Physiology of

The Respiratory System

FOR STUDENTS IN COLLEGE OF PHARMACY

2009-2010

drsherwanshal@gmail.com
 Respiration
Ventilation: Movement of air into
and out of lungs
External respiration: Gas exchange
between air in lungs and blood
Transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood
Internal respiration: Gas exchange
between the blood and tissues
Respiratory System Functions
Gas exchange: Oxygen enters blood
and carbon dioxide leaves
Regulation of blood pH: Altered by
changing blood carbon dioxide levels
Voice production: Movement of air past
vocal folds makes sound and speech
Olfaction: Smell occurs when airborne
molecules drawn into nasal cavity
Protection: Against microorganisms by
preventing entry and removing them
Respiratory System Divisions
Upper tract
Nose, pharynx
and
associated
structures
Lower tract
Larynx,
trachea,
bronchi, lungs

 Nose and Pharynx
Pharynx
Nose
Common opening
External nose
for digestive and
Nasal cavity
respiratory
Functions
systems
1.Passageway
Three regions
for air
 Nasopharynx
2.Cleans the air
 Oropharynx
3.Humidifies,
warms air  Laryngopharynx
4.Smell
5.Along with
paranasal
sinuses are
resonating
chambers
 Larynx

Functions
1.Maintain an open
passageway for
air movement
2.Epiglottis and
vestibular folds
prevent
swallowed
material from
moving into
larynx
3.Vocal folds are
primary source of
Tracheobronchial Tree
Conducting zone
1.Trachea to terminal bronchioles which
is ciliated for removal of debris
2.Passageway for air movement
3.Cartilage holds tube system open and
smooth muscle controls tube
diameter
Respiratory zone
1.Respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
2.Site for gas exchange
Lungs Two lungs:
Principal
organs of
respiration
Right lung:
Three lobes
Left lung:
Two lobes
Divisions
Lobes,
bronchopulm
onary
segments,
lobules
 Pleura
Pleural fluid
produced by
pleural
membranes
Acts as lubricant
Helps hold parietal
and visceral
pleural membranes
 Ventilation
Movement of air into and
out of lungs
Air moves from area of
higher pressure to area
of lower pressure
Pressure is inversely
related to volume
Changing Alveolar Volume
Lung recoil
Causes alveoli to collapse resulting from
 Elastic recoil and surface tension
 Surfactant: Reduces tendency of lungs to
collapse
Pleural pressure
Negative pressure can cause alveoli to
expand
Pneumothorax is an opening between
pleural cavity and air that causes a loss of
pleural pressure
Normal Breathing Cycle
Compliance
Measure of the ease with which lungs
and thorax expand
The greater the compliance, the
easier it is for a change in pressure
to cause expansion
A lower-than-normal compliance
means the lungs and thorax are
harder to expand
Conditions that decrease compliance
Pulmonary fibrosis
Pulmonary edema
Respiratory distress syndrome
Pulmonary Volumes
Tidal volume
Volume of air inspired or expired during a
normal inspiration or expiration
Inspiratory reserve volume
Amount of air inspired forcefully after
inspiration of normal tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume
Amount of air forcefully expired after
expiration of normal tidal volume
Residual volume
Volume of air remaining in respiratory
passages and lungs after the most forceful
expiration
Pulmonary Capacities
Inspiratory capacity
Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve
volume
Functional residual capacity
Expiratory reserve volume plus the residual
volume
Vital capacity
Sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal
volume, and expiratory reserve volume
Total lung capacity
Sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve
volumes plus the tidal volume and residual
volume
Spirometer and Lung Volumes/Capacities
 Minute and Alveolar
Ventilation
Minute ventilation: Total amount of air
moved into and out of respiratory
system per minute
Respiratory rate or frequency: Number
of breaths taken per minute
Anatomic dead space: Part of
respiratory system where gas
exchange does not take place
Alveolar ventilation: How much air per
minute enters the parts of the
respiratory system in which gas
exchange takes place
Physical Principles of Gas
Exchange
Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by each type of gas in
a mixture
Dalton’s law
Water vapor pressure
Diffusion of gases through liquids
Concentration of a gas in a liquid is
determined by its partial pressure and its
solubility coefficient
Henry’s law

