers at USD 25/kg). Wildlife observed sold at the fresh market of Muang Nakai
included live green pigeons (USD 0.63/bird), muntjac (USD 2.25/kg), wild pig (USD
1.88/kg), and a masked palm civet (USD 3.75/animal). Domestic trade in wildlife (for
consumption) is common during the dry season with the onset of logging and related
activities.
n Captive wildlife: Captive animals observed at Ban Sopnian included two full-grown
east Asian porcupine, an infant rhesus macaque (bought at USD 0.63), three infant
common palm civet, a Bengal monitor, an Indochinese box turtle and a brown hornbill,
and a few commoner squirrels and birds. A brown hornbill and a crested serpent
eagle were observed at Ban Nakai Tai. There was also a juvenile rhesus macaque at
Ban Namnian, and a juvenile pig-tailed macaque at Ban Bocho.
n Fishing and NTFP collection: Old, recent and active camps and campsites were
observed throughout the study area, being mainly located along the Nam Theun and
Nam Xot. Although the primary objective is to fish, NTFPs (primarily rattan) were
nevertheless harvested and wildlife poached. The fishing methods observed during
the study comprised baited hooks and nets. However, there are consistent reports of
some resident villagers and ‘outsiders’ using explosives to fish in the area.
n Forest clearance: Some new clearances for agricultural purposes were observed
along the Nam Theun close to Nam Poungphai and Nam Gnala, and along the Nam
Gnala.
n Tree-felling: There are a few forms of tree felling in the area. Commercial logging and
its related impacts were observed in all areas surveyed. In several areas, timber
extraction was observed to be above the inundation area. There still exist several logs
awaiting to be transported out when access is feasible during the dry season
(beginning in November). Signs of timber extraction by resident villagers for local use
was occasionally observed. Non-timber species were often felled to harvest their
fruits, or rattan (twined to the tees), or wildlife nesting in those trees.
n Livestock: Cattle, particularly buffaloes range freely throughout the area, and regularly
use the mineral licks. These have serious implications on the wildlife population, which
include competition for resources, the spread of diseases to wildlife, and the
escalation of human-wildlife conflicts through wildlife predation on cattle. Related to
this is a large fenced enclosure built by Ban Bocho residents, in an open grassland
between Poung Phai and Poung Ta-ee, and covering an area about 80 ha, whose
objective is to ‘capture’ their semi-feral free-ranging buffaloes. This large enclosure
52
has direct impacts on the movement of terrestrial wildlife, and on the habitat (tree
felling for fence construction). In addition, these ‘buffalo gatherers’ partake in snaring
and hunting activities.
53
Table 3.1 List of Wildlife Recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor12
Evidence:
1. Sighting (including live, dead, captive 6. Scrapes/Claw Marks
animals or trophies ) 7. Feeding Signs
2. Tracks 8. Other (e.g. wallows, bathing pools, mud
3. Vocalization smears, and antler/horn marks
4. Scat/Dung 9. Reliable Report
5. Nests
Mammals:
Common Name Scientific Name Lao Loum Name Evidence IUCN CITES
Chinese pangolin Manis pentadactyla Lin khoay(?) 9 NT II
Sunda pangolin Manis javanica Lin nguoa(?) 9 NT II
Northern treeshrew Tupaia belangeri Kachon 1
Slow loris Nycticebus coucang Ling lom 9 II
Pygmy/Intermediate Nycticebus Ling lom 9 V/? II/II
loris pygmaeus/intermedius
Pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina Ling kang 1,9 V II
Assamese macaque Macaca assamensis Ling 1,9 V II
Rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta Ling daeng/ling 1,2,9 NT II
nam
Bear macaque Macaca arctoides Kha-dum 1,9 V II
Douc langur Pygathrix nemaeus Kha daeng E I
White/Yellow-cheeked Hylobates Thanee 3,9 DD I
crested gibbon leucogenys/gabriellae
Dhole Cuon alpinus Ma nai 2,3,4,9 V II
Bear spp. 6,7
Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus Maeauy 2,9 V I
Sun bear Ursus malayanus Mi 2,9 DD I
Back-striped weasel Mustela strigidorsa V
Yellow-throated Martes flavigula Ma nai mai 9
marten
Hog badger Arctonyx collaris Mou lung 2,9
Large-toothed ferret Melogale personata Lung tong 8,9
badger
Otter spp. Nak 4
Smooth-coated Lutrogale perspicillata Nak teen pet 2,9 V II
otter(?)
Oriental small-clawed Aonyx cinerea Nak teen ma 2,9 NT II
otter
Large Indian civet Viverra zibetha Haen hang kaan 2,9
Small Indian civet Viverricula indica Haen 1,2,9
Common palm civet Paradoxurus Haen om/Haen 1,9
hermaphroditus teen tam
Binturong Arctictis binturong Haen hang 9
khaw/khawt
12
Taxonomic names of wildlife (unless indicated otherwise) and order of listing follow that used in Duckworth
et al., (1999) for ease of comparison.
54
khaw/khawt
Small Asian Herpestes javanicus Chon-phon 1,9
mongoose
Crab-eating Herpestes urva Chon-phon 1,9
mongoose
Leopard cat Prionailurus bengalensis Seua nok/Seua 2,9 II
meo
Fishing cat(?) Prionailurus viverrinus NT I
Asian golden cat Catopuma temminckii NT I
Clouded leopard Pardofelis nebulosa Seua takout/kalout 2,9 V I
Leopard Panthera pardus Seua dao 9 I
Tiger Panthera tigris Seua/Seua 2,9 E I
ngai/Seua krong
Elephant Elephas maximus Xang 1,2,3,4,7, E I
8,9
Eurasian wild pig Sus scrofa Mou paa 1,2,4,5,7,
8,9
Lesser oriental Tragulus javanicus Kaai/Faan kaai 1,2,9
chevrotain
Sambar Cervus unicolor Kouang 2,8,9
Muntjac sp. 3
Red muntjac Muntiacus muntjak Faan/Faan 1,2,4,8,9
thamada
Large-antlered Megamuntiacus Faan dong 1,2,9 V I
muntjac vuquangensis
Gaur Bos gaurus Meauy 2,9 V I
Southern serow Naemorhedus Nyearng pha 9 V I
sumatrensis
Black giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor Khadang 1,3,9 II
Pallas squirrel(?) Callosciurus erythraeus Kahok 1
Inornate squirrel Callosciurus inornatus Kahok 1 V
Cambodian striped Tamiops rodolphii Kalaen 1,3
squirrel
Red-cheeked squirrel Dremomys rufigenis Kanai 1
Berdmore’s squirrel Menetes berdmorei Ketae 1
Large flying squirrel Petaurista sp. Baang loua 3,9
sp.
Phayre’s flying squirrel Hylopetes phayrei Baang tong 9
East Asian porcupine Hystrix brachyura Min 1,7,9 V
Asiatic brush-tailed Atherurus macrourus Hon 1,7,9
porcupine
Siamese hare Lepus peguensis Katai 1,9
Hoary bamboo rat Rhizomys pruinosus On 1,7,9
Birds:
Chinese francolin Francolinus pintadeanus 1
Bar-backed partridge Arborophila 1,3
brunneopectus
Scaly-breasted Arborophila charltonii Nok khaw 1,3 V
partridge
55
Red junglefowl Gallus gallus Kai paa 1,3

Silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera Kai khua 1
Siamese fireback Lophura diardi Kai khua 1 V
White-winged duck(?) Cairina scutulata Pet nam 9 E I
Yellow-legged Turnix tanki Nok khoom 1
buttonquail
Barred buttonquail Turnix suscitator Nok khoom 1
Speckled piculet Picumnus innominatus Nok salai 1
Rufous woodpecker Celeus brachyurus Nok salai 1
Lesser yellownape Picus chlorlophus Nok salai 1
Laced woodpecker Picus vittatus Nok salai 1
Red-collared Picus rabieri Nok salai 1 V
woodpecker
Common flameback Dinopium javanense Nok salai 1
Great barbet Megalaima virens Nok kondok 1,3
Red-vented barbet Megalaima lagrandieri Nok kondok 1
Lineated barbet Megalaima lineata Nok kondok 1
Oriental pied hornbill Anthracoceros albirostris Nok keng 1,3 II
Great hornbill Buceros bicornis Nok kok kham 1 I
Brown hornbill Anorrhinus tickelli Nok ma noi 1,3 NT II
Wreathed hornbill Aceros undulatus Nok kok kaa(?) 1 II
Orange-breasted Harpactes oreskios 1
trogon
Red-headed trogon Harpactes 1
erythrocephalus
Indian roller Coracias benghalensis Nok khaochau 1
Blue-eared kingfisher Alcedo meninting Nok katen 1
Stork-billed kingfisher Halcyon capensis Nok katen 1
White-throated Halcyon smyrnensis Nok katen 1
kingfisher
Blue-throated bee- Merops viridis 1
eater
Indian cuckoo Cuculus micropterus Nok pu thao khai 1,3
kok(?)
Green-billed malkoha Phaenicophaeus tristis Nok chak khok 1
Greater coucal Centropus sinensis Nok kot 1,3
Lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis Nok kot 1,3
Grey-headed parakeet Psittacula finschii Nok kee 1 II
Oriental bay owl Phodilus badius Nok khaau 1 II
Mountain scops owl Otus spilocephalus Nok khaau 1,3 II
Oriental scops owl Otus sunia Nok khaau 1,3 II
Fish owl sp. Ketupa sp. Nok khaau 1 II
Collared owlet Glaucidium brodiei Nok khaau 1 II
Asian barred owlet Glaucidium cuculoides Nok khaau 1 II
Great eared nightjar(?) Eurostopodus macrotis Nok kabaa 1
Large-tailed nightjar(?) Caprimulgus macrurus Nok kabaa 1
Oriental turtle dove Streptopelia orientalis Nok khau tou 1
Spotted dove Streptopelia chinensis Nok khau deauy 1
56
Barred cuckoo dove Macropygia unchall Nok khau seua 1

Emerald dove Chalcophaps indica Nok khau khieo 1
Thick-billed green Treron curvirostra Nok pao 1
pigeon
Mountain imperial Ducula badia Nok moum 3
pigeon
White-breasted Amaurornis phoenicurus Nok kai naa 1
waterhen
River lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii 1
Red-wattled lapwing Vanellus indicus Nok tat-tae 1,3
Jerdon’s baza(?) Aviceda jerdoni Laew hung(?) 1 NT II
Black kite Milvus migrans Laew 1 II
Lesser fish eagle(?) Ichthyophaga humilis Laew 1 II
Crested serpent eagle Spilornis cheela Nok laew 1 II
Little egret Egretta garzetta Nok chau 1
Intermediate egret Mesophoyx intermedia Nok chau 1
Cattle egret Bubulcus ibis Nok chau 1
Chinese pond heron Ardeola bacchus Nok chau khaw 1
laai
Cinnamon bittern Ixobrychus Nok chau(?) 1
cinnamomeus
Dusky broadbill Corydon sumatranus 1
Banded broadbill Eurylaimus javanicus 1
Blue-winged leafbird Chloropsis Nok khieo 1
cochinchinensis
Orange-bellied leafbird Chloropsis hardwickii Nok khieo 1
Brown shrike(?) Lanius cristatus 1
Long-tailed shrike Lanius schach 1
Red-billed blue Urocissa erythrorhyncha 1
magpie
Large-billed crow Corvus macrorhynchos Kaa 1
Ashy woodswallow Artamus fuscus 1
Black-naped oriole(?) Oriolus chinensis Nok khimin 1
Black-hooded oriole Oriolus xanthornus Nok khimin 1
Black drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Nok saew 1
Ashy drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus Nok saew 1
Bronzed drongo Dicrurus aeneus Nok saew 1
Lesser racket-tailed Dicrurus remifer Nok saew hang 1
drongo kaan
Spangled drongo Dicrurus hottentottus Nok saew 1
Greater racket-tailed Dicrurus paradiseus Nok saew hang 1
drongo kaan
White-rumped shama Copsynchus malabiricus 1
Common myna Acridotheres tristis 1,3
Hill myna Gracula religiosa Nok salika 1 II
Black-headed bulbul Pycnonotus atriceps 1
Black-crested bulbul Pycnonotus melanicterus 1
White-crested Garrulax leucolophus Nok lang hua ngok 1,3
laughingthrush
57
Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava Nok kadaet dau 1

Grey wagtail Motacilla cinerea Nok kadaet dau 1
Reptiles & Amphibians:

Asian leaf turtle Cyclemys dentata Tao nam 1
Keeled box turtle Pyxidea mouhotii Tao sam san 1
Elongated tortoise Indotestudo elongata Tao pheng 1 Vu II
Tokay gecko Gekko gecko Kapkae 1
Cross-bearing tree Acanthosaura crucigera Kapom 1
lizard(?)
Scale-bellied tree- Acanthosaura Kapom paa 1
lizard lepidogaster
Garden fence lizard Calotes versicolor Kapom khaw
daeng
Forest crested lizard Calotes emma Kapom 1
Water dragon Physignathus cocincinus Kathang 1
Bengal monitor Varanus bengalensis Laen 1 I
Water monitor Varanus salvator Hiea 1 II
Long-tailed lizard(?) Takydromus sexlineatus Ngou khaa(?) 1
Long-tailed sun skink Mabuya longicaudata Ki ko 1
Many-lined sun skink Mabuya multifasciata Ki ko 1
Reticulated python Python reticulatus Ngou learm 1
Oriental whip snake Ahaetulla prasina 1
Green cat snake Boiga cyanea Ngou khieo 1
Indochinese ratsnake Pytas korros Sing dong 1
Common ratsnake Pytas mucosus Sing naa 1 II
Red-necked keelback Rhabdophis subminiatus Ngou khaw daeng 1
Checkered keelback Xenochropsis piscator Ngou tahaae 1
Caecilian sp. Ichthyophis sp. 1
58
Table 3.2 List of Wildlife Recorded by Area and Route13
1. Thalang, Poung Ta-ee & Poung Phai 8. Thalang - Sop Gnalong (river)
2. Lower to mid Nam Gnalong 9. Sop Gnalong - Keng Kung Gnai (river)
3. Mid to upper Nam Gnalong 10. Tham On - Thalang (road)
4. Keng Kung Gnai & Nam Gnala 11. Sopnian - Namnian (road)
5. Nam Xot & Tham On 12. Thalang - Nam Xot (river)
6. Kouangten 13. Tham On - Namnian (road)
7. Nakai - Thalang (road) 14. Thalang - Namnian (road)
15. Thalang - Sopphaen (river)
Mammals:
Common Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Northern treeshrew 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Loris sp. 3 3
Pig-tailed macaque 3 3 3 3 3 3
Assamese macaque 3
Rhesus macaque 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Bear macaque 3
Douc langur 3
White/Yellow-cheeked crested 3 3
gibbon
Dhole 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Bear sp. 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Asiatic black bear 3
Sun bear 3
Otter sp. 3 3 3
Smooth-coated otter(?) 3
Oriental small-clawed otter 3
Large Indian civet 3 3 3
Small Indian civet 3
Common palm civet 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Small Asian mongoose 3 3 3 3 3 3
Crab-eating mongoose 3 3
Leopard cat 3 3 3 3 3 3
Fishing cat(?) 3
Asian golden cat 3 3
Clouded leopard 3
Tiger 3
Elephant 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Eurasian wild pig 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Lesser oriental chevrotain 3 3 3
Sambar 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Red muntjac 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Large-antlered muntjac 3
13
Through sighting and other physical evidence only, and exclude verbal information.
59
Gaur 3 3
Black giant squirrel 3 3 3 3 3
Pallas squirrel(?) 3 3 3
Inornate squirrel 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Cambodian striped squirrel 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Red-cheeked squirrel 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Berdmore’s squirrel 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Large flying squirrel sp. 3 3
East Asian porcupine 3 3 3 3 3 3
Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine 3 3 3 3
Siamese hare(?) 3
Hoary bamboo rat 3 3 3
Birds:
Common Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Chinese francolin 3 3 3 3
Bar-backed partridge 3 3 3 3 3
Scaly-breasted partridge 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Red junglefowl 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Silver pheasant 3 3 3 3 3 3
Siamese fireback 3 3 3
Yellow-legged buttonquail 3 3
Barred buttonquail 3
Speckled piculet 3 3 3 3
Rufous woodpecker 3 3
Lesser yellownape 3
Laced woodpecker 3 3
Red-collared woodpecker 3
Common flameback 3
Great barbet 3 3 3 3
Red-vented barbet 3
Lineated barbet 3 3 3
Oriental pied hornbill 3 3 3 3
Great hornbill 3
Brown hornbill 3 3 3
Wreathed hornbill 3 3
Orange-breasted trogon 3 3
Red-headed trogon 3
Indian roller 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Blue-eared kingfisher 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Stork-billed kingfisher 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
White-throated kingfisher 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Blue-throated bee-eater 3 3 3
Indian cuckoo 3 3 3 3 3 3
Green-billed malkoha 3 3 3 3 3 3
Greater coucal 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
60
Lesser coucal 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Grey-headed parakeet 3 3
Oriental bay owl 3 3
Mountain scops owl 3 3 3 3
Oriental scops owl 3
Fish owl sp. 3
Collared owlet 3 3
Asian barred owlet 3 3
Great eared nightjar(?) 3
Large-tailed nightjar(?) 3
Oriental turtle dove 3 3 3 3
Barred cuckoo dove 3
Spotted dove 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Emerald dove 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Thick-billed green pigeon 3 3 3 3 3 3
Mountain imperial pigeon 3 3
White-breasted waterhen 3
River lapwing 3
Red-wattled lapwing 3 3 3
Jerdon’s baza(?) 3 3 3
Black kite 3
Lesser fish eagle(?) 3
Crested serpent eagle 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Little egret 3
Intermediate egret 3
Cattle egret 3
Chinese pond heron 3
Cinnamon bittern 3
Dusky broadbill 3
Banded broadbill 3
Blue-winged leafbird 3
Orange-bellied leafbird 3
Brown shrike(?) 3
Long-tailed shrike 3
Red-billed blue magpie 3 3
Large-billed crow 3 3
Ashy woodswallow 3
Black-naped oriole(?) 3
Black-hooded oriole 3
Black drongo 3 3 3 3 3 3
Ashy drongo 3
Bronzed drongo
Lesser racket-tailed drongo 3 3 3
Spangled drongo 3 3 3
Greater racket-tailed drongo 3 3 3 3 3
White-rumped shama 3
61
Common myna 3 3 3 3
Hill myna 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Black-headed bulbul 3 3 3
Black-crested bulbul 3
White-crested laughingthrush 3 3 3 3 3 3
Yellow wagtail 3 3 3 3
Grey wagtail 3
Reptiles & Amphibians:

Common Name 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Asian leaf turtle 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Keeled box turtle 3
Elongated tortoise 3
Tokay gecko 3 3 3 3
Cross-bearing tree lizard(?) 3
Scale-bellied tree-lizard 3 3 3
Garden fence lizard 3
Forest crested lizard 3
Water dragon 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Bengal monitor 3 3
Water monitor 3 3 3 3
Long-tailed lizard(?) 3
Long-tailed sun skink 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Many-lined sun skink 3 3 3
Reticulated python 3
Oriental whip snake 3
Green cat snake 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Indochinese ratsnake 3
Common ratsnake 3 3
Red-necked keelback 3 3
Checkered keelback 3
Caecilian sp. 3
62
Table 3.3 Frequency of Hunting and Non-hunting Impacts by Locality
A: Hunting Activities B: Non-Hunting Activities

1. Traps/Snares 5. Camps 1. Forest clearance 5. Livestock grazing
2. Guns/Crossbows 6. Wildlife 2. Timber-cutting 6. House construction
3. Fishing gear 7. Other 3. Huts 7. Other
4. Hunting dogs 4. NTFP collection
Hunting Activities Non-hunting Activities

Area A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7
Thalang, Poung Phai 3 8 4 6 3 5 1 1 1 - 1 4 - -
& Poung Ta-ee
Nam Gnalong & 1 6 2 3 4 4 - - 1 1 - 1 - 3
Huai Chike
Keng Kung Gnai & 8 5 5 1 6 5 4 11 - 3 1 1 - 1
Nam Gnala
Tham On & Nam - 4 4 10 12 2 3 4 3 - 2 - - -
Xot
Kouangten 6 3 - - - 1 1 - - - - - - -
Kao Lup Kao Non, 1 - - 4 2 1 1 - - - - - - -
Nam Gnalong &
Thong Heen Kon
63
Figure 3.1 Location of Key Wildlife and Wildlife Habitats Recorded14
14
Excluding elephant - this is described in section 4.
64
Plate 3.1 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor I
65
Plate 3.2 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor II
66
Plate 3.3 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor III
67
Plate 3.4 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor IV
68
Plate 3.5 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor V
69
Plate 3.6 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VI
70
Plate 3.7 Wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor VII
71
Plate 3.8 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor I
72
Plate 3.9 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor II
73
Plate 3.10 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor III
74
Plate 3.11 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor IV
75
Plate 3.12 Impacts in the Nam Theun Corridor V
76
4. WILDLIFE MOVEMENTS/SEASONAL MIGRATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This section addresses one of the primary objectives of this consultancy, that is to assess
wildlife movements and seasonal migration in the lower Nam Theun, focusing on the Nam
Theun Corridor, and identifying critical factors affecting them. Firstly, it must be clarified here
that the term ‘seasonal migration’ would mean the movement of a population (or the majority
of a population from one area to another during a certain season within a 12-month cycle.
There are two distinct seasons in the study area, the dry and wet season. Given the short
duration of the project, only one season, the wet season, was covered. Hence, data gathered
during the course of this project most likely represent neither movements nor migration for a
12-month cycle. However, based on information from earlier related studies, and based on
verbal information gathered from residents living in and close to the study area, movements
and migration for both seasons, will nevertheless be presented and discussed.
It should also be noted that information regarding movements and migration was limited to
only one species, that is the Asian elephant15. This was primarily because data on other large
mammals (e.g., gaur and tiger) was scanty, which in turn was very likely due to the fact that
most large mammals in the Nam Theun Corridor exist at low densities (section 3.2.1). Hence,
all information with regard to wildlife movements and seasonal migration presented in this
section refers to the Asian elephant (unless specified otherwise).
Besides assessing movements and seasonal migration of the Asian elephant in the Nam
Theun Corridor, and identifying critical factors affecting them, this study attempted to estimate
the density of the Asian elephant. For species management purposes, obtaining ‘elephant
numbers’ is equally as important as assessing their travel routes and migratory patterns.
Likewise, it is also important to gather information on their ecology and behavior, and human-
elephant conflict. However, because of the duration and nature of this project, only some
information on the species ecology and behavior could be obtained, but nevertheless
presented here.
4.2 METHODS
4.2.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration

Albeit obtaining information on elephant presence was fairly straightforward, it was
nevertheless time-consuming. Local residents were initially interviewed as to where elephants
or their signs have been observed currently and in the past. Then surveys were carried out in:
n areas where recent or regular evidence of elephant presence were observed;
n areas where evidence of elephants were recorded in the past;
n and (briefly) areas where no evidence have been recorded.
Survey routes focused on recent and old logging tracks, major animal trails, followed by
elephant ‘trails’. Elephant ‘trails’ here refer to paths made by the elephants off the regular
animal trails through forested areas, and these may (most often than not) overlap with logging
tracks and major animal trails. Surveys along elephant trails were at times quite difficult due to
the presence of thick undergrowth and thorny vines. Furthermore, some of the elephant trails
crossed flooded wetlands and swollen tributaries (caused by the rains), that attempts by the
survey team to follow the elephant trails were occasionally abandoned.
15
At the request of the Nakai District Governor’s Office and the Forestry Section of the Khammouane PAFO, the
Asian elephant is briefly described in Annex 4.1.
77
Location of elephant presence recorded during surveys were obtained using Garmin 12XL
GPSs, aided by 1:25,000 topographic maps and Silva compasses. Elephant dung when
observed were categorized into five categories:
n A = All boli intact, fresh, moist, with odor;
n B = All boli intact, but dry, no odor;
n C1 = More than 50% of all boli intact;
n C2 = Less than 50% of all boli intact;
n D = All boli broken up or in a flat mass;
The locations of all evidence were then transferred onto a master map comprising a few
1:25,000 topographic maps that will be maintained for future work in the area.
4.2.2 Density Estimation

The Asian elephant occurs at low densities, is wide-ranging, and primarily a forest-dwelling
species, mainly inhabiting dense habitats with poor visibility. Thus, under these
circumstances, an indirect method for estimating the Asian elephant density based on dung
density estimation (Dawson & Dekker, 1992), is the most feasible method. To obtain the
density estimate E, requires that three parameters be measured:
n D = Dung density (dung piles per sq. km);
n R = Dung decomposition rate (proportion of dung piles disappearing per day);
n d = Defecation rate (the number of dung piles produced per day by an elephant);
n Thus, E = (D x R) ÷ d (giving the number of elephants per sq. km).
An important assumption made when employing this equation is that the proportion of dung
piles disappearing each day equals the proportion of dung piles deposited on that same day.
Dung Density Transect

The line transect sampling technique (Burnham et al., 1980; Buckland et al., 1993) was used
to estimate dung density. Straight-line transects randomly placed in the Nam Theun Corridor
(and the immediately area south of it, excluding the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA), were
prepared along a predetermined compass bearing, oriented perpendicular to the logging
roads and major rivers. Logging roads and major rivers were selected as baselines when
locating transects, as they allow access and adequate coverage of large census areas. This
could, however, introduce a bias due to the different vegetation and/or different habitat use,
and the behavior of the elephants by rivers and roads. Given the limited time frame,
manpower, and the large area to be covered, it was more feasible to use roads and rivers as
baselines.
Transects were surveyed only once, and data were collected while simultaneously preparing
the transects. This involved a team of three individuals. One team member clear a straight-
line path, the transect. The second team member held a compass aligned to a predetermined
compass bearing and ensures that the first team member prepares the transect in an
absolutely straight line. A distance of at least five meters was maintained between the
‘compass-bearer’ and the first person, to ensure that the transect remains straight. The third
team member measured the distance traveled along the transect using a Hip-chain distance
measurer, and held a second compass to increase precision. Only biodegradable threads
were used with the Hip-chain distance measurer. All three team members simultaneously
searched for dung. Dung piles observed while walking the transects were recorded onto data
recording sheets (annex 4.2).
78
Dung Decomposition Rate

The rate of dung decomposition depends on a combination of several factors that include the
action of dung beetles, climate, exposure to these climatic factors, and the composition of the
dung itself. Ideally, 50 fresh dung piles of known dates of deposition from different habitats,
representing different diets, should be monitored (annex 4.3) from the day of deposition until
they completely disappear (Dawson & Dekker, 1992). Measuring the rate of decay of the
Asian elephant dung in situ in the study area was not possible as their locations were
scattered over a very large area, requiring much effort and time to monitor, and would
therefore affect the primary objectives of the project. Hence, data from a study carried out in
northern Borneo (Boonratana, 1997a) was instead used. The mean survival rate of 153.85
days for each dung pile was obtained in that study, giving a decomposition rate of 0.0065 ±
0.0010 dung piles/day. This rate differed very little with rates obtained by other studies 16.
Defecation Rate:
Dung defecation rate of the Asian elephant depends on the its diet, which in turn depends on
the habitat type and the season (Dawson, 1992). Obtaining data on defecation rates of wild
elephant was not possible for obvious reasons. Thus, the closest approximation to it, is
monitoring free-ranging domestic or captive elephants fed entirely on natural fodder.
Monitoring, both night and day, should be carried out over a continuous 12-hour time block,
over a minimum of 20 time blocks (annex 4.4), and there should also be at least one individual
from each age/sex class (Dawson & Dekker, 1992). This, however, was not possible as there
were no captive elephants close to the study area. Hence, the rate of 13.2033±0.789 dung
piles per day obtained from another study (Dawson, 1992) was used.
4.3 RESULTS
4.3.1 Distribution, Movements & Seasonal Migration

The locations of elephant evidence prepared on 1:25,000 maps are reproduced onto a
reduced 1:100,000 topographic map (figure 4.1). Although this figure may not show all the
areas used by elephants during the wet season, it nevertheless shows areas of concentration
and main travel routes. Some of these areas show regular use, apparently throughout the
year. The main areas are primarily in the vicinity of Nong Pak Tok, Kouangten, Nam Gnalong,
Ban Thalang, at the mineral licks Poung Phai, Poung Ta-ee, Thaxang and Poung Mak Pat.
This observation strongly imply the presence of a resident population (as opposed to the
occasional use by elephants of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA to travel to Phou Hin Poun NBCA).
Hence the elephant population on the Nakai Plateau may very likely comprise two sub-
populations, the Nam Theun Corridor sub-population and the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA sub-
population. Information inferred from interviews with resident villagers lend further support to
this observation. No evidence of elephant presence was recorded in the Nam Gnala area and
areas north of it. Villagers reported that elephants were last sighted in the Nam Gnala area
about six years ago, and they attributed the elephant current absence to disturbance caused
by logging activities.
Figure 4.2 shows the distributional range of elephants in the lower Nam Theun. The
distributional range of elephants based on this study differed very little from that presented by
WCS (1997). It should be noted that the distribution of elephants (based on this study) in the
Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA was left ‘open-ended’ primarily because only some areas (within
the NBCA) immediately adjoining the Nam Theun Corridor were surveyed. Also, it is a known
fact, from existing written and verbal information, that elephant presence in the Nakai - Nam
16
In a study carried out in a dry tropical forest in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand,
Srikosamatara (1993) obtained a mean survival time of 156 days, giving a dung decomposition rate of
0.0064 dung piles/day. A mean survival time of 166.67 days per dung pile was calculated from a study by
Wiles (1980) in a lowland bamboo forest in Salak Phra Wildlife Sanctuary, southwestern Thailand, giving a
dung decomposition rate of 0.0060 dung piles/day.
79
Theun NBCA was not limited to that presented in figure 4.1. In addition, figures 4.1 and 4.2
clearly show that the elephant’s distributional range extended southwards beyond the
proposed boundary of the Nam Theun Corridor.
Based on the above data on elephant presence and distribution, the movement (and probable
movement) of elephants can be summarized as (figure 4.3):
1. Within the Nam Theun Corridor (and adjoining areas 17):
18
n from Nam Xot to Highway Route 8B , to Kouangten, to Nam Gnalong, to the mineral
licks (and vice-versa);
n from Nam Xot to Nong Pak Tok, to Nam Theun River (south of Kouangten), to
Kouangten, to Nam Gnalong, to the mineral licks (and vice-versa);
n from Nam Xot to Nong Pak Tok, to Nam Theun River, across the Nam Theun River, to
the mineral licks (and vice-versa);
n from Nam Xot to Nong Pak Tok, to Nam Theun River, across the Nam Theun River, to
Nam Gnalong (and vice-versa).
2. From the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA into the Nam Theun Corridor (and vice-versa):
n across the lower Nam Xot;
n across the Nam Theun River, between Ban Thalang and Ban Sopphaen.
3. From the Nam Theun Corridor into Phou Hin Poun NBCA (and vice-versa):
n across the Say Phou Ak at Laat Mak Heun.
Based on this study, studies by earlier workers (WCS, 1997; Steinmetz, 1998), and verbal
information, the seasonality in habitat use can be summarized as follows:
n wider use of area during the wet season as opposed to the dry season;
n use of the mineral licks throughout the year by the Nam Theun Corridor sub-
population, and intermittently throughout the year by the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA
sub-population;
n use of the Nam Theun Corridor throughout the year by the resident sub-population,
being mainly concentrated around the mineral licks, Ban Thalang area, Nam Theun
(between Ban Sopphaen and Kouangten), Kouangten and Nam Gnalong;
n use of the Nam Theun Corridor for some parts of the year by the Nakai - Nam Theun
NBCA sub-population;
n high use of the Nam Theun riverside and riverine habitats during the peak wet season;
n use of parts of the central forest area, primarily at Kuan Xam, in Phou Hin Poun NBCA
during the wet season.
[Note: it was reported that elephants used to range until the present-day Nakai township until
1990-91.]
4.3.2 Elephant Density Estimate

Seventy-one dung samples were observed in 14 straight line transects covering a total
distance of 11.69 km. A higher transect length could not be achieved due to the thick
undergrowth and because density estimation was not the primary focus of this study. For
purpose of analysis, only 13 transects were considered, as one of the transects was out of
the known elephant distributional range. Hence, this gave the transects a total length of 10.91
km, and an average length of 839 m.
17
Excluding the Nakai - Nam Theun and Phou Hin Poun NBCAs.
18
This is a seasonal road that is not passable to motor vehicles during the wet season.
80
The strip width of the transects was calculated to be 5 m, and this reduced the samples
observed to 65 dung piles. As the transects were of unequal lengths, therefore the number of
samples observed were weighted against each transect length. Thus, obtaining a dung
density at 3101.16 (±2098.07) droppings per km². The low precision of this estimate suggest
that an increase in the total length of the transects is needed. Nevertheless, proceeding with
this figure, an elephant density of 1.52 (±0.99) elephants per km² was obtained. In terms of
density, this figure is more likely an overestimate of actual elephant density found in the area.
Nevertheless, it gives an indication of the number of elephants using that area during the wet
season.
4.3.3 Ecology and Behavior