Physical Principles of Gas
Exchange
Diffusion of gases through the respiratory
membrane
Depends on membrane’s thickness, the
diffusion coefficient of gas, surface areas
of membrane, partial pressure of gases in
alveoli and blood
Relationship between ventilation and
pulmonary capillary flow
Increased ventilation or increased
pulmonary capillary blood flow increases
gas exchange
Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood
returning from lungs
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Diffusion Gradients
Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Moves from alveoli
into blood. Blood
Moves from
is almost tissues into
completely
saturated with
tissue
oxygen when it capillaries
leaves the
capillary
Moves from
P02 in blood pulmonary
decreases because capillaries
of mixing with
deoxygenated into the
blood alveoli
Oxygen moves from
Hemoglobin and Oxygen
Transport
Oxygen is transported by hemoglobin
(98.5%) and is dissolved in plasma
(1.5%)
Oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve
shows that hemoglobin is almost
completely saturated when P02is 80
mm Hg or above. At lower partial
pressures, the hemoglobin releases
oxygen.
A shift of the curve to the left because of
an increase in pH, a decrease in carbon
dioxide, or a decrease in temperature
Hemoglobin and Oxygen
Transport
A shift of the curve to the right because
of a decrease in pH, an increase in
carbon dioxide, or an increase in
temperature results in a decrease in the
ability of hemoglobin to hold oxygen
The substance 2.3-bisphosphoglycerate
increases the ability of hemoglobin to
release oxygen
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for
oxygen than does maternal
Oxygen-Hemoglobin
Dissociation Curve at Rest
Bohr effect
Temperature effects
Shifting the Curve
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide is transported as
bicarbonate ions (70%) in combination
with blood proteins (23%) and in
solution with plasma (7%)
Hemoglobin that has released oxygen
binds more readily to carbon dioxide
than hemoglobin that has oxygen
bound to it (Haldane effect)
In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide
combines with water inside RBCs to
form carbonic acid which dissociates to
form bicarbonate ions and hydrogen
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions and
hydrogen ions move into RBCs and
chloride ions move out. Bicarbonate
ions combine with hydrogen ions to
form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid is
converted to carbon dioxide and water.
The carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
RBCs.
Increased plasma carbon dioxide lowers
blood pH. The respiratory system
regulates blood pH by regulating
plasma carbon dioxide levels
Respiratory Areas in
Brainstem
Medullary respiratory center
Dorsal groups stimulate the
diaphragm
Ventral groups stimulate the
intercostal and abdominal
muscles
Pontine (pneumotaxic) respiratory
group
Involved with switching between
inspiration and expiration
 Modification of Ventilation
Chemical control
Cerebral and limbic
Carbon dioxide is
system
major regulator
Respiration can be
 Increase or
voluntarily decrease in pH
controlled and can stimulate
modified by chemo- sensitive
emotions area, causing a
greater rate and
depth of
respiration
Oxygen levels in
blood affect
respiration when a
50% or greater
decrease from
Modifying Respiration
Herring-Breuer Reflex
Limits the degree of inspiration and
prevents overinflation of the lungs
Infants
Reflex plays a role in regulating
basic rhythm of breathing and
preventing overinflation of lungs
Adults
Reflex important only when tidal
volume large as in exercise
Ventilation in Exercise
Ventilation increases abruptly
At onset of exercise
Movement of limbs has strong
influence
Learned component
Ventilation increases gradually
After immediate increase, gradual
increase occurs (4-6 minutes)
Anaerobic threshold is highest
level of exercise without causing
significant change in blood pH
If exceeded, lactic acid produced by
Effects of Aging
Vital capacity and maximum minute
ventilation decrease
Residual volume and dead space
increase
Ability to remove mucus from
respiratory passageways
decreases
Gas exchange across respiratory
membrane is reduced