Direct observations were not possible, although elephant groups were encountered a few
times, and distant vocalizations heard on several occasions. This was primarily due to the
thick undergrowth obscuring visibility. Nevertheless, attempts to observe the elephants were
made on two of these encounters.
The first encounter was on August 19. A sub-team followed fresh elephant signs observed at
a river crossing in the middle reaches of Nam Gnalong. Several sets of tracks and dung boli
were observed along the route. The elephants did not follow a single path but a few, that
crossed one another. Although these paths frequently overlapped with existing animal trails,
most were new ones made by the elephants pushing through the undergrowth. Albeit heading
generally southwards 19, the paths were not directed. Based on this evidence and feeding
signs, the elephants were apparently foraging.
Furthermore, based on tracks, dung boli and paths made, it was estimated that the group
possibly comprised seven to eight individuals. In addition, the group apparently broke up into
smaller foraging sub-groups, ranging from one to at least three individuals. This sub-group of
at least three individuals was later encountered and followed. Due to the elephants’ past
experience with humans, and the presence of a young individual in that sub-group, the survey
team remained within a relatively safe distance from the sub-group, lest the elephants
became frightened and reacted negatively. Based on the track size, the three individuals were
estimated to be at 2.7 m, 2 m, and 1.5 m at shoulder heights.
The second encounter was on September 23, with a small group of elephants comprising
probably 6-7 individuals in an area about 4 kms to the east-southeast of Poung Phai. A set of
small tracks observed implied the presence of a young elephant measuring about 1.3 m at
shoulder height. Visual observation of the elephants was limited to the movement of branches
and saplings due the thick undergrowth. This group stayed in the same area until nightfall.
All known mineral sources in the study area showed intensive and regular use by elephants.
Also, there were more feeding signs observed in bamboo patches, than any other habitat.
Resident villagers report that elephants frequently feed on bamboo parts, primarily shoots,
during the wet season.
Intense elephant activity from several elephant groups were observed along the Nam Theun
between Nam Gnalong and Nam Poungphai during the peak rains in July, implying a
‘scheduled’ gathering by the river. As reported by resident villagers, this apparently is a
common annual feature during the wet season.
Evidence found on opposite banks of the Nam Theun, Nam Gnalong and Nam Xot showed
the signs of river crossings by elephants. Several elephant trails when surveyed ended
abruptly at one side of the river, and continued on the other side. Resident villagers have
similarly reported seeing elephants crossing the Nam Theun.
The elephants apparently bathe with mud by rolling or lying in muddy patches and mud
wallows. The habit of wallowing was also evident at some mud wallows encountered in the
19
This southward direction joins a logging road that leads to the mineral licks.
81
forests. Mud smears observed on some trees near these muddy patches and mud wallows
suggest that the elephants frequently rub their bodies against trees after a mud bath.
The presence of elongated gashes on the bark of some trees suggest that the elephants
frequently rub their tusks against those trees. Occasionally, holes were observed in the sides
of some mud wallows and embankment, apparently made by the elephants’ tusks.
4.3.4 Elephant-Human Conflict

Most human conflicts with elephants in the area are related to elephant raiding of agricultural
crops. In recent years, crop raiding by elephants follow no clear season, although there are
more reports in August and September. This was likely because the elephants are
permanently found in the area throughout the year. In the past, however, crop raiding by
elephants could only be observed in August and September. Resident villagers further
reported that in the distant past (more than 10 years ago) crop-raiding behavior was never
exhibited by the elephants, in spite of their presence near the villages, during the wet season.
Significant observations related to human-elephant conflict in the area made during this study
are summarized below:
n On August 8, a resident of Ban Bocho was killed by an elephant in an area halfway
between Ban Bocho and Poung Ta-ee. It was reported that the deceased along with
three other residents of Ban Bocho were on their way to check their snarelines.
n During the first week of September, a lone bull elephant raided the crops of several
Ban Thalang residents. The elephant apparently did not scare easily in spite of
concerted efforts by the villagers to chase away the elephant (including several
gunshots fired into the sky). Table 4.1 is a translation of claims submitted by the Ban
Thalang villagers to the District Governor’s Office seeking compensation to their
damaged crops. Apparently, the claims are much more than the actual damage
incurred.
n In the third week of September, crop-raiding by a large(?) group of elephants was
reported in Ban Don and Ban Khonken, along the Nam On, a major tributary of Nam
Theun towards the southeastern part of the Nakai plateau.
n On September 27, a small group of seven elephants raided the crops of a Ban
Thalang resident. The damage was not extensive as the owner scared the elephants
away with loud noises. Apparently, this was the only Ban Thalang resident who made
any effort to protect his crops. Efforts included surrounding his agricultural land with
thorny vines and branches; hanging large sheets of cloth and empty cans in his field
and on the paths to it; and staying guard near his field in the night.
4.4 DISCUSSION
Based on all the observations and findings, it can safely be concluded that it is incorrect to
suggest that there is a seasonal migration of elephants from the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA
into the Phou Hin Poun NBCA, as only some elephants use the central forest area of Phou
Hin Poun NBCA during the wet season, and the area is merely an extension of their range.
Steinmetz (1998) and resident villagers reported the presence of elephants in the said area
only during the wet season, and into the early dry season. The term ‘migration’ in the context
of this study would mean the movement of a majority, if not all, of the elephant population from
the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA into Phou Hin Poun NBCA. Furthermore, the presence of a
resident sub-population in the Nam Theun Corridor does not support the existence of a
seasonal migration between the two NBCAs. Hence, the movements observed during the wet
season is very likely a range extension of their dry season range, i.e., a seasonal shift in
range, and not a seasonal migration.
Steinmetz (1998) suggested that water availability is one reason why elephants might be
using the central forest area of Phou Hin Poun NBCA during the wet season only. He further
suggested that the central forest area could possibly represent a sub-optimal habitat that are
82
being used only by subordinate elephants or small group of young bulls, or that the area is a
range extension for the Nakai Plateau population, that started using the area after more food
became available through human activities (secondary growth and stands of bamboo).
Observations from this study does lend support to the idea that part of the central forest area
is a range extension for the Nakai Plateau population, although possibly for different reasons
However, the reasons proposed in this study are more likely in addition and/or in relation to
that proposed by Steinmetz (1998). One possible reason for this range extension is the use of
mineral licks at Kuan Xam, located in the southern portion of the central forest area.
Secondly, the elephants use the area during the wet season, possibly to reduce pressure on
the food resources on the plateau during the wet season, when there is an increase in
elephant numbers. A third possibility is related to the elephants’ need to socialize (search for
mates and exchange of genes) with elephants from other population or sub-population,
possibly from Phou Hai - Phou Mon that similarly uses the central forest area.
There also appears to be some changes to the seasonality and patterns in ranging over the
past years. In the past, elephants were found close to human settlements only during the wet
season. Whereas in recent years their presence are reported throughout the year. Thus, the
seasonality in distribution and movement as currently observed may reflect adaptations in
response to disturbance, habitat change, and food availability.
Evidence has shown that major rivers on the Nakai Plateau do not restrict movements of the
elephants. Studies on the Asian elephant in southeastern Sri Lanka (McKay, 1973), and
northern Borneo (Boonratana, 1997a) observed that the elephant is capable of swimming,
and is apparently a common feature with this species. Both Peacock (1933) and Tun Yin
(1967) wrote that the Asian elephant in Myanmar are excellent swimmers, able to cross
water-bodies that are more than a kilometer wide. In addition, when crossing smaller water-
bodies, the elephant often walked the floor with an upraised trunk for breathing (Tun Yin,
1967). McKay (1973) observed that only the top of the elephant’s head and the tip of its trunk
were above water, while the rest of its body remained submerged when swimming.
Synthesizing the observations, findings and above discussions, it is expected that the
reservoir (once it fills in) will disrupt and restrict the movements and gene flow of the
elephants, and fragment their existing habitats. Over time, however, the reservoir may not
necessarily form a barrier, as the estimated distance (over water), along some of the known
travel routes is less than 1.5 km at the full supply level (538 m amsl), and not more than 400
m at minimum operating level (527.5 m amsl). Nevertheless, this is merely an assumption,
therefore mitigation measures must be implemented, whether the elephants are able to swim
across parts of the reservoir and use their remaining habitats or not. However, the serious
loss and fragmentation of habitats (and loss of food supply) will require proactive human
intervention that includes making available suitable habitats, and ensuring abundant food
supply.
The density estimate of elephants (1.52 elephants/km²) obtained for the study area where
transect surveys were carried out was very likely an over-estimate due to a bias influenced
by:
n the low precision of the dung density estimate;
n the elephants’ preference to habitats close to roads and rivers;
n the elephants’ preference for the mineral licks;
n the movement of elephants from the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA into the Nam Theun
Corridor during the wet season;
n the gathering of several elephants groups by Nam Theun during the peak wet season
Nevertheless, based on this estimate, the number of elephants using the study area during
the wet season was calculated to comprise 268 (±174) individuals. This area (fig. 4.1),
calculated to be 176 km², was the area within the ‘incomplete’ convex polygon, joining the
83
extreme-most locations of elephant evidence, until Nam Xot and Nam Theun (which forms the
southwestern boundary of Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA).
This figure, for the same reasons listed above, may likely represent the number of elephants
that can use the area during the wet season. For species management purposes, it is
probably more realistic to use the lower density estimate obtained (0.52 elephants/km²).
Hence, using this conservative approach, the lower population estimate was calculated to be
94 individuals, therefore very likely representing the size of the resident sub-population.
However, more detailed exercises are needed to confirm these findings.
Fresh elephant signs were commonly observed along the Nam Theun, on both riverbanks,
between Sop Poung Phai and Sop Gnalong during the peak rains of July, strongly suggesting
that different elephant groups made a ‘scheduled’ presence by the river. A similar observation
was made during a study on elephants in North Borneo, where different groups, comprising
more than 100 individuals came to gather by the major rivers during the peak rains
(Boonratana, 1997a). Interviews with local villagers in the Nam Theun area revealed that this
was a common feature with the elephants in that area during peak rains. This gathering of
elephants by a distinctive topographical feature (a major river) during a certain period of the
year strongly suggest a need for the different elephant groups to socialize, and possibly
exchange of genes (Boonratana, 1997a).
Evidence of elephant activity by major rivers and tributaries strongly suggest the species’
dependence on waterways and its associated riverine habitats. River systems and their
associated habitats provide both large quantities of water and food important to the elephant,
hence the elephants movement would therefore, be governed by the spatial distribution and
temporal availability of food and water (Boonratana, 1997a; McKay, 1973; Sukumar, 1989).
Furthermore, elephants are known to be attracted to bamboo patches during the wet season
to feed on shoots, stems and leaves (pers. obs; Lekagul & McNeely, 1997). Besides
supplying the elephant’s needs for water and food, major river systems possibly serve as
important points of reference or landmarks, particularly for wide-ranging species. Major
waterways are therefore most likely the most readily recognizable landmarks in habitats
(particularly in a tropical rainforest) where visibility is limited (Boonratana, 1997a). Thus,
historically, their range would include habitats associated with river systems.
Similarly, there is a preference for elephants to travel along or very close to roads in forested
areas. Most likely, this is due to the greater food availability by roads and the relative ease by
which the elephants can travel (Boonratana, 1997a).
Frequent and regular visits to mineral licks clearly indicate the importance of these sources to
the Asian elephant. Hence, the species distribution and movement also governed by the
distribution of these mineral sources (Boonratana, 1997a; Davies & Payne, 1982; Olivier,
1978; Sukumar, 1989). Mineral licks are important not only to elephants but also to other
herbivores, and indirectly to carnivores that prey on these herbivores. Constituents of mineral
licks are usually different for different mineral licks, therefore there is a tendency for elephants
to visit as many mineral licks as possible (Lekagul & McMeely, 1997). In addition,
observations by Lekagul and McMeely (1997) showed that mineral licks are visited more often
during the wet season or after rains, when water dissolve the nutrients, therefore easily
consumed. Thus, ensuring the viability of the mineral licks is one of the key factor towards
ensuring the long-term viability of the elephants in the area (section 5.3.7).
Wallowing behavior in the Asian elephant might serve to moisten the skin and to protect the
animals against ectoparasites, and possibly assist in thermoregulation (Boonratana, 1997a).
Based on observations and findings, human conflicts with elephant in the Nam Theun
Corridor and adjoining area arose as a result of loss of habitat, poaching, disturbance from
logging and related activities, and the elephants’ acquired taste for agricultural crops. Loss of
habitat in the Nakai Plateau is primarily through agricultural expansion, swidden agriculture
and timber extraction (that did not conform to ecologically sound prescriptions). Furthermore,
a major loss of habitat, as a result of the hydropower construction, will escalate human-
elephant conflicts, primarily through competition for the remaining habitats.
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Table 4.1 Elephant Crop Damage Claims of Ban Thalang (Sep. 15, 2000).
Claimant Rice (kg) Banana Sugar cane Cassava Papaya Amount (in
(stems) (stems) (stems) (stems) Kip20)
Thongsee - 350 300 1500 - 5,000,000
Khaentae - 150 60 300 - 4,500,000
Pho Intong 20 120 150 300 - 3,000,000
Thavong 10 100 105 - - 3,500,000
Thao Khamnoo - 120 109 - - 3,000,000
Mae Maikhoon - 108 90 - - 3,500,000
Lung Kamphong - 50 10 - - 2,000,000
Thao Siangkaew 25 50 25 - - 3,500,000
Pa Pan 10 10 30 50 10 1,500,000
Lung Siangchampa 25 - - - - ?
Pao Buathong 30 - - - - ?
Pho Bounyang 35 - - - - ?
Pho thao 25 150 209 200 25 1,000,000
Khamkhong
Pho Nangnok - 39 40 10 - 3,000,000
Thao Maison - 60 70 150 45 3,500,000
Phothao Sopha - 30 - - - ?
Phothao Khamla - 200 10 100 - 3,500,000
Bounkhern 40 - - - - ?
Khamkhong 24 60 70 - 30 2,000,000
20
USD1 = c. Kip8,000.
85
Figure 4.1 Location of Elephant Sighting and Signs (Jun-Oct. 2000)
86
Figure 4.2 Distributional Range of Elephants in the Nam Theun Corridor
87
Figure 4.3 Elephant Movements (Jun-Oct. 2000)
88
Annex 4.1 The Asian Elephant: A Brief Description

Belonging to a monotypic genus of the family Elephantidae, the Asian elephant (Elephas
maximus) is one of the two living species of elephants. The other is the African elephant
(Loxodonta africana). The Asian elephant have a trunk which ends in a single pointed ‘lip’ or
‘finger’ (two in the African elephant). Two protuberances are clearly visible on its forehead
(one in the African elephant), and the upper rims of its ears are extended almost level with its
forehead. The Asian elephant usually have four toe-nails on the forefoot and four to five toe-
nails on the hindfoot (Peacock, 1933; Tun Yin, 1967; Corvanich, 1976).
Heights of adult Asian elephants range from 2.5 to 3 m (Lekagul & McNeely, 1977), but males
may reach a maximum height of 3.2 m (Peacock, 1933). Weight of adults usually range from
3,500 to 5,000 kg (Lekagul & McNeely, 1977). Most adult males have tusks that measure from
0.5 m to 1.7 m long (Payne et al., 1985), but have been known to attain a length of 3 m
(Lekagul & McNeely, 1977). Tuskless males, although not uncommon, are often bigger than
males with tusks (Tun Yin, 1967; Corvanich, 1976). Females as a rule lack tusks, but often
bear small tushes that may protrude as much as 15 cm beyond the lips (Peacock, 1933),
whereas both male and female African elephants bear tusks. The gestation period is 19-21
months (Lekagul & McNeely, 1977).
Social groups of the Asian elephant from two to 40 individuals have been reported, with some
solitary adult males (Peacock, 1933; Lekagul & McNeely, 1977; Olivier, 1978; Sukumar,
1989), although large groups of a hundred have also been reported (Boonratana, 1997a;
Payne et al., 1985). Home ranges vary greatly from 59 km² to 167 km², and the elephants
occupy a wide variety of habitats, preferring the forests rather than open habitats (Olivier,
1978; Sukumar, 1989). The Asian elephant is a generalist feeder, and its diet comprises
mainly the softer portions of monocotyledonous plants (McKay, 1973; Payne et al., 1985;
Sukumar, 1989).
Once widespread throughout Asia, the Asian elephant is now restricted to parts of India
including the Andaman Islands, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, China, Myanmar,
Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Sumatra and Kalimantan, and Peninsular Malaysia,
Sabah, and just extend into Kalimantan (Payne et al., 1985; Sukumar, 1989).
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Annex 4.2 Recording Format for Dung Density Transects
Personnel_____________________________________Location_______________
Habitat Type_________________Topography_____________Season____________
Transect No.__________Transect Length_________Compass Bearing___________
Weather_________ Date__________Start Time__________End Time___________
Distance along Perpendicular distance Stage of Remarks
transect (m) to dung pile (m) decay *)
* A = All boli intact, fresh, moist, with odour; B = All boli intact, but dry, no odour; C1 = More than 50% of all boli intact; C2
= Less than 50% of all boli intact; D = All boli broken up or in a flat mass.
90
Annex 4.3 Recording Format for Dung Decomposition Rate
Personnel:________________________________Location:____________________
Habitat type:______________ Season:________Start date:_______End date:_______
Sample Date No. of Progressive decay stage by days *
no. boli
1 3 5 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
Total dung piles

surviving
* A = All boli intact, fresh, moist, with odour; B = All boli intact, but dry, no odour; C1 = More than 50% of all boli intact; C2
= Less than 50% of all boli intact; D = All boli broken up or in a flat mass; E = No dung visible (fully decayed).
91
Annex 4.4 Recording Format for Dung Defecation Rate
Personnel: __________________________________________________________
Location:_________________________Season:____________Date:____________
Age/Sex_______________ Age/Sex_______________ Age/Sex______________T
Time block_____________ Time block ____________ ime block ___________
Time No. of boli Time No. of boli Time No. of boli
Total defecations________ Total defecations________ Total defecations_______
92
Plate 4.1 Photographic Summary of Activities I
93
Plate 4.2 Photographic Summary of Activities II
94
Plate 4.3 Photographic Summary of Activities III
95
5. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary objectives of this component of the Year 2000 Activities of the Nam Theun Social
and Environmental Project comprise the:
n assessment of movements and seasonal migration patterns of wildlife in the lower
Nam Theun, focussing on the Nam Theun Corridor;
n training and strengthening of NBCA staff and relevant personnel to conduct similar
studies and to establish a regular monitoring of critical factors;
n recommendation of management guidelines for the lower Nam Theun, focussing on
the Nam Theun Corridor.
All the above objectives (and more) were achieved to varying degree of success, in spite of
obstacles faced as a direct result of the wet season - continuous rains, floods, landslides,
difficult access, food shortage, and health-related problems. Hence, the team had to put in
twice the effort to achieve the desired results.
Besides carrying out the activities towards achieving the objectives mentioned above, this
component undertook a few other minor activities that nevertheless bore significant
contributions and implications. These included:
n NBCA HQ Management: There is no permanent presence of any NBCA staff member
at the NBCA’s headquarters in Muang Nakai. Staff can be seen at the headquarters
only when there are some activities (usually project-related). Thus, this has resulted in
the poor condition of the headquarters - overgrown grass and shrubs, litter, missing
electrical wires, etc. Thus, to remedy this, two guards cum handymen were hired to
maintain the headquarters; computer, walkie-talkies, and the water pump were
repaired21; electrical wires and other basic utensils (rubbish bins 22, buckets, brooms,
etc.) were purchased. Albeit this may appear trivial, it was nevertheless necessary to
maintain a healthy working environment for the headquarters. This, however, badly
reflect the attitude of the NBCA management authority and other personnel towards
cleanliness, and the care and maintenance of equipment.
n Conservation Awareness: T-shirts depicting the different components of this project
were distributed to the relevant district agencies, schools, and villages to generate
awareness and appreciation for the project. As the team belonging to this component
of the project could travel through settlements not usually visited by officials from
relevant agencies, it allowed a good opportunity to distribute other conservation
materials that included several different posters, calendars, and conservation story
books (The Story of “Noi”). At schools, teachers were requested to award a T-shirt
each to a male and a female student of every class that had achieved high grades in
their studies. This will hopefully allow other students to similarly work hard at their
studies. While on the subject of conservation awareness materials, it is indeed
unfortunate that in spite of the efforts and costs invested into producing those
materials over the past years by different agencies, they rarely reach the target group.
Most never get distributed beyond the provincial and district offices. Even if it reached
settlements, the village headmen tended to ‘hoard’ all the materials for himself and his
immediate family members. It is not uncommon to see five to six of the same posters
on the walls of the headmen’s and family members’ homes.
21
Computer breakdown was primarily due to lack of knowledge of use, and the use of the computer for
‘karaoke sessions’. Walkies -talkies were apparently used as ‘telephones’ - long conversations.
22
In spite of installing rubbish bins and constant reminders, staff, relevant personnel, members of the other
components of this project, and visitors still have difficulty in proper rubbish disposal.
96
5.2 IMPORTANCE OF THE NAM THEUN CORRIDOR

Albeit the diversity and density of wildlife in the Nam Theun Corridor is not high (resulting from
major human impacts on the natural resources), it nevertheless merits a protection status,
primarily due to the presence of the Asian elephants. Observations show the elephants
simultaneously using the Nam Theun Corridor, the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA, and adjoining
areas throughout the year, and the Phou Hin Poun NBCA for part of the year. Thus, it is
imperative that these areas be maintained as a single conservation unit to ensure the long-
term survival of one of the two known viable elephant populations 23 in Lao PDR.
Hence, given all the above observations and findings, the establishment of Nam Theun
Corridor is justified not only for the movement of elephants from the Nakai - Nam Theun
NBCA into Phou Hin Poun NBCA, but also because of:
n elephant movements from the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA into the corridor itself;
n the presence of a resident sub-population;
n the need for different elephant groups to socialize and exchange genes;
n the presence of critical resource (mineral licks and fodder, in particular bamboo) to the
elephants.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations offered here do not only pertain to the Nam Theun Corridor and in relation
to the activities carried out during this consultancy, but applies to the whole Nakai - Nam
Theun Conservation Area. Most often than not, some of these recommendations are
applicable to other protected areas in Lao PDR.
5.3.1 Training & Training Needs

n Training programs should preferably be carried out in the Lao language.
Whenever possible, training should be carried out in the Lao language without an
interpreter. Rapport between the instructor and the trainees cannot be easily and
quickly achieved with the use of an interpreter. Much information would also be ‘lost’
during interpretation or misinterpreted, and in even worse situations, misinterpretation
could lead to misunderstanding and animosity.
n Training programs should comprise both theory and practical training.
Field training should immediately follow any classroom training, putting theory into
practice. Past experience have shown that theory-based only training programs are of
little value, as trainees were unable to apply the skills learnt to real situations.
n Training instructor(s) should actively participate in all training activities.
Instructors should partake in the activities that follow any training program, to guide the
process of translating knowledge acquired by the trainees into practicable skills and
meaningful activities, and to allow any issues faced under field conditions to
immediately be resolved.
n Training programs should be repeated to reinforce skills.
Future training programs and activities should be carried out along similar lines, and
repeated annually for a minimum of three continuous years. This will not only reinforce
the trainees’ (and new staff's) capability but will also allow them to learn skills still
unfamiliar to them and/or needed for the changing needs of the protected area.
Furthermore, repetitive on-the-job training will allow wildlife and habitats to be
23
The other population, estimated between 350-500 individuals, is in Nam Poui NBCA, Sayaburi Province
(Boonratana, 1997b & 1998b). It should also be noted that elephants do occur in several other areas within
Lao PDR, but their statuses are yet unclear.
97
monitored and assessed, besides maintaining some continuity in developing capacity

and capability of protected area staff.
n Protected area staff need to be trained in wildlife identification.
Staff from the protected areas, in particular the patrolling and monitoring units should
spend at least ten days (under close supervision and with pre-determined
assignments) at an established zoo within the region to assist them in understanding
wildlife taxonomy and in identifying wildlife species. Most of the staff’s exposure to
wildlife is limited to field guides and the occasional videos and TV programs (usually
species foreign to this region), therefore are unable to identify species under field
conditions.
n Senior ‘trained’ staff must train new members.
There must be an obligation among the senior staff to train newly employed staff or
reinforce the capacity of the weaker ones. Training topics can be limited to map and
compass use, wildlife and impact survey, data recording, and field craft.
n Training programs should also include staff other than the target group.
It is important that all members of the NBCA staff (including the Head, the extension
unit, and administrative staff) participate in all training activities (whether in field
management or extension, etc.) carried out in the protected area, to give them a better
understanding of the protected area’s objectives and assist them in managing the
protected area better. Past experiences have shown that the different components of
the management authority are disjunct and uncoordinated.
n Extend training programs to include stakeholders, graduate students, and teachers.
In general, training programs in field conservation techniques should not be limited to
the NBCA staff only, but extended to include staff of PAFO and DAFO, stakeholder
agencies (military and police) and villagers (village monitoring units), undergraduate
and graduate students from Lao educational institutions, and local schoolteachers.
Exposure of this type would provide a better understanding of the conservation
objectives. It will assist the PAFO and DAFO staff in their day to day duties.
Furthermore, it will encourage participatory conservation with relevant stakeholders. It
will prepare students from relevant fields for future conservation work in the country,
and it will provide ‘materials’ for schoolteachers to introduce conservation education in
the schools.
5.3.2 Surveys, Monitoring and Research

n Maintain continuity in survey and monitoring activities.
Surveys and monitoring should be carried out continuously in all areas to provide an
overall assessment, but focus should be in areas with key wildlife species and
habitats, and major human impacts are observed.
n Regularly submit trip reports.
Data collected should be analyzed and the report written up immediately after every
field trip to avoid unnecessary delays in report submission, and while the impression
is still ‘fresh’. Separate reports should be written for every field trip. Reports should
comprise a table for wildlife observed, a table for human impact, a map or maps for
routes taken, and locations of significant finds (key wildlife species, critical wildlife
habitat, and sites of major human impact).
n Prepare a list of plant and animal names, as they are known locally.
A list of key plant and wildlife species as they are known by the different ethnic groups
living in and around the conservation area should be prepared. This will assist the staff
in gathering data and in their communication with the resident villagers.
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n Climatic data should be collected.

Collection of rainfall and temperature data should be part of the daily HQ-based
activities of the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA. Climatic data is important for research and
management of the NBCA.
n Initiate a study on island biogeography.
Several ‘islands’ will be created as a result of the hydropower construction. Thus,
allowing an opportunity to study impacts on, or changes and adaptations in plant and
animal communities. This study could be tied into an academic program for a suitable
Lao national that will result in a doctoral degree.
n Establish the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area as a center for field research.
Encourage local and foreign graduate students to carry out conservation research on
related subjects in the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area. In addition to providing
valuable scientific data, this will also provide important management input into the
conservation area. Furthermore, staff attached to researchers will gain much valuable
knowledge and training. In addition, the presence of researchers has successfully
been known to deter activities detrimental to wildlife and habitats, and provide job
opportunities to residents (e.g., the Danum Valley Field Center in northern Borneo).
5.3.3 Patrolling and Law Enforcement

n Conduct patrolling and law enforcement activities.
Anti-poaching patrolling activities should be carried out regularly but randomly so as
not to allow poachers to become familiar with the patrolling schedule. Foot and boat
patrols should be carried out where poachers’ camps are located, usually along
streams and rivers. Focus of anti-poaching patrolling activities should be on the
mineral licks, and areas where this study has indicated a high incidence of poaching.
Most important, however, is for these activities to be implemented immediately
regardless of whether there is a donor-funded project or not24.
n Acquire essential equipment and vehicles.
To facilitate patrolling and law enforcement activities, the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA
must acquire basic field equipment (annex 2.9) for its patrolling and monitoring staff
and relevant personnel. Other immediate requirements for the NBCA staff and
relevant personnel include two boats (preferably inflatable) with 50HP outboard
engines (and electric engines for ‘silent’ surveys and patrols), six off-road
motorcycles, a hand-tractor plus carriage (for wet season travel), and a 4-wheel drive
pick-up truck. Long term requirements is expected to be tenfold.
n Control and regulate the use of firearms.
Unauthorized persons should not be allowed to carry firearms in the Nam Theun
Corridor (and other conservation areas), and authorized personnel (e.g., military,
police, and militia) must use their firearms strictly for the purpose of maintaining order
and security. This will effectively reduce the level of hunting. In addition, members of
the security force (army, police, and militia) should not abuse their authority and
firearms.
n Do not support wildlife trade.
Village headmen should ensure that members of their settlements do not support or
partake in the wildlife trade. Hence, villagers should not provide shelter to wildlife
traders. This could be included as one of the village ‘rules and regulations’ (section
5.3.4). Known offenders (wildlife traders) should be denied access to and through the
conservation area.
24
It has been observed that NBCA management activities usually come to a standstill when a project e nds.
99
n Provide incentives and rewards.

Incentives or rewards in monetary form or recognition or both should be awarded to
the protected area staff and relevant personnel, or individuals that contribute towards
the protection and conservation efforts (e.g., a percentage of the fines along with merit
certificates).
n Establish guard posts.
Permanent guard posts equipped with wireless radios must be maintained at both
ends of the Route 8B where it enters and exits the Nam Theun Corridor, and at a
suitable place along the main access road from Ban Natan (in Phou Hin Poun NBCA)
to Ban Thalang. Staffing at each guard post should comprise two members at the
District Police and two from the Village Militia. This staff of four should be rotated on a
weekly basis. The NBCA staff should also make frequent ‘support’ visits to the guard
posts. The cost of constructing a permanent guard post is estimated at USD 500, and
the radio costs approximately USD 1,000. The daily allowance for maintaining a staff
of four is USD 5,840 per annum per guard post (USD 4/person).
n Establish transboundary cooperation to counter incursions, poaching, and trade.
Cooperation must be sought from the appropriate agencies in Vietnam in preventing
incursion along eastern border of the NBCA. In addition, cooperation is needed from
the Government of SR Vietnam to assist in curbing the illegal trade in wildlife and other
forest products from Lao PDR into or via SR Vietnam.
5.3.4 Zonation
n Demarcate zones and establish rules.
Identify and demarcate zones within the NBCA and its extensions and develop rules
and regulations for those zones. The delineation of areas within a protected area into
management zones is to allow specific objectives to be fulfilled by allowing or not
allowing certain activities to be carried out within those zones. The ultimate goal,
however, is to provide long-term protection and conservation of natural resources of
the protected area through better implementation of activities and better planning for
future activities. With clear management zones, the conflict among stakeholders can
be avoided or will greatly be reduced. Zoning exercises should be done in consultation
with a wildlife biologist, a land use planning specialist, and the stakeholders.
n Complete land allocation and land use exercises.
Land allocation and land use exercises should also be carried out in all villages within
and adjacent to the NBCA to prevent further loss of viable forested areas. Village ‘rules
and regulations’ should be developed in consultation with all the concerned
stakeholders (and in consultation with a wildlife biologist), as these will significantly
impact on the traditional rights and livelihoods of the local communities. It could be
simultaneously developed while carrying out the land allocation exercises. Besides
abiding the rules and regulations, villagers need to commit efforts towards patrolling
and monitoring of areas within their village boundaries. Compliance with rules and
regulations can possibly be achieved through an exchange for privileges, which can
include agricultural extension, health care, and better schooling.
n Mineral licks should receive a special protection status.
Mineral licks must be made off-limits to detrimental human activities, domestic
animals, and to unauthorized individuals. Domestic animals, particularly cattle, should
not be allowed to range freely into the protected areas, to prevent competition for the
same food resources, human-wildlife conflict (e.g., predation on domestic animals),
and spread of diseases to wildlife. Furthermore, all domestic animals in and around
the conservation areas should be inoculated against potentially dangerous diseases.
This could be included into the activities of extension assistance.
100
n Centralize agricultural plots.

Concentrate several agricultural lands belonging to different households (of relevant
villages) into few contiguous areas that do not overlap with prime wildlife habitats. The
agricultural lands (permanent and swidden) are currently scattered, thereby impeding
the passage of many wildlife species, leading to more human-wildlife conflict. In
addition, by ‘centralizing’ several agricultural plots, it therefore will be easier to monitor
and deter crop raiding by elephants. Furthermore, it will be more feasible and effective
to install non-fatal electric fences around a few contiguous agricultural lands than
around several scattered ones.
5.3.5 Administration
n Ensure the permanent presence of protected area staff at the NBCA headquarters.
There is a need for the presence of at least two senior ranking staff (on a rotational
basis), and other administrative staff at the NBCA headquarters in Muang Nakai at any
given time, to manage the headquarters, deal with daily and/or urgent needs, and
address issues. Currently, the headquarters is more or less deserted unless there are
donor-funded project activities, or because the existing staff are all involved in the field-
based activities of the project.
n Establish rules and regulations with regard to equipment and vehicle use.
Equipment and vehicles should be issued to the staff and relevant personnel only, and
only when they are on assignments. The equipment and vehicles should be returned
and checked immediately after the assignment. The NBCA should develop regulations
regarding the use of equipment and vehicles, and the vehicles should be insured and
drivers should have valid licenses.
n Establish a system for care and maintenance of equipment and vehicles.
Field equipment and vehicles should be cleaned after every field trip. Equipment like
compasses, binoculars, cameras, and GPSs should be kept out of their cases and
placed in airtight containers safely in the cabinets. Similarly, vehicles should be
washed and oiled at least once a week, and serviced every 5,000 km. A vehicle
maintenance logbook can be maintained for this purpose.
n Rewire the electrical supply and outlets.
There is a major need for a rewiring of electrical lines and sockets at the headquarters
to prevent damage to electrical equipment and possible fires caused by faulty wiring
and incorrect fuses (as observed currently).
5.3.6 Miscellaneous
n Involve both Bolikhamxay and Khammouane Provinces.
As the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area covers both the Bolikhamxay and
Khammouane Provinces, there therefore need to be a strong partnership and
coordination amongst the relevant agencies of both provinces, and it is imperative that
donor-funded projects involve both provinces.
n Initiate and conduct a long-term conservation education and awareness program.
A conservation education and public awareness program should be carried out at
every settlement centers in and around the NBCA and its extensions. This can be
carried out by the NBCA extension staff, after receiving appropriate training, or by
‘specialists’ like the drama troupe of the Vientiane mobile library. The program should
also include topics on protected species, protected area rules and regulations, and
penalties.
n Obligation and commitment from the public sector and NGOs.
101
Staff of government agencies and non-governmental organizations, particularly those

working in and around protected areas, should refrain from consuming protected
species and illegally obtained wild meat. This will seriously affect conservation efforts
and law enforcement activities. Furthermore, this will make the public lose respect in
the system. Thus, besides fines, strict disciplinary actions should be taken against
offenders.
n Education opportunities for children of stakeholder villages.
Schools in the stakeholder villages need to be better equipped not only with proper
materials, but also with qualified teachers. Better quality education and opportunities to
higher education, in the long term, will bear significance on conservation efforts.
Individuals with educational qualifications will undoubtedly seek careers offering better
security and better livelihood, when compared to the uncertainty of swidden agriculture
and dependence of natural resources. This might result in the emigration of
households out of the protected area, and will reduce the impacts on the remaining
natural resources.
5.3.7 Wildlife Conservation and Mitigation Measures

The key large mammal in the Nam Theun Corridor is the Asian elephant. Successful
conservation of this species can ensure the conservation of other species using the same
habitats. Some recommendations needed towards the conservation of this species and other
denizens can be drawn from those mentioned above. Specific recommendations include:
n Include the proposed extension to the Nam Theun Corridor.
The southern boundary of the Nam Theun Corridor (figure 5.1) should be extended to
include the known distributional range of the elephants. This extension will effectively
cover all the mineral licks, grasslands and wetlands used by the elephants.
It should be noted that the existing revised proposed boundary of the Nam Theun
Corridor has included part of this recommendation. A meeting/discussion held at the
DFRC on August 29, 2000 to delineate the boundaries of the Nam Theun Corridor,
agreed to accept only part of this extension recommendation, based on the argument
that the remainder of the proposed extension would inevitably be flooded once the
reservoir fills in. However, this argument would imply that there is no justification in
establishing the Nam Theun Corridor as most of the area would be flooded anyway,
therefore defeating the purpose of establishing the Nam Theun Corridor, i.e., to
maintain it as a link between Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA and Phou Hin Poun NBCA.
However, with the establishment of the Nam Theun Corridor and with the inclusion of
the extension proposed here, it will provide a well-demarcated area where
conservation management activities can be implemented without potential conflicts
with land use and other activities if it were not. Furthermore, this proposed extension
would partly ensure that there is no further decline in wildlife population (by providing
critical resources), and therefore invaluable time to implement mitigation measures or
seek better alternatives against the major loss of habitat.
n Conduct a study on the ecological importance of mineral licks to herbivores.
A one-year study should be conducted on the composition of mineral licks in the Nakai
plateau and their ecological importance to herbivores, particularly to the Asian
elephant. This study will assist in the understanding of their nutritional value to the
elephants and the mineral licks influence on the elephants ecology, behavior and
ranging patterns. This study will provide significant input towards the mitigation
measures proposed for the conservation of elephants and other large mammals. This
study could provide an opportunity for a Lao national to pursue a Master’s degree in
wildlife biology.
102
n Conduct a long-term study into the ecology and behavior of the Asian elephant on the
Nakai Plateau.
A long-term study should be conducted on the ecology and behavior of the Asian
elephant on the Nakai Plateau. This should be carried out at least for three continuous
years before the inundation, and for at least three continuous years after the
inundation. The use of radio-tracking materials will also be needed to study changes
and adaptation in response to the hydropower construction and filling in of the
reservoir. This will involve a permanent team of one qualified biologist, two assistant
field biologists, and four support staff, and the use radio telemetry. This study will also
provide an opportunity for the training of Lao graduate students.
n Reforestation of degraded forest.
A reforestation program in the in the degraded areas (above the inundation area)
should be carried out, particularly in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA. Planting of
bamboo and tamarind species should also be included in suitable areas (for
elephants). Bamboo has been identified (during this study) as an important food
resource for the elephant during the wet season, while tamarind is an important
‘medicinal’ plant for the elephants, which the elephants use to remedy stomach
ailments.
Besides these recommendations, special measures are also needed to mitigate the impacts
of habitat loss, potential human-elephant conflicts and other related issues, arising primarily
through creation of the reservoir. The measures in order of priority are:
n Create artificial mineral licks.
Artificial mineral licks should be established in the Nakai - Nam Theun NBCA, with the
aim of drawing the elephants away from the currently existing mineral licks, to
alternate (if not better) mineral sources. Experiments should begin immediately to
allow time for improvements, and to seek other alternative measures if the artificial
mineral licks does not have the desired effects. Artificial mineral licks should be
established at different but suitable locations within the elephants distributional range
and along their more common travel routes. Experiments using different combination
of minerals should be attempted. Hides and remote photography (camera-traps)
should be established close to the artificial mineral licks to monitor the elephants’
response to the artificial mineral licks. Information from the recommended study on
the ecological use of mineral licks (see above) will be complementary towards the
creation of artificial mineral licks with near-natural mineral composition.
n Identification and improvement of elephant islands.
There is a high probability that the elephants will, in time, reuse their traditional routes.
This also implies the probability of an escalation in human-elephant conflicts. Thus,
suitable islands should be selected for habitat improvement. Criteria for selection
should include only those islands that are in the path of movements, and those islands
further most from human habitations.
n Wildlife rescue and release operation.
Establish a team and the necessary logistics required in the rescue of wildlife
stranded on non-viable islands at least six months before the reservoir fills in.
Specialists experienced with similar rescue operations have to be identified at least a
year before inundation, so that their requirements can be met and the training of the
support staff can be carried out. Improper planning and preparations can lead to an
uncoordinated rescue effort with disastrous results. The specialists would have to
make a few on site visits to identify rescue centers and locations of release, besides
preparing of list of needs (human resource, drugs, transportation, etc.).
n Human resettlement.
103
Resettlement of affected villages should not be anywhere near the elephants’ known
distributional range. There is every likelihood for the displaced elephants to seek food
in or near human habitations. Thus, by distancing the resettled villages (and where
they are allowed to carry out agricultural activities), will lessen the chances of human-
elephant conflicts
n Proactive patrolling of reservoir islands.
There is a major need for intensive patrolling of the islands created by the filling in of
the reservoir. These islands will be the primary target for wildlife poachers, as many
wildlife species will be concentrated on these islands. At least four speedboats with a
six-person capacity, fitted with spotlights are needed to carry out this essential activity.
5.4 STRATEGY FOR THE NAKAI - NAM THEUN CONSERVATION AREA

Besides the recommendations made above, there is an urgent need for a proactive
conservation strategy for the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area. This strategy is to focus
on research, surveys, patrolling, monitoring, and law enforcement needs of the Nakai - Nam
Theun Conservation Area. The rationale for the immediate implementation of this strategy is
to arrest the rapid decline of biodiversity. Albeit the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area has
been the focus of several donor-funded projects, yet there is little continuity between these
projects and the projects’ activities. Furthermore, actual biodiversity conservation and
management activities (research, surveys, patrolling, monitoring, and law enforcement) have
received only token attention from these projects.
Development activities for conservation, such as livelihood improvements, agricultural
assistance, and food security do not guarantee the long-term viability of the biodiversity
resources. Unless accompanied by a strict compliance of rules and regulations in return for
the development assistance. This, however, is a slow process that does not match the rate of
decline currently observed in the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area. Furthermore, as
long as there will be a demand for household or luxury materials, there will always be a
demand for the biodiversity resources, as these resources offer the means to purchase or
barter for their extra needs. Also, none of these ‘development for conservation’ activities
safeguard the biodiversity resources from external exploitation. Hence, there is a need for
patrolling and law enforcement activities to ensure the villagers’ compliance of the rules and
regulations, and to deter exploitation by outsiders.
Hence, because of the factors mentioned above, and because of a lack of implementing
capacity and commitment from stakeholders to address these pressing issues, there is
therefore a strong need for the establishment of a discrete patrolling and monitoring unit. This
discrete unit will need to be administered separately, and has to have its own funds to
implement activities. Although administered separately, the unit will work closely with the
NBCA management authority and the relevant provincial and district agencies, and could be
inducted into the proposed Watershed Conservation Management Authority, once the latter
becomes operational.
This discrete patrolling and monitoring unit requires approximately 400 able-bodied men and
women (including the administrative staff) to ensure the integrity of the Nakai - Nam Theun
Conservation Area. Recruitment for this unit can be drawn mainly from the PAFO, military,
police, militia, and stakeholder villagers from both Bolikhamxay and Khammouane Provinces,
and from institutes of higher learning in Lao PDR. Criteria for recruitment should include
experience, interest, commitment, and compliance of the unit’s code of ethics (e.g., no
destruction of the biodiversity resources). The salary and per diem of the unit’s members
should befit the efforts of the unit. The unit members should also enjoy additional benefits that
can include assistance for their children’s schooling, medical care, insurance coverage,
rights to purchase essentials at a subsidized rate at the cooperative store to be managed by
the unit, etc.
The unit will operate at three levels:
104
n village-based, whose members are the residents of the village, and will implement
activities in the concerned village’s area of jurisdiction;
n region-based, whose members comprise the remaining members of the unit
(foresters, military, police, villagers, etc.), based at a strategically located sub-stations.
The members based at the sub-station will cover the ascribed region and lend support
to the village-based members. The members at the sub-stations will be rotated on
weekly basis;
n and HQ-based, whose members similarly comprise the remaining members of the
unit who have completed their monthly tour of field duty, but who will carry out other
HQ-based activities (compilation of data, report write-up, etc.). They will nevertheless
be ‘on-call’ in the event that urgent support is needed.
However, a long-term experienced and qualified senior biodiversity conservation specialist,
having a strong background in wildlife biology, natural resources conservation, and protected
area management, assisted by two biodiversity conservation officers is needed to
successfully manage this unit, and to ensure that activities related to surveys, patrolling,
monitoring, and law enforcement are implemented. The terms of reference of the senior
biodiversity conservation specialist, besides managing the unit, is to provide and/or identify
necessary training for the unit; assist (if necessary supervise), monitor and evaluate
conservation biodiversity research and management projects; support related activities of
future conservation and development projects; advise on matters related to biodiversity
conservation (e.g., zonation, development of village rules and regulations, etc.); and to liase
with the relevant authorities of both Bolikhamxay and Khammouane Provinces. Furthermore,
the Nakai - Nam Theun Conservation Area (and other contiguous areas on both sides of the
international boundary) by virtue of its endemic, rare, diverse fauna and flora, and its ranking
among the highest globally significant ecoregions merits its own senior biodiversity
conservation specialist.
Funds required to maintain this unit is estimated to be USD 500,000 for the first year, USD
250,000 for the second year, with a 5% increment for the following years to meet inflation
costs. Budget for the first year include the costs of construction (headquarters, living
quarters, and sub-stations), the purchase of essential field and office equipment and vehicles,
salaries and per diems. Budget for the following years will mainly cover the unit’s operational
costs.
Albeit the strategy outlined above may initially appear outlandish, it is justified, and imperative
considering the stake(s) involved. Failure to seriously consider this strategy may result in the
regrettable and irreplaceable lost of biological diversity unique to the Nakai - Nam Theun
Conservation Area. Furthermore the costs involved in implementing this strategy is
insignificant compared to the cost of the loss of biodiversity - the extinction of the saola will
probably bear more significance than the loss of the ‘Mona Lisa’. Species extinction is more
than a loss of a species, because species extinction may have significant impacts on the
ecosystem - every species has an ecological role to perform. Hence, the loss or even the
reduction in numbers, will undoubtedly upset the ecosystem's delicate balance.
5.5 CONCLUSION
Training and capacity building of protected area staff and relevant personnel, particularly from
the stakeholder communities and agencies are important tools towards the effective
implementation of management activities. However, having skilled and knowledgeable staff
and relevant personnel alone does not suffice. This needs to be reinforced by strong
leadership, motivation, and institutional implementing capacity. Lacking all these and skilled
staff will inevitably hinder and constrain the implementation of management activities, very
likely more than the lack of funds.
Albeit most wildlife species in the Nam Theun Corridor exist at low densities, and much of its
habitats are disturbed, the establishment of the corridor is justified, and the protection and
management of the area is needed. This is primarily because of its importance to the Nakai
105
Plateau elephants, and because several wildlife species of global conservation significance
exist there.
However, much of the Nam Theun Corridor and the plateau will be flooded resulting from the
hydropower construction, which in turn will directly and indirectly impact biodiversity
resources found there. The biological diversity in the Nam Theun Conservation Area is
figuratively caught between the 'devil and the deep blue sea’. On one side is the rapid loss of
biological diversity, mainly through wildlife poaching and trade, and the unsustainable and
unmanaged use of other natural resources. This in turn is primarily due to a lack of strong and
focussed management, a lack of implementing capacity, and a lack of commitment from the
relevant provincial and central authorities. On the other side is the expected loss of habitats
(and biodiversity) through the hydropower construction and flooding of the plateau.
Nevertheless, funds committed to the conservation of the Nam Theun Conservation Area
through the construction of the hydropower, will offer an excellent opportunity, that otherwise
might not be available, to make conservation 'happen'. However, conservation efforts in the
area must be focussed, and concentrate on 'time-tested' activities that can immediately
arrest the loss of biological diversity. At the same time, equal efforts must be directed towards
the capacity building and strengthening of the conservation authority's management of
implementing capacity. Furthermore, commitments are required from all parties and
stakeholders to ensure conservation activities are strictly implemented following guidelines
recommended here and by earlier workers.
The loss of biological diversity and other natural resources is not merely the 'loss of an
irreplaceable item' but its loss will severely impact human lives and the socioeconomic status
of a nation. Humans, whether living close to nature or in urban dwellings comprise a
component of the ecosystem, having to rely on the ecosystem's other components for food,
shelter, fuel, etc. Hence, the implications are obvious - human impacts on the natural
environment will equally impact the humans in return. However, there remains a chance - a
chance for humans to undo the damage and to mitigate impacts of development activities,
therefore a chance to maintain some balance within a fragile ecosystem.
106
Figure 5.1 Proposed Extension and Boundary Improvements
107
LITERATURE CITED
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and Management in Lao PDR: Status Report to mid-1995. Vientiane: IUCN/LSFP.
Boonratana, R. 1997a. A state-wide survey to estimate the density of the Sumatran
rhinoceros, Asian elephant and banteng in Sabah. New York: WCS.
Boonratana, R. 1997b. Field training in wildlife conservation research techniques and large
mammal survey at Nam Phui National Biodiversity Conservation Area, Lao PDR.
Vientiane: IUCN/LSFP.
Boonratana, R. 1998a. Wildlife survey training at Dong Hua Sao and Phou Xiang Thong
National Biodiversity Conservation Areas. Vientiane/Pakse: IUCN/BCP.
Boonratana, R. 1998b. Field management of Nam Poui and Phou Xang He national
biodiversity conservation areas. Vientiane: IUCN/LSFP.
Boonratana, R. 1998c. Nakai – Nam Theun Conservation Project [Phase 2]: Wildlife
monitoring techniques and participatory conservation at Nakai- Nam Theun NBCA.
Vientiane: IUCN/WCS.
Boonratana, R. 1999a. Establishment and Development of Tan Phu Elephant Sanctuary.
Hanoi: FFI.
Boonratana, R. 1999b. Training in Wildlife Survey and Data Analysis for the National
Biodiversity Conservation Areas Dong Hua Sao and Phou Xiang Thong.
Vientiane/Pakse: IUCN/BCP.
Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P. & Laake, J.L. 1993. Distance sampling:
Estimating abundance of biological populations. Chapman & Hall, London. 446 pp.
Burnham, K.P., Anderson, D.R. & Laake, J.L. 1980. Estimation of density from line transect
sampling of biological populations. Wildlife Monographs 72: 1-202.
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Review. New York: Oxford University Press.
Corvanich, A. 1995. Thai Elephant. Forest Industry Organization.
Dawson, S. 1992. Estimating elephant numbers in Tabin Wildlife Reserve, Sabah. Report to
Sabah Wildlife Department, WWF Project MYS 224/92.
Dawson, S. and A.J.F.M. Dekker. 1992. Counting Asian Elephants in Forests: A Techniques
Manual. Bangkok: RAPA/FAO.
Davies, A.G. & Payne, J.B. 1982. A Faunal Survey of Sabah (IUCN/WWF Project #1692).
WWF-Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
Dyckworth, J.W., R.E. Salter and K. Khounboline (comps). 1999. Wildlife in Lao PDR: 1999
Status Report. Vientiane: IUCN/WCS/CPAWM.
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IUCN. 1997a. Environmental and Social Management Plan for Nakai - Nam Theun Catchment
and Corridor Areas. Vientiane: IUCN.
IUCN. 1997b. Khammouane Province: A Preliminary Environmental Inventory. Vientiane:
IUCN.
IUCN. 1998. Environmental and Social Management Plan for Nakai - Nam Theun Catchment
and Corridor Areas. Vientiane: IUCN.
King, B, M. Woodcock, and E.C. Dickinson. 1991. A Field Guide to the Birds of South-East
Asia. London:Collins.
Lekagul, B. and J. A. McNeely. 1977. Mammals of Thailand. Bangkok: Saha Karn Bhaet Co.,
Ltd.
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Lekagul, B. and P.D. Round. 1991. A Guide to the Birds of Thailand. Bangkok:Saha Karn
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McKay, G.M. 1973. Behavior and ecology of the Asiatic elephant in southeastern Ceylon.
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Payne, J., Francis, C.M. & Phillipps, K. 1985. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Borneo. WWF
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109

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NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

November 14, 2000

GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS

amsl above mean sea level

GLOSSARY, ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS____________________________5

TABLE OF CONTENTS ______________________________________________6

Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of Camps ................................................... 35

LITERATURE CITED ______________________________________________108

1.3 TERMS OF REFERENCE

1.4 STUDY AREA

Figure 1.1 Location of Nam Theun Corridor

Figure 1.2 The Nam Theun Corridor

Plate 1.1: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor I

Plate 1.2: Habitats of the Nam Theun Corridor II

Plate 1.3: Access to the Study Area I

Plate 1.4: Access to the Study Area II

2.2 TRAINING & CAPACITY-BUILDING

2.2.1 HQ-based Theory Training

Map, Compass and GPS

Note-taking and Recording Techniques

Wildlife Surveys and Observations

Camping and Field Equipment

2.2.2 On-the-Job Training

Logistics Preparations and Allocation of Responsibilities

Daily Trip Preparations

Observations and Recording

2.2.3 Training in Data Compilation, Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation

2.3 OBSERVATIONS AND ASSESSMENT

Map and Compass

Wildlife and Wildlife Signs

Note-taking and Data Recording

Table 2.1 Topics of HQ-based Theory Training

MAJOR TOPICS SKILLS/SUB-TOPICS

Table 2.2 Assessment of Trainees’ Performance

Grade & Points:

Annex 2.1 Wildlife Data Recording Format

Annex 2.2 Wildlife Data Recording Format (in Lao)

Annex 2.3 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format

9NTFP = Non-timber forest product

Annex 2.4 Wildlife/Habitat Impact Data Recording Format (in Lao)

Annex 2.5 Sample Specimen Recording Format

No.: specimen number as entered into the record book

No. Date Specimen Location Personnel Remarks

Annex 2.6 Procedures for Making Plaster Casts of Tracks

Annex 2.7 Ethics of Field Surveys and Patrols

Annex 2.8: Locations and Preparation of Camps

An ideal campsite should have the following criteria:

Preparations and maintenance of campsites:

Annex 2.9: List of Field Equipment

For each Participant:

For each Survey Team:

Annex 2.10 Sample Trip Report of a Sub-team

Plate 2.1: Training Activities I

Plate 2.2: Training Activities II

Plate 2.3: Training Activities III

3. WILDLIFE AND IMPACT SURVEYS

Table 3.1 List of Wildlife Recorded in the Nam Theun Corridor12

Red junglefowl Gallus gallus Kai paa 1,3

Barred cuckoo dove Macropygia unchall Nok khau seua 1

Yellow wagtail Motacilla flava Nok kadaet dau 1

Reptiles & Amphibians:

Table 3.2 List of Wildlife Recorded by Area and Route13

Reptiles & Amphibians:

Table 3.3 Frequency of Hunting and Non-hunting Impacts by Locality

NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

NTSEP Year 2000 Activities: Wildlife Movement Study & Staff Training

Total defecations__ Total defecations Total defecations